UNIT 1 - OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

1.2 Application Examples of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

1. Disaster Relief Applications:
● Wildfire detection: Nodes with thermometers and location awareness create temperature maps.
● Chemical factory accidents: Similar setup to wildfire detection.
● Military applications: Detect enemy troops using disposable, short-lifetime sensors.
2. Environmental Control and Biodiversity Mapping:
● Pollution control: Monitor chemical pollutants.
● Marine ground surveillance: Understand erosion for offshore construction.
● Biodiversity: Long-term, unobtrusive sensors for plant and animal species counting.
3. Intelligent Buildings:
● HVAC monitoring: Increase comfort and reduce energy consumption.
● Mechanical stress monitoring: Assess building safety post-earthquake.
● Retrofitting into existing buildings or incorporating into new constructions.
4. Facility Management:
● Keyless entry: Badges for access control.
● Intruder detection: Track vehicles after hours.
● Chemical plant monitoring: Detect leaks.
5. Machine Surveillance and Preventive Maintenance:
● Vibration detection in machinery for maintenance alerts.
● Cable-free operation for easier sensor installation.
6. Precision Agriculture:
● Humidity/soil sensors for precise irrigation and fertilization.
● Pest control: High-resolution farmland monitoring.
● Livestock health: Sensors on animals to monitor health.
7. Medicine and Healthcare:
● Postoperative and intensive care: Wireless patient monitoring.
● Long-term elderly patient surveillance.
● Drug administration: Sensors in packaging to prevent errors.
8. Logistics:
● Track goods with sensors during transportation.
● Inventory tracking: Passive RFID tags for simple readouts.
● Active systems provide detailed location and history.
9. Telematics:
● Traffic monitoring: Sensors in roads gather detailed traffic data.
● Intelligent roadside: Interaction with cars for danger warnings.
10. Additional Applications:
● Airplane wings, smart spaces, wastewater treatment, semiconductor processing, smart kindergartens,
flood detection, interactive museums, remote bird habitats, and medical implants.

Key Takeaways:

● WSNs enhance existing applications and create new ones by providing detailed, real-time information.
● They are about delivering precise information with minimal resource consumption.
● Applications span a wide range of fields from disaster relief to healthcare, agriculture, logistics, and beyond.

1.3 Types of Applications in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

1. Basic Characteristics:
● Clear distinction between data sources (sensors) and sinks (data receivers).
● Sinks may be within or outside the network.
● Typically, more sources than sinks.
● Sink's interest is primarily in data, not the identity of sources.
2. Interaction Patterns:
● Event Detection:
■ Sensors report specified events to sinks.
■ Simple events are detected by single nodes; complex events require collaboration.
● Periodic Measurements:
■ Sensors report values periodically, often triggered by events.
● Function Approximation and Edge Detection:
■ WSNs approximate physical values (e.g., temperature) across locations.
 ■ Find areas or points of specific values (e.g., isothermal points in wildfires).
● Tracking:
■ Track mobile event sources (e.g., intruders) and report position updates.
3. Scoping Interactions:
● Interactions can be time- and space-specific.
● Requirements can change dynamically.
● Can be one-shot queries or long-lasting relationships.
4. Deployment Options:
● Fixed Deployment:
■ Planned placement of sensor nodes (e.g., machinery maintenance).
● Random Deployment:
■ Dropping nodes from aircraft (e.g., wildfire monitoring).
● Mobile Nodes:
■ Nodes move post-deployment to optimal positions.
■ Attached to moving objects (e.g., logistics).
5. Maintenance Options:
● Feasibility and practicality of sensor maintenance.
● Ad hoc, short-term deployments (e.g., disaster recovery).
● Long-term, unattended operation with no maintenance.
6. Energy Supply:
● Wired Power:
■ Possible in some applications, making energy supply a non-issue.
● Self-Sustained Nodes:
■ Trivial for short-term use (few days).
■ Challenging for long-term use (years) without maintenance.
● Price and size of nodes are crucial for energy design.

1.4 Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

1.4.1 Characteristic Requirements
1. Type of Service:
● WSNs provide meaningful information and actions, not just data transfer.
● Requires new paradigms, interfaces, and ways of thinking about network services.
2. Quality of Service (QoS):
● Traditional QoS metrics (e.g., delay, bandwidth) may be irrelevant.
● Focus on the quality and amount of information extracted.
● Importance of reliable event detection and approximation quality.
3. Fault Tolerance:
● Must tolerate node failures and communication interruptions.
● Redundant deployment of nodes is necessary.
4. Lifetime:
● Nodes often rely on limited energy supplies (batteries).
● Energy-efficient operation is crucial.
● Alternative energy sources (e.g., solar cells) can extend lifetime.
● Balance between energy use and QoS.
● Various definitions of network lifetime (e.g., time until first node failure).
5. Scalability:
● Architectures and protocols must handle large numbers of nodes.
6. Wide Range of Densities:
● Node density can vary by application, time, and space.
● Network must adapt to density variations.
7. Programmability:
● Nodes need to be programmable and capable of task changes during operation.
● Flexibility in information processing is essential.
8. Maintainability:
● Network must adapt to environmental and internal changes.
● Should monitor its health and status, adjusting parameters as needed.
● Interaction with external maintenance mechanisms to ensure continued operation.

1.4.2 Required Mechanisms for WSNs

1. Multihop Wireless Communication:
● Reduces total power needed by using intermediate nodes as relays.
2. Energy-Efficient Operation:
● Key for long lifetimes.
 ● Focus on energy-efficient data transport and determination of information.
● Avoid nonhomogeneous energy consumption and hotspots.
3. Auto-Configuration:
● Autonomous configuration of operational parameters.
● Nodes should determine their geographical positions by using other nodes in the network (self-location)
and handle node failures or integration of new nodes.
4. Collaboration and In-Network Processing:
● Multiple sensors collaborate to detect events.
● Information is processed within the network to reduce data transmission.
● Examples include aggregating sensor readings to report summarized data.
5. Data-Centric Approach:
● Focus on the data itself, not the identity of the node providing it(address-centric).
● Useful for requesting aggregated data or setting conditions for alerts.
● Related to database query concepts.
6. Locality Principle:
● Nodes should limit state information to their direct neighbors.
● Ensures scalability and efficient protocol designs.
7. Exploiting Trade-Offs:
● Balancing mutually contradictory goals, such as energy expenditure vs. result accuracy.
● Protocols must handle varying node density and runtime changes.
● Important trade-offs include energy vs. accuracy and network lifetime vs. individual node lifetime.
8. Harnessing Mechanisms:
● Need for new programming interfaces beyond conventional socket semantics.
● Interfaces should support concepts like accuracy requirements, energy/accuracy trade-offs, and scoping.

1.5 Why Are Sensor Networks Different?

1.5.1 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs):

● Set up for specific, quickly appearing communication needs.

● Example: Computers connected via cables in a meeting room.
● Self-configuration is crucial.
● Typically associated with wireless, multihop communication and mobile nodes.
● Used in scenarios like disaster relief (firefighters) or large construction sites where deploying infrastructure is
infeasible.
● Nodes relay packets to extend communication reach.
● Challenges: Network reorganization as nodes move and limited reach of wireless communication.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):

● Share some general problems with MANETs but have distinct differences.
● Applications: Typically involve sensing, computing, and communication for environmental interaction.
● Traffic Characteristics: Very different from human-driven networks; exhibit low data rates with potential for bursty
traffic during events.
● Scale: Must handle larger numbers of entities (thousands to hundreds of thousands) than MANETs.
● Energy: Stricter requirements on network lifetime, with limited options for recharging or replacing batteries.
● Dependability and QoS: Different requirements; WSNs need new QoS concepts considering energy constraints.
● Data Centric: Favor data-centric protocols due to redundant deployment, unlike MANETs.
● Simplicity and Resource Scarcity: Require simpler operating and networking software due to limited resources.
● Mobility: Mobility issues in WSNs include handling moving phenomena and mobile information sinks.

Key Takeaways:

● MANETs: More focused on extending communication reach and supporting mobile nodes in human-driven
applications.
● WSNs: Designed for environmental interaction with stricter energy, scalability, and simplicity requirements, often
using data-centric protocols.

Key Differences:

1. Applications and Equipment:

● MANETs: Used for applications like voice communication; equipment includes powerful devices (laptops,
PDAs) with large batteries.
● WSNs: Wide range of applications with varying densities; simpler, less powerful nodes.
 2. Application Specificity:
● WSNs have diverse application scenarios with very different network densitites, requiring adaptive
protocols.
3. Environment Interaction:
● WSNs: Traffic characteristics include low data rates with occasional high bursts (event showers). Long
periods (months) of inactivity can alternate with short periods (seconds or minutes) of very high activity in
the network, pushing its capacity to the limits.
● MANETs: Support conventional applications (Web, voice) with predictable traffic.
4. Scale:
● WSNs: Potentially thousands or hundreds of thousands of nodes, requiring scalable solutions.
● MANETs: Generally fewer nodes.
5. Energy:
● WSNs: Stricter energy constraints, deeper impact on system architecture.
● MANETs: Less stringent energy requirements, easier to recharge.
6. Self-Configurability:
● Both require self-configuration, but different traffic and energy trade-offs.
7. Dependability and QoS:
● MANETs: Traditional QoS (e.g., low jitter for voice).
● WSNs: New QoS concepts, emphasizing energy efficiency and event detection.
8. Data-Centric:
● WSNs: Redundant deployment makes data-centric protocols attractive.
● MANETs: Address-centric, with some exceptions like file sharing.
9. Simplicity and Resource Scarcity:
● WSNs: Simple nodes, energy-conserving, lightweight protocols.
● MANETs: More resources available, heavier protocols.
10. Mobility:
● WSNs: Mobility involves observing moving phenomena and mobile sinks.
● MANETs: Mobility involves changing routes due to moving nodes.

Commonalities:

● Both involve self-configuring, energy-constrained nodes and need to handle mobility and dependability.

1.6 Enabling Technologies for Wireless Sensor Networks

Key Advances:

1. Miniaturization of Hardware:
● Smaller chip feature sizes reduce power consumption.
● Improvements in microcontrollers, memory chips, and radio modems enhance energy efficiency.
● Reduced chip size(improved energy efficiency)) and cost enable affordable, redundant node deployment.
2. Sensing Equipment:
● Wide range of possible sensors, specific details covered in Chapter 2.
3. Power Supply:
● High-capacity batteries with low self-discharge rates.
● Efficiently provide small amounts of current.
● Energy scavenging options (e.g., solar cells, vibration-based power generation) for recharging.
4. Software:
● Operating System (OS) or runtime environment architecture for single nodes.
■ Supports simple retasking, cross-layer information exchange, and modularity.
● Network architecture for task division among multiple nodes.
■ Structures interfaces for application programmers.
● Design of appropriate communication protocols.
 UNIT 2 - ARCHITECTURES
Single-node Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks
Requirements for Sensor Nodes:

● Small size, low cost, energy efficiency

● Equipped with appropriate sensors
● Adequate computation and memory resources
● Effective communication facilities

2.1 Hardware Components

2.1.1 Sensor node hardware overview:

1. Controller:
● Processes data and executes code
2. Memory:
● Stores programs and intermediate data
● Different types for programs and data
3. Sensors and Actuators:
● Interface with the physical world
● Observe or control environmental parameters
4. Communication:
● Enables wireless information exchange
● Device for sending and receiving data
5. Power Supply:
● Usually batteries, sometimes with recharging capabilities (e.g., solar cells)
Trade-offs and Efficiency:

● Components must balance low energy consumption with task performance

● Controllers and communication devices should be turned off when not in use
● Reactivation through timers or sensor-triggered interrupts

Interconnections:

● Simple or intelligent interconnections between components

● Example: Sensors report to the controller or preprocess data and wake the controller for significant events
● Customization and continuous operation for improved energy efficiency

2.1.2 Controller
Microcontrollers vs. Microprocessors, FPGAs, and ASICs:

● Controller Role:
● Core(CPU) of the sensor node
● Collects data from the sensors, processes this data, decides when and where to send it, receives data
from other sensor nodes, and decides on the actuator’s behavior
● Executes various programs (time-critical signal processing, communication protocols, application
programs)
● Trade-offs between flexibility, performance, energy efficiency, and costs
● General-Purpose Processors:
● High power consumption, excessive for WSNs
● Used in desktop computers
● Microcontrollers:
● Suited for embedded systems
● Flexible, low power consumption, built-in memory
● Can enter sleep states to save energy
● Typically lacks a memory management unit
● Preferred for WSNs due to flexibility and low power
● Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):
● Geared for processing large amounts of vectorial data
● Not typically used in WSNs due to modest communication requirements
● Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs):
● Reprogrammable, adaptable
● Higher energy consumption and reprogramming time
● Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs):
● Custom-designed for specific applications
● High performance, energy efficiency
● Higher development cost, less flexible
● Suitable for large-scale, dedicated WSN applications
● Combination Approaches:
● Splitting tasks between energy-efficient ASICs and flexible microcontrollers
Examples of Microcontrollers:

● Intel StrongARM:
● High-end processor, used in older WSN prototypes
● 32-bit RISC core, up to 206 MHz
● Texas Instruments MSP 430:
● Designed for embedded applications
● 16-bit RISC core, up to 4 MHz
● Various interconnection options, on-chip RAM (2-10 kB)
● Several 12-bit ADC and RTC
● Suitable for typical WSN tasks
● Atmel ATmega 128L:
● 8-bit microcontroller for embedded applications
● Equipped with interfaces for common peripherals

2.1.3 Memory
● Types of Memory:
● Random Access Memory (RAM):
■ Stores intermediate sensor readings and packets from other nodes
■ Fast but volatile (loses content when power is off)
● Read-Only Memory (ROM), EEPROM, Flash Memory:
■ Stores program code
■ EEPROM and flash memory allow data to be erased/written (flash memory does this in blocks)
● Flash Memory:
● Used for intermediate data storage incase RAM is insufficient/off.
● Non-volatile but has long read/write delays and high energy requirements
● Memory Considerations:
● Dimensioning memory sizes (especially RAM) is crucial for cost and power efficiency
● Memory requirements are highly application-dependent, making general guidelines difficult

2.1.4 Communication device

Choice of transmission medium:

● Comm device - used to exchange data b/w individual nodes
● Wired Communication:
● Methods: Profibus, LON, CAN
● Used in sensor network-like settings
● Wireless Communication (more relevant for WSNs):
● Radio Frequencies (RF): Most common due to long range, high data rates, acceptable error rates, and
no need for line of sight
● Optical Communication and Ultrasound: Less common, used in specific cases
● Magnetic Inductance: Rarely used, very specific applications
● RF Communication:
● Typical frequencies: 433 MHz to 2.4 GHz
● Suitable for most WSN applications

Transceivers:

● Combine transmitter and receiver functions

● Convert bit streams to/from radio waves to/from μC
● Usually operate in half-duplex mode (cannot transmit and receive simultaneously)
● Commercially available with necessary components (modulation, demodulation, amplifiers, filters, mixers)
● Considerations for Choosing Transceivers:
● Understand the tasks and main characteristics of transceivers
● Balance between cost, performance, and application requirements

Transceiver tasks and characteristics:

● Service to Upper Layer:

■ Interface options: Packet-oriented, byte, or bit interface(req μC handling).
■ Must support MAC layer for initiating frame transmissions and receiving packets.
■ Transmission Services: Allows the MAC layer to initiate frame transmissions by providing interfaces for
sending complete data packets or byte/bit streams.
■ Reception Services: Streams incoming packets into buffers accessible by the MAC layer for processing.
 ■ Ensures efficient and compatible communication between sensor nodes, optimizing data transfer and
minimizing processing overhead.
● Power Consumption and Energy Efficiency:
■ Energy Efficiency -> Energy required to transmit/receive a single bit.
■ Must support different power states (active, sleeping) with minimal idle power consumption.
● Carrier Frequency and Multiple Channels:
■ Must match application and regulatory requirements.
■ Availability of multiple channels(subbands, carrier freq) to reduce congestion.
● State Change Times and Energy:
■ Important for switching between sending, receiving, and power-safe states.
■ Turnaround time impacts medium access protocols.
● Data Rates:
■ Gross datarate -> Determined by carrier frequency, bandwidth, modulation(c), and coding(c). (c-change
to change datarate)
■ Typical rates: Tens of kilobits per second, sufficient for WSNs.
● Modulations:
■ Common types: On/off-keying, ASK, FSK.
■ Runtime selection of modulation schemes is useful for experiments.
● Coding:
■ Support for various coding schemes to enhance transmission reliability.
● Transmission Power Control:
■ Direct or external control over transmission power.
■ Usually, a limited number of discrete power levels are available.
■ Max o/p power det by reg.
● Noise Figure (NF):
■ Ratio of SNR at input to output, indicating signal degradation due to element’s operation (NF =
SNRi/SNRo)
■ Given in dB. (NF dB = SNRi dB - SNRo dB)
● Gain:
■ Ratio of output signal power to input signal power. (dB)
■ High gain is desirable for good energy efficiency.
● Power Efficiency:
■ Ratio of radiated power to total power consumed by the transceiver.
● Receiver Sensitivity:
■ Minimum signal power needed to achieve acceptable error rates(Eb/No). (dBm)
■ Better sensitivity levels extend range of the system.
● Range:
■ Dependent on maximum transmission power, antenna characteristics, environmental attenuation(which
depends on fc), modulation/coding scheme, and receiver quality(BER).
■ Few m to several 100’s of m.
● Blocking Performance:
■ Ability to maintain bit error rate in presence of interference.
■ Improved by having filter b/w antenna and rx
■ Adjacent channel suppression reduces interference from neighboring frequencies has direct impact on
SINR
● Out of Band Emission:
■ Minimizing transmission power outside the prescribed bandwidth centered around fc.
● Carrier Sense and RSSI:
■ Detects if the wireless channel is busy.
■ Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) provides signal strength information.
● Frequency Stability:
■ Stability(deg of variation from center freq) against environmental changes (e.g., temperature, pressure).
● Voltage Range:
■ Reliable operation over a range of supply voltages.
■ O.w. inefficient voltage stabilization ckt is req.

Examples of Popular Transceivers:

● RFM TR 1001
● Chipcon CC 1000 and CC 2420
● Infineon TDA525x family

Challenges and Improvements:

● Transceivers lack a unique identifier.

● Ongoing research to enhance performance, lower energy consumption, and reduce costs.
● Challenges include low transistor transconductance and limitations of integrated passive RF components.
Transceiver structure:

Common Structure:

● RF Front End:
○ Performs analog signal processing in the radio frequency band.
● Baseband Part:
○ Handles signal processing in the digital domain.
○ Communicates with the sensor node's processor or other digital circuitry.

Frequency Conversion:

● Conversion between RF and baseband occurs, sometimes through intermediate frequencies (IFs).
● DACs and ADCs:
○ Mark the boundary between analog and digital domains.

RF Front End Elements:

● Performs analog s/l processing in RF band(2.4GHz ISM band)

● RF front end efficiency is crucial for wireless sensor networks.
● Power Amplifier (PA):
● Amplifies upconverted signals rom IF/BB part for transmission over the antenna.
● Low Noise Amplifier (LNA):
● Amplifies incoming signals without significantly reducing SNR.
● Handles a wide range of incoming signal powers (up to 100 dB).
● Without management, the LNA is always active, consuming a large part of the transceiver's energy.
● Frequency Conversion Elements: (from RF to IF/BB)
● Local Oscillators and Voltage-Controlled Oscillators:
■ Used for generating fixed-frequency signals.
● Mixers:
■ Multiply incoming RF signals fRF with local oscillator fLO signals to produce intermediate-frequency
signals (fLO - fRF).
● Filters:
■ May be present depending on the RF front end architecture.

Transceiver operational states:

Four Operational States:

1. Transmit:
● Transmit part active.
● Antenna radiates energy.
2. Receive:
● Receive part active.
3. Idle:
● Ready to receive but not currently receiving.
● Many receive circuitry parts are active, some can be switched off.
● Eg: In Sync ckt, ele concerned with acquisition are active, while tracking is switched off and activated
only when acquisition has found something.
● Leakage is a major power dissipation source.
4. Sleep:
 ● Significant parts of the transceiver are switched off.
● Different sleep states with varying levels of circuitry shutdown and in associated recovery times and
startup energy.
● Complete power down requires full initialization and configuration.
● Lighter sleep modes throttle down clocks while retaining configuration and state.

Considerations:

● State Management:
● Protocol stack and operating software decide the transceiver's state based on communication needs.
● State changes dissipate power and require startup time and energy.
● Complex scheduling is needed to minimize average power consumption (power management).

(Advanced radio concepts:

1. Wakeup Radio
● Objective: Minimize power consumption while waiting for packet reception.
● Function: Specialized receiver detects incoming packets and activates main receiver.
● Power Consumption: Target is less than 1 µW.
● Sophistication: Basic version wakes up for any packet; advanced version checks address information
before waking the main receiver.
● Challenge: Reliable, well-performing wakeup receivers not yet achieved.
2. Spread-Spectrum Transceivers
● Issue with Simple Transceivers: Limited performance in interference-heavy scenarios.
● Proposed Solution: Use spread-spectrum techniques.
● Drawback: Complex hardware and higher costs, not yet mainstream for WSNs.
3. Ultrawideband (UWB) Communication
● Principle: Transmit digital sequences as very short impulses across a very large bandwidth.
● Advantages:
○ Resistant to multipath fading.
○ Low transmission power blends into the noise floor.
○ High data rates over short distances.
○ Ability to penetrate obstacles.
○ Precision in distance measurement.
● Challenges:
○ Complex timing synchronization for receivers.
○ Balancing low-cost and low-power consumption for UWB transceivers.
● Status: Not yet used in prototypes for wireless sensor nodes.
● Resources: IEEE 802.15.4a study group documents for further information.

Nonradio frequency wireless communication:

Optical Communication

● Advantages:
○ Very small energy per bit for generating and detecting light.
○ Simple and efficient circuitry.
○ Minimal interference, allowing concurrent communication.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires line of sight.
○ Strongly influenced by weather conditions.
● Example:
○ Corner-cube reflector:
■ Reflects light back to its source.
■ Can modulate signals with minimal energy.
■ Achieves data rates up to 1 kb/s.
■ Enables passive sensor readout over long distances with a powerful laser (up to 150 m using a 5
mW laser).

Ultrasound Communication

● Suitability: Ideal for environments where radio or optical waves can't penetrate, such as underwater.
● Advantages:
○ Travels long distances at low power.
○ Effective for underwater applications (e.g., marine ground floor erosion surveillance).
○ Useful in location systems due to different propagation speeds.
 ● Applications: Underwater sensor networks for offshore wind farm construction and other marine uses.

Some examples of radio transceivers:

RFM TR1000 Family

● Frequency: 916 MHz and 868 MHz.

● Bandwidth: 400 kHz.
● Data Rate: Up to 115.2 kbps.
● Modulation: On-off-keying (up to 30 kbps) or ASK.
● Output Power: Max 1.5 dBm (≈ 1.4 mW).
● Features: Received signal strength information, low power consumption.

Hardware Accelerators (Mica Motes)

● Transceiver: RFM TR1000.

● Features:
○ Low-level interface for tight microcontroller control.
○ Hardware accelerators for computations like checksums, serial-to-byte conversion, and SFD detection.

Chipcon CC1000 and CC2420 Family

● CC1000:
○ Frequency: 300-1000 MHz.
○ Modulation: FSK.
○ Features: RSSI, programmable output power, crystal temperature drift compensation, frequency hopping
support.
● CC2420:
○ Frequency: 2.4 GHz.
○ Standard: IEEE 802.15.4.
○ Data Rate: 250 kbps.
○ Features: DSSS modem, low-power consumption.

Infineon TDA 525x Family

● Example: TDA 5250.

● Frequency: 868-870 MHz.
● Modulation: ASK and FSK.
● Features: Efficient power amplifier, RSSI, tunable crystal oscillator, data filter, intelligent power-down, self-polling
mechanism, excellent blocking performance.

IEEE 802.15.4/Ember EM2420 RF Transceiver

● Bands:
○ 868 MHz (1 channel, 20 kbps, BPSK).
○ 915 MHz (10 channels, 40 kbps, BPSK).
○ 2.4 GHz (16 channels, 250 kbps, O-QPSK).
● Features: DSSS scheme, power dissipation of 74.9 mW in transmit mode, 83.2 mW in receive mode, 12 µA in
sleep mode.

National Semiconductor LMX3162

● Frequency: 2.4 GHz.

● Output Power: 0 dBm to 20 dBm.
● Features: FSK with 1 Mbps data rate, externally controllable VCO, shut-off capability for RF components, TDMA-
based MAC protocol support.

Conexant RDSSS9M

● Frequency: 902-928 MHz.

● Data Rate: 100 kbps.
● Features: DSSS with a spreading factor of 12 bits per chip, radiated power levels of 1 mW, 10 mW, and 100 mW,
40 selectable sub-bands, MAC protocol implemented on microcontroller.

These examples showcase a variety of transceivers with different frequencies, data rates, modulations, and features,
catering to diverse WSN applications. )
2.1.5 Sensors and actuators

Sensors

Passive, Omnidirectional Sensors

● Measure physical quantities at the pt of sensor node without manipulating the environment by active probing.
● Self-powered or require minimal energy for analog signal amplification.
● Examples: thermometer, light sensors, vibration sensors, microphones, humidity sensors, smoke detectors, etc.

Passive, Narrow-Beam Sensors

● Also passive but have a defined direction of measurement.

● Examples: cameras that require rotation for different views.

Active Sensors

● Actively probes the environment.

● Examples: sonar, radar, seismic sensors using shock waves.
● Require special handling due to their active nature.

Practical Considerations

● Various sensor types available with trade-offs in accuracy, dependability, energy consumption, cost, and size.
● Most theoretical WSN work focuses on passive, omnidirectional sensors.
● Narrow-beam sensors like cameras are used experimentally.
● Active sensors are not extensively studied in WSN literature.

Sensor Coverage Assumptions

● Assumption: Each sensor node covers a specific area reliably.

● Detection model relates sensor distance to detection probability.
● Coverage area assumption is practically useful despite theoretical challenges.
● Derivation of coverage radius based on physical quantity characteristics.

Actuators

● Actuators control physical devices based on sensor data.

● Examples include switches, relays, and setting values for motors, lights, etc.
● Network design focuses on actuation control via communication protocols.
● Best practice includes pairing actuators with sensors for reliability.
● Principle: "Never trust an actuator" necessitates cautious design in embedded systems.

2.1.6 Power supply of sensor nodes

1st -> storing energy and providing power in req form
2nd -> replenish consumed energy by scavenging from some node external power source over time

Storing energy: Batteries

Traditional Batteries

Batteries - electrochemical stores for energy

● Primary Batteries:
○ Non-rechargeable; provide initial power.
○ Examples: Zinc-air, lithium, alkaline.
○ Energy densities: Zinc-air (3780 J/cm³), Lithium (2880 J/cm³), Alkaline (1200 J/cm³).
● Secondary Batteries:
○ Rechargeable with energy scavenging.
○ Examples: Lithium, NiMH, NiCd.
○ Energy densities: Lithium (1080 J/cm³), NiMH (860 J/cm³), NiCd (650 J/cm³).
● Battery Requirements:
○ Capacity: High energy density, high capacity, small weight, small volume, low cost.
○ Capacity under Load: Must support variable power consumption patterns. (nodes can draw high current
in certain operation modes)
 ○ Self-Discharge: Low self-discharge rate for long operational life.
○ Efficient Recharging: Can recharge efficiently from low and intermittent power sources. Should also not
exhibit memory effect.
○ Relaxation: Understanding relaxation effects(self-recharging of an almost empty battery cell) to optimize
battery lifespan and capacity usage.

Unconventional Energy Stores

● Fuel Cells:
○ Convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy.
○ High energy densities but require additional components like pumps and valves.
● Heat Engines:
○ Use hydrocarbon fuels or heat to generate electricity.
○ Challenges in scaling down to micro-levels; power output predictions vary.
● Radioactive Substances:
○ Proposed for long-term energy storage in specialized applications.
● Gold Caps (Capacitors):
○ High-capacity capacitors for quick energy storage and release.
○ Do not degrade over time like batteries.

DC-DC Conversion

● Purpose: Compensates for voltage drops from batteries as they discharge.

● Operation: Regulates voltage to maintain constant supply to sensor node circuits.
● Challenges: Increases current draw as battery weakens, accelerating battery depletion.
● Efficiency: Despite energy consumption, ensures predictable node operation throughout battery life cycle.

Energy scavenging

Limited energy store is unacceptable so energy from node’s environment must be tapped into and made available.

Photovoltaics

● Description: Converts solar energy into electricity. (solar cells)

● Power Output:
○ Outdoors: Up to 15 mW/cm² (direct sun).
○ Indoors: Varies from 0.006 mW/cm² (standard office desk) to 0.57 mW/cm² (<60 W desk lamp).
● Usage: Typically used to recharge secondary batteries due to intermittent power supply. Fairly stable o/p of 0.6V
as long as current drawn doesnt exceed critical threshold.

Temperature Gradients (Thermoelectric Generators)

● Description: Converts temperature differences into electrical energy using Seebeck effect.
● Power Output: Around 80 μW/cm² at 1 V from a 5 K temperature difference.
● Applications: Suitable for harvesting energy from environmental temperature variations.

Vibrations

● Description: Converts mechanical vibrations into electrical energy.

● Power Output: Ranges from 0.1 μW/cm³ to 10,000 μW/cm³ depending on amplitude and frequency of vibrations.
● Technologies: Electromagnetic, electrostatic, or piezoelectric principles are used.
● Examples: Devices can generate about 200 μW/cm³ from 2.25 m/s², 120 Hz vibrations.

Pressure Variations (Piezoelectric Generators)

● Description: Converts pressure variations into electrical energy.

● Examples: Piezoelectric generators integrated into shoes can generate 330 μW/cm² as humans walk.

Flow of Air/Liquid

● Description: Utilizes flow of air or liquid to generate power, similar to wind turbines.
● Challenges: Miniaturization is a significant challenge but holds potential in MEMS technology.
Energy Source Comparison (Table 2.3)

● Batteries:
○ Zinc-air: 1050–1560 mWh/cm³.
○ Rechargeable lithium: 300 mWh/cm³ (at 3–4 V).
● Power Density (Examples):
○ Acoustic noise: 3 × 10⁻⁶ mW/cm² at 75 dB.
○ Passive human-powered systems: 1.8 mW (shoe inserts).
○ Nuclear reaction: 80 mW/cm³, 106 mWh/cm³.

Integration Challenges

● Battery Dependency: Energy scavenging often requires secondary batteries due to fluctuating power supply.
● Circuitry Requirements: Additional circuitry needed for recharging, power conversion, and managing battery
technology.
● Task Scheduling: Aligning sensor network tasks with energy scavenging characteristics can significantly extend
network lifetime. Upto 200%.

2.2 Energy consumption of sensor nodes

2.2.1 Operation states with different power consumption

● Energy Supply Challenges: Sensor nodes rely on batteries with limited capacity and volatile energy scavenging
methods, necessitating strict energy management.
● Main Energy Consumers:
○ Microcontroller: Consumes approximately 1 nJ per instruction.
○ Radio Front Ends: Significant energy consumers.
○ Memory and Sensors: Also contribute to overall energy consumption.
● Example Calculation:
○ Assume a cubic millimeter battery with 1 J capacity.
○ To last a day, node must consume ≤ 11.5 μW continuously.
● Low-Power Chip Design: Crucial for reducing energy consumption at the hardware level.
● Operation Strategy: Nodes spend most of their time idle to conserve energy, waking up based on external
stimuli or time.
● Dynamic Power Management (DPM):
○ Inspired by ACPI in personal computers, involves graded sleep states to balance functionality, power
consumption, and wakeup time.
○ Components (controller, radio modem, memory, sensors) have states like "active," "idle," and "sleep."
● Transition Challenges:
○ Transitions between states consume time and energy.
○ Deeper sleep states save more power but require longer wakeup times and energy.
● Energy Saving Considerations (Figure 2.5):
○ Decision to switch to sleep mode depends on the time to next event and energy overheads.
○ At t1 - decision to put component in sleep mode is taken to reduce power consumption from Pactive to Psleep
○ If it remains active till tevent, tot energy spent uselessly idling is Eactive = Pactive(tevent - t1)
○ If it is in sleep mode, req τdown to reach sleep mode.
○ Avg power consumption in this phase is ½(Pactive + Psleep)
○ Psleep consumed till tevent
 ○ Energy req in sleep mode, Esleep = τdown(Pactive + Psleep)½ + (tevent - t1 - τdown)Psleep

○ Formula for energy saving:

○ Energy overhead to wake up:

● Optimal State Transition: Switching to sleep mode is beneficial if Eoverhead < Esaved, depending on time to next
event (if its large) =>

● Research and Medium Access Control: Much research in wireless sensor networks focuses on optimizing
when to turn off node receivers to conserve energy.

2.2.2 Microcontroller energy consumption

Basic Power Consumption in Operational States

● Intel StrongARM:
○ Normal mode: Up to 400 mW.
○ Idle mode: Clocks to CPU stopped, peripherals active. Up to 100 mW.
○ Sleep mode: Only real-time clock active, wakeup via timer interrupt, takes upto 160ms. Up to 50 μW.
● Texas Instruments MSP430:
○ Operational mode: Fully op mode consumes about 1.2 mW(at 1MHz and 3V).
○ 4 sleep modes
○ LPM4 (deepest sleep): Only wakes up on external interrupts. 0.3 μW.
○ LPM3: Clock running for scheduled wakeups. About 6 μW.
● Atmel ATmega 128L:
○ Six modes: Power consumption varies from 6 mW to 15 mW in idle and active modes.
○ Power-down modes: About 75 μW.

Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS)

● Concept:
○ Adjusts controller speed dynamically to match task deadlines.
○ Reduces power consumption by lowering supply voltage while maintaining correct operation.
● Benefit:
○ Power consumption P depends quadratically on supply voltage and freq

P ∝ f . V2DD

○ Example: Transmeta Crusoe processor scales from 700 MHz at 1.65 V to 200 MHz at 1.1 V, reducing
power consumption significantly.
● Implementation:
 ○ Requires efficient DC-DC converters.
○ Careful adherence to minimum and maximum clock rates and voltage thresholds specified for each
device.

2.2.3 Memory
Types of Memory

● On-Chip Memory of μC:

○ Typically included in microcontroller power consumption.
○ Energy consumption is relatively low compared to off-chip memory.
● Off-Chip Memory (FLASH Memory):
○ Most relevant for energy consumption and node lifetime.
○ Read and write times, as well as energy consumption, vary based on construction and usage.
○ Data sheets provide detailed metrics such as read/write times and energy consumption.

FLASH Memory Characteristics

● Read and Write Times:

○ Read times and read energy consumption are generally similar across different FLASH memory types.
○ Writing can vary significantly based on data granularity (individual bytes vs. entire pages).
● Energy Consumption:
○ Example: FLASH memory on Mica nodes:
■ Reading data: 1.111 nAh
■ Writing data: 83.333 nAh
○ Writing to FLASH memory consumes considerably more energy and time compared to reading.
○ Minimize write operations to extend node lifetime and conserve energy.

2.2.4 Radio transceivers

Operational Modes

● Transmitting and Receiving:

○ Radio transceivers primarily operate in two modes: transmitting data and receiving data.
○ Efficient operation requires the transceiver to be off most of the time, utilizing a low duty cycle strategy -
but includes addn complexity, time and power overhead.

Energy Consumption Models

Transmission Energy Model

● Transmitter Components:
○ Energy consumption during transmission includes RF signal generation(depends on modulation, target
distance and Ptx) and electronic components (e.g., frequency synthesis, freq conversion, filters, etc).
○ Ptx is a function of system aspects like energy per bit over noise Eb/N0, the bandwidth efficiency ηBW, the
distance d and the path loss coefficient γ.
○ Ptx is gen by amp of tx.

○ Power amplifier (PA) efficiency is crucial, modeled by:

Alpha, beta are const depending on process tech and amp arch.

○ Example: For μAMPS-1 nodes, efficiency (amp eff ηPA = Ptx / Pamp is best at max o/p power) at 1 mW
radiated power is approximately 0.55%.
○ BB processor power PtxElec
● Energy for Transmitting a Packet:
○ Energy Etx(n,Rcode,Pamp) to transmit an n-bit packet includes startup costs (to allow VCO and PLL to settle),
transmission duration (det by nominal bit rate R and coding rate Rcode), and total power consumption
during transmission:

- Doesn't depend on modulation chosen and assumes perfect antenna and assumes coding
overhead only depends on coding rate(so use FEC)

Reception Energy Model

 ● Receiver Components:
○ Rx can either be turned on(actively rx a packet/ be idle, observing channel and ready to rx) or off.
○ Energy consumption during reception includes startup costs, receiver circuitry power (packet time
n/RRcode), and decoding overhead.
○ Energy Ercvd to receive a packet:

Considerations

● Startup Costs:
○ Significant time and energy are required to turn on a transceiver.
○ Fast startup architectures are preferable for minimizing energy per bit in varying modulation scenarios.
● Energy Efficiency:
○ Transmitting and receiving consume comparable power, particularly for short-range communication.
○ Modulation and coding schemes impact energy efficiency but can be optimized based on application
requirements.

Dynamic Scaling

● Dynamic Modulation and Code Scaling:

○ Techniques like Dynamic Modulation Scaling (DMS) and Dynamic Code Scaling (DCS) optimize
modulation and coding parameters dynamically.
○ Aim to maximize energy efficiency by adapting parameters to varying channel conditions and system
metrics.

Conclusion

● Optimizing Radio Transceiver Usage:

○ Efficient management of transceiver operational modes and parameter optimizations (modulation,
coding) are critical for energy-efficient wireless sensor node operation.
○ Continuous advancements in transceiver technology and optimization techniques contribute to improving
overall network performance and energy efficiency.

2.2.5 Relationship between computation and communication

Energy Consumption Comparison

● Computational Energy Consumption: (req less energy)

○ Typically, a single instruction on a microcontroller requires about 1 nJ.
○ For instance, the RFM TR1000 processor consumes approximately 8 nJ per instruction.
● Communication Energy Consumption: (req more energy)
○ Transmitting a single bit over Bluetooth transceivers can require about 100 nJ.
○ Transmitting 1 μJ per bit and receiving 0.5 μJ per bit are noted for the RFM TR1000 radio transceiver.
○ Communicating 1 kB of data over 100 m consumes energy equivalent to computing approximately three
million instructions.
● Energy Ratio:
○ The ratio of energy consumption to send one bit compared to computing a single instruction varies
between 1500 to 2700 for different sensor nodes.
○ For RFM TR1000, the ratio is approximately 190 for communication to computation costs.

Implications and Design Considerations

Cost Disparity:

● Communication uses much more energy than computation in sensor nodes.

● Computational energy consumption is still important and varies by task.

Design Decisions:

● Minimize communication by maximizing in-network computation and aggregation.

● Strategies like in-network processing reduce data transmission, saving energy.
2.2.6 Power consumption of sensor and actuators
Diversity and Considerations

● Wide Diversity:
○ Power consumption of sensors and actuators varies based on type, functionality, and operating
conditions.
○ Passive sensors like light or temperature sensors may have negligible power consumption compared to
other components on a wireless node.
○ Active devices such as sonar sensors can have considerable power requirements, requiring careful
consideration in power source design.
● Specific Examples:
○ Temperature Sensors: Consume 0.6 to 1 mA.
○ Active Devices: Significant power use impacts battery life and performance.
● Application Dependency:
○ Power use depends on application scenarios and sensor types.
○ Assess requirements based on use case and operating conditions.
● Sampling Rate Impact:
○ Higher sampling rates increase sensor power consumption and processing/transmission energy needs.

Interface Considerations

● Sensor/Controller Interfaces:
○ Analog-to-digital (AD) converters are critical interfaces that affect power consumption.

Design Considerations

● Battery Life: Optimize power sources to avoid overstressing batteries and maximize node lifespan.

2.3 Operating systems and execution environments

2.3.1 Embedded operating systems

Traditional OS Tasks:

● Control and protect access to resources.

● Manage resource allocation to users.
● Support concurrent processes and their communication.

Embedded Systems Specifics:

● Only partially require traditional OS tasks.

● Executing code is restricted and harmonized than GPP.
● Limited resources, so it can’t support full-blown OS.

WSN-Specific Needs:

● Support energy-efficient execution (e.g., component shutdown, Dynamic Voltage Scaling).

● Efficient handling of external components (sensors, radio modem, timers).
● Manage asynchronous information efficiently.

Requirements:

● Appropriate programming model.

● Clear protocol stack structure.
● Explicit energy management support.
● Minimal resource burden (memory and execution time).

2.3.2 Programming paradigms and application programming interfaces

Concurrent Programming:

● Importance: Crucial for WSN nodes to handle data from multiple sources simultaneously.
● Sequential Model: Insufficient due to the risk of missing data or packets during processing.
Process-based Concurrency:

● Concept: Multiple processes execute seemingly in parallel on a single CPU.

● Issues: High overhead in process switching and excessive memory usage for process stacks, making it
impractical for sensor nodes. Each process req its own stack space in memory.

Event-based Programming:

● Concept: System waits for events (e.g., data availability, packet arrival) and handles them with short instruction
sequences(only stores the fact that this event has occurred and stores necessary info).
● In event-based programming [353], illustrated in Figure 2.8, event handlers handle interrupts separately from the
main processing of information. These handlers are lightweight and must run to completion without disrupting
other code. They do not interrupt each other to avoid complex stack handling procedures, executing sequentially
instead.
● Advantages: Reduces overhead, improves performance, and decreases power consumption.
● Performance: Found to improve performance by a factor of 8, reduce instr and data memory requirements by
factor of 2 and 30, and lower power consumption by factor of 12.
● Execution: Differentiates between time-critical event handlers and normal code processing.

Interfaces to the OS:

● API Requirements: Functional interface, object abstractions, and detailed behavioral semantics.
● Functions: State inquiry, data transmission, hardware access, and policy settings.
● Standards: No clear standard exists; de facto standards are currently in use.

Summary:

● Concurrency: Essential for WSNs; process-based approach has high overhead, event-based is more efficient.
● APIs: Need to provide accessible and versatile interfaces for protocol and application interaction, with current
reliance on de facto standards.
2.3.3 Structure of operating system and protocol stack
Traditional Layered Approach:

● Concept: Protocols are stacked, each using functions of the layer below.
● Benefits: Manages complexity, promotes modularity, and enables reuse.
● WSN Challenges: Strict layering may not be sufficient due to the need for cross-layer information exchange.

Cross-Layer Information Exchange:

● Example: Signal strength information can assist in routing, location estimation, and adaptive protocols.
● Need: Flexibility beyond strict layering is required for efficient WSN operation.

Component Model:

● Concept: Large layers are broken into small, self-contained components or modules, each fulfilling a specific
function (e.g., CRC computation).
● Interactions: Components interact over clear interfaces, not confined to neighboring layers.
● Advantages: Solves structuring issues, fits event-based programming, and allows efficient protocol stack
implementation.

TinyOS Example:

● Approach: Uses explicit wiring of components for event exchange.

● Push vs. Pull: Effective for immediate (push) events but not for asynchronous (pull) information exchange.
● Solution: A blackboard system based on publish/subscribe principles can enable looser coupling between
components.

Summary:

● Flexibility: Cross-layer exchange and component models enhance flexibility and efficiency in WSNs.
● Component Model: Facilitates event-based programming and modular design.
● Example: TinyOS demonstrates the benefits and limitations of component-based event handling, with potential
improvements via publish/subscribe systems.

2.3.4 Dynamic energy and power management

Dynamic Power Management (DPM):

● Involves controlling component states (e.g., sleep states, frequency scaling) to improve energy efficiency.
● Decisions must consider energy and time costs of state transitions.

Probabilistic State Transition Policies:

● Sinha and Chandrakasan analyze policies for transitioning between sleep states based on event probability
distributions.
● They provide probabilistic rules for selecting sleep states to balance energy efficiency and event detection.

Controlling Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS):

● Effective DVS requires a smart scheduler to manage clock rates for task deadlines.
● Some approaches integrate DVS control into the operating system kernel for energy efficiency without user
program modifications.

Trading Fidelity for Energy Consumption:

● In WSNs, tasks can often be computed with varying levels of accuracy, allowing a trade-off between fidelity and
energy use.
● Approaches include designing algorithms to produce incremental results based on available energy, optimizing
for the best approximation if interrupted.
● Examples: Sinha discuss energy-quality trade-offs for signal processing algorithms.

Overall, DPM, DVS, and fidelity-energy trade-offs are crucial for optimizing energy use in WSNs, requiring advanced
policies and algorithm designs.
3.1 Sensor network scenarios

3.1.1 Types of sources and sinks

● Sources: Entities like sensor or actuator nodes that provide information within the network.
● Sinks: Entities where information is required, which can be within the network (another node) or outside (e.g.,
handheld devices, gateways to larger networks).

3.1.2 Single-hop versus Multihop Networks

Single-hop:

● Radio communication's power limitations restrict sender-receiver distance.

● This restricts direct source-sink communication in WSNs.
● WSNs often cover large areas (e.g., environmental, agriculture).
● Operating in signal-attenuating environments like buildings complicates direct communication.

Multihop: Data packets relayed through intermediate nodes (sensor nodes) to extend communication range. It can
improve energy efficiency in certain scenarios by reducing radio signal attenuation effects.

● However, the assumption that multihopping always saves energy is contested; it depends on various factors
including distance and node-specific parameters.
● Store-and-forward multihop networks are common, where nodes must receive and then forward packets.
●
● Multihop networks use relay stations to transmit data packets from source to sink.
● Sensor nodes act as relay nodes, reducing the need for additional equipment.
● Multihopping addresses challenges like large distances and obstacles.
● It's claimed to improve energy efficiency due to reduced radio signal attenuation(no direct comm).
● Energy efficiency depends on factors like device and environment specifics.
● When targeting for a constant SNR at all receivers (assuming for simplicity negligible error rates at this SNR), the
radiated energy required for direct communication over a distance d is cdα (c some constant, α ≥ 2 the path loss
coefficient); using a relay at distance d/2 reduces this energy(radiated energy, not consumed energy of intermediate relay
node) to 2c(d/2)α.
● Direct communication may be more energy-efficient for short distances.
● Multihopping's energy-saving benefits are often overstated.
● Multihop networks typically operate in a store and forward fashion.
● Cooperative relaying techniques that exploit erroneous packet reception(node reconstruct full packet by rx
multiple packets from diff nodes) are not discussed here.
3.1.3 Multiple sinks and sources
In addition to single-source single-sink networks, multiple sources and/or multiple sinks are common in many scenarios.
This complexity arises when multiple sources need to transmit information to multiple sinks, where the data may need to
reach all or some of the sinks. Figure 3.3 illustrates these various combinations.

3.1.4 Three types of mobility

In wireless sensor networks, mobility can manifest in three primary forms:

1. Node mobility: Sensor nodes themselves can be mobile, depending on the application. For instance, in livestock
surveillance, nodes attached to animals move regularly. The network must adapt to frequent node reorganization
to maintain functionality, balancing energy consumption with node movement speed.
2. Sink mobility: Information sinks, such as human users accessing data via PDAs in intelligent buildings, can be
mobile (Figure 3.4). The network must accommodate interactions with mobile requesters, ensuring requested
data reaches them despite their movement. This can involve protocols that allow data retrieval from remote
network parts.

3. Event mobility: In event detection and tracking applications, the objects causing events can be mobile. Sensors
need to dynamically wake up and observe the moving object, known as the "frisbee model." Nodes in the vicinity
of the event source increase activity to observe it, then revert to lower power states when not actively detecting.
This model ensures continuous event coverage across the network (Figure 3.5).

Communication protocols for wireless sensor networks need to support these mobility types, with particular focus on
event mobility, which requires specialized handling compared to other forms of mobile or wireless networks.
3.2 Optimization goals and figures of merit
In various scenarios and applications of wireless sensor networks, optimizing network performance and comparing
solutions is crucial. The challenge lies in determining how to best support specific applications and translating broad
optimization goals into measurable metrics. While a universal answer is elusive due to the diversity of applications, some
key considerations include:

3.2.1 Quality of service

WSNs vs. Conventional Networks: WSNs focus on bit transfer, unlike conventional networks that often handle more
diverse services and traffic types.

Types of QoS Attributes:

Low-level Attributes: Bandwidth, delay, jitter, packet loss.

High-level Attributes: Perceived quality in multimedia applications.

Importance of High-level QoS: Critical for multimedia applications due to subjective user experience.

Application-specific high QoS Attributes:

● Event Detection/Reporting Probability: Refers to the likelihood that an actual event will be detected and
reported to an information sink interested in such events. For example, ensuring a fire alarm is promptly reported
to a surveillance station.
● Event Classification Error: In scenarios where events need to be not only detected but also categorized
correctly, minimizing the error in classification is essential.
● Event Detection Delay: Time interval between detecting an event and reporting it to relevant sinks or nodes
within the network. Minimizing this delay is crucial for real-time applications.
● Missing Reports: In applications requiring periodic reporting (e.g., environmental monitoring), minimizing the
probability of undelivered reports is vital to ensure data integrity and reliability.
● Approximation Accuracy: In applications involving function approximation (e.g., estimating temperature based
on location data), accuracy metrics such as average or maximum error with respect to the actual function are
critical.
● Tracking Accuracy: For tracking applications (e.g., monitoring moving objects), ensuring accurate reporting of
object positions with minimal error is essential. Additionally, sensitivity to sensing gaps and continuity in tracking
are important aspects to consider for effective network performance.

These metrics are application-specific and guide the optimization of WSNs for different use cases.

3.2.2 Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency is a critical optimization goal in WSNs, given the limited energy resources available. Efficient use of
energy is essential for achieving desired QoS metrics while prolonging network lifetime.
Key Aspects of Energy Efficiency:

● Energy per correctly received bit: Measures the average energy consumed to transport one bit from source to
destination, accounting for all energy expenditures across intermediate hops. Useful metric for periodic
monitoring application.
● Energy per reported (unique) event: Calculates the average energy spent to report a unique event,
disregarding redundant reports of already known events from various sources.
● Delay/energy trade-offs: Balances energy consumption against the urgency of event reporting(urgent events),
determining when increased energy investment for faster reporting is justified.
● Network lifetime: Defines the operational duration of the network based on available energy. Metrics include:
○ Time to first node death: When the first node exhausts its energy and stops functioning.
○ Network half-life: When 50% of nodes have depleted their energy.
○ Time to partition: When the network divides into disconnected parts for the first time as early due to
pivotal node failures or it may occur later if the network's topology is robust.
○ Time to loss of coverage:
■ Redundant Deployment: Multiple sensor nodes observe each point in the deployment region.
■ Figure of Merit: Time when any spot in the region is first not covered by any sensor node's
observation.
■ Redundancy Requirement (k): For tracking applications, loss of coverage is defined as the time
when any spot is no longer covered by at least k different sensor nodes.
○ Time to failure of first event notification: Marks the inability to deliver an event due to sensor failure or
network partition.
■ A network partition may not be considered critical if the unreachable part of the network does not
need to report events.
■ Application-specifically, partition may be interpreted as the inability to deliver an event
notification.
■ Causes include a sensor being non-functional or a partition between the event source and the
receiving sink.

Simulating network lifetimes is a complex statistical challenge. Longer lifetimes generally suggest better network
performance. Metrics like node lifetime distributions (probability of node survival) and relative survival times (percentage
of operational nodes over time) are used. Some WSN protocols prioritize improving short lifetimes over longer ones to
enhance performance (Figure 3.6). These metrics rely on assumptions about node energy consumption, network load
(event timing and locations), and radio channel behavior for accurate assessment.

3.2.3 Scalability
● Scalability - Maintaining performance regardless of network size.
● Minimizing global state constructs like addresses or routing tables due to memory limits.
● Extreme scalability requirements often lead to performance or complexity penalties in small networks.
● Architectures and protocols should prioritize appropriate scalability support rather than maximizing scalability.
● Smaller networks may benefit from more efficient solutions.

3.2.4 Robustness
● Definition: In addition to QoS and scalability, ensure continued operation despite node failures or environmental
changes disrupting radio links - Robustness
● Failure Mitigation: Failures due to node energy depletion or severed radio links should ideally be compensated
by finding alternative routes.
● Evaluation Challenges: Precisely evaluating robustness is complex and depends heavily on failure models for
nodes and communication links.
3.5 Gateway concepts

3.5.1 The need for gateways

● Purpose: A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) must interact with other information devices, such as mobile PDAs
or remote users via the Internet.
● Scenario: Example includes accessing home temperature sensors while traveling with Internet connectivity
(Figure 3.9).
● Data Exchange: WSNs need to exchange data with mobile devices or gateways that connect to the Internet.
● Technological Integration: Integration can occur via shared radio transceivers or nodes supporting IEEE 802.11
wireless standards, depending on application needs.
● Gateway Design Challenges: Gateways may act as simple routers or application-level gateways based on
specific application requirements, necessitating optimized protocols over Internet protocols.
● Design Considerations: Challenges include initiating communication and determining appropriate actions based
on application-level information.

3.5.2 WSN to Internet communication

● Initiator: Communication initiation from within the WSN (Figure 3.10), such as a sensor node sending an alarm
message to an Internet host.
● Routing and Service Discovery: Challenges similar to ad hoc networks include finding a gateway within the
network capable of forwarding data to the Internet, integrating routing and service discovery mechanisms.
● Multiple Gateways: If multiple gateways are available, criteria for choosing between them need to be
established, considering factors like reachability of Internet hosts and preferences for specific destinations.
● IP Overlay Networks: Option to establish an IP overlay network over the sensor network to manage
communication among gateways.
● Addressing and Mapping: Sensor nodes need to know which Internet host to address messages to, possibly
requiring semantic mapping ("Alert Alice" to IP address). Gateways translate this information into IP packets, akin
to Network Address Translation (NAT).
● Source Addressing: Gateways decide which source address to use when forwarding packets to ensure proper
communication with Internet hosts.
3.5.3 Internet to WSN communication
● Scenario: Addressing challenges when an Internet-based entity seeks to access services of a WSN (Figure
3.11).
● Direct Communication: If the requesting terminal can directly communicate with the WSN (e.g., equipped with a
WSN transceiver and necessary protocols), it becomes part of the WSN without special treatment.
● Gateway Assistance: For terminals "far away," discovery of the WSN and gateway node is essential. Service
discovery mechanisms are needed to locate the network and gateway.
● Accessing Services: Direct addressing of individual sensors contradicts the WSN philosophy, where data
relevance surpasses individual node identity. Gateways act as proxies, translating requests into appropriate intra-
sensor network protocols.
● Application-Level Protocols: Gateway facilitates application-level protocols more suitable for Internet
communication than native WSN protocols, potentially using standards like Web Service Protocols (e.g., WSDL)
for service description and access.
● Integration Challenges: Integration with general middleware architectures and enabling WSN services
accessible from standard Web browsers are ongoing research areas (e.g., WSDL extensions for WSN attributes).

3.5.4 WSN tunneling

● Scenario: Gateways can extend one WSN to another by creating a larger "virtual" WSN, using the Internet as a
transport network (Figure 3.12).
● Functionality: Gateways tunnel protocol messages between separate WSNs, allowing seamless integration and
communication.
● Considerations: Care must be taken not to confuse virtual links with physical ones, as protocols relying on
physical properties (e.g., time synchronization or localization) can be affected.
● Flexibility: Tunnels can include mobile nodes, such as those carried by people, for intermediate WSN
interconnection, enhancing network flexibility and scalability.
● Research: Ongoing studies explore similar concepts in broader settings to optimize network connectivity and
performance.

4.3 Physical layer and transceiver design considerations in WSNs

● Key Points Influencing PHY Design:
 ○ Low Power Consumption: Essential for prolonging node battery life.
○ Small Transmit Power: Leads to limited transmission range.
○ Low Duty Cycle: Nodes operate mostly in low-power standby mode.
○ Low Data Rates: Typically tens to hundreds of kbps.
○ Low Implementation Complexity and Costs: Ensures affordability and simplicity.
○ Low Degree of Mobility: Nodes are stationary or have limited mobility.
○ Small Form Factor: Nodes require compact designs.
● Implications:
○ Modulation and Transceiver Requirements: Focus on robust yet cost-effective modulation schemes
and transceiver architectures suitable for sensor networks.

4.3.1 Energy usage profile

● Low Transmit Power: Typically around 0 dBm (1 mW), leading to minimal radiated energy.
● Transceiver Energy Consumption: Transceivers consume significantly more energy than the radiated power.
For example, transmitting 0 dBm may require 32 mW, and receiving may need 38 mW for 2.4 GHz CMOS
transceivers.
● Power Balance: At low transmit powers, both transmit and receive modes consume comparable energy,
challenging traditional assumptions.
● Energy Management: To conserve power, transceivers should enter sleep mode rather than idle mode when not
actively transmitting or receiving data.
● Startup Challenges: Waking up from sleep mode incurs startup energy and time costs(ramp up VCO and PLL),
impacting data transmission and reception(due to traffic patterns). Example, the μAMPS-1 transcveiver needs
466 μs and a power dissipation of 58 mW; so, going into sleep mode is unfavorable when the next wakeup comes
fast; Efficient scheduling (usng MAC protocol) and multiple packet transmissions during wake periods can
mitigate these costs. Also use faster startup times.
● Communication vs. Computation cost: In sensor nodes, communication is generally more energy-intensive
than computation, influenced by factors like bit error rate (BER), transmission range, and transceiver type etc and
processor type, instruction mix, etc.

4.3.2 Choice of modulation scheme

● Factors to Balance: Modulation scheme selection in WSNs must consider data rate requirements,
implementation complexity, power efficiency, and channel characteristics.
● Optimizing Transceiver Sleep Time: To maximize transceiver sleep time, minimize transmit times. Higher data
rates reduce transmission time and energy consumption.
● Power Consumption: Modulation power consumption is more dependent on symbol rate than data rate. For
instance, IEEE 802.11b WLAN cards show differences in power consumption between modulation schemes like
CCK, DBPSK, and DQPSK despite similar data rates.
● m-ary Modulation: Offers higher data rates at lower symbol rates but requires more complex circuitry compared
to binary modulation.
● Bandwidth Efficiency vs. Power Consumption: Higher m-ary modulation can reduce bandwidth efficiency and
require higher Eb/N0 ratios and radiated power to maintain target BER. WSNs prefer lower bandwidth efficiency
over increased radiated power.
● Packet Size Considerations: In WSNs, where packets are typically short, startup time dominates energy
consumption, making modulation choice less influential in reducing transmission time.
● Balancing Considerations: Optimal modulation scheme choice balances technological factors, packet size,
error rates, and channel conditions. For example, m-ary QAM schemes like 16-QAM are found optimal for
different packet sizes based on energy-per-bit consumption considerations.
● Optimal decision: Balance modulation scheme and robustness measures, considering energy costs.
○ Retransmissions: Increases energy usage by re-sending entire packets.
○ FEC coding: More bits sent and energy used for coding/decoding; significant impact on power-
constrained receivers.
○ Increased radiated power: Depends on power amplifier efficiency; often small compared to overall
transceiver power but can drive PA into a more efficient regime.

4.3.3 Dynamic modulation scaling

● Optimal scheme variability: Despite determining the best modulation scheme for specific conditions like BER
target, range, and packet sizes, changes in these factors can quickly render the optimal scheme obsolete.
● Additional constraints: Factors such as delay and throughput requirements may necessitate higher modulation
schemes, adding complexity to decision-making.
● Model Development: A model for dynamic modulation scaling has been proposed for m-ary QAM schemes with
a target BER of 10-5. The model uses parameters like symbol rate (B) and levels per symbol (m) to determine
energy per bit and delay per bit. Higher modulation levels require more radiated energy.
 ● Adaptive strategy: It minimizes energy per bit and delay per bit by selecting the smallest m that meets required
data rates while keeping the symbol rate fixed.
● Implementation Considerations: Delay constraints can be set explicitly or adjusted based on factors like packet
backlog in sensor nodes. For instance, when the backlog is low, a smaller m is used to conserve energy. As
backlog increases, m can be increased to clear the backlog quickly.
● Analogous concept: Similar to dynamic voltage scaling, where system voltage adjusts based on computational
demand to optimize energy efficiency.

4.3.4 Antenna considerations

● Small Form Factor Limitations: Sensor nodes' small form factor restricts antenna size and number. Efficiency
suffers if antennas are much smaller than the wavelength, requiring more transmit energy for the same radiated
energy.
● Receive Diversity Challenges: Achieving receive diversity is difficult due to limited space for antenna
placement. Effective diversity typically requires antennas spaced 40-50% of the wavelength apart, which
translates to 5-6 cm for 2.4 GHz, challenging in smaller node cases.
● Environmental Factors: Antennas close to the ground experience higher path-loss coefficients (typically α = 4)
than free-space communication (α = 2). Environments with obstacles like buildings further impact signal
attenuation.
● Physical Constraints: Antennas must not protrude from node casings to avoid damage, limiting antenna quality
and characteristics. Nodes deployed randomly (e.g., from aircraft) may land in orientations obstructing antenna
performance, leading to non-isotropic signal propagation which results in differences in spatial propagation
characteristics.
● Design Complexity: Antenna design for wireless sensor nodes is complex.

UNIT 3 - MAC AND ROUTING

5.1.3 MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks
MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols for WSNs must address specific requirements different from traditional wireless
networks, primarily focusing on energy efficiency, scalability, and robustness against topology changes.
Balance of Requirements:

● Energy Efficiency: Conservation of energy is crucial due to limited battery capacities in sensor nodes. Many
classic protocols like ALOHA and CSMA do not inherently optimize for energy efficiency.
● Fairness and Throughput: These are less critical in WSNs compared to traditional networks. Nodes in WSNs
typically collaborate towards common goals rather than compete for bandwidth so fairness not important.
Throughput not an issue either.
● Delay: Access and transmission delay performance are traded off against energy conservation.
● Important requirements: Scalability and Robustness against frequent topology changes due to factors like
nodes powering down, mobility, new node deployment, or node failure. This is particularly important in dense
sensor networks with many nodes in close proximity.

Energy Problems on the MAC Layer:

● A node's transceiver is a major energy consumer, operating in four states: transmitting, receiving, idling, and
sleeping. Transmitting and receiving have similar high energy costs, idling can be nearly as expensive as
receiving, and sleeping is very low-cost but leaves the node "deaf." Applying these lessons to MAC protocols, we
identify key energy problems and design goals.
● Collisions: Collisions lead to wasted energy due to retransmissions and unnecessary reception at unintended
nodes. Avoiding collisions through protocol design (fixed assignment/TDMA or demand assignment protocols) or
collision avoidance mechanisms (e.g., CSMA protocols) is essential. For WSN, load is low, collisions not a
problem.
● Overhearing: Overhearing occurs when nodes in proximity receive packets not intended for them on a broadcast
medium, leading to energy wastage. Avoiding overhearing can save significant energy in dense networks,
although it can be beneficial for tasks like collecting neighborhood information or estimating traffic load for
management purposes.
● Protocol Overhead: Control frames like RTS, CTS, request packets and per-packet overhead(packet headers
and trailers) contribute to protocol overhead, impacting overall energy efficiency.
● Idle Listening: Nodes in idle state consume energy while waiting for transmissions, even during low network
activity. Switching off transceivers saves energy, but frequent mode changes also consume power. TDMA-based
protocols offer a solution by allowing nodes to switch off transceivers during non-assigned time slots.

Design Considerations:

● Low Complexity: WSN nodes are resource-constrained in terms of processing power, memory, and energy.
MAC protocols should avoid complex operations and scheduling algorithms to maintain low node complexity.
● Time Synchronization: Tight time synchronization, as required by TDMA, can consume significant energy for
frequent resynchronization. This constraint should be considered in protocol design.
● Hardware Constraints: Sensor nodes use simple and inexpensive components, limiting capabilities such as
clock precision and synchronization capabilities.

Structure of MAC Protocols:

● Energy-Efficient Protocols: Various MAC protocols for WSNs aim to reduce energy consumption by targeting
specific energy problems such as idle listening, overhearing, and collisions.(Periodic Sleeping or Wakeup Radio
Protocols)
● Contention-Based Protocols: These protocols allow multiple nodes to contend for access to the medium,
employing mechanisms to reduce collision probabilities.
● Schedule-Based Protocols: Protocols allocate specific time slots to nodes (TDMA-like), reducing idle listening
and avoiding collisions by design.

IEEE 802.15.4 Protocol (Section 5.5):

● Combines elements of schedule-based and contention-based protocols.

● Expected to have commercial impact due to its versatility in addressing energy efficiency and scalability
requirements in WSNs.

5.2 Low duty cycle protocols and wakeup concepts

Low duty cycle protocols minimize idle time and communication activities of sensor node to conserve energy. Ideally,
nodes only leave the sleep state to transmit or receive packets. Since the ideal wakeup radio system hasn't been built,
alternative approaches like periodic wakeup schemes are used.

Periodic Wakeup Schemes

A common method is the cycled receiver approach, where nodes sleep most of the time and periodically wake up to
check for incoming packets.
Cycled Receiver Approach:

● Operation: Nodes spend most time in sleep mode and periodically wake up during listen periods. Transmitters
must know these periods to send packets, achieved through:
○ Beacons transmitted by the receiver(node A) at beginning of listen period.
○ Frequent requests by the transmitter(node B) until acknowledged by A.
○ Either way A only receives packets during listen period.
● Wakeup period = sleep period + listen period
● Duty Cycle: The ratio of listen period length to wakeup period length.
○ Energy Savings: Small duty cycles -> transceiver in sleep mode most of time -> avoid idle listening ->
conserve energy
○ Traffic: Small duty cycles -> traffic concentrates on small time window(listen periods) -> can cause
congestion and competition during heavy load situations.
○ Latency: Longer sleep periods(induce per-hop latency) increase end-to end latency, especially in
multihop networks.
○ Efficiency: Sleep phases shouldnt be too short else startup cost outweigh benefits.

S-MAC: S-MAC synchronizes nodes' wakeup phases, allowing both transmission and reception without the need for out-
of-phase communication.

5.2.1 Sparse topology and energy management (STEM)

● STEM protocol addresses idle listening issues in WSN, especially in event-driven scenarios like wildlife
monitoring.
● STEM operates with two states: a monitor state with minimal activity and a transfer state with active sensing and
communication.
● The protocol aims to eliminate idle listening during the monitor state and ensure quick transitions to the transfer
state.
● In the transfer state, different MAC protocols can be used.
● STEM addresses changes in network topology as nodes enter and leave sleep mode, emphasizing the need to
maintain network connectivity even if some nodes are asleep.

STEM Operation:

● Two Channels/two transceivers in each node:

○ Each node uses a wakeup channel and a data channel.
● Data Channel:
○ The data channel remains in sleep mode except during active communication(txng and rxng data
packets).
○ MAC protocol executed on data channel during transfer state.
● Wakeup Channel:
 ○ Time is divided into wakeup periods T, each consisting of a listen period(of length TRx << T) and a sleep
period(where the wakeup channel transceiver enters sleep mode).
○ Listen Period: Nodes turn on their wakeup channel receiver to check for incoming signals.
■ If no signal is detected during TRx, the node returns to sleep mode.
■ O.w. tx and rx start packet transfer on data channel.

Transmitter-Receiver Coordination: Tx to acquire Rx attention

● STEM-B:
○ Transmitters periodically send beacons on the wakeup channel without carrier sensing.
○ Beacons contain the MAC addresses of the transmitter and intended receiver.
○ Upon receiving a beacon, the receiver acknowledges(tx stops beacon txn) and switches to the data
channel for further communication(reg MAC protocol).
○ Beacons are sent for at least one full wakeup period to ensure they hit the receiver's listen period.
● STEM-T:
○ Transmitters emit a busy tone on the wakeup channel for a duration long enough to intersect the
receiver’s listen period.
○ The busy tone lacks address information, prompting all nearby nodes to switch to the data channel
without sending ACK.
○ Nodes not involved in the data transfer return to sleep after deducing the ongoing packet exchange.
○ Busy tones are simpler and more energy-efficient than data transceivers but require precise frequency
synchronization.

Considerations and Comparisons:

● STEM-B Beacon Collisions:

○ Multiple transmitters in STEM-B may transmit their beacons simultaneously, resulting in beacon
collisions.
○ If a node wakes up and receives ambiguous energy on the wakeup channel, unable to decode it, it
behaves similarly to STEM-T: it refrains from sending an acknowledgment, switches to the data channel
and waits what happens.
○ Tx transmits beacons for the maximum duration (due to lack of acknowledgment), and then attempts to
initiate communication with the receiver node.
● Silent Listen Period in STEM:
○ In STEM, when nodes enter the listen period, they remain silent. In contrast, protocols like mediation
device and Piconet use query beacon packets to indicate readiness to receive.
○ Contrary approaches, such as those used in the mediation device protocol or Piconet system, involve
nodes transmitting query beacon packets upon waking up.
● Beacon and Busy Tone Timing:
○ STEM transmitters send beacons or a busy tone for an average of ≈ T/2 time, or up to ≈ T in the worst case.
○ This strategy avoids frequent and potentially unnecessary query beacons.
● Preference for STEM-T in Low Load Situations:
○ In scenarios with low packet transmissions, STEM-T is preferable over STEM-B.
○ STEM-T avoids frequent query beacons, saving energy and reducing overhead.
● Wakeup Latency in STEM:
○ The mean wakeup latency in both STEM-T and STEM-B is linearly dependent on the wakeup period T.
○ STEM-B can achieve half the wakeup latency of STEM-T under ideal conditions without beacon collisions
○ Its because its ACK frame is typically received earlier compared to STEM-T, where busy tone or beacon
frames are sent for the maximum duration in both collision and collision-free scenarios.
● Energy Efficiency Considerations:
○ STEM-T offers potential energy savings by omitting acknowledgment packets.
○ The listen period TRx in STEM-T can be significantly shorter compared to STEM-B, as it only needs to
detect energy rather than accommodate a full beacon packet.
5.2.2 S-MAC

The Sensor-MAC (S-MAC) protocol addresses idle listening, collisions, and overhearing without requiring two channels.

Operation of S-MAC:

● Periodic Wakeup Scheme: Nodes alternate between fixed-length listening and sleeping periods according to a
schedule. Unlike STEM, S-MAC's listen period allows for both receiving and transmitting packets.
● Coordinated Schedules: Neighboring nodes synchronize their listen periods to wake up simultaneously, forming
virtual clusters.

Node x’s Listen Period Phases:

1. SYNCH Phase:
○ Nodes exchange SYNCH packets to share schedules.
○ Neighbors contend using CSMA with backoff to avoid collisions.
○ Node x accepts SYNCH packets from neighbors.
○ Neighbors describe their schedules, which x stores in the schedule table.
○ SYNCH phase is divided into time slots; neighbors use CSMA with additional backoff.
○ Neighbor y picks a slot randomly to transmit if no signal was received in previous slots; otherwise, y goes
to sleep and waits for the next wakeup.
○ x, knowing y's schedule, wakes up at appropriate times to send its SYNCH packet to y in broadcast
mode.
○ x should periodically send SYNCH packets for time synchronization and to allow new nodes to learn the
network topology.
○ Synchronization Period: Defined period for sending SYNCH packets.
2. RTS Phase:
○ Node x listen for RTS packets from neighbors.
○ RTS/CTS handshake helps reduce collisions ue to hidden terminals.
○ Interested neighbors contend in this phase according to a CSMA with additional backoff.
3. CTS Phase:
○ Node x sends CTS packets in response to received RTS packets.
○ Data exchange may extend into the node's sleep period.

RTS/CTS Handshake: When nodes want to communicate, they use a method called RTS/CTS to avoid interfering with
each other. They use a NAV (Network Allocation Vector) to know when to stay silent and not overhear other
communications.

Broadcast Mode: For broadcast messages like SYNCH packets, nodes use a simpler method (CSMA with backoff) and
don't use RTS/CTS.

Synchronized Schedules: If a node (x) and its neighbors have synchronized schedules, they all wake up at the same
time. This allows node x to send a SYNCH packet to all its neighbors at once.

Virtual Clusters: S-MAC protocol helps neighboring nodes agree on the same schedule, creating clusters for schedule
exchange. These clusters don't affect data packet transfer.

Cluster Formation:
 ● A new node (x) listens for a certain period.
● If it hears a SYNCH packet, it adopts and broadcasts that schedule.
● If it doesn't hear a SYNCH packet, it creates and broadcasts its own schedule.
● If node x later hears a different schedule, it might switch to it depending on whether its current neighbors are
using the same schedule.
● Periodically, node x checks for SYNCH packets to stay updated on its neighbors' schedules.

Network Partitioning: This process creates "islands" of synchronized schedules in a large network.

Border Nodes: Nodes on the edge of these islands follow multiple schedules and use more energy than nodes within a
single schedule area.

Periodic Wakeup Scheme in S-MAC:

● Nodes spend a lot of time in sleep mode to save energy.

● This increases latency (delay in data transmission).
● Per-hop latency in S-MAC equals the sleep period when all nodes follow the same schedule.

Adaptive Listening:

● It reduces per-hop latency by half.

● If node x receives RTS (Request to Send) or CTS (Clear to Send) packets belonging to packet exchange from
node y to node z, it can predict when this exchange will end(t0) using duration field.
● If x is next hop for z’s packet, node x schedules an extra listen period around that time (t0) and node z sends an
RTS, hoping x will be awake to quickly take the next hop.

Message Passing and Fragmentation:

● S-MAC uses message-passing for larger data items, breaking them into smaller fragments.
● Only one RTS/CTS exchange is needed for the entire series of fragments.
● The receiving node B sends an acknowledgment after each fragment.
● All packets have a duration field that tells neighboring nodes how long the communication will last.
● If a fragment needs retransmission, the duration is extended to cover the extra time(length of data + ack packet)
and medium is reserved for this prolonged time.
● Problem: If a nonparticipating node hears only the initial RTS or CTS packets, it only knows the initially reserved
duration.

Fragmentation Scheme Comparison:

1. IEEE 802.11:
○ RTS/CTS Frames: Reserve the channel only for the first fragment.
○ Subsequent Fragments: Each fragment reserves the channel only for the next fragment.
○ Retransmission: Must recontend for the channel if retransmission is needed.
2. S-MAC:
○ RTS/CTS Frames: Reserve the channel for the entire message exchange.
○ Single RTS/CTS Exchange: Only one exchange needed for all fragments.
○ Acknowledgment Packets: Sent after each fragment.
○ Medium Reservation: Duration field indicates the total time for the whole transaction, including
fragments and acknowledgments.
○ Retransmission Handling: Extends the remaining duration if a fragment needs retransmission.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

● S-MAC Advantage: Reduces latency by preventing interruptions during the entire message exchange.
● S-MAC Disadvantage: Can monopolize the channel, blocking other nodes, which is less critical in sensor
networks.

Drawback of S-MAC:

● Fixed Wakeup and Listen Periods: Difficult to adapt to varying network load conditions.

Introduction of T-MAC:

● Adaptive Listening: Shortens the listen period if no activity is detected.

● Premature Sleep: Allows nodes to save energy by ending the listen period early if no communication is
expected.
5.2.3 The mediation device protocol
The Mediation Device (MD) protocol, compatible with IEEE 802.15.4 low rate WPAN, helps nodes in a WSN manage
sleep cycles and packet reception without a global time reference. Each node operates on its own schedule(doesnt care
about neighbour sleep schedues), periodically waking up to transmit a query beacon indicating its node address and
availability to receive packets.

Operation of the MD Protocol:

● Periodic Wakeup: Nodes wake up, transmit a query beacon, and stay awake for a short time to receive packets.
If no packet received during the window, nodes goes to sleep.
● Dynamic Synchronization: When a node wants to transmit, it uses an MD to synchronize with the receiver
without staying awake to detect destination query beacon.

Using a Mediation Device:

a. MD Role: Always active(coz of full duty cycle) and listens to query beacons from all nodes, learning their wakeup
periods.
b. Transmission Process:
● Node A wants to send a packet to Node B.
● Node A sends periodic RTS packets instead of query beacons to MD.
● MD waits for Node B's query beacon and then sends a response with Node A's address and timing offset.
● Node B sends a CTS packet to A, which then transmits its data packet followed by an acknowledgment
from B.
● After the transaction, both nodes return to their periodic wakeup cycles.

Advantages:

● No Time Synchronization: Only the MD needs to learn node periods.

● Energy Efficiency: Energy burden is shifted to the MD, allowing nodes to stay in sleep mode most of the time.
● Low Duty Cycles: Nodes can support very low duty cycles by leveraging the MD for synchronization.

Challenges and Solutions:

● Collision Issues: Query beacons may collide(if tx didnt check for ongoing txns) if nodes have overlapping
wakeup periods.
○ If wakeup periods - randomized, node density - low, collision probability - low
○ If high node density, unwanted synchronization, collision probability - high
○ To mitigate this: The MD can send a reschedule control frame, prompting nodes to randomize their
wakeup periods from a interval mentioned in the frame. If collisions persist, MD enlages the interval.
● Energy and Coverage: The MD being energy unconstrained and needing sufficient MDs to cover all nodes can
be problematic.
○ Distributed MD Protocol: Nodes randomly act as MDs for a set time before returning to their wakeup
cycles. This probabilistic approach aims to ensure coverage without permanent MDs.

Distributed MD Protocol:
 ● Temporary MDs: Nodes take turns acting as MDs for a period at least as long as the maximum wakeup period of
neighbors + query beacon length
● Collision Avoidance: Proper randomization of MD service times reduces the likelihood of multiple MDs causing
response collisions.

5.2.4 Wakeup radio concepts

The wakeup radio concept aims to optimize energy usage in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) by ensuring nodes are
only active when necessary. This is achieved by using a low-power wakeup receiver that triggers the main receiver when
a packet is detected.

Wakeup MAC Protocol:

1. Parallel Data Channels: Several channels are used, either by frequency (FDMA) or code (CDMA).
2. Carrier-Sensing: A node wishing to transmit performs carrier-sensing on a randomly chosen channel. If busy, it
selects another channel. After several unsuccessful attempts, it backs off for random time and starts again.
3. Wakeup Signal: If the channel is idle, the node sends a wakeup signal to the intended receiver, specifying the
receiver's ID and the channel to use.
4. Data Transmission: The receiver activates its data transceiver, tunes to the indicated channel, and the data
transmission proceeds. Post-transmission, the receiver returns to sleep mode.

Advantages:

● Energy Efficiency: Only the low-power wakeup transceiver is continuously active, while the high energy
consuming data transceiver activates only for data transmissions.
● Traffic Adaptiveness: The MAC protocol becomes more active with increased traffic load.

Challenges:

1. Hardware Availability: Currently, there is no real hardware for an ultra-low power wakeup transceiver.
2. Range Consistency: The wakeup radio's range must match the data radio's range to ensure all neighboring
nodes can be woken up.
3. Addressing Schemes: Local addressing can be problematic if the wakeup radio's range differs significantly from
the data radio's range.
4. Information Transmission: The wakeup channel must transport node addresses and channel IDs, necessitating
handling of collisions and errors. Without this, all neighbors are woken, causing overhearing.

Filter Packet Approach:

● Nodes may prepend data packets with a short filter packet indicating the destination address. Nodes not
addressed go back to sleep after reading the filter packet.

5.2.5 Further reading

● Miller and Vaidya Protocol: Uses two channels for wakeup and data transmission, adapting wakeup periods
based on observed traffic periodicity. Nodes wake up their entire neighborhood if buffers are full.
● DMAC Protocol: Addresses latency by arranging wakeup schedules based on node distance from the sink,
allowing immediate packet forwarding to upstream neighbors.
● Preamble Sampling Technique: Applied to ALOHA and CSMA protocols, nodes periodically wake up and listen
for signals. Transmitting nodes prepend packets with a long preamble to ensure the receiver picks it up.
Optimizations include learning neighbors’ wakeup periods to minimize preamble length.
● Cycled Receiver Schemes: Nodes periodically wake up to receive packets. Techniques include frequent short
packets from the transmitter or beacon packets from the receiver to synchronize.

These protocols and techniques aim to reduce energy consumption and latency while ensuring efficient communication in
WSNs.

5.5 IEEE 802.15.4 MAC Protocol

Overview

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard was finalized in October 2003 and addresses the physical and MAC layers of low-rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). It's important not to confuse IEEE 802.15.4 with ZigBee, although ZigBee
builds upon the IEEE 802.15.4 standard by adding network construction, security, application services, and more.
Targeted Applications

The standard is designed for applications like:

● Wireless sensor networks

● Home automation
● Home networking
● Connecting devices to a PC
● Home security

These applications typically need:

● Low-to-medium bitrates (up to a few hundred kbps)

● Moderate average delays without stringent delay guarantees
● Low energy consumption for certain nodes

Physical Layer

The physical layer supports different bitrates:

● 20 kbps (868–868.6 MHz range)

● 40 kbps (905–928 MHz range)
● 250 kbps (2.4 GHz ISM band with 16 channels and 5-MHz spacing)

The MAC protocol, however, uses only one of these 27 channels at a time.

5.5.1 Network Architecture and types/roles of nodes

MAC Protocol Features

The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol combines schedule-based and contention-based schemes. It's asymmetric, meaning
different node types have different roles.

Types/Roles of Nodes

1. Full Function Device (FFD)

○ Can operate in three roles: PAN coordinator, simple coordinator, or device.
2. Reduced Function Device (RFD)
○ Can only operate as a device.

Network Structure:

● Devices: Must be associated with a coordinator (which is always an FFD) and communicate only with it, forming
a star network.
● Coordinators: Can communicate with devices and other coordinators, enabling peer-to-peer interactions and
forming a Personal Area Network (PAN - identified by 16 bit PAN ID and one of the coordinator is PAN
coordinator).

Coordinator Responsibilities

1. Managing Devices:
○ Keep a list of associated devices.
○ Handle explicit association and disassociation using specific signaling packets.
2. Address Allocation:
○ Assign short 16-bit addresses to devices (each device has a unique 64-bit address but can use a shorter
one for communication). Assigned address is indicated in association response packet issued by
coordinator.
3. Beacon Transmission:
○ In beaconed mode, regularly send frame beacon packets that announce the PAN identifier, list
outstanding frames, and other network parameters.
○ Process requests to reserve fixed time slots for nodes, allocations are indicated in the beacon.
4. Data Exchange:
○ Facilitate data exchange with devices and peer coordinators.

Beaconed Mode Data Exchange

In the beaconed mode, coordinators play a crucial role by sending regular beacons that help manage network
communication and scheduling. This mode helps in organizing and synchronizing the communication between devices
and the coordinator.

5.5.2 Superframe Structure in IEEE 802.15.4

In the beaconed mode of a star network, the coordinator organizes channel access and data transmission using a
superframe structure. Here's an overview:

Superframe Basics

● Superframe Length: All superframes have the

same length.
● Beacon: Each superframe starts with the
coordinator sending a frame beacon packet. This
beacon includes a superframe specification
detailing the lengths of various superframe
components.

Superframe Components

1. Inactive Period:
○ Purpose: Allows nodes, including the coordinator, to switch off their transceivers and go into sleep mode
to save energy.
○ Duration: The inactive period can be configured and may even be void (i.e., nonexistent).
○ Wake-Up: Nodes must wake up before the inactive period ends to receive the next beacon.
2. Active Period:
○ Subdivision: The active period is divided into 16 time slots.
■ First Time Slot: Occupied by the beacon frame.
■ Remaining Time Slots: Split into a Contention Access Period (CAP) and up to seven contiguous
Guaranteed Time Slots (GTSs).

Time Slots and Periods

● CAP (Contention Access Period):

○ Devices compete to access the channel during this period.
○ Devices can turn off their transceivers if they have no data to send or receive during the CAP.
● GTS (Guaranteed Time Slots):
○ Allocation: Specific time slots allocated to devices for guaranteed access to the channel.
○ Sleep Mode: Devices can enter sleep mode during GTS slots not allocated to them.

Configurability

● Adjustable Parameters:
○ Lengths of the active and inactive periods.
○ Length of a single time slot.
○ Usage of GTS slots.

Coordinator vs. Devices

● Coordinator:
○ Stays active throughout the entire active period.
○ Performs more tasks, managing the network and ensuring synchronization.
● Devices:
○ Active only during their allocated GTS slots.
○ Can conserve energy by sleeping during unallocated GTS slots and parts of the CAP when not active.

Asymmetric Protocol

● Energy Efficiency:
○ The protocol is designed to optimize energy usage, especially for energy-constrained sensor nodes.
○ Energy-constrained sensors are often connected to energy-unconstrained nodes (like the coordinator),
allowing them to conserve energy by minimizing their active time.

5.5.3 GTS management

Allocation of Guaranteed Time Slots (GTS)

1. Requesting GTS:
○ Request Packet: Devices send a request packet to the coordinator during the Contention Access Period
(CAP).
○ Flags and Fields:
■ Transmit/Receive Flag: Indicates whether the requested time slot is for transmitting data to the
coordinator or receiving data from it.
■ Number of Time Slots: Specifies the desired number of contiguous time slots in the GTS phase.
2. Coordinator's Response:
○ Immediate Acknowledgment: The coordinator sends an acknowledgment packet to confirm receipt of
the request packet. This acknowledgment does not indicate whether the request will be granted.
○ Tracking Beacons: The requesting device must track the coordinator’s beacons for a specified time
(aGTSDescPersistenceTime) to determine if the GTS has been allocated.
3. Granting GTS:
○ GTS Descriptor: If the coordinator has sufficient resources, it includes a GTS descriptor in one of its next
beacon frames. This descriptor contains:
■ Short Address: The address of the requesting device.
■ Number and Position of Time Slots: Specifies the number and position of the allocated time
slots in the GTS phase.
○ Invalid Request: If resources are insufficient, the coordinator sends a GTS descriptor for time slot zero,
indicating available resources in descriptors length field. The device may then try to renegotiate.
4. Failed Request:
○ No Descriptor Received: If the device does not receive a GTS descriptor within the
aGTSDescPersistenceTime period, it concludes that the request has failed.

Usage and Deallocation of GTS

1. Regular Usage:
○ Continued Allocation: Once allocated, a GTS is assigned to a device on a regular basis until explicitly
deallocated.
○ Beacon Announcements: The device uses its allocated slots as announced by the coordinator in
subsequent beacons.
2. Deallocation:
○ Device-Initiated Deallocation: A device can request deallocation by sending a special control frame to
the coordinator. After this, the device should not use the allocated slots.
○ Coordinator-Initiated Deallocation:
■ Monitoring Usage: The coordinator monitors the usage of the allocated slots. If a slot is not used
at least once within a certain number of superframes, it is deallocated.
■ Deallocation Signal: The coordinator signals deallocation to the device by generating a GTS
descriptor with start slot zero.

Summary

● Requesting GTS: Devices send requests during the CAP, specifying transmit/receive and number of slots.
● Coordinator Response: Immediate acknowledgment followed by beacon updates.
● Using GTS: Devices track beacons to use allocated slots.
● Deallocation: Initiated by devices or the coordinator based on usage, with notifications sent through GTS
descriptors.

This mechanism ensures efficient and fair allocation of time slots, balancing the needs of various devices while
conserving energy and managing network resources effectively.

5.5.4 Data transfer procedures

Data Transfer from Device to Coordinator

1. Using Allocated GTS:

○ Wake-Up and Transmit: If a device has an allocated transmit Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS), it wakes up
just before the slot starts and sends its data packet immediately.
○ No Collision Avoidance: No carrier-sense or collision-avoiding operations are performed.
○ Timing Fit: This only works if the entire transaction (data packet, acknowledgment from the coordinator,
and necessary InterFrame Spaces (IFS)) fits within the allocated slots.
○ If No Fit or No GTS: If the transaction does not fit or if the device has no allocated slots, it sends the data
packet during the Contention Access Period (CAP) using a slotted CSMA protocol. The coordinator
acknowledges the data packet immediately.
2. Using Slotted CSMA Protocol:
 ○ Transmit During CAP: If no GTS is available, the device uses the slotted CSMA protocol to transmit its
data packet during the CAP.
○ Immediate Acknowledgment: The coordinator sends an immediate acknowledgment upon receiving the
data packet.

Data Transfer from Coordinator to Device

1. Using Allocated Receive GTS:

○ Direct Transmission: If the device has an allocated receive GTS and the packet/acknowledgment/IFS
cycle fits within these slots, the coordinator transmits the packet directly in the allocated slot.
○ Acknowledgment by Device: The device acknowledges the received data packet.
2. Without Using Receive GTS:
○ Pending Address Announcement: If no receive GTS is used, the coordinator announces the pending
packet by including the device’s address in the pending address field of the beacon frame.
○ Data Request Packet: Upon seeing its address in the beacon, the device sends a special data request
packet during the CAP.
○ Coordinator Acknowledgment: The coordinator responds with an acknowledgment packet.
○ Data Packet Transmission: After acknowledging the data request, the coordinator sends the data
packet. The device remains prepared to receive the packet and acknowledges it once received.
○ Retry Mechanism: If the device does not receive the data packet, it tries sending the data request
packet again in subsequent superframes. The device may switch off its transceiver until the next beacon
if needed.

Summary

● Device to Coordinator:
○ Using GTS: Immediate transmission without collision
avoidance if within the allocated slots.
○ Using CAP: Slotted CSMA protocol with immediate
acknowledgment if no GTS or if the transaction doesn’t
fit.
● Coordinator to Device:
○ Using GTS: Direct transmission with acknowledgment
if within allocated slots.
○ Using CAP: Pending address announcement, followed
by a data request packet from the device,
acknowledgment, and then data packet transmission.

This structure ensures efficient data transfer while accommodating

various scenarios, such as the availability of GTS and fitting the
transaction within allocated slots. The protocol balances the need for
timely data transfer with energy conservation by allowing devices to turn off their transceivers when not actively
communicating.

5.5.5 Slotted CSMA-CA protocol

The Slotted Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA-CA) protocol is used by nodes in IEEE
802.15.4 networks during the Contention Access Period (CAP) to transmit data or management/control packets. Unlike
other protocols that use RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send) handshakes to avoid hidden-terminal situations, IEEE
802.15.4 uses a simpler CSMA-CA protocol with random delays to reduce collision probabilities. Here's how the protocol
operates:

Protocol Operation:

1. Backoff Periods:
○ The CAP time slots are divided into smaller units known as backoff periods.
○ Each backoff period has a fixed length corresponding to 20 channel symbol times.
2. Initialization:
○ When a device has a packet to transmit, it initializes three variables:
■ NB (Number of Backoffs): Initialized to 0.
■ CW (Congestion Window): Starts at 2.
■ BE (Backoff Exponent): Initialized to macMinBE, a protocol parameter.
3. Random Backoff:
○ The device waits for the next backoff period boundary and randomly selects an integer r from the interval
[0, 2BE - 1].
 ○ It waits for r backoff periods before performing a Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) to sense if the
medium is idle.
4. Carrier-Sense (CCA):
○ If the channel is idle after the random backoff, the device decrements CW and waits for the next backoff
period boundary to perform CCA again.
○ If the channel is still idle, the device assumes it has won contention and starts transmitting its data
packet.
5. Collision Handling:
○ If CCA detects a busy medium during any backoff period:
■ Increment NB (Number of Backoffs).
■ Increment BE (Backoff Exponent).
■ Reset CW (Congestion Window) to 2.
○ If NB exceeds a threshold (maximum number of backoffs allowed), the device drops the frame and
declares a transmission failure.
○ Otherwise, repeat the random backoff process.
6. Repeat Process:
○ The device continues to repeat the process of selecting random backoff periods, performing CCA, and
attempting to transmit until successful or until the maximum number of backoffs is reached.

Summary

The Slotted CSMA-CA protocol in IEEE 802.15.4 networks helps nodes efficiently access the channel during the CAP by
using random backoff periods to reduce collisions. It doesn't employ RTS/CTS handshakes, making it simpler but still
effective in avoiding immediate collisions and managing medium access in a distributed manner. This protocol is suitable
for low-power, low-rate wireless sensor networks where energy efficiency and reliable data transmission are critical
considerations.

5.5.6 Nonbeaconed mode

The nonbeaconed mode in IEEE 802.15.4 operates differently from the beaconed mode:
 1. Absence of Beacon Frames and GTS Mechanism:
○ There are no beacon frames from the coordinator, which means devices cannot synchronize their timing
with the coordinator.
○ The coordinator does not allocate time slots (GTS) to devices as in beaconed mode.
2. Unslotted CSMA-CA Protocol:
○ Devices use an unslotted CSMA-CA protocol for channel access.
○ They perform a single Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) to check if the channel is idle before
transmitting.
○ This allows devices to transmit data whenever the channel is free without waiting for specific backoff
periods.
3. Device Sleep Scheduling:
○ Coordinators remain powered on continuously to receive transmissions from devices.
○ Devices follow their own sleep schedules to conserve energy.
○ They wake up to:
■ Transmit data or control packets to the coordinator.
■ Fetch buffered packets from the coordinator using a data request/acknowledgment handshake.
○ After sending a data request packet, the device stays awake to receive the data packet and send an
acknowledgment.
4. Application Dependency:
○ The frequency of data exchanges between devices and coordinators depends on the application
requirements.
○ Devices initiate the fetch cycle based on their specific needs for data retrieval.

Summary

The nonbeaconed mode simplifies communication by eliminating beacon frames and the GTS mechanism, reducing
overhead. Devices use an unslotted CSMA-CA protocol for flexible channel access, optimizing energy use by allowing
them to sleep when not actively communicating. Coordination relies on continuous operation of coordinators to manage
incoming transmissions effectively.

5.5.7 Further reading

1. Performance Evaluations ([521]):
○ Lu et al. analyze beacon-enabled networks, exploring trade-offs between throughput, energy
consumption, and delay.
○ They examine synchronization strategies:
■ Tracking Mode: Devices synchronize precisely to beacon timing for optimized energy use and
efficient data fetching.
■ Nontracking Mode: Devices wake up periodically to check for beacons, adjusting sleep periods
based on pending data.
○ This study provides insights into synchronization's impact on network performance and energy efficiency.
2. Theoretical Throughput Bounds ([880]):
○ Willig investigates theoretical throughput limits for two CSMA-CA variants in IEEE 802.15.4.
○ Unslotted CSMA-CA: Offers higher throughput due to reduced overhead and simpler operation.
○ Slotted CSMA-CA: Requires synchronization to backoff periods, potentially leading to higher collision
rates if devices choose similar random delays.
○ The study emphasizes how transceiver turnover times affect collision rates, particularly in the unslotted
CSMA-CA variant.

These readings offer valuable insights into optimizing IEEE 802.15.4 networks for performance, energy efficiency, and
synchronization strategies under different operational conditions.

7.2 Address and name management in wireless sensor networks

In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), efficient address and name management is crucial for the operation of various
protocols, especially at the MAC and network layers.

MAC Addresses

MAC addresses are essential for enabling protocols to avoid overhearing and to maximize the sleep times of nodes.
However, unlike traditional networks where MAC addresses are globally unique, in WSNs, MAC addresses only need to
be locally unique within a two-hop neighborhood. This requirement ensures that no two neighbors of a node share the
same MAC address, facilitating efficient communication and reducing the complexity of address management.

Key Points:
 ● Locally Unique Addresses: Addresses need to be unique only within a two-hop neighborhood.
● Shorter Addresses: Locally unique addresses can potentially be shorter, which can save energy and reduce
packet size.
● Address Assignment Protocol: A protocol is necessary to manage the assignment of these locally unique
addresses.

Network Layer Addresses

Higher-layer addresses, such as those used at the network layer, traditionally need to be globally unique to support
routing protocols. However, this requirement poses significant challenges in WSNs and may not be necessary.

Challenges of Globally Unique Addresses:

● Complex Assignment: Assigning and maintaining globally unique addresses in a dynamic and often large-scale
WSN is complex and resource-intensive.
● Not User-Centric: Unlike traditional networks, where the network is composed of nodes belonging to individual
users, WSN nodes collaborate to process environmental data. Users are more interested in the data itself than in
the specific nodes.

Data-Centric Networking:

● Focus on Data: Since the primary goal is to gather and process data from the environment, addressing can be
based on data rather than individual nodes.
● Content-Based Addressing: This approach, known as data-centric or content-based networking, is more
suitable for WSNs. In this paradigm, data itself influences the operation of protocols, and addressing schemes
focus on the content or type of data rather than the source.

Summary
In summary, while MAC addresses in WSNs need only be locally unique to facilitate efficient communication, traditional
globally unique network layer addresses may not be necessary. Instead, data-centric networking, which prioritizes data
over individual node addresses, offers a more suitable approach for WSNs. This shift in focus simplifies address
management and aligns with the primary objective of WSNs to collect and process environmental data collaboratively.

7.3 Assignment of MAC addresses

● MAC address assignment: Methods for assigning MAC addresses in sensor networks are discussed,
emphasizing the unsuitability of globally unique addresses for networks with small packets.
● Feasibility of networkwide unique addresses: Pre-assigning networkwide unique addresses is feasible with
reasonable effort, but still entails significant overhead compared to smaller address spaces like 14-bit addressing,
which can accommodate up to 16,384 nodes.
● Focus on dynamic and distributed assignment: The section focuses on protocols for dynamically and
distributedly assigning both networkwide and local addresses, varying in collaboration with other nodes.

7.3.1 Distributed assignment of networkwide addresses

● Nodes randomly choose addresses from a range (0 to 2m−1) to achieve uniqueness.
● Address collisions are common with random assignment, prompting the need for collision management.

Collision management strategies:

● Nodes can overhear transmissions to avoid already allocated addresses.

● Techniques from MANETs, like address autoconfiguration protocols, have been adapted for managing collisions.

Address autoconfiguration protocols:

● Perkins et al. propose a protocol where nodes select temporary and proposed fixed addresses, seeking validation
from nodes with matching fixed addresses.
● Nesargi and Prakash suggest a distributed agreement approach, resembling a two-phase commit protocol, but it
incurs significant overhead in sensor networks.

Hierarchical address autoconfiguration:

 ● IPv6-based algorithms appoint leader nodes to choose subnet IDs, ensuring address uniqueness via Duplicate
Address Detection (DAD).

Complexity and communication overhead:

● Ensuring networkwide uniqueness poses a distributed consensus problem, leading to substantial communication
overhead, particularly in flooding scenarios or with proactive routing protocols.

Routing protocol implications:

● Proactive routing protocols maintain tables of used addresses, while on-demand protocols are preferred in sensor
networks due to reduced overhead.

In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), the assignment of MAC addresses is crucial for ensuring efficient communication
while minimizing conflicts. Unlike traditional networks where globally unique MAC addresses are common, WSNs often
utilize dynamically assigned addresses due to their scalability and energy efficiency requirements.

Random Address Assignment

One straightforward approach is random address assignment, where each node independently selects an address from a
predefined range, hoping it remains unique within the network. For instance, with an address space represented by mmm
bits (allowing for n=2m addresses), nodes choose addresses uniformly at random. However, this method is prone to
collisions, especially as the number of nodes kkk increases. The probability of conflict P(n,k) increases rapidly, as
demonstrated by the "birthday problem" analogy, where even with a relatively small number of nodes, the likelihood of
address overlap becomes significant.

Address Conflict Resolution

To address conflicts arising from random assignment, various protocols and strategies have been proposed:

1. Address Autoconfiguration Protocols: Inspired by approaches used in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs),
nodes may attempt multiple address configurations until finding an unoccupied address. This involves sending
address request packets to neighboring nodes and waiting for acknowledgment or conflict notifications. If no
response is received, nodes assume the address is unique and proceed.
2. Distributed Agreement Protocols: These protocols treat address assignment as a distributed consensus
problem, where nodes negotiate with each other to ensure address uniqueness. One node acts as an initiator,
proposing addresses and collecting acceptance or rejection responses from others. This process continues until a
unique address is agreed upon or all possibilities are exhausted.
3. Hierarchical Addressing: Some protocols introduce hierarchical structures where nodes are grouped into
subnets, each managed by a leader node. This leader assigns addresses within its subnet, coordinating with
other leaders to prevent conflicts across different subnets. This approach helps reduce the scope of address
conflicts within smaller domains, easing the burden of global uniqueness.

Practical Considerations

Address assignment in WSNs must balance the need for uniqueness with the constraints of energy efficiency and
scalability. While random assignment is simple, it often necessitates additional mechanisms for conflict detection and
resolution. Protocols that minimize communication overhead and computational complexity are favored in WSNs, where
resources are typically limited.

In summary, while achieving networkwide unique MAC addresses in WSNs poses challenges, various dynamic and
distributed approaches offer viable solutions to manage address assignment efficiently while supporting the network's
operational requirements.

11.3 Energy-efficient unicast

11.3.1 Overview
In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), energy-efficient unicast routing aims to minimize energy consumption while
ensuring reliable data delivery. Unlike traditional routing metrics such as hop count or shortest path, which may not
directly correlate with energy efficiency, WSNs require specialized routing algorithms that consider the limited battery
capacities of sensor nodes. Here’s an explanation of various approaches and considerations in energy-efficient unicast
routing:
Key Concepts and Approaches

1. Minimize Energy per Packet (or per Bit):

○ This approach focuses on minimizing the total energy required to transmit a packet from a source node to
a destination node, including all overheads like routing and retransmission costs.
○ It challenges the traditional metric of minimizing hop count, as fewer hops may not necessarily reduce
energy consumption if longer-range transmissions are involved.
○ Example: In a network where the minimum energy route is A-B-E-H, requiring 3 units of energy, whereas
the minimum hop count route A-D-H requires 6 units of energy.
2. Maximize Network Lifetime:
Maximizing the lifetime of a WSN focuses on extending its operational period for observation and control, not
merely data transmission. The end of a network's lifetime can be defined by:
● Time until the first node fails.
● Time until coverage is lost (relevant for redundantly deployed networks).
● Time until network partition (when two nodes can no longer communicate).
Each criterion requires different solutions. For example, maximizing time to network partition involves balancing
energy consumption among critical nodes, which is NP-complete. Additionally, maximizing time until the first node
fails lacks a constant competitive ratio compared to an optimal offline algorithm. Thus, practical solutions rely on
approximations due to these theoretical complexities.

3. Routing Considering Available Battery Energy:

○ Directly incorporates the current battery levels of nodes into routing decisions to balance energy
consumption across the network.
○ Various strategies include:
■ Maximum Total Available Battery Capacity: Selecting routes where the total available battery
capacity of nodes is maximized, without unnecessary detours.
■ Example: Route A-C-F-H might be chosen over A-B-E-G-H to avoid unnecessary
detours.
■ Minimum Battery Cost Routing (MBCR): Assigning reluctance(↑as battery↓) or routing costs based
on the reciprocal of battery capacities along paths, thereby avoiding routes with nodes likely to exhaust
their energy soon. Cost of path is addn. Smallest cost must be chosen.
■ Example: Route A-C-F-H might be assigned a cost of 1/1 + 1/4 = 1.25, whereas route A-
D-H has a cost of 1/3, making A-D-H preferable.
■ Min-Max Battery Cost Routing (MMBCR): Using the maximum reciprocal battery level along a
path as the cost metric, ensuring protection of nodes with lower energy reserves.
■ Instead of using the sum of reciprocal battery levels, simply the largest reciprocal level of
all nodes along a path is used as the cost for this path. Then, again the path with the
smallest cost is used.
■ Example: Route A-D-H is chosen to minimize the highest battery cost along the path.
■ Conditional Max-Min Battery Capacity Routing (CMMBCR): Conditionally selecting routes
based on battery thresholds, aiming for routes with the lowest energy consumption per bit or the
route that maximizes the minimum battery level. (Min energy/packet + MBCR)
■ Minimize Variance in Power Levels: Choosing routes that balance the energy consumption
across all nodes to avoid premature depletion of any single node’s battery(which disrupts the
network), thereby ensuring a uniform energy drain across the network.
■ Strategy: Routes should be selected such that the variance in battery levels between
different routes is minimized, ensuring no single node is disproportionately burdened.
4. Minimum Total Transmission Power Routing (MTPR):
○ Focuses on minimizing the total transmission power required for successful data transmission across the
network, considering interference and signal-to-noise ratio (SINR) thresholds.
 ○ Applicable in scenarios where multiple nodes transmit directly to their destinations, requiring optimal
power assignment to avoid interference and conserve energy.

Challenges and Considerations

● Objective Trade-offs: Different metrics (energy per packet, network lifetime, battery-based routing) may conflict
in real-world scenarios, requiring trade-offs and compromises depending on specific application requirements.
● Implementation Complexity: Designing distributed routing protocols that effectively balance the overhead of
collecting routing information with the benefits of energy-efficient routing decisions is non-trivial.
● Performance Evaluation: Directly comparing the performance of these routing strategies is challenging due to
their diverse objectives and the complex interactions within network dynamics, including traffic patterns and node
behaviors.

11.3.2 Some example unicast protocols

1. Attracting Routes by Redirecting:
○ Nodes overhear packets to determine energy-efficient routes.
○ Third nodes can attract routes by breaking direct communications into more efficient hops.
○ Minimal administrative overhead but impractical for WSNs.
2. Distance Vector Routing on Top of Topology Control:
○ Utilizes relay regions concept for minimal power consumption paths.
○ Implements Bellman-Ford algorithm on the enclosure graph.
3. Maximizing Time to First Node Outage as a Flow Problem:
○ Use centralized flow-based models.
○ Goal is to maximize node energy lifetime via linear programming and approximation algorithms.
4. Maximizing Time to First Node Outage by Max-Min Optimization:
○ Use algorithms to maximize network lifetime.
○ Includes heuristic approaches like max-min zPmin and zone routing.
5. Maximizing Number of Messages:
○ Focus on maximizing message throughput before energy depletion.
○ CMAX routing algorithm achieves logarithmic competitive ratios.
6. Bounding the Difference Between Routing Protocols:
○ Analyze energy efficiency differences between routing protocols.
○ Shows theoretical bounds on energy consumption for various network topologies.

Each protocol aims to optimize different aspects of energy efficiency in unicast routing, using various algorithms and
heuristics tailored to specific network conditions and objectives.

11.3.4 Multipath unicast routing

● Overview:

Unicast routing protocols traditionally focus on finding a single energy-efficient path between a sink and receiver.
However, multipath routing explores multiple paths to balance energy consumption and increase robustness against
failures.
 ● Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR):
○ Objective: Reduce overhead associated with k-disjoint path computation near data sinks where node
failures are more likely.
○ Approach: Construct trees from each sink neighbor, ensuring paths use different neighbors.
○ Selection: Source selects paths based on battery resources and performance metrics like delay.
● Constructing Energy-Efficient Secondary Paths:
○ Concern: Efficiency of secondary paths compared to optimal primary path.
○ Solution: Use braided paths that deviate minimally from the primary path, maintaining efficiency while
providing redundancy.
○ Implementation: Centralized and distributed methods discussed in reference [276].
● Simultaneous Transmissions Over Multiple Paths:
○ Advantage: Improve failover times and packet delivery ratios compared to single-path solutions.
○ Approach: Send packet replicas over disjoint paths or split packets with Forward Error Correction (FEC)
over multiple paths.
○ Studies: De et al. [195] and Dulmann et al. [214] compare performance of these schemes.
● Randomly Choosing Paths:
○ Concept: Nodes maintain energy cost estimates for neighbors and forward packets randomly
proportional to path energy consumption.
○ Extension: Willig et al. [877] introduce altruistic nodes that perform extra work, enhancing routing
efficiency.
● Trade-Off Analysis:
○ Consideration: Balancing robustness (path availability after failures) and energy efficiency (overhead
and non-optimal routing decisions).
○ Studies: Krishnamachari et al. [440] explore Pareto optimality between redundancy and transmission
power, highlighting single-path dominance in some scenarios.

This overview illustrates the diverse approaches and trade-offs in multipath unicast routing, aiming to enhance reliability
and efficiency in wireless sensor networks and other ad hoc environments.

*Multipath Routing Protocols Overview

Multipath routing protocols allow a source node to have multiple routes to a destination. These routes can either be used
simultaneously or kept as backups in case the primary route fails.

Key Multipath Routing Protocols

1. SAR (Sequential Assignment Routing)
○ QoS Criteria: SAR is one of the first protocols to introduce Quality of Service (QoS) in wireless sensor
networks by assigning a priority level to each packet.
○ Metrics: Routes and links are evaluated based on metrics like delay and energy cost.
○ Tree Creation: The algorithm builds trees rooted at the one-hop neighbors of the sink node, considering
packet priority, energy resources, and QoS metrics.
○ Route Maintenance: Routes are periodically recalculated to ensure preparedness in case an active node
fails.
2. Maximum Lifetime Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks
 ○ Energy Optimization: This algorithm optimizes energy consumption by monitoring the residual energy of
the active (primary) route.
○ Route Switching: If the residual energy of the primary route falls below that of an alternative route, the
algorithm switches to the secondary route.
3. Energy Aware Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks
○ Probability-Based Usage: After discovering multiple paths, this algorithm assigns a probability of use to
each route.
○ Factors: The probability depends on the residual energy of the nodes in the route and the cost of
transmitting through that route.
4. M-MPR (Mesh Multipath Routing)
○ Operation Modes:
■ Disjoint MPR with Selective Forwarding: Each packet is individually analyzed and routed
through different routes by the source.
■ Disjoint MPR with Data Replication: Multiple copies of the same packet are sent
simultaneously through different routes.
○ Route Discovery: Nodes exchange information about their positions and residual energy to discover
routes.

Summary
Multipath routing protocols in wireless sensor networks improve reliability and efficiency by providing multiple routes for
data transmission. These protocols incorporate factors such as QoS, energy optimization, and probability-based route
selection to enhance performance and prolong network lifetime. Key protocols like SAR focus on QoS metrics, while
others like Maximum Lifetime Routing and Energy Aware Routing prioritize energy conservation. M-MPR provides
flexibility with its two operation modes, ensuring robust and efficient data delivery.

11.5 Geographic routing

Motivation and Objectives

● Addressing Physical Locations: Geographic routing protocols address applications where routing decisions are
based on physical locations, such as sending data to any node in a specific region or finding the node closest to a
given point.
● Utilizing Node Positions: When the positions of source, destination, and intermediate nodes are known, this
information can simplify the routing process by using geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude, etc.) or other
position-based identifiers.

Advantages

● Simplified Routing Protocols: Geographic routing reduces the complexity of routing protocols by leveraging
physical location information. This can lead to smaller or even nonexistent routing tables, as nodes use local
knowledge to determine packet forwarding decisions.

Geocasting and Position-Based Routing

● Geocasting: Involves sending data to any node within a specified geographic region. Originally introduced in an
Internet context, geocasting supports applications where data dissemination is required within a defined physical
area.
● Position-Based Routing: Combines geographic routing with a location service, enabling nodes to forward
packets based on the positions of source, destination, and intermediate nodes. This approach was first explored
by Finn [258] as "Cartesian routing" and has since evolved.

Application in Wireless Sensor Networks

● Focus on Geocasting: In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), where nodes are often homogeneous and identified
primarily by their physical locations, geocasting is particularly relevant. It allows for efficient data dissemination
across sensor fields without the need for additional location services.

11.5.1 Basics of position-based routing

Some Simple Forwarding Strategies

Most Forward Within r:

● A node forwards a data packet to the neighbor closest to the destination.

● This approach assumes each node knows its own and its neighbors' positions.
 ● The next hop v towards destination d is selected as:

where ∣ud∣ is the distance between nodes u and d, and N(v) is the set of neighbors of v. This method is loop-free.

● Figure 11.11 demonstrates this scheme's main limitation: it doesn't always find the shortest path in hop count due
to its lack of topology information. This trade-off between simplicity and efficiency is generally unavoidable.

Nearest with Forward Progress:

● Selects the nearest neighbor that makes some progress toward the destination.
● Aims to reduce collision rates and maximize expected progress per hop.
● Interaction with the MAC layer is unclear.

Directional Routing:

● Forwards packets to nodes closer in direction rather than distance.

● Examples:
○ Compass Routing
■ Chooses the neighbor closest to the direct line between the transmitter and destination.
○ Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM)
■ Direction-based, not inherently loop-free.
■ To prevent loops, nodes must remember which nodes have already forwarded a packet.

The problem of dead ends

● Simple forwarding strategies fail when obstacles block direct paths between source (S) and destination (D), even
if they are connected by the network.
● "Least unappealing" node heuristic suggests forwarding to the neighboring node that minimizes progress loss but
can lead to looping packets near obstacles.
● Randomly choosing a closer node to the destination does not solve the problem, as it results in random walks
rather than directed progress.

Restricted flooding
● Even extended greedy forwarding strategies, like geographically restricted flooding where a source forwards to
nodes closer to the destination, cannot find detours around obstacles.
● Suited for compensating destination mobility.
 ● Requires knowing destination speed (v) and distance from the transmitting node; uses trigonometry to determine
an angle (α) to increase the probability of reaching the destination.

Right-Hand Rule and GPSR:

● Inspired by the right-hand rule used to escape mazes, protocols like Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR)
combine greedy forwarding with perimeter routing.
● GPSR initially attempts greedy forwarding; if stuck (e.g., in a dead end), it switches to perimeter routing by
navigating around obstacles using a right-hand rule approach.
● Packet carries entry point information to navigate faces; may revert to greedy forwarding upon distance reduction.
● Illustrated in Figure 11.13: Packet routed from node A to Z via nodes D, B, F, G, E, I, H, K, J, L, and Z.
● Limited to planar graphs; requires planar subgraph construction (e.g., Gabriel graph or Relative Neighborhood
Graph) for non-planar wireless networks.
● This method ensures eventual progress towards the destination, even in complex network topologies.

Performance Guarantees of Combined Greedy/Face Routing:

● Algorithms like Greedy and (Other Adaptive) Face Routing (GOAFR)+ provide worst-case optimal performance
guarantees.
● These algorithms seamlessly switch between greedy and face routing strategies based on network conditions,
ensuring efficient packet delivery while handling obstacles and dead ends.
●
● Combines face routing (to navigate obstacles) and greedy routing (for direct progress to destination).
● Challenge: Optimally switch to greedy mode once obstacles are cleared, not trivial due to varying scenarios.
● Simple heuristic, switching to greedy mode when a closer node is found, isn't worst-case optimal [452].
● First provably worst-case optimal algorithm described in, but quick switches back to greedy mode were not used.
● Performance bound: Face routing reaches destination in O(c2) steps, where c is optimal path cost [452].
● Improved with GOAFR+ algorithm: worst-case optimal and efficient in average case.
● Techniques:
○ Maintains bounding circle around destination to guide face routing.
○ Uses counters p and q: p counts closer nodes, q counts farther; switches to greedy if p > σ q.
● Reference shows algorithm's worst-case optimality and efficiency via simulations against GPSR.
● Algorithm's effectiveness highlighted during network phase transitions from sparse to dense connections.

Combination with ID-based routing, hierarchies

● Purely position-based routing near the destination node can be problematic due to mobility or inaccurate location
data.
● Identity-based routing resolves these issues smoothly but struggles with maintaining state over long distances.
● Hybrid approach: Use position information for initial forwarding toward the destination vicinity, then switch to
identity-based protocol like "Terminodes".

Randomized forwarding and adaptive node activity – GeRaF

● Scenario: Nodes uniformly distributed on a plane, each with position and ability to turn on/off.
● Goal: Transmit message to known destination amidst changing topology.
● Approach: Receiver-initiated forwarding where node S broadcasts message without specifying forwarder.
● Position-informed randomization: Nodes contend for forwarding based on proximity annuli around S and T.
● Larger N improves proximity approximation but increases forwarding latency.
● Feasible with N = 3 achieving close to optimal average hops to destination.
● Detailed analysis covers multihop, energy, and latency performance metrics.
● Contrasted with GAF, GeRaF achieves reduced average hops without restricting node range artificially.
Geographic Routing without Positions - GEM
Virtual Polar Coordinate System (GEM):

● GEM introduces a virtual coordinate system based on polar coordinates rather than physical locations.
● Nodes are assigned virtual polar coordinates using a distributed algorithm, facilitating routing without relying on
accurate physical positions.
● Routing in GEM involves navigating a tree structure defined by virtual coordinates, optimizing packet delivery
even in networks with imprecise or unavailable geographic information.

Utilizes virtual coordinates instead of actual physical positions for routing.

Virtual Polar Coordinate Space (VPCS) construction:

● Choose a central node and construct a spanning tree with it as the root.
● Nodes' radius is defined by hop count from the root.
● Angle assignment: Nodes in subtrees are assigned angular ranges based on subtree sizes.

● Angular information determined using hop counts between nodes in the network and three reference nodes.
● Center of mass of each subtree computed to enhance accuracy of virtual coordinates.
● Resulting tree embedded in the original graph, known as Graph EMbedding (GEM).
● Routing: Traverse tree upwards until a common parent is found, then downwards to destination.
● Inefficiency addressed by Virtual Polar Coordinate Routing (VPCR):
● Considers circular links to exploit shortcuts between physical neighbors in different subtrees.
● Simple once virtual coordinates are set; adaptable to network changes.
● Suitable for scenarios with imprecise or unavailable geographic information.
● Facilitates data-centric routing and storage.

11.5.2 Geocasting
Geocasting involves sending data to nodes within a specified region, akin to multicasting. Position information of the
designated region and intermediate nodes can enhance efficiency. Geocasting protocols can be broadly classified into
two types:

1. Geographically Restricted Flooding:

○ Uses flooding techniques constrained within the destination region.
○ Ensures all nodes in the region receive the data.
○ Examples include various protocols leveraging restricted flooding.
2. Unicast-based Protocols:
○ Utilizes unicast routing to deliver packets into the destination region.
○ Once inside the region, typically employs flooding to reach all nodes.
○ GeoTORA is an instance based on unicast routing.

These protocols optimize data delivery efficiency by leveraging geographic information of nodes and target regions.

1. Location-Based Multicast (LBM):

 ○ Uses a forwarding zone where only nodes within a defined geographic area forward received data
packets.
○ Zones can be static (based on source and destination region) or adaptive (based on current node
positions).
○ Aimed at balancing overhead and accuracy in packet delivery within a geographic region.
2. Voronoi Diagrams and Convex Hulls:
○ Utilizes Voronoi diagrams to determine optimal next-hop nodes based on proximity to the destination
region.
○ Convex hulls are used to ensure nodes make significant progress towards the destination.
○ Efficient in terms of overhead due to the localized computation of diagrams and hulls.
3. Tessellating the Plane:
○ Uses fixed tessellations (e.g., hexagonal grids) of the plane where each region is managed by a
designated node.
○ Simplifies routing decisions and provides rules to avoid dead ends in the network.
4. Mesh-Based Geocasting:
○ Protocols like GAMER adapt mesh density based on node mobility to optimize geocasting efficiency.
○ Mesh structures facilitate scalable and reliable packet delivery in dynamic network environments.
5. GeoTORA (Geocasting using Unicast Protocol):
○ Adapts Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) to support geocasting.
○ Establishes a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) structure to facilitate efficient packet forwarding to a specific
geographic region.
6. Trajectory-Based Forwarding (TBF):
○ Defines trajectories or paths for packets to follow within the network.
○ Can use parametric descriptions (e.g., time-based or distance-based) to determine forwarding nodes.
○ Offers flexibility for various routing scenarios, including broadcasting and network management.

These protocols and techniques demonstrate different approaches to address the challenges of geocasting in wireless ad
hoc and sensor networks. Each protocol has its advantages and is suited for different network conditions, mobility
patterns, and application requirements. Researchers continue to explore and refine these techniques to improve
efficiency, scalability, and reliability in geocasting scenarios.

*Geographical Routing Protocols Overview

Geographical routing protocols leverage location information to enhance routing efficiency. Here’s a breakdown of the
main points:

1. Use of Location Information:

○ Nodes exchange their location data with neighbors.
○ Packets are forwarded to the neighbor closest to the final destination.
○ Location data can be obtained through GPS or virtual coordinates.
○ The source inserts the destination's coordinates into the packets.
2. Geocasting:
○ Geocasting involves delivering a packet to nodes within a specified area.
○ This is useful in wireless sensor networks where a sink node requests information from nodes in a
particular zone.
○ The zone can be pre-determined by the source or dynamically adjusted by relay nodes to avoid detours.
3. Geographic-based Rendezvous:
○ Geographic locations are used as meeting points for information providers and seekers.
○ This mechanism is efficient for service location, resource discovery, data dissemination, and access in
wireless sensor networks.

Forwarding Techniques in Geographical Routing Protocols

 1. Greedy Algorithms:
○ Mechanism: Nodes forward packets based on their neighbors' positions relative to the destination.
○ Process: The source compares the destination’s location with its neighbors’ coordinates and forwards
the packet to the closest neighbor. This repeats until the packet reaches its destination.
○ Metrics: Common metrics include Euclidean distance and the projected line to the destination.
○ Advantages: Limits flooding to one hop and adapts to topological changes.
○ Reliability Adjustments: Unreliable neighbors are excluded from retransmissions. For example, the
SPEED protocol estimates end-to-end delay.
○ Variants:
■ Most-forward-within-R: Chooses the most distant neighbor closer to the destination.
■ Nearest-forward: Chooses the nearest neighbor closer to the destination.
○ Limitation: May fail if no closer neighbors exist (e.g., due to obstacles). This can be mitigated by using
the "right hand" rule to navigate around obstacles.
2. GAF (Geographic Adaptive Fidelity):
○ Purpose: Optimizes performance by identifying and using equivalent nodes for packet forwarding.
○ Equivalent Nodes: Nodes with the same set of neighbors and communication routes.
○ Virtual Grid: Nodes are organized into a grid where all nodes in a cell can communicate with adjacent
cells.
○ Discovery Process: Nodes exchange discovery messages to identify equivalent nodes and negotiate
which one will stay active while others power off to save energy.
○ Energy Efficiency: The active node rotates periodically to ensure fair energy consumption and maintain
routing fidelity.
○ Procedure: Nodes wake up periodically to renegotiate and maintain uninterrupted connectivity.

Summary

Geographical routing protocols enhance routing efficiency by leveraging location information. Greedy algorithms and GAF
are two main techniques that use this information to improve packet forwarding and network performance. Greedy
algorithms focus on forwarding packets to the nearest node towards the destination, while GAF optimizes energy
consumption by identifying and rotating equivalent nodes. Geocasting and geographic-based rendezvous mechanisms
also benefit from this approach, making routing in wireless sensor networks more efficient and reliable.

Geographical Routing leverages the location information of nodes to efficiently route packets in a network, particularly
suitable for sensor networks. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

1. Efficiency and Data Aggregation:

○ Utilizes location information to formulate efficient routes.
○ Supports data aggregation, which minimizes transmissions by eliminating redundancy.
○ Shifts from traditional address-centric to data-centric communication, focusing on data content rather
than the node identity.
2. Data-Centric Paradigm:
○ Queries target phenomena within specific physical areas, rather than specific nodes.
○ Example: For traffic analysis, data about vehicle numbers, sizes, and speeds on a highway section is
more relevant than the identities of sensors collecting this data.
○ Multiple nodes in a targeted area can collaborate to collect and aggregate data.
3. Advantages Over Traditional Routing:
○ Traditional routing discovers paths between two endpoints and requires knowledge of the entire network
topology, leading to high overhead.
○ Geographical routing uses node locations as addresses, requiring only single-hop topology information.
○ Eliminates the need for maintaining complex data structures like routing tables.
○ Reduces control overhead and enhances scalability, making it ideal for resource-constrained sensor
networks.
4. Operational Efficiency:
○ Each node uses its location and the positions of its neighbors to make forwarding decisions.
○ Reduces the need for constant topology updates, unlike traditional routing which involves periodic
updates and handling link failures.
○ Results in lower computational and communication overhead, enhancing network efficiency.

Summary

Geographical routing is well-suited for sensor networks due to its efficiency, support for data aggregation, and minimal
overhead. It shifts the focus from node identity to data content, enabling effective data-centric querying and aggregation.
By leveraging location information, geographical routing reduces the need for comprehensive topology knowledge and
frequent updates, resulting in lower control overhead and better scalability in large, resource-constrained networks.
 UNIT 4 - INFRASTRUCTURE ESTABLISHMENT
Chapter 8: Time Synchronization
8.1 Introduction

● Definition and Importance:

○ Time synchronization is crucial for coordinated operations within wireless sensor networks (WSNs).
○ Enables time-stamped data collection, coordinated sleep/wake schedules, and efficient communication.
○ Ensures accurate timing for data fusion, event detection, and tracking.
● Challenges:
○ Limited power resources.
○ Dynamic network topologies.
○ Need for high precision and accuracy.
○ Variability in clock drift among different nodes.

8.2 Protocols for Time Synchronization

● Reference Broadcast Synchronization (RBS):

○ Nodes use reference broadcasts from a sender to synchronize with each other.
○ Focuses on minimizing the sender's clock bias.
 ○ Operation: A sender broadcasts reference packets; receivers record the arrival times and exchange
these timestamps to compute their clock offsets.
● Timing-sync Protocol for Sensor Networks (TPSN):
○ Utilizes a hierarchical structure.
○ Two Phases:
■ Level Discovery Phase: Constructs a hierarchical structure where nodes are assigned levels.
■ Synchronization Phase: Nodes synchronize with their parent nodes in the hierarchy.
○ Achieves pairwise synchronization followed by network-wide synchronization.
● Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol (FTSP):
○ Robust against node failures.
○ Mechanism: Periodic flooding of synchronization messages.
○ Nodes keep track of drift rates and adjust their clocks accordingly.
○ Achieves high accuracy through multiple rounds of synchronization.

8.3 Synchronization in Single-Hop Networks

● Precision Time Protocol (PTP):

○ Designed for high-precision synchronization within single-hop environments.
○ Achieves sub-microsecond accuracy.
● Network Time Protocol (NTP):
○ Originally designed for the Internet but can be adapted for WSNs.
○ Provides lower precision compared to PTP but is suitable for many WSN applications.

8.4 Synchronization in Multi-Hop Networks

● Challenges:
○ Increased latency due to multi-hop communication.
○ Potential for cumulative synchronization errors.
● Solutions:
○ TPSN and FTSP: Address multi-hop synchronization through hierarchical or flooding-based approaches.
● Example:
○ TPSN constructs a hierarchical structure where nodes synchronize pairwise.
○ FTSP uses periodic flooding to propagate time information across multiple hops, ensuring network-wide
synchronization.

8.5 Case Study: S-MAC Protocol

● S-MAC (Sensor-MAC):
○ An energy-efficient MAC protocol that incorporates time synchronization.
○ Nodes periodically synchronize their clocks to coordinate sleep/wake schedules.
○ Mechanism: Nodes listen for SYNC packets during synchronization periods to adjust their clocks and
align their schedules.

8.6 Conclusion

● Summary:
○ Synchronization is vital for various WSN operations, including coordinated sensing, communication, and
data processing.
○ The choice of synchronization protocol depends on network size, topology, and required precision.
○ Protocols like RBS, TPSN, and FTSP offer different trade-offs in terms of accuracy, complexity, and
energy efficiency.
● Future Directions:
○ Development of more energy-efficient synchronization protocols.
○ Integration of synchronization with other network functions for holistic optimization.
○ Addressing the challenges of dynamic and heterogeneous WSN environments.

These detailed notes provide comprehensive coverage of Chapter 8, highlighting the key protocols and concepts related
to time synchronization in wireless sensor networks.

Chapter 8: Time Synchronization

8.1 The Need for Time Synchronization

● Importance of synchronizing clocks in wireless sensor networks (WSNs).

● Applications requiring synchronized time: coordinated actions, data fusion, and time-stamped data.
8.2 Basics of Time Synchronization

● Concepts of clock, time, and synchronization.

● Clock drift and offset.
● Methods for synchronization: sender-receiver and receiver-receiver synchronization.

8.3 Protocols for Time Synchronization

● Reference Broadcast Synchronization (RBS):

○ Uses broadcast messages to synchronize nodes.
○ Nodes synchronize with each other rather than with the sender.
● Timing-sync Protocol for Sensor Networks (TPSN):
○ Hierarchical approach for synchronization.
○ Nodes synchronize with their parent nodes.
● Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol (FTSP):
○ Uses a single reference node to synchronize the entire network.
○ Combines flood-based and sender-receiver synchronization.

8.4 Evaluation and Performance

● Factors affecting synchronization accuracy: message delay, clock drift, and network topology.
● Techniques to improve synchronization: compensation for message delays, multiple message exchanges.

8.5 Advanced Topics

● Scalability of synchronization protocols.

● Energy-efficient synchronization.
● Robustness against node failures and malicious attacks.

Chapter 9: Localization and Positioning

9.1 The Need for Localization

● Importance of knowing the physical location of nodes in WSNs.

● Applications requiring location information: target tracking, geographical routing, and environmental monitoring.

9.2 Basics of Localization

● Concepts of absolute and relative positioning.

● Techniques for localization: triangulation, trilateration, and multilateration.
● Sources of location information: GPS, RF signals, acoustic signals.

9.3 Range-Based Localization Techniques

● Time of Arrival (ToA):

○ Measures the time it takes for a signal to travel from the transmitter to the receiver.
○ Requires precise time synchronization.
● Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA):
○ Measures the difference in arrival times of a signal at multiple receivers.
○ Uses a combination of RF and acoustic signals.
● Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI):
○ Uses the signal strength to estimate the distance between nodes.
○ Requires a model of signal attenuation.

9.4 Range-Free Localization Techniques

● Centroid Localization:
○ Nodes estimate their position as the centroid of the positions of neighboring anchor nodes.
● DV-Hop Localization:
○ Nodes use hop count and average hop distance to estimate their position.
● APIT (Approximate Point-in-Triangulation Test):
○ Nodes determine their position based on the intersection of triangles formed by anchor nodes.

9.5 Evaluation and Performance

● Factors affecting localization accuracy: environmental conditions, node density, and anchor placement.
● Techniques to improve localization: hybrid methods combining range-based and range-free techniques.
9.6 Advanced Topics

● Localization in three-dimensional spaces.

● Mobile node localization.
● Energy-efficient localization techniques.

Chapter 10: Topology Control

10.1 The Need for Topology Control

● Importance of managing the network topology in WSNs.

● Goals of topology control: energy efficiency, connectivity, and network lifetime.

10.2 Basics of Topology Control

● Concepts of network topology, transmission range, and connectivity.

● Methods for controlling topology: adjusting transmission power, node duty cycling, and hierarchical structuring.

10.3 Protocols for Topology Control

● Geographical Adaptive Fidelity (GAF):

○ Nodes in the same grid area form virtual clusters.
○ Nodes in the same cluster alternate between active and sleeping states.
● Span:
○ Nodes form a backbone network of coordinators.
○ Coordinators handle data forwarding, while non-coordinators sleep.
● Connected Dominating Set (CDS):
○ Nodes form a connected backbone network.
○ Only backbone nodes remain active to forward data.

10.4 Evaluation and Performance

● Factors affecting topology control: node density, mobility, and traffic patterns.
● Techniques to improve topology control: adaptive algorithms, combining multiple protocols.

10.5 Advanced Topics

● Topology control in mobile WSNs.

● Energy-efficient topology control.
● Robustness against node failures and attacks.

SENSOR TASKING AND CONTROL

To efficiently utilize resources such as limited on-board battery and limited bandwidth in a sensor network, sensor nodes
must carefully tasked and controlled to carry out the required set of tasks. Information collected from the sensors.

● All information aggregation is needed.

● Selective information aggregation is needed.
● A utility-cost-based approach to sensor network management is to address the balance between utility and
resource costs.
● The definitions for utility and cost are given below -
○ Utility: Total utility of the data
○ Cost: power supply and the communication bandwidth

Which sensor nodes to activate and what information to transmit is a critical issue. Classical algorithms are not suitable
for WSN :

● Sense values are not known.

● Cost of sensing may vary with the data.

Design Strategy for Sensor Tasking & Control

The following are the various steps connected with design strategy for sensor tasking and control:
 ● The important objects in the environment to be sensed
● The relevant parameters of these objects
● The relations among these objects critical to high level information to be known
● The best sensor to acquire a particular parameter
● The sensing and communication operations needed to accomplish the task
● The co-ordination given by the models of different sensors
● The level to communicate information in a spectrum from a
signal to symbol

Roles of Sensor nodes and utilities:

A sensor may take on a particular role depending on the application

task requirement and resource availability such as node power levels.
Example:

● Nodes, denoted by SR, may participate in both sensing and

routing.
● Nodes, denoted by S, may perform sensing only and transmit
their data to other nodes.
● Nodes, denoted by R, may decide to act only as routing
nodes, especially if their energy reserved is limited.
● Nodes, denoted by I, may be in idle or sleep mode, to
preserve energy.

Information Based Sensor Tasking:

● Information-based sensor tasking is to query sensors such that information utility is maximized while minimizing
communication and resource usage.
● For localization or tracking problem, knowledge about the target state such as position and velocity is required.
This requirement is represented as a probability distribution over the state space in the probabilistic framework.

1. Sensor Selection:

● The estimation uncertainty can be approximated by a Gaussian distribution, illustrated by uncertainty

ellipsoids in the state space.
● Sensor ‘b’ would provide better information than because sensor ‘b’ lies close to the longer axis of the
uncertainty ellipsoid and its range constraint will intersect this longer axis transversely. Figure 4.13 shows
the sensor selection.

● The following conditions are assumed. Figure 4.14

shows localizing a stationary source.
○ All sensor nodes can communicate with each
others.
○ Sensor ‘a’ is farther from the leader node
than the sensor ‘b’
○ There are four different criteria for choosing
the next sensor.
■ Nearest Neighbor Data Diffusion
■ Mahalanobis distance
■ Maximum likelihood
■ Best Feasible Region

2. Algorithm for IDSQ:

 ● A cluster leader selects optimal sensors to request data from using the information utility measures.
● Using the Mahalanobis distance measure, the cluster leader can determine which node can provide the
most useful information while balancing the energy cost, without the need to have sensor data first.
● This algorithm is a single belief carrier node active at a time.

Joint Routing & Information Aggregation

● The primary purpose is to collect and aggregate information.

● Information Driven Sensor Querying (IDSQ) just only provides us with a method to obtain maximum incremental
information gain.
● There are some techniques to dynamically determine the optimal routing path.
● The ellipses represent iso-contours of an information field. The goal of routing is to maximally aggregate
information.
● This differs from routing in communication networks where the destination is often known a priori to the sender.

● The routing has to maximize information gain along the path. A path toward the high information region may be
more preferable than the shortest path.
● Fig 16 Routing from a Query proxy to exit node.
UNIT 5
Secure Charging and Rewarding Scheme
This section discusses a secure charging and rewarding scheme designed to handle nodes that misbehave by
denying charges for services received in a multihop cellular network. The scheme ensures that nodes
participating in forwarding data packets are authenticated and rewarded appropriately, while nodes refusing to
pay are charged preemptively.

Key Concepts

● Upstream Route: The path from the initiating node (A) to its base station (BSA).
● Downstream Route: The path from the base station of the destination node (BSB) to the destination
node (B).
● Forwarding Nodes: Nodes that relay data packets between the source and destination through the
respective base stations. These nodes are either upstream or downstream forwarding nodes
depending on their position in the route.

Charging and Rewarding Scheme (CRS)

The CRS involves several steps to authenticate nodes, charge and reward them as necessary, and ensure
secure communication.

1. Authentication and Pre-Charging:

○ Node A (initiator) is authenticated and charged before its packets are delivered to prevent
refusal-to-pay attacks.
○ Forwarding nodes are identified and authenticated to ensure only selected nodes can forward
packets.
2. Rewarding Nodes:
○ Upstream nodes are rewarded when packets from A reach BSA.
○ Downstream nodes are rewarded when node B acknowledges the receipt of packets.
○ Node B is charged temporarily when packets from A are forwarded to it by BSB. This charge is
reimbursed upon B's acknowledgment of delivery.

Establishing a Session

Node A initiates the session by transmitting a setup request (AReq) to BSA in the following format:
 ● AReq0: Contains AReqID (request ID), oldASID (previous session ID, if any), ARoute (route from A to
BSA), TrafficInfo, and a MAC generated using A's secret key (KA).

Upstream forwarding nodes check the traffic information and, if they decide to forward the packets, compute a
new MAC on the received request and forward it. Each node adds its own MAC, so BSA receives a request
containing all the MACs from the upstream nodes.

BSA authenticates all upstream nodes and verifies the freshness of AReqID. If successful, it sends the request
to BSB, which then forwards it to node B.

Downstream nodes similarly check the traffic information and forward the request with their own MACs added.

Node B, upon receiving the request, replies with a BReq containing BReqID and a MAC. This response is
forwarded back through the downstream route to BSB and then to BSA.

BSA and BSB then generate and send confirmation messages (AConf and BConf) to A and B respectively.
The session is established once all nodes verify and store the session identifiers.

Packet Delivery

During packet delivery:

● Source S (either A or B) sends packets containing the session ID (SSID or BSID), sequence number
(η), payload, and a MAC.
● Upstream nodes encrypt the packet body using a PAD (generated via a stream cipher) and forward it.
● BSS verifies the packet integrity and forwards it to BSD, which decrypts the packet for downstream
nodes.
● Downstream nodes decrypt and forward the packet until it reaches the destination D.

Acknowledging Delivery

The destination node D acknowledges packet receipt by sending a batch acknowledgment (DAck) when the
session is considered closed. The acknowledgment includes DSID, a batch value (computed by XORing
MACs of received packets), the sequence number of the last received packet, and a list of lost packet
sequence numbers.

Terminating a Session

Nodes involved in the session start a timer upon session initiation, resetting it with each forwarded packet. The
session is terminated and related state information is deleted if:

● A packet cannot be forwarded to the next hop.

● A packet with an unknown session ID is received.
● A node decides not to participate in forwarding anymore.

Summary

The secure charging and rewarding scheme ensures authenticated and fair participation of nodes in a
multihop cellular network. It prevents misbehavior regarding charging by preemptively charging the initiator,
rewarding forwarding nodes upon successful packet delivery, and handling session establishment, packet
delivery, acknowledgment, and termination efficiently.

Secure Event and Event Boundary Detection

The primary objective of a sensor network in various applications is to detect predefined events or targets and
classify them. Sensor networks often deploy multiple nodes to detect the same event collaboratively. Events
usually affect a spatial area rather than a single point, and determining the event boundary—such as the area
contaminated in a chemical attack—is crucial. This task becomes challenging in the presence of malicious or
faulty nodes, as adversaries might inject false data to disrupt accurate event or event boundary detection.
Conventional security measures like authentication and encryption can help mitigate these issues, but an
alternative approach leverages the redundancy of sensor nodes: multiple nodes detecting the same event
collaboratively filter out false data. The event boundary detection scheme by Ding et al. (2005) effectively
identifies event boundaries even when up to 20% of the nodes are faulty.

Stages of Event Boundary Detection

Stage 1: Detection of Faulty Nodes

Key Idea: A sensor's reading should correlate with events detected by nearby sensors. Discrepancies
between a sensor's reading and its neighbors' readings indicate potential faults.

1. Readings Comparison:
○ Let xi denote the reading of sensor Si.
○ Let {xi1,xi2,...,xik} denote readings of sensors in N(Si), the neighborhood of Si.
○ Compute the difference di between xi and the median medi of {xi1,xi2,...,xik}:

di = xi − medi

○ The median is used instead of the mean to filter out extreme values.
2. Fault Detection:
○ Select N∗(Si), a larger neighborhood around Si.

○ Calculate d-values for sensors in N∗(Si).

○ Compute the mean μ and standard deviation σ of D={d1,...,di,...,dn}:

○ Standardize the difference yi:

○ A sensor Si is deemed faulty if ∣yi∣≥θ, where θ is a predetermined threshold.

Stage 2: Detection of Event Boundary Nodes

Key Idea: Nodes at the event boundary will have significant differences in readings between subareas inside
and outside the event region.
 1. Faulty Nodes Set: Construct the set of faulty nodes Ω1 from Stage 1.
2. Boundary Detection:
○ For each sensor Si not in Ω1:
1. Partition N(Si) into sectors.
2. Calculate the difference dij for each sector j.
3. Assign the largest dij as the new di.
4. Recalculate μ, σ, and yi for N∗(Si) minus 1 and the new di.
5. If ∣yi∣≥θ2, add Si to the set of boundary nodes Ω2.

Stage 3: Improvement of Event Boundary Node Detection

Key Idea: Some nodes identified as faulty may actually be boundary nodes, and some boundary nodes might
not be correctly identified.

1. Boundary Node Verification:

○ For each node Si in Ω1∪Ω2:
■ If there is at least one other node Sj in Ω1∪Ω2 within a distance c from Si, then Si is added to the
set Ω3, the final set of boundary nodes.

Parameters:

● θ and θ2: Threshold values for detecting faulty and boundary nodes, respectively.
● c: Distance parameter for boundary node verification.

Conclusion
This multi-stage process ensures accurate detection of event boundaries in sensor networks, even in the
presence of faulty or malicious nodes, by leveraging collaborative filtering and robust statistical methods.