CHEM181

Section 4: Compounds and reactions

 TYPES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

• Molecular compounds
➢ Atoms covalently bonded together
➢ Mostly contain non-metals
➢ E.g. H2O, C2H5OH

• Ionic compounds
➢ Composed of positively and negatively charged ions held together by an
electrostatic force of attraction
➢ Metal and non-metal
➢ E.g. NaCl, MgCl2
 MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

• Chemical formula

➢Composition of molecules

➢Symbol of elements present

➢Ratio in which the atoms occur

 MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
• Molecular formula - actual number of atoms of each element present in a
molecule e.g. C2H4O2 (acetic acid) or CH2O (formaldehyde)

• Empirical formula – simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule, NOT

necessarily the actual number of atoms present

• Both acetic acid and formaldehyde have empirical formula CH2O

• Structural formula – show the order in which the atoms are connected
 DIATOMIC MOLECULES

• Seven elements that occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms e.g
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
 MOLECULES AND CHEMICAL FORMULAE

• The subscript to the right of the symbol of an

element tells the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the compound.
• The composition of each compound is given
by its chemical formula.
 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions:

➢ Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic
table

➢ Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the
periodic table
 IONIC COMPOUNDS

• Composed of positively and negatively charged ions held together by an

electrostatic force of attraction e.g. NaCl

• A neutral compound requires that there be an equal number of positive and

negative charges e.g. CaF2

Ca2+ and 2 F-
 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

• Compounds are electrically neutral, can determine the formula of a compound

by:
➢ Writing the value of the charge on the cation as the subscript on the anion
➢ Writing the value of the charge on the anion as the subscript on the cation

Mg2+ N3- -> Mg3N2

• If the subscripts are not in the lowest whole number ratio, simplify it e.g Ca2O2
would become CaO
 OXIDATION STATES

• Oxidation state (OS) – number of electrons that the atom loses, gains, or
otherwise appears to use in joining with other atoms in a compound

➢E.g. sodium chloride, NaCl

➢OS of Na is +1 and Cl is -1

➢For H2O, OS of H is +1 and of O is -2

 RULES FOR ASSIGNING OS

• Rule 1 :
➢ OS of an individual atom in a free element is zero, 0 e.g OS of Cl is 0, OS of both
Cl atoms in Cl2 is 0

• Rule 2:
➢ The total of the OS of all atoms in:
❖A neutral species = 0 e.g. CH3OH has total OS of zero
❖If it is an ion, then the OS = the charge on the ion e.g. OS of Fe in Fe3+ = +3,
the sum of all atoms in (MnO4)- = -1

• Rule 3:
➢ In their compounds, group 1 metals have OS = +1 & group 2 metals have OS = +2
e.g. OS of K in KCl = +1, OS of Mg in MgBr2 = +2
 RULES FOR ASSIGNING OS

• Rule 4:
➢ In their compounds, OS of fluorine = -1 e.g. OS of F in HF = -1

• Rule 5:
➢ In their compounds, OS of H is usually = +1 e.g. OS of H in HI = +1

• Rule 6:
➢ In their compounds, OS of oxygen is usually = -2 e.g. OS of O in H2O = -2

• Rule 7:
➢ In binary (two-element) compounds with metals, group 7 elements have OS = -1,
group 6 elements = -2, and group 5 elements = -3
➢ E.g. OS of Br in MgBr = -1, S in Li2S = -2, and N in Li3N = -3
 EXERCISE

• What is the oxidation state of the underlined element in:

a) P4

b) Al2O3

c) MnO4−

d) NaH

e) H2O2
 EXERCISE

• What is the oxidation state of the underlined element in:

a) P4 0

b) Al2O3 +3 a) 0
b) 2x + (-6) = 0
c) MnO4− +7 c) X + (-8) = -1
d) (+1) + x = 0
e) (+2) + 2x = 0
d) NaH -1

e) H2O2 -1
 NAMING COMPOUNDS

• Chemical compounds are broadly divided into two classes:

➢Organic compounds – compounds formed from mainly carbon and

hydrogen and some other elements

➢Inorganic compounds – compounds made from the other elements on

the periodic table
 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• Various classes of inorganic compounds:

➢ Binary compounds of metals and non-metals

➢ Binary compounds of two non-metals

➢ Binary acids

➢ Polyatomic ions oxoacids

➢ Hydrated compounds
 Naming of inorganic compounds

• Binary compounds of metals and nonmetals:

➢Write the unmodified name of the metal

➢Then write the nonmetal name, modified to end in –ide

➢E.g. NaCl -> sodium chloride

MgI2 -> magnesium iodide
Al2O3 -> aluminium oxide
 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE OF POSITIVE IONS (CATIONS)

• Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal e.g.
Na+ is the sodium ion

• If a metal can form different cations, the positive charge is indicated by a

Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal, e.g. Au+ is
the gold (I) ion and Au3+ is the gold (III) ion

• Cations formed from nonmetal atoms have names that end in –ium e.g. NH4+
is the ammonium ion
 Positive ions (cations)
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Lithium ion Li+ Chromium (ii) ion Cr2+
Sodium ion Na+ Chromium (iii) ion Cr3+
Potassium ion K+ Iron (ii) ion Fe2+
Rubidium ion Rb+ Iron (iii) ion Fe3+
Cesium ion Cs+ Cobalt (ii) ion Co2+
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Cobalt (iii) ion Co3+
Calcium ion Ca2+ Copper (i) ion Cu+
Strontium ion Sr2+ Copper (ii) ion Cu2+
Barium ion Ba2+ Mercury (i) ion Hg+
Aluminium ion Al3+ Mercury (ii) ion Hg2+
Zinc ion Zn2+ Tin (ii) ion Sn2+
Silver ion Ag+ Lead (ii) ion Pb2+
 CATIONS: POSITIVE IONS

• Many metals, especially the transition elements, can exist in a number of

oxidation states:
➢ Iron can exist as either Fe2+ or Fe3+

• Using old nomenclature for these ions:

➢ Fe2+ - ferrous ion, FeCl2 – ferrous chloride
➢ Fe3+ - ferric ion, FeCl3 – ferric chloride

• Using IUPAC nomenclature:

➢ Fe2+ - iron (II), FeCl2 – iron (II) chloride
➢ Fe3+ - iron (III), FeCl3 – iron (III) chloride
 CATIONS: POSITIVE IONS

• For copper:

➢Cu+ - cuprous ion, CuCl – cuprous chloride

➢Cu2+ - cupric ion, CuCl2 – cupric chloride

 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE: NEGATIVE IONS (ANIONS)

• The names of the monatomic anions are formed by replacing the ending of
the name of the element with –ide e.g. O2- is the oxide ion

• Polyatomic anions containing oxygen (called oxyanions) have names

ending in –ate or –ite e.g. SO2−
4 is the sulfate ion and SO3 is the sulfite ion
2−

• Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding the prefix

hydrogen or dihydrogen e.g. HCO3- is the hydrogen carbonate ion
 Negative ions (anions)

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Hydride ion H- Iodide ion I-

Fluoride ion F- Oxide ion O2-

Chloride ion Cl- Sulfide ion S2-

Bromide ion Br- Nitride ion N3-

COMMON ANIONS
 EXERCISE

• Write the chemical formula for the following compounds.

a) Barium oxide

b) Calcium fluoride

c) Iron (III) sulfide

 EXERCISE

• Write the chemical formula for the following compounds.

a) Barium oxide Ba2+ O2- -> BaO

b) Calcium fluoride Ca2+ F1- -> CaF2

c) Iron (III) sulfide Fe3+ S2- -> Fe2S3

 Polyatomic ions
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Ammonium ion (cation) NH4+ Hydroxide ion OH-
Acetate ion CH3COO- Nitrite ion NO2-
Carbonate ion CO2−
3 Nitrate ion NO3-
Hydrogen carbonate ion HCO3- Oxalate ion C2O2−
4

Hypochlorite ion ClO- Permanganate ion MnO4-

Chlorite ion ClO2- Phospahte ion PO3−
4

Chlorate ion ClO3- Hydrogen phosphate ion HPO2−

4

Perchlorate ion ClO4- Sulfite ion SO2−

3

Chromate ion CrO2−

4 Hydrogen sulfite ion HSO3-
Dichromate ion Cr2O2−
7 Sulfate ion SO2−
4

Cyanide ion CN- Thiosulfate ion S2O2−

3
 Binary compounds of two nonmetals

• Need to use prefixes for pairs of nonmetals forming more than one binary
molecular compound:

➢Mono – 1, di – 2, tri – 3, tetra – 4, penta – 5, hexa – 6, hepta – 7, octa – 8,

nona – 9, deca – 10……

➢E.g. SO2 – sulfur dioxide, SO3 - sulfur trioxide, B2Br4 – diboron tetrabromide

➢H2O – water (dihydrogen monoxide), NH3 – ammonia (H3N – trihydrogen

mononitride)
 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE: BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

• Name of the element farther to the left in the periodic table is written first

• If both elements are in the same group in the periodic table, the one having
the higher atomic number is written first

• The name of the second element is given an –ide ending

• Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element

 BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Formula Name
BCl3 Boron trichloride
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
NO Nitrogen monoxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
N2O Dinitrogen monoxide
N2O3 Dintirogen trioxide
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
PCl3 Phosphorous trichloride
PCl5 Phosphorous pentachloride
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE: NAME AND FORMULAE OF ACIDS
 BINARY ACID
• A binary acid is a two element compound of hydrogen and a non-metal,
which ionises in water into the hydronium ions (H+) and anions.

• Use the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the other nonmetal
modified with an –ic ending
➢E.g. HF (aq) – hydrofluoric acid
HBr (aq) – hydrobromic acid
HCl (aq) – hydrochloric acid
HI (aq) – hydroiodic acid
H2S (aq) – hydrosulfuric acid
NAMING OXYANIONS
 OXOACIDS

• Ternary compounds – contain three different elements: hydrogen, and two

other non-metals

• If one of the other non-metals is oxygen, the acid is called an oxoacid

 HYDRATED COMPOUNDS

• A compound that contains waters of crystallisation bonded to the molecule

e.g. CuSO4.5H2O – copper sulfate pentahydrate

• When the waters of crystallisation are removed, the compound is then

called anhydrous (without water) e.g. CuSO4
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

• Contain carbon and hydrogen atoms

• C and H in combination with O, N, and S

• Hydrocarbons – simplest organic compounds, CH4

 Properties of organic compounds

• have covalent bonds.

• have low melting points.

• have low boiling points.

• are flammable.

• are soluble in nonpolar solvents.

• are not soluble in water.

 Alkanes

• Contain single covalent bonds

• Bonds are saturated

• Formula is CnH2n+2 and name ends in “-ane”

• Each alkane differs from the preceding one in a sequence by a –CH2–, or

methylene group

• Homolougous series
➢substances whose molecules differ only by a constant unit such as –
CH2–
 Nomenclature

Number of C atoms Hydrocarbon prefix

1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-
 Alkyl groups

Name Structural formula

Methyl -CH3
Ethyl -CH2CH3
Propyl -CH2CH2CH3
Butyl -CH2CH2CH2CH3
Amino -NH2
Fluoro -F
Chloro -Cl
Bromo -Br
Iodo -I
Nitro -NO2
Hydroxy -OH
 Nomenclature
• Naming of organic compounds:
➢Select the longest carbon chain and use the hydrocarbon prefix as the
base name

➢Name and number any substituents in the structure

➢The substituent should have the lowest number possible

➢If there are identical substituents, use di-, tri-, tetra-…..

➢Separate numbers using commas, and separate letters using hyphens

➢List substituents alphabetically

 Example

C2 H6 C3 H8 C4H10

• Ethane Propane Butane

 NAMING OF SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• Alkanes:

➢Methane (CH4)

➢Ethane (C2H6)

➢Propane (C3H8)

➢Octane (C8H18)
 Structural isomers

• are molecules that have the same molecular formula but different
structures

• C5H12
 WRITING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Reactants on the LHS of the arrow and products on the RHS of the arrow.
3H2 + N2 → 2NH3

• The subscripts in the formula specify the numbers of atoms of each kind of
element in the simplest unit of the substance.

• Can also specify the state of each component

➢ Solid (s) Liquid(l) Gas(g) Aqueous solution(aq)

3H2(g) + N2 (g) → 2NH3(g)