`

MAJOR PROJECT
ON
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE USING
RICE HUSK ASH AT AMBIENT TEMPARATURE CURING

A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted to

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Submitted by

P. GURU RAJ REDDY 207Y5A0112

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. K. MURALI, M.E, (Ph.D)

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2022-2023

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE USING RICE HUSK ASH AT AMBIENT
TEMPARATURE CURING being submitted by P. GURU RAJ REDDY (207Y5A0112) in
partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering of
MARRI LAXMAN REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,
Dundigal, Hyderabad during the academic year (2022-23).

Project Guide Head of the department

Mr. K. MURALI, M.E, (Ph.D) Mr. K. MURALI, M.E, (Ph.D)

Associate Professor

External Examiner Principal

Dr. K. VENKATESHWARA REDDY,

M .Tech, Ph.D, MISTE

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DECLARATION OF CANDIDATE

There by declare that the matter embodied in the report of major project entitle
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE USING RICE HUSK
ASH AT AMBIENT TEMPARATURE CURING is genuine research work carried out by
me under the guidance of Mr. K. MURALI,M.E,(Ph.D), Associate Professor, Department
of Civil Engineering, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management,
Dundigal, Hyderabad .The work embodied in this report is original & has not been submitted
to the basis for the award of degree, diploma, associate ship or fellowship of other University
or Institution.

P.GURU RAJ REDDY

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my indebtedness and gratitude to my guide Mr. K. MURALI, M.E, (Ph.D),

Associate Professor. Mr. K. MURALI, M.E, (Ph.D), H0D, Department of Civil Engineering.
Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management for his guidance and care
taken by him in helping me to complete the major project work successfully.

I am very much thankful to Dr. K. VENKATESWARA REDDY, M.Tech, Ph.D.

MISTE, Principal of Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management for their
encouragement and cooperation to carry out this work.

I express my sincere thanks to all the teaching staff of Department of Civil Engineering
for providing a great assistance in the accomplishment of my project.

I also express my thanks to all the non-teaching staff of Department of Civil Engineering
for giving all the support and suggestion to complete my project.

I am very much thankful to the management of Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of

Technology and Management for their encouragement and cooperation to carry out this work.

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CONTENTS
Chapters Page No.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 01-02
1.1 GENERAL 01
1.2 FLYASH 02
1.3 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 02

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 03-09

2.1 CONCRETE AND ENVIRONMENT 03
2.2 FLYASH 04
2.3 THE USE OF FLYASH IN CONCRETE 05
2.4 GGBS 06
2.5 GEOPOLYMERS 06
2.5.1 CONISTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER 07
2.5.1.1 SOURCE OF MATERIALS 07
2.5.1.2 ALKALINE ACTIVATORS 08
2.5.2 FRESH GEOPOLYMER AND
MANUFACTURING PROCESS 08
2.5.3 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE PRODUCT 09

Chapter 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 10-24

3.1 INTRODUCTION 10
3.2 MATERIALS 10
3.2.1 FLY ASH 11
3.2.1.1 PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH 12
3.2.2 GGBS 13
3.2.3 RICE HUSK ASH 14
3.2.4 ALKALINE ACTIVATORS 15
3.2.5 AGGREGATES 16

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3.2.5.1 COARSE AGGREGATES 17

3.2.5.1 FINE AGGREGATES 17

3.3 PRELIMINARY LABORATORY WORK 18

3.4 MIXTURE PROPORTION 18

3.4.1 MIXING & CASTING 19
3.4.1.1 MIXING DESIGN 21
3.5 CURING 23
3.6 TESTING 24
Chapter 4 TESTS 25-32
4.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLY ASH 25
4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLY ASH 26
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 28
4.4 TEST ON AGGREGATES 30
4.4.1 FINENESS MODULUS OF SAND 30
4.4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AGGREGATES 32

Chapter 5 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 33-34

5.1 INTRODUCTION 33
5.2 WORKABILITY OF GROPOLYMER CONCRETE 33
5.2.1 SLUMP RESULTS 33
5.3 EFFECT OF SALIENT PARAMETERS 34
5.3.1 AGE OF CONCRETE 34
Chapter 6 CONCLUSION 36-37
6.1 CONCLUSION 36
6.2 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK 37

REFERNCES 38

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title of figure Page No.
3.1 LOW CALCIUM FLY ASH ASTM CLASS 11
3.2 PARTIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FLY ASH 11
3.3 GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG 14
3.4 RICE HUSK ASH 15
3.5 PREAPARTION OF NaOH 16
3.6 CRUSHED COARSE AGGREGATES SIZE OF 20MM 17
3.7 LOCAL RIVER SAND 17
3.8 MATERIALS FOR MAKING GEOPOLYMER 19
CONCRETE WITH RHA
3.9 MIXTURE OF ALL DRY MATERAILS 19
3.10 ADDING ALKALINE ACTIVATOR SOLUTION 20
3.11 FRESH FLY ASH GEOPLOMER CONCRETE 20
3.12 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE CURING UNDER 23
SUN LIGHT
3.13 TESTING COMPRESSION STRENGHT OF CUBE 24
4.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE 25 & 27
4.2 ADDING KEROSENE 26
4.3 WEIGHING EMPTY BOTTLE 27
4.3 COMPRESSION STRENGTH MOULD 29
4.4 SET OF SIEVES 32
4.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE FOR FINE AGGREGATE 33
5.1 F25G75 (RHA10) Slump test 35

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LIST OF GRAPHS
Graph No. Title of graph Page No.
5.1 SLUMP CONE VALUES 35
5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR AMBIENT CURING 36
5.3 COMPRESSION STRENGTH FOR 7 DAYS AND 28 DAYS 37

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LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title of tables Page No.
3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FLYASH ASTM F CLASS 13
3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FLYASH ASTM F CLASS 13
3.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GGBS 14
3.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RHA 15
3.5 MATERIAL FOR ONE CUBE FOR DIFFERENT 23
MIXTURE PROPORTION
4.1 OBSERVATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLY ASH 26
4.2 OBSERVATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GGBS 28
4.3 GRADING OF FINE AGGREGATES 32

5.1 SLUMP VALUES OF MIXTURE PROPOTION 33

5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TABLE FOR 35
AMBIENT CURING

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ABSTRACT

Concrete made up of cement, aggregates, water and additives is the world’s most consumed
construction material since it is found to be more versatile, durable and reliable. Concrete is the
second most consumed material after water which requires large quantities of Portland cement.
The production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) causes havoc to the environment due to
the emission of CO2 as well as the mining of limestone and aggregate results in unrecoverable
loss to nature. Estimated carbon emissions from cement production in 1994 were 307 Mt3 160
Mt3, from calcination, and 147 Mt3 from energy use which account for 5% of 1994 global
anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Hence, it is the need of hour to find an alternative material to the
existing most expensive cement-concrete.

Geopolymer concrete is an innovative construction material which shall be produced by the

chemical action of inorganic molecules.

Fly Ash, a by-product of coal obtained from the thermal power plant is plenty available
worldwide. Fly ash rich in silica and alumina on reacting with alkaline solution produce
aluminosilicate gel that act as the binding material for the concrete.

Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS or GGBFS) is obtained by quenching molten iron

slag (a by-product of iron, copper and steel-making) from a blast furnace in water or steam, to
produce a glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a fine powder. It is an
excellent alternative construction material to plain cement concrete without using any amount
of ordinary Portland cement.

Alkaline activators play a fundamental role in the hydration of binders. Due to their
characteristics (Table 13.5), mortars and alkaline activated concretes can show higher
mechanical resistance results than those obtained by a concrete made An attempt has been made
to reduce the use of ordinary Portland cement in cement concrete. There is no standard mix
design of geopolymer concrete, an effort has been made to know the physical, chemical
properties and optimum mix of geopolymer concrete mix design. Concrete cubes of 150 x 150
x 150 mm were prepared and cured under sun light curing for 7 days and 28 days at temperature
range of 27o C to 60o C. Fly ash is replaced partially at percentage of 10%, 25%, 50% and 75%.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are of used as alkaline activators with 1.5 Molar solutions. Test
results were compared with controlled concrete mix of grade M25. The results show that as the
percentage of fly ash and water content increases, compressive strength will be decreases.
Longer curing time, in the range of 7 days and 28 days produces higher compressive strength
of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. The minimum compression strength for 7 days is 4.23
MPa and maximum compression strength for 28 days is 17 MPa.

Keywords—fly ash, rice husk ash, alkaline solution, GGBS, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

After wood, concrete is the most often used material by the community. Concrete is
conventionally produced by using the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) as the primary binder.
But, the amount of the carbon dioxide released during the manufacture of OPC due to the
calcination of limestone and combustion of fossil fuel is in the order of one ton for every ton of
OPC produced. In addition, the amount of energy required to produce OPC is only next to steel
and aluminium.

On the other side, the abundance and availability of fly ash worldwide create opportunity to
utilize this by-product of burning coal, as partial replacement or as performance enhancer for
OPC. Fly ash in itself does not possess the binding properties, except for the high calcium or
ASTM Class C flyash. But in our country, class F flyash is abundantly available. However, in
the presence of water and in ambient temperature, fly ash reacts with the calcium hydroxide
during the hydration process of OPC to form the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. This
pozzolanic action happens when fly ash is added to OPC as a partial replacement or as an
admixture. The development and application of high-volume fly ash concrete, which enabled
the replacement of OPC up to 60-65% by mass (Malhotra 2002; Malhotra and Mehta 2002),
can be regarded as a landmark in this attempt.

In another scheme, pozzolans such as blast furnace slag and fly ash may be activated using
alkaline liquids to form a binder and hence totally replace the use of OPC in concrete. In this
scheme, the alkalinity of the activator can be low to mild or high. In the first case, with low to
medium alkalinity of the activator, the main contents to be activated are silicon and calcium in
the by-product material such as blast furnace slag. The main binder produced is a C-S-H gel, as
the result of a hydration process. In the later case, the main constituents to be activated with
high alkaline solution are mostly the silicon and the aluminium present in the by-product
material such as low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash (Palomo, Grutzeck et al. 1999). The
binder produced in this case is due to polymerization. Davidovits (1999) in 1978 named the

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later as Geopolymers, and stated that these binders can be produced by a polymeric synthesis
of the alkali activated material from geological origin or by-product materials such as flyash
and rice husk ash.
Keeping in view of all the above facts the research reported in this project was dedicated to
investigate the process of making flyash based geopolymer concrete in ambient temperature i.e.
Without water curing and to find short-term engineering properties of the fresh concrete.

1.2 Flyash based Geopolymer in present study.

In this work, fly ash-based geopolymer and GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag) is
used as the binder, instead of Portland or any other hydraulic cement paste, to produce concrete.
The flyash-based geopolymer and GGBS paste binds the loose coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates and other un-reacted materials together to form the geopolymer concrete, with or
without the presence of admixtures. The manufacture of geopolymer concrete is carried out
using the conventional method. As in the OPC concrete, the aggregates occupy the largest
volume, i.e., about 75-80 % by mass, in geopolymer concrete. The silicon and the aluminium
in the low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash are activated by a combination of sodium hydroxide
and sodium silicate solutions to form the geopolymer paste that binds the aggregates and other
un-reacted materials.

1.3 Scope of the Research

As mentioned earlier, most of the published research on geopolymers studied the behavior of
pastes with various types of source materials. The present study deals with the manufacture of
low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and GGBS, the parameters
influencing the mixture proportioning, and the short-term engineering properties in the fresh
state.
The aims of the research are:
1. To develop a mixture proportioning process of making fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.
2. To identify and study the effect of salient parameters that affects the properties of fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete in ambient temperature i.e., without water and steam chamber
curing.
3. To study the short-term engineering properties of fresh fly ash based geopolymer concrete.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concrete and Environment

(Malhotra 1999; Malhotra 2004) The trading of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is a critical
factor for the industries, including the cement industries, as the greenhouse effect created by the
emissions is considered to produce an increase in the global temperature that may result in
climate changes. The ‘tradeable emissions’ refers to the economic mechanisms that are expected
to help the countries worldwide to meet the emission reduction targets established by the 1997
Kyoto Protocol. Speculation has arisen that one ton of emissions can have a trading value about
US$10.

The climate change is attributed to not only the global warming, but also to the paradoxical
global dimming due to the pollution in the atmosphere. Global dimming is associated with the
reduction of the amount of sunlight reaching the earth due to pollution particles in the air
blocking the sunlight. With the effort to reduce the air pollution that has been taken into
implementation, the effect of global dimming may be reduced, however it will increase the
effect of global warming (Fortune 2005). In this view, the global warming phenomenon should
be considered more seriously, and any action to reduce the effect should be given more attention
and effort.

(Mehta and Burrows 2001) The contribution of Portland cement production worldwide to the
greenhouse gas emission is estimated to be about 1.35 billion tons annually or about 7% of the
total greenhouse gas emissions to the earth’s atmosphere (Malhotra 2002). Cement is also
among the most energy-intensive construction materials, after aluminium and steel.
Furthermore, it has been reported that the durability of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
concrete is under examination, as many concrete structures, especially those built-in corrosive
environments, start to deteriorate after 20 to 30 years, even though they have been designed for
more than 50 years of service life.

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(Roy 1999) The production of cement is increasing about 3% annually (McCaffrey 2002). The
production of one ton of cement liberates about one ton of CO2 to the atmosphere, as the result
of de-carbonation of limestone in the kiln during manufacturing of cement and the combustion
of fossil fuels.

In order to produce environmentally friendly concrete, Mehta (2002) suggested the use of fewer
natural resources, less energy, and minimize carbon dioxide emissions. He categorized these
short-term efforts as ‘industrial ecology’. The long-term goal of reducing the impact of
unwanted by-products of industry can be attained by lowering the rate of material consumption.
Likewise, McCaffrey (2002) suggested three alternatives to reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions by the cement industries, i.e., to decrease the amount of calcined
material in cement, to decrease the amount of cement in concrete, and to decrease the number
of buildings using cement.

2.2 Fly ash

According to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 116R, fly ash is defined as ‘the
finely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and that is
transported by flue gasses from the combustion zone to the particle removal system’ (ACI
Committee 232 2004). Fly ash is removed from the combustion gases by the dust collection
system, either mechanically or by using electrostatic precipitators, before they are discharged
to the atmosphere. Fly ash particles are typically spherical, finer than Portland cement and lime,
ranging in diameter from less than 1 μ m to no more than 150 μ m.

The types and relative amounts of incombustible matter in the coal determine the chemical
composition of fly ash. The chemical composition is mainly composed of the oxides of silicon
(SiO2), aluminum (Al2O3), iron (Fe2O3), and calcium (CaO), whereas magnesium, potassium,
sodium, titanium, and Sulphur are also present in a lesser amount. The major influence on the
fly ash chemical composition comes from the type of coal. The combustion ofsub-bituminous
coal contains more calcium and less iron than fly ash from bituminous coal. The physical and
chemical characteristics depend on the combustion methods, coal source andparticle shape. The
chemical compositions of various fly ashes show a wide range, indicating

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that there is a wide variation in the coal used in power plants all over the world (Malhotra and
Ramezanianpour 1994).

Fly ash that results from burning sub-bituminous coals is referred as ASTM Class C fly ash or
high calcium fly ash, as it typically contains more than 20 percent of CaO. On the other hand,
fly ash from the bituminous and anthracite coals is referred as ASTM Class F fly ash or low
calcium fly ash. It consists of mainly an alumina- silicate glass, and has less than 10 percent of
CaO. The colour of fly ash can be tan to dark grey, depending upon the chemical and mineral
constituents (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour 1994; ACAA 2003).

Worldwide, the estimated annual production of coal ash in 1998 was more than 390 million
tons. The main contributors for this amount were China and India. Only about 14 percent of this
fly ash was utilized, while the rest was disposed in landfills (Malhotra 1999). By the year 2010,
the amount of fly ash produced worldwide is estimated to be about 780 million tons annually
(Malhotra 2002). The utilization of fly ash, especially in concrete production, has significant
environmental benefits, vi z, improved concrete durability, reduced use of energy, diminished
greenhouse gas production, reduced amount of fly ash that must be disposed in landfills, and
saving of the other natural resources and materials (ACAA 2003).

2.3 The Use of Fly ash in Concrete

(Neville 2000) One of the efforts to produce more environmentally friendly concrete is to reduce
the use of OPC by partially replacing the amount of cement in concrete with by-productsmaterials
such as fly ash. As a cement replacement, fly ash plays the role of an artificial pozzolana, where
its silicon dioxide content reacts with the calcium hydroxide from the cementhydration process
to form the calcium silicate hydrate (C- S-H) gel. The spherical shape of flyash often helps to
improve the workability of the fresh concrete, while its small particle size also plays as filler of
voids in the concrete, hence to produce dense and durable concrete. Generally, the effective
amount of cement that can be replaced by fly ash is not more than 30%.

An important achievement in the use of fly ash in concrete is the development of high-volume
fly ash (HVFA) concrete that successfully replaces the use of OPC in concrete up to 60% and

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yet possesses excellent mechanical properties with enhanced 8durability performance. HVFA
concrete has been proved to be more durable and resource-efficient than the OPC concrete
(Malhotra 2002). The HVFA technology has been put into practice, for example the construction
of roads in India, which implemented 50% OPC replacement by the fly ash (Desai 2004).

Activation of fly ash with alkaline solutions enables this by-product material to be a cement-
like construction material. In this case, concrete binder can be produced without using any OPC;
in other words, the role of OPC can be totally replaced by the activated fly ash. Palomo et al
(1999) described two different models of the activation of fly ash or other by-product materials.
For the first model, the silicon and the calcium in the material is activated by a low to mild
concentration of alkaline solution. The main product of the reaction is believed to be a calcium
silicate hydrate (C-S-H) that results from the hydration process. On the contrary, the material
used in the second model contains mostly silicon and aluminum, and is activated by a highly
alkaline solution. The chemical process in this case is polymerization.

2.4 GGBS

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) (Wikipedia) is a by-product from the blast furnaces
used to make iron. These operate at a temperature of about 1500 degrees centigrade and are fed with
a carefully controlled mixture of iron ore, coke and limestone. The iron ore is reduced to iron and
the remaining materials from a slag that floats on top of the iron. This slag is periodically tapped off
as a molten liquid and if it is to be used for the manufacture of GGBS it has to be rapidly quenched
in large volumes of water. The quenching optimizes the cementitious properties and produces
granules similar to coarse sand. This granulated slag is then dried and ground to a fine powder.

2.5 GEOPOLYMERS

(Young, Mildness et al. 1998) Polymer is a class of materials made from large molecules that
are composed of a large number of repeating units (monomers). The molecular structure of the
unit that makes up the large molecules controls the properties of the material. The non-
crystalline or amorphous state is the state when the regularity of atomic packing is completely
absent. The most familiar kind of an amorphous solid is glass.

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Geo-polymers, are a member of the family of inorganic polymers, and are a chain structures
formed on a backbone of Al and Si ions. The chemical composition of this geo-polymer material
is similar to natural zoolitic materials, but they have amorphous microstructure instead of
crystalline (Palomo, Grutzeck et al. 1999; Xu and van Deventer 2000). The polymerization
process involves a substantially fast chemical reaction under highly alkaline condition on Si-Al
minerals, that results in a three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure consisting of Si-
O-Al-O bonds, as follows (Davidov its 1999).

M n [-(SiO2) z –AlO2] n. wH2 O

Where: M = the alkaline element or cation such as potassium, sodium or calcium; the symbol
– indicates the presence of a bond, n is the degree of poly-condensation or polymerization; z
is1,2,3, or higher, up to 32.

2.5.1 Constituents of Geo-polymer

2.5.1.1 Source Materials

Any material that contains mostly Silicon (Si) and Aluminum (Al) in amorphous form is a
possible source material for the manufacture of geo-polymer. Several minerals and industrial by-
product materials have been investigated in the past.
Met kaolin or calcined kaolin (Davidov its 1999; Barbosa, MacKenzie et al. 2000; Teixeira-
Pinto, Fernandez et al. 2002), ASTM Class F fly ash (Palomo, Grutzeck et al. 1999;
Swanepoel and Strydom 2002), natural Al-Si minerals (Xu and van Deventer 2000),
combination of calcined mineral and non-calcined materials (Xu and van Deventer 2002),
combination of fly ash and met kaolin (Swanepoel and Strydom 2002; van Jaarsveld, van
Deventer et al. 2002), and combination of granulated blast furnace slag and metakaolin (Cheng
and Chiu 2003) were investigated as source materials.

(Gourley 2003) Low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash is preferred as a source material than
high calcium (ASTM Class C) fly ash. The presence of calcium in high amount may interfere
with the polymerisation process and alter the microstructure.

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2.5.1.2 Alkaline Activators

(Palomo, Grutzeck et al. 1999; Teixeira-Pinto, Fernandes et al. 2002) The most common
alkaline activator used in geopolymerisation is a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate or potassium silicate (Davidov its 1999;
Palomo, Grutzeck et al. 1999; Barbosa, MacKenzie et al. 2000; Xu and van Deventer 2000;
Swanepoel and Strydom 2002; Xu and van Deventer 2002). The use of a single alkaline
activator has been reported.

Palomo et al (1999) concluded that the type of activator plays an important role in the
polymerisation process. Reactions occur at a high rate when the alkaline activator contains
soluble silicate, either sodium or potassium silicate, compared to the use of only alkaline
hydroxides. Xu and van Deventer (2000) confirmed that the addition of sodium silicate solution
to the sodium hydroxide solution as the alkaline activator enhanced the reaction between the
source material and the solution. Furthermore, after a study of the geopolymerisation of sixteen
natural Al-Si minerals, they found that generally the NaOH solution caused a higher extent of
dissolution of minerals than the KOH solution.

2.5.2 Fresh Geopolymers and Manufacturing Process

Only limited information on the behaviour of the fresh geopolymers has been reported.
Teixeira Pinto et al (2002) Using metakaolin as the source material, found that the fresh
geopolymer mortar became very stiff and dry while mixing, and exhibited high viscosity and
cohesive nature. They suggested that the forced mixer type should be used in mixing the
geopolymer materials, instead of the gravity type mixer. An increase in the mixing time
increased the temperature of the fresh geopolymers, and hence reduced the workability. To
improve the workability, they suggested the use of admixtures to reduce the viscosity and
cohesion.

(van Jaarsveld, van Deventer et al. 1998; Swanepoel and Strydom 2002; Teixeira-Pinto,
Fernandes et al. 2002) Most of the manufacturing process of making geopolymer paste
involved dry mixing of the source materials, followed by adding the alkaline solution and then
further mixing for another specified period of time.
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2.5.3 Geopolymer concrete Products

Palomo et al (2004) reported the manufacture of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete railway
sleepers. They found that the geopolymer concrete structural members could easily be produced
using the existing current concrete technology without any significant changes. The
engineering performances of the products were excellent, and the drying shrinkage was small.

Earlier, Balaguru et al (1997; 1999) reported the use of geopolymer composites layers to
strengthen concrete structures as well as geopolymer coating to protect the transportation
infrastructures. They reported that geopolymer composites have been successfully applied to
strengthen reinforced concrete beams. The performance of geopolymers was better than the
organic polymer in terms of fire resistance, durability under ultra violet light, and did not
involve any toxic Recently, with the use of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete a university also
built in Canada.

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CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the details of development of the process of making fly ash based
geopolymer concrete. In 2001, very little knowledge and know-how of making of fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete were available in the published literature. Due to this lack of information,
the study began based on limited available literature on geopolymer pastes and mortars.

The published papers on geopolymers available at that time mostly reported the use of
metakaolin or calcined kaolin as source material of geopolymer paste. Moreover, most of the
information available was part of the patent literature or commercially oriented research, and
many details were kept undisclosed. Therefore, the present study adopted a rigorous trial and
error process in order to develop the fly ash-based geopolymer concrete technology. The focus
of the study was to identify the salient parameters that influence the mixture properties and the
properties of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.

As far as possible, the technology that is currently in use to manufacture and test ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) was used. The aim of this action was to ease the promotion of this ‘new’
material later on to the concrete industry.

Although geopolymer concrete can be made using various source materials, the present study
used only low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash. Also, as in the case of OPC, the aggregates
occupy 75-80 % of the total mass of concrete. In order to minimize the effect of the properties
of the aggregates on the properties of fly ash- based geopolymer, the study used aggregates
from only one source.

3.2 Materials

The materials used for making fly ash-based geopolymer concrete specimens are low-calcium
dry fly ash as the source material, GGBS, aggregates, alkaline liquids,

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3.2.1 Fly Ash

In this experimental work Fly ash, which has grade of low calcium or ASTM class F has taken
but usually two types of grades available high calcium i.e., ASTM class C and low calcium i.e.,
ASTM class F but from previous experiments and results, we have taken low calcium fly ash
(ASTM class F).
Fly ash can replace a portion of Portland cement (up to 30%) in pervious concrete. It provides
improved placing and finishing characteristics including improved workability of the low slump
mix. This is a major benefit, particularly when surface texture and design concerns are of high
priority. Because of its ability to enhance concrete products, fly ash has become a necessity in
pervious concrete technology. Not only does it create a better final product, using fly ash in
pervious concrete is an environmentally prudent way to control the pollution. Fly ash, otherwise
slated for landfills, is used as a mineral admixture to enhance the overall performance of the
pervious concrete. When fly ash is used, the use of landfill space is drastically reduced, and by
replacing a portion of cement in concrete with fly ash, CO2 emissions created during cement
production are greatly reduced, lessening the negative impact on our atmosphere

Figure 3.1 Low calcium Fly ash ASTM Class

Due to unavailability of X-Ray Fluorescence the chemical composition of fly ash cannot be
determined so we have taken the properties of Low calcium fly ash from international journals.
According to Indian Standards IS3812-2003 requirements of Fly ash are given below.

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Table. 3.1 Properties of Fly Ash

SL.No Property Value

1 Specific Gravity 2.014

2 Fineness 2.0%

3 Classification Class F

3.2.1.1 Properties of Fly Ash:

The physical and chemical properties of fly ash have been studied and analysed by many
researchers. The study of its physical property’s origins back to 1930s when the term of fly ash
was generated. According to EPA, fly ash consists of fine, powdery particles that are
predominantly spherical in shape, either solid or hollow, and mostly glassy (amorphous) in
nature, having similar physical ch aracteristic with silt. Compared to its physical properties, its
chemical properties are more influenced by the type of burned coal and the techniques used for
handling and storage.
Class F Fly Ash: The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically
produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 10% lime
(CaO). The glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as 15
Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in order to react and
produce cementitious compounds. 3.2.5 Class C Fly Ash: Fly ash produced from the burning of
younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has
some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain
strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class
F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents
are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.
Environmental Benefits of Fly Ash: Using fly ash in place of natural materials can yield
benefits to the environment, economic, and product performance improvements by saving
source materials, reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Fly ash also
makes economic benefit because it is often less costly than the materials that it replaces, such
as sand, gravel, or gypsum.

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Utilization of Fly Ash in Concrete: The greatest utilization of fly ash in 2003 according
to the American Coal Ash Association was in concrete and grout products. The beneficial results
of adding fly ash to concrete include: (1) Increased concrete durability and strength of Concrete.
The lime from cement hydration reacts with fly ash, increasing the long-term strength of
concrete. Compared to plain cement concrete, fly ash concrete gains higher strength after 28
days (2) Improved concrete workability. fly ash produces more cementitious paste, increasing
the lubrication between aggregate and flow ability of concrete
Table. 3.1 Chemical composition of Fly ash ASTM class F (as given source)

Parameters Experimental value (%) Requirements as per

IS3812-2003

Silica 64.11 SiO2 >35%

Aluminium 18.58
Oxide Total - >70%
Iron oxide 4.32
Calcium oxide 1.21 ---
Sodium oxide 0.21 <1.5%
Potassium oxide 1.02
Magnesium 0.24 <5%
Oxide
Loss of ignition 0.64 <12%

3.2.2 GGBS

GGBS was obtained from Simhadri iron industry at Guntur in AndhraPradesh.The properties
of GGBS are given below table, as provided from the source industry.

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Figure 3.3 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace slag

Table.3.2 Chemical composition of GGBS

Parameters Experimental values (%) Requirements as per

IS 12089-1987

Silica 32.78

Calcium oxide 34.8

(Cao+Mgo+Al2 O3)/SiO2
Magnesium oxide 8.0 =1.94>1
Aluminium oxide 20.8

Iron oxide 1.10

Loss of ignition 0.62

3.2.3 Rice Husk Ash (RHA)

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Rice milling industry generates a lot of rice husk during milling of paddy which comes from
the fields. The sieved 900 µm passed RHA used in this project. The properties of rice husk ash
are given below table, as provided by the source industry.

Table. 3.3 Chemical composition of RHA

Parameters Experimental values (%)

Sio2 2.36

Fe2O3 19.72
Al2O3 39.05

Cao 34.27

K2O 0.06

MgO 1.02

Chloride 0.023

Loss Of Ignition 0.88

Figure 3.4 Rice Husk Ash

3.2.4 Alkaline Activators

To activate the fly ash, a combination of sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution
was chosen as the alkaline activator. Sodium-based activators were chosen because they were

15
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cheaper than Potassium-based activators. The sodium hydroxide in flakes form (3 mm). NaOH
flakes were obtained from local supplier shop in Hyderabad (Tilak Nagar).

The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was prepared by dissolving the flakes in water. The
mass of NaOH solids in a solution varied depending on the concentration of the solution
expressed in terms of molar, “M” The molecular weight of sodium hydroxide is 40.

To prepare 1.5 Molarity of solution 560 g of sodium hydroxide flakes are weighed and they can
be dissolved in distilled water to form 1 litre solution. Volumetric flask of 1 liter capacity is
taken, sodium hydroxide flakes are added slowly to distilled water to prepare 1liter solution.
Sodium Silicate solution obtained from local supplier shop in Hyderabad (Tilak Nagar). It is an
aqueous solution form and white in colour.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound. It
is a white solid and highly caustic metallic base and alkali of sodium which is available in
pellets, flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at different concentrations. Sodium
hydroxide forms an approximately 50% (by mass) saturated solution with water. Sodium
hydroxide is soluble in water, ethanol, and methanol. This alkali is deliquescent and readily
absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide in air.

Figure 3.5 Preparation of NaOH solution figure

3.2.5 Aggregates

Shape and particle size distribution of the aggregate is very important as it affects the packing
and voids content. The moisture content, water absorption, grading and variations in fines
content of all aggregates should be closely and continuously monitored and must b
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The aggregates are classified as:

3.2.5.1. Coarse aggregate:

The coarse aggregate is the main matrix of the concrete. The coarse aggregate used is locally
crushed granite stone of 20mm size. Tests are conducted to determine its physical properties.
The aggregate passing through IS 20mm sieve and retaining on 12.5mm sieve were taken for
the experimental procedures Size of the aggregate:20mm.

Figure 3.6 crushed coarse aggregates size of 20mm

3.2.5.2. Fine aggregate;

Locally available RIVER SAND is used as fine aggregate and is tested for various properties
required. The sand passing through IS sieve 2.36mm was taken for casting.

Figure 3.7 local river sand

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3.3 Preliminary laboratory work

The tex150mmx150mm cubes were used. Conventional method was adopted instead of Hobart
pa mixer however conventional method is not applicable in larger applications but here the
mixture proportion is different for different cubes. The main objectives of the preliminary
laboratory work were:
➢ To familiarize with the making of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete with RHA,
➢ To understand the effect of the sequence of adding the alkaline activator to the solid’s
constituents,
➢ To observe the behaviour of the fresh fly ash-based geopolymer concrete with rice husk
ash,
➢ To understand the basic mixture proportioning of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
with rice husk ash.

3.4 Mixture proportions

The main objective is to find compressive strength for different mixture proportion of flyash,
RHA and GGBS. Standard shape of 150mmx150mmx150mm cube taken and the density of
geo-polymer concrete is assumed as 2500 Kg/m3. The rest of the calculations are done by
considering the density of concrete.
➢ The total volume occupied by fine and coarse aggregate is adopted as 76%.
➢ The alkaline liquid to fly ash and GGBS ratio is 0.3 to 0.5, This is fixed at 0.483 for
all mixtures.
➢ Ratio of sodium hydroxide solution, by mass, of 0.4 to 2.5. This ratio is fixed at 2.5
for all mixtures.
➢ Molarity of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution taken as 1.5M.
➢ Distilled water 10% of total cementious material.

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3.4.1 Mixing & Casting

There were 4 mixture proportions which comprised F25G75(RHA 10%), F50G50(RHA 10%),
F75G25(RHA 10%), F10G90(RHA 10%). The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, flyash, GGBS,
RHA mixed together uniformly about 2minutes and then freshly prepared sodium hydroxide
which has molarity of 1.5 M added to sodium silicate solution further this solution mixed with
the dry material about 2 minutes. Finally distilled water and alkaline activated solution added
to improve the durability and compression strength. This entire mixture mixed about 3minutes
for proper bonding all material. After the mixing is done, cubes are casted by giving proper
compaction in three layers.

Figure 3.9 Mixture of All dry materials

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Figure 3.10 Adding Alkaline activator

Figure 3.11 Fresh Fly Ash Geopolymer concrete

It was found that the fresh fly ash-based geopolymer concrete with RHA was dark in colour
(due to the dark colour of the fly ash), and was cohesive. The amount of water in the mixture
played an important role on the behaviour of fresh concrete. The workability of the fresh
concrete was measured by means of the conventional slump test.

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3.4.1.1 Mix design; -

Procedure for Concrete Mix Design of M25 Concrete

Step 1 — Determination of Target Strength

Him worth constant for 5% risk factor is 1.65. In this case standard deviation is taken from
IS:456 against M 20 is 4.0.
Fck` = fck + 1.65 x S= 25 + 1.65 x 4.0 = 31.6 N/mm2
Were,
S = standard deviation in N/mm2 = 4 (as per table -1 of IS 10262- 2009)

Step 2 — Selection of water / cement ratio: -

From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)

Maximum water-cement ratio for Mild exposure condition = 0.55
Based on experience, adopt water-cement ratio as 0.5.
0.5<0.55, hence ok.

Step 3 — Selection of Water Content

From Table 2 of IS 10262- 2009,

Maximum water content = 186 Kg (for Nominal maximum size of aggregate — 20 mm)

Step 4 — Selection of Cement Content

Water-cement ratio = 0.5 Corrected water content = 186 kg /m3

Cement content = corrected water content/ water-cement ratio
C C = 186/0.5 = 372kg/m3
From Table 5 of IS 456, Minimum cement Content for mild exposure condition = 300 kg/m^3
372 kg/m3 > 300 kg/m3, hence, OK.
This value is to be checked for durability requirement from IS: 456.

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In the present example against mild exposure and for the case of reinforced concrete the
minimum cement content is 300 kg/m3 which is less than 372 kg/m3. Hence cement content
adopted = 372 kg/m3.
As per clause 8.2.4.2 of IS: 456 Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3

Step 5: Estimation of Coarse Aggregate proportion: -

From Table 3 of IS 10262- 2009, For Nominal maximum size of aggregate = 20 mm, Zone of
fine aggregate = Zone II
And For w/c = 0.5
Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.64
Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.64 x 90% = 0.57 Volume of
fine aggregate = 1 – 0.57 = 0.42

Step 6: Estimation of the mix ingredients

A) Volume of concrete = 1 m3
B) Volume of cement = (Mass of cement / Specific gravity of cement) x (1/100) = (372/3.15) x
(1/1000) = 0.1182 m3
C) Volume of water = (Mass of water / Specific gravity of water) x (1/1000) = (186/1) x
(1/1000) = 0.186 m3
D) Volume of total aggregates = a – (b + c) = 1 – (0.1182 + 0.186) = 0.6958 m3
E) Mass of coarse aggregates = 0.695 x 0.57x 2.84 x 1000 = 1125.0275 kg//m3
F) Mass of fine aggregates = 0.695 x 0.43 x 2.64 x 1000 = 788.9412 kg//m3

Step 7: Concrete Mix proportions

Sodium hydroxide solution (10 Molar) = 41 kg//m3
Water = 186 kg//m3
Fine aggregates = 788.9412 kg//m3
Coarse aggregate = 1125.0275 kg//m3
W/c = 0.5

Step 8: PROPORTION FOR M25

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Fine aggregate = 788.9412/372 = 2.12

Coarse aggregate = 1125.0275/372 = 3.0245
Mix design (1: 2.12: 3.02)

Step 9: QUANTITY REQUIRED

Volume of concrete required for 12 cubes = 12 x (0.153 3 x1.25) = 0.0537 m3 Cement = (372
x 0.05378) kg/m3 = 19.715 kg
Water = (186 x 0.05378) kg/m3 = 10 kg
Coarse aggregate = (1125.0275 x 0.05378) kg/m3 = 60.4179kg
Fine aggregates = (788.9412 x 0.05378) kg/m3 = 42.360 kg

For making 1 cube: -

Coarse Aggregates = 4000gms,
Fine Aggregates (Sand) = 2250gms,
NaOH = 50ml,
Distilled water = 750ml,
Flyash, GGBS, RHA varies with different percentages, those weights tabulated below table 3.4.

Table. 3.4 Material for one cube for different mixture proportions

Flyash (%) Flyash (gms) GGBS (gms) RHA (gms)

25 362.5 1087.5 145

50 725 725 145

75 1087.5 362.5 145

10 145 1305 145

3.5 Curing
Previous works researches revealed that Geopolymer concrete gains high strength if the cube
placed in hot oven or steam chambers but here, we are curing under sun light but this is not

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feasible in some cases where the temperature is very low. However, with the addition of
GGBS there was increase in the strength of the con

Figure 3.12 Geopolymer concrete curing under sun light

3.6 Testing

Fly ash based geopolymer concrete with RHA cubes tests were performed in a 2500 KN
capacity universal testing machine, rate of loading 1 KN/MM

Figure 3.13 Testing compressive strength of cube

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CHAPTER 4
TESTS ON MATERIALS

4.1 Specific Gravity of Fly ash:

The main objective of this test is to determine the specific gravity of the Fly ash, used in this
study. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio between weight of a given volume of material
and weight of an equal volume of water at a specified temperature. To determine the specific
gravity of Fly ash, kerosene is used which does not react with Fly ash.
Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this test are specific gravity bottle, sensitive balance, water and
kerosene.
Test Procedure:
a. Clean and dry the specific gravity bottle and weight it with the stopper (W1).
b. Fill the specific gravity bottle with Fly ash sample at least half of the bottle and weigh with
stopper (W2).
c. Fill the specific gravity bottle containing the Fly ash, with kerosene (free of water) placing
the stopper and weigh it (W3).
d. While doing the above do not allow any air bubbles to remain in the specific gravity bottle.
e. After weighing the bottle, the bottle shall be cleaned and dried again
f. Then fill it with fresh kerosene and weigh it with stopper (W4).
g. Remove the kerosene from the bottle and fill it with full of water and weigh it with stopper
(W5).

Figure 4.1 specific gravity Bottle

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Formula = {(W2-W1) X [(W4-W1) /{(W4—W1) (W3—W2) (W5-W1)]}

Table 4.1 OBSERVATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLY ASH

S.NO Weights(gms) Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3

1 W1 33.5 33.5 33.5
2 W2 48 49 45
3 W3 83.5 84.2 85.4
5 W4 74 74 74
6 W5 86 86 86
7 Sp gravity 2.23 2.25 2.49

AVERAGE= (2.23+2.25+2.49)/3

=2.32

4.1 Specific Gravity of GGBS:

The main objective of this test is to determine the specific gravity of the GGBS, used in this
study. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio between weight of a given volume of material
and weight of an equal volume of water at a specified temperature. To determine the specific
gravity of GGBS, kerosene is used which does not react with GGBS.

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Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this test are specific gravity bottle, sensitive balance, water and
kerosene.
Test Procedure:
a. Clean and dry the specific gravity bottle and weight it with the stopper (W1).
b. Fill the specific gravity bottle with GGBS sample at least half of the bottle and weigh with
stopper (W2).
c. Fill the specific gravity bottle containing the GGBS, with kerosene (free of water) placing
the stopper and weigh it (W3).
d. While doing the above do not allow any air bubbles to remain in the specific gravity bottle.
e. After weighing the bottle, the bottle shall be cleaned and dried again
f. Then fill it with fresh kerosene and weigh it with stopper (W4).
g. Remove the kerosene from the bottle and fill it with full of water and weigh it with stopper
(W5).

Figure 4.1 specific gravity Bottle

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4.2 Weighing empty bottle

Formula = {(W2-W1) X [(W4-W1) /{(W4—W1) (W3—W2) (W5-W1)]}

Table 4.2 OBSERVATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GGBS

S.NO Weights(gms) Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3

1 W1 33.5 33.5 33.5
2 W2 52 50 54
3 W3 87.5 86.15 88.4
5 W4 74 74 74
6 W5 86 86 86
7 Sp gravity 2.91 2.92 2.98

AVERAGE= (2.91+2.92+2.98)/3

=2.93

4.2 Compressive Strength:

The main objective of this test is to determine the compressive strength of standard Fly ash
and GGBS mortar cubes compacted by means of standard vibration machine. The
compressive strength of hardened Fly ash and GGBS is the most important of all the
properties. Therefore, the Fly ash and GGBS is always tested for its strength at laboratory
before the Fly ash and GGBS is used in important works. Strength test is not made on neat
Fly ash and GGBS paste as difficulties of excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of
neat Fly ash and GGBS. Strength of Fly ash and GGBS is indirectly found on Fly ash and
GGBS sand mortar in specific proportions. This sand shall conform to IS 650-1991.

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Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this test are cast iron mould (70.6mm×70.6mm×70.6mm), non-porous
tray, trowel, weighing balance and 8mm steel rod or standard vibrating machine.
Test Procedure:
a. Take 600gms of standard sand and 200gms of Fly ash and GGBS in a non-porous tray and
mix them in a trowel for one minute, then add water of quantity (P/4+3.0) percent of
combined weight of Fly ash and GGBS and sand. 33
b. Mix the three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is of uniform colour.
c. The time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes not more than 5 minutes.
d. Immediately after mixing the mortar is filled into the cube mould of size 70.6mmin three
layers, each layer is compacted by 25 blows with 8mm diameter rod or on vibrating
equipment for 2 minutes.

e. In the above manner 12 cubes is casted for testing at different times.

Figure 4.2 Compression strength mould

f. Take 600gms of standard sand and 200gms of Fly ash and GGBS in a non-porous tray and
mix them in a trowel for one minute, then add water of quantity (P/4+3.0) percent of
combined weight of Fly ash and GGBS and sand.
g. Mix the three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is of uniform colour.
h. The time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes not more than 5 minutes.

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i. Immediately after mixing the mortar is filled into the cube mould of size 70.6mmin three
layers, each layer is compacted by 25 blows with 8mm diameter rod or on vibrating
equipment for 2 minutes.
j. In the above manner 12 cubes is casted for testing at different times.
k. Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature of 25ºC to 29ºC and at least
90%relative humidity for 24 hours.
l. Where the facility of standard temperature and humidity is not available, the cubes may be
kept under wet gunny bag to simulate 90% relative humidity. m. After 24hours the cubes are
removed from the mould and immersed in clean fresh water until taken out for testing. n.
Three cubes are tested for compressive strength at the period 7 days and 28 days. The period
being considered from the completion of vibration.
o. The compressive strength shall be average of the three for each period.

4.3 TESTS ON AGGREGATES:

Aggregates typically make up 70-80% of the volume of Portland cement concretes and
over 90% of asphalt concretes. Thus, their properties play important roles in determining the
properties of the composite materials in which they are to be used. Knowledge of relative
density/specific gravity, absorption, unit weight and voids content are necessary for the
proper design of both Portland cement and bituminous concretes.
To ensure aggregates continually meet the required specification, and thus to ensure
the end product is suitable for its intended use, a series of laboratory tests have been devised.

4.3.1 Fineness Modulus of Sand:

The main objective of this test is to determine the fineness modulus of sand and gravel
and to find out the sand zone. Fineness modulus is only a numerical index of fineness, giving
some idea about, the mean size of the particles in the entire body of concrete. Determination
of fineness modulus is considered as a method of standardization of grading of aggregates i.e.
the main object of finding fineness modulus is to grade the given aggregate for the most
economical mix and workability with minimum quantity of cement.

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Apparatus:

The apparatus used in this test are IS test sieves of 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm,
300µm, 150µm, 75µm and pan. Weighing balance (Sensitivity 0.1 percent), sieve shaker and
tray plates.

Test Procedure:

a. Take 1 Kg of sand from sample by quartering in clean dry plate.

b. Arrange the sieves in order of 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm,
75µm and pan keeping sieve 4.75mm at top and 75µm at bottom.

c. Fix them in the sieve shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the top.

d. Keep the sand in the top sieve of 4.75mm, carry out the sieving in the set of sieves and
arranged before for not less than 10 minutes.

e. Find the weight retained in each sieve. The percentage of particles retained on each
sieve was calculated on the basis of the total weight of aggregates taken

for the testing. Let these percentages be P1, P2, P3…… Pn. Then cumulative
percentage of material retained each sieve was found out which is equal to the sum of
percentages of aggregates retained on that sieve and that retained on all sieves coarser
than that sieve.C1 = P1; C2 = P1 + P2; Cn = P1 + P2 + P3…… + Pn. Then percentage
finer (N) than one sieve was obtained by subtracting the cumulative percentage
retained on that sieve from 100%. N1=100-C1, N2=100C2. Now fineness modulus can
be obtained from the formula, Fineness modulus= (sum of cumulative % of weight
retained)/100.

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Table 4.3 Grading Of Fine Aggregates

*Sieve size Weight retained % weight Sum of Percentage

(gm) finer
retained Cumulative
% retained

4.75mm 0 0 - -

2.36mm 66.5 6.65 6.65 93.95

1.18mm 339 33.9 40.55 59.45

600µm 265.5 26.55 67.1 32.9

300µm 282.5 28.25 95.35 4.65

150µm 23.5 2.35 97.7 2.3

75µm 18 1.8 99.5 0.5

Pan -- -- -- ---

TOTAL 1000 --- 307 ---

Figure 4.3 Set of sieves

4.4.3 Specific Gravity of Aggregate:

The main objective of this test is to determine the specific gravity of aggregates such
as sand, gravel and recycled aggregate used in this study. Specific gravity is the weight of
aggregate relative to the weight of equal volume of water. The specific gravity of an
aggregate is generally required for calculations in connection with cement concrete design
work for determination of moisture content and for the calculations of volume yield of
concrete. The specific gravity also gives information on the quality and properties of

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aggregate. The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength of

quality of the material.
Apparatus:

The apparatus used in this test are pycnometer, water and weighing balance.

Figure 4.6: Specific Gravity Bottle For Fine Aggregates

Test Procedure:

a. Find the weight of empty pycnometer, let it be W1

b. Fill up the pycnometer with each aggregate at each time up to one third of its capacity
and weigh it and note the weights separately for each time let it be W2.

c. Now fill the pycnometer with water completely along with the aggregates which was
already taken and weigh it let it be W3.

d. Now the pycnometer is emptied and cleaned thoroughly and filled with water
completely and weigh it let it be W4.

Finally, the specific gravity of the aggregates is calculated as Specific gravity.

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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The effects of various salient parameters on the compressive strength of fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete with RHA are discussed. The parameters considered are as follows:
1. Slump result for workability,
2. Compressive strength result,
3. Ambient temperature curing,
In all cases, low calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash, GGBS and Rice husk ash were used. The
mass of aggregates was approximately 75 to 80 percent of the mass of the entire mixture. Mix
proportions are same for all cubes except fly ash, GGBS and rice husk ash (cementitious
material).
5.2. WORKABILITY OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
The workability of Geopolymer concrete with RHA measured with slump test and compaction
factor tests.
5.2.1 Slump Result
In this slump test F75G525 (RHA-10%), F50G50 (RHA-10%) and F25G75 (RHA-10%)

Geopolymer concrete achieved true slump. The following parameters effects the workability

of Geopolymer concrete.
Table 5.1 Slump values of mixture proportions

Mixture proportions Slump values(cm)

26
F75G25(RHA-10%)

26.5
F50G50(RHA-10%)

F25G75(RHA-10%) 27

F10G90(RHA-10%) 27.5

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28

27.5

27

26.5

26

25.5

25
flyash-75% flyash-50% flyash-75% flyash-90%

SLUMP CONE VALUES

5.1 SLUMP CONE VALUES

Figure 5.1 F25G75 (RHA10) Slump test

As the quantity of GGBS increased from 25% to 75%, the workability increased as shown in
the above graph.

5.3 EFFECT OF SALIENT PARAMETERS

5.3.1 Age of concrete

Totally 30 cubes were prepared with same mixture proportions except Fly ash, RHA and
GGBS. Cubes were cured under ambient temperature i.e., sun light and also cured under water

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at 7days, 28days.

Table 4.2 Compressive strength table for ambient curing

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Specimen

7 DAY 28 DAY

A 4.25 4.53
B 7.42 7.95
C 9.75 11.12
D 15.12 17

18
Compressive strength

16
14
(N/mm2)

12
10
8 7 DAYS
6 28 DAYS
4
2
0
A B C D
Specimen
Figure5.2 Compressive strength for ambient curing

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Compressive strenth for 7 days and 28 days

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A B C D
7 days 28 days

Figure 5.3 Compression strength for 7 days and 28 days

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
This Chapter presents a summary of the present study, the major conclusions, and some
recommendations for future research. With the generic information available on geopolymers,
a rigorous trial-and-error method was adopted to develop a process of manufacturing fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete with RHA. After some failures in the beginning, the trail-and-error
method yielded successful results with regard to manufacture of low-calcium (ASTM Class F)
fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the experimental work reported in this study, the following conclusions are drawn:

➢ Higher sodium hydroxide by mass, higher is the compressive strength of fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete but we maintained 1.5 M.
➢ Longer curing time, in the range of 7days and 28 days produces higher compressive
strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.
➢ The workability of the fresh geo-polymer concrete decreases when the fly ash & GGBS
is replaced by rice husk ash.
➢ Higher concentration (in terms of sodium hydroxide solution results in higher
compressive strength of flyash based geo-polymer concrete we prepared 1.5 M)
➢ The additions of RHA beyond 10% have a retarding effect on the compressive strength.
➢ Mix F90G10 (RHA-10%) which contain 10% replacement of RHA with fly ash & GGBS
developed maximum compressive strength of 17 MPa at the end of 28 days under
ambient curing.
➢ Min F25G75 (RHA-10%) which contain 10% replacement of RHA with fly ash & GGBS
developed minimum compressive strength of 4.23 MPa at the end of 7 days under
ambient curing.
➢ Higher strength achieved if the cubes placed in water curing.

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