AC Circuits

CSEE 102 S1
by
Dr. K. V. Praveen Kumar
Assistant Professor,
Electrical Engineering Department, SVNIT Surat
Advantages of AC system over DC system
• An alternating voltage can be stepped up and stepped down
efficiently by means of transformer. To transmit huge power
over a long distance, the voltages are stepped up (upto 400 kV)
for economical reasons at the generating stations whereas they
are stepped down to a very low level (400/230 V) for the
utilization of electrical energy from safety point of view.
• The AC motors (i.e., induction motors) are cheaper in cost,
simple in construction, more efficient and robust as compared to
DC motors.
• The switchgear (e.g., switches, circuit breakers, etc.) for AC
system is simpler than DC system.
Thus, AC system is universally adopted for generation,
transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy
 Introduction
• The DC supply has constant magnitude with respect to
time.
• Alternating Current changes periodically with respect to
time.
• Changes in magnitude and direction is measured in
terms of cycles.
• In Fig. b, current increases in one direction, attains
maximum and starts decreasing, passing through zero it
increases in opposite direction and behaves similarly.
• While plotting Fig. b, usually the instantaneous values of
the alternating quantities are taken along Y-axis and
time along X-axis.
• In practice, some waveforms have change in their
magnitude but direction remains positive or negative,
such waveforms are called as Pulsating DC (Fig. c).
 Types of AC Waveforms
• Various types of alternating waveforms other than sinusoidal
are shown.
• Out of all types alternating waveforms, sinusoidal w/f is
preferred for AC systems.
Advantages of Pure Sinusoidal w/f
➢Easy to write equation of pure sine w/f (Mathematically).
➢Integration and differentiation of sine w/f is again sine function.
➢Sine and cosine waves which can pass through linear circuit
containing R, L, C without distortion. In case of other w/fs, there
is possibility of distortion when it passes through linear circuit.
➢Any other w/f can be resolved into a series of sine or cosine
waves of fundamental and higher frequencies sum of all these
waves gives original w/f. Hence, it is always better to have sine
w/f as standard w/f.
 Characteristics of Sinusoids
• The function repeats itself every 2π radians, and its
• Let v(t)=Vm sin ωt. period is therefore 2π radians.
• A sine wave having a period T must execute 1/T periods
• Amplitude of sine wave is Vm. each second; its frequency f is 1/T hertz, abbreviated Hz.
Thus
• Radian/angular frequency is ω.
• f = 1/T and since, ωT=2π.
• Therefore, we obtain common relation between frequency
(Hz) and angular frequency (rad/s) i.e, ω=2πf.
• Lagging and Leading: v(t)=Vm sin (ωt+θ)

Vm sin ωt is plotted versus ωt (rad)

Vm sin ωt is plotted versus t (sec) The sine wave Vm sin(ωt + θ) leads Vm sin ωt by θ rad
 Lagging and Leading
• sin ωt as lagging sin(ωt + θ) by θ rad, as leading sin(ωt + θ) by −θ
rad, or as leading sin(ωt − θ) by θ rad.
• In either case, leading or lagging, we say that the sinusoids are out
of phase.
• If the phase angles are equal, the sinusoids are said to be in phase.
• We customarily use, v(t) = 100 sin(2π1000t − 30o).
➢Two sinusoidal waves whose phases are to be compared must:
1. Both be written as sine waves, or both as cosine waves.
2. Both be written with positive amplitudes.
3. Each have the same frequency.
Converting Sine to cosine or cosine to sine In this diagram, v1
leads v2 by 100° + 30°
= 130°, or it could also
be argued that v2 leads
v1 by 230°.
 Important Terms
• An alternating voltage or current changes its magnitude and direction at
regular intervals of time. A sinusoidal voltage or current varies as a sine
function of time t or angle (θ = ωt).
➢Wave form: The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the
instantaneous values of alternating quantity (voltage or current) along Y-
axis and time or angle (θ = ωt) along X-axis is called ‘wave form or
wave shape’.
➢Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity, that is,
voltage or current at any instant is called its instantaneous value and is
represented by ‘e’ or ‘i’, respectively.
➢Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes through a complete set of
positive and negative values or goes through 360 electrical degrees, it
is said to have completed one cycle.
➢Alternation: One half-cycle is called ‘alternation’. An alternation spans
180 electrical degrees.
➢Time period: The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle
by an alternating quantity is called time period. It is generally
denoted by ‘T’.

➢Frequency: The number of cycles made per second by an

alternating quantity is called ‘frequency’. It is measured in
cycles per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz) and is denoted by ‘f ’.

➢Amplitude: The maximum value (positive or negative) attained

by an alternating quantity in one cycle is called its ‘amplitude or
peak value or maximum value’. The maximum value of voltage
and current is generally denoted by Em (or Vm ) and Im ,
respectively
Relations
• Relation between frequency and time period: An alternating
quantity has a frequency f c/s. Then, time taken to complete f
cycles is 1 s.
Time taken to complete 1 cycle is 1/f s.
Hence, time period, T=1/f s or f=1/T c/s.
• Relation between angular velocity and frequency: An
alternating quantity has a frequency f c/s.
Angular distance covered in one cycle is 2π radian.
Therefore, angular distance covered per second in f cycles
is 2π radian. Hence ω= 2πf rad/s.
• Alternating voltage represented as e=Em sin θ = Em sin ωt
 Values of alternating voltage and current
• The voltage and current in DC system are constant so that there is
no problem of specifying their magnitudes, whereas in AC system,
the alternating voltage and current vary from time to time.
• Hence, it is necessary to explain the ways to express the
magnitude of alternating voltage and current.
• The following three ways are adopted to express the magnitude of
these quantities:
➢Peak Value
➢Average Value or Mean Value
➢Effective Value or RMS Value
Peak value
• The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one
cycle is called ‘peak value’/ ‘Maximum Value’/ ‘Crest Value’/
‘Amplitude’.
• A sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its maximum value at 90°.
• The peak of an alternating voltage and current is represented by
Em and Im .
• The knowledge of peak value is important in case of testing
dielectric strength of insulating materials.
 Average Value
• The arithmetic average of all the instantaneous values considered an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) over one cycle is called
average value.
• In case of symmetrical waves (such as sinusoidal current or voltage
wave), the positive half is exactly equal to the negative half;
therefore, the average value over a complete cycle is zero.
• Since work is being done by the current in both the positive and the
negative half cycle, average value is determined regardless of signs.
• Hence, to determine average value of alternating quantities having
symmetrical waves, only (positive half) cycle is considered.
Average Value
• Divide the positive half cycle into ‘n’ number
of equal parts as shown in Figure. Let i1, i2,
i3, ..., in be the mid-ordinates.
• Average value of current, Iav = mean of mid Positive half cycle divided into n equal parts
ordinates.
Iav
Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

Consider an elementary strip of thickness d q in

the positive half cycle, i be its mid-ordinate.
Then, Area of strip = I d q.
Effective Value or RMS Value
• The steady current when flows through a resistor of
known resistance for a given time produces the same
amount of heat as produced by an alternating current
when flows through the same resistor for the same time is
called effective or rms value of an alternating current.
• Let i be an alternating current flowing through a resistor
of resistance R for time t seconds which produces the
same amount of heat as produced by Ieff (direct current).
• The base of one alternation is divided into n equal parts,
so that interval is of (t/n) second. Let i1, i2, i3, ..., in be the
mid-ordinates.
• Heat produced in the intervals 1, 2… n are given by
• (i12Rt/Jn), (i22Rt/Jn),….. (in2Rt/Jn) Calorie
 Effective Value or RMS Value

I = Square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values

eff

= root-mean-square value
• It is the actual value of an alternating quantity which tells us the energy transfer
capability of an AC source.
• For example, if we say that 5 A AC is flowing through a circuit, it means the
rms value of an AC which flows through the circuit is 5 A. It transfers the same
amount of energy as is transferred by 5 A DC.
• The ammeters and voltmeters record the rms values of alternating currents and
voltages, respectively. The domestic single-phase AC supply is 230 V, 50 Hz.
Where 230 V is the rms value of an alternating voltage.
 RMS value of sinusoidal current
• Considering an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first
half-cycle of the squared wave, let i2 be its mid-ordinate.
• Then, Area of strip = i2dθ.
• Area of first half cycle of squared wave

Effective or rms value

Form Factor and Peak Factor
• Form Factor: Ratio of RMS value to the average value of an
alternating quantity. For a sinusoidal wave
FF=(Irms/Iavg)=(0.707Im /0.636Im )=1.11.

• Peak Factor: Ratio of Maximum value to RMS value to an

alternating quantity. For a Sinusoidal wave
PF=(Im /Irms)=(Im /0.707Im )=1.414.
Phasors
 Phasors

Addition and subtraction of Multiplication and Division of

complex numbers are better complex numbers are better
performed in rectangular form. performed in Polar form.
 Time domain Phasor domain
representation representation
Derivative and Integral of Sinusoid

Time Domain Phasor Domain

• Besides time differentiation and integration, another important use of
phasors is found in summing sinusoids of the same frequency. (Adding
sinusoids of the same frequency is equivalent to adding their
corresponding phasors)
• The difference between v(t) and V are as follows:
➢v(t) is the instantaneous or time domain representation, while V is the
frequency or phasor domain representation.
➢v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.
➢v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally
complex.
• Finally, we should remember that phasor analysis applies only when
frequency is constant; it applies in manipulating two or more
sinusoidal signals only if they are of the same frequency.
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Phasor relationships in circuit elements

Voltage-current relations for a

resistor in the: (a) time domain,
(b) frequency domain

Phasor diagram for the resistor

Phasor representation for Inductor
Phasor representation for Capacitor
Summary of voltage current relationships
Example
Impedance and Admittance
Impedance
Impedance
Admittance
Example: Find i(t) and v(t) for the circuit shown below.

Thus, i(t) leads v(t) by 90 degree.

Impedance Combinations
 Star-Delta Networks

Under Balanced Condition

A delta or wye circuit is said to be balanced if it
has equal impedances in all three branches.
Example: Calculate vo in the circuit
Single phase AC circuits
• In DC circuits, the opposition to the flow of current is only the
resistance of the circuit. While in AC circuits, the opposition to
the flow of current is due to Resistance (R), Inductive
Reactance (XL) and Capacitive Reactance (XC) of the circuit.
• In AC circuits, frequency plays an important rule, the currents
and voltages are represented with magnitude and direction
(phasors).
• The voltage and current may or may not be in phase with each
other depending upon the parameters (R, L and C) of the
circuit.
• Moreover, in AC circuits, the currents as well as voltages are
added and subtracted vectorially instead of arithmetically as in
DC circuits.
 AC circuit containing Resistance only
• Alternating voltage applied to resistor as
shown in figure, the current and voltage are
given by: and

• The value of current is maximum @ ωt=90o.

• From the phasor diagram, the current and
Phasor diagram
voltage are in same phase.
• Instantaneous power:
• p=vi = (Vmsin ωt) (Im sin ωt) = (VmIm)(sin2ωt)
Inductor
• An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in magnetic field.
• A practical inductance is called inductor. It is a coil wound on a magnetic
core (may be air core for small values of inductance).
• A magnetic core inductor has constant inductance only in a limited range of
current (at high current the core saturates and inductance reduces).
• Inductor is linear in a limited range of currents.
• In electronic circuits the use of inductor is avoided except in high power
circuits. In fact, inductance cannot be fabricated as such in semiconductor
integrated circuits.
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).
Inductor
solenoidal
wound inductor

toroidal inductor

chip inductor
 iron-core

air-core variable iron-core

 Important properties of inductor
• The voltage across an inductor is zero when current is constant. (An
inductor acts like short circuit for DC).
• The current through inductor can’t change instantaneously. (A discontinuous
change in the current through an inductor requires an infinite voltage, which
is not physically possible)
• Ideal inductor does not dissipate the energy. The energy stored in it can be
retrieved at a later time.
• A practical, nonideal inductor equivalent circuit is shown in figure below.

Current through an
inductor: (a) allowed,
(b) not allowable
Inductance
Energy stored in inductance
Example
Example
• Find the current through a 5H inductor if the voltage across it is

Also, find the energy stored at t=5s, Assume i(v)>0.

Consider the circuit in Fig. Under dc conditions, find: (a) i, vc and iL (b)
the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor.
Under dc conditions, we replace the capacitor with an open circuit
and the inductor with a short circuit
 Series connected Inductors

The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the

individual inductances
Parallel connected inductors
Calculate the equivalent inductance for
the inductive ladder network in Fig.

Ans: 25 mH
 AC circuit containing Pure Inductance only
• Let an alternating voltage v(t)=Vmsin ωt is
applied to a pure inductor then an
alternating current flows through inductance
and induces an emf, i.e e=-L(di/dt);
• This induced emf is equal and opposite to
the applied voltage i.e, v=-e=-L(di/dt);

where XL = w L is the opposition offered to the flow of AC

by a pure inductance and it is called inductive reactance
 AC circuit containing Pure Inductance only
• The value of current will be maximum when sin (ω t - π/2) = 1; i.e.,
Im=Vm/XL.
• From the phasor diagram, it is clear that current flowing through pure
inductive circuit lags behind the applied voltage v by 90O.

It is very clear that average power in a

half cycle (one alternation) is zero, as the
negative and positive loop area under the It is interesting to note that during the first
power curve is the same. quarter cycle, whatever power (or energy) is
supplied by the source to the inductance (or coil)
is stored in the magnetic field set-up around it.
Average Power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle,
However, in the next quarter cycle, the magnetic
field collapses and the power (or energy) stored
in the field is returned to the source.
This process is repeated in each and every
Average Power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle, alternation. Hence, no power or energy is
consumed in this circuit.
Capacitor
Capacitance
vi relation in a capacitor
Energy stored in capacitance
Important Properties of capacitor
• Voltage across capacitor is not changing with time (i.e, dc voltage),
the current through capacitance is zero. Thus a capacitor is an open
circuit to DC. However, if a battery (DC supply) is connected across a
capacitor, the battery charges. Allowed voltage
across a capacitor
• The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous. The voltage on
capacitor cannot change abruptly. The capacitor resists abrupt change
in the voltage across it. A continuous change in voltage requires
infinite current, which is impossible.
• The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the Not Allowable
circuit when storing energy in its field and returns previously stored voltage
capacitor
across a

energy when delivering power to the circuit.

• Non-ideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance.
The parallel resistance is as high as 100 MΩ and can be
neglected for most practical applications.
 Example
➢Consider a capacitor of 10 µF to which
is applied 50 mA rectangular pulse of
duration 0.4 ms as shown in figure. Then
find charge, capacitor voltage and energy
stored in the capacitor.

Waveforms of (a) current, (b) charge, (c)

voltage and (d) energy in a capacitor
• Determine the current through a 200 micro farad
capacitor whose voltage is as shown in Figure.
Example: Obtain the energy stored in each
capacitor in Figure under dc conditions.

Under dc conditions, we can replace each capacitor with an open circuit.

Hence, the voltage v1 and v2 across capacitor are

Observations
Parallel connection of capacitors

The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected

capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances
Series connection of capacitors

The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of

the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
AC Circuit containing Pure Capacitor Only
Example
An inductive coil having negligible resistance and 0.1 H inductance is
connected across 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i) the inductive reactance,
(ii) rms value of current, (iii) power, and (iv) equations for voltage and
current.
A capacitor has a capacitance of 30 μF. Find its capacitive reactance for
frequencies of 25 and 50 Hz. Find in each case the current if the supply
voltage is 440 V.
Important characteristics of Basic Elements
Example
Example
A resistive load (R ) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load
(L or C ) absorbs zero average power
Apparent power and Power factor
Power factor
Complex Power
Complex Power
• If Q=0 for resistive loads
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (Leading PF)
• Q > 0 for inductive Loads (Lagging PF)
• Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and
the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor.
• As a complex quantity (S), its real part is real power P and its
imaginary part is reactive power Q.
Power Triangle
• This is similar to impedance triangle.
• Power Triangle has four items: Apparent Power, Real Power, Reactive
Power and Power Factor angle.

Power Triangle Impedance Triangle

Power Triangle indicating Lagging and

Leading PF
Significance of reactive power
• Reactive power is the component of power which is supplied to
reactive components of the load from source during positive half cycle
while it is returned back to supply from the components to the source
during negative half cycle.
• Reactive Power never gets consumed by a circuit but flows
alternatively back and forth from the source to reactive components
and vice-versa.
AC through series RL circuit

Phasor Diagram

Impedance Triangle
AC through series RC circuit
Example: The impedance of a circuit placed across a 120 V, 50
Hz source is (10+j20). Find the current and power.
AC through series RLC circuit

Depending upon which reactance

is larger, the current will
lead or lag the supply voltage
If XC>XL, current will lead the supply
voltage (capacitive circuit), otherwise it
will lag (inductive circuit).
Example: A series circuit having pure resistance of 40 ohms, pure
inductance of 50.07 mH, and a capacitor is connected across a 400 V, 50
Hz, AC supply. This R, L, C combination draws a current of 10A.
Calculate (i) PF of the circuit, and (ii) capacitor value
Steps to Analyze AC Circuits
• Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
• Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, superposition, etc.).
• Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
Nodal Analysis
• The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchoff’s current law, since KCL is also
valid for phasors.
• We can analyze AC circuits by using nodal analysis.
Numerical: Find iX in the circuit using nodal analysis
Numerical: Compute V1 and V2 for the circuit shown below
Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode, Applying KCL at supernode gives

But a voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2, so that

On simplification
Mesh Analysis
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) forms the basis of mesh analysis.
Numerical: Determine current Io in the circuit shown below
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain

For mesh 2,
For mesh 3, I3=5A
On simplification
Solve for Vo in the circuit shown below using mesh analysis
Superposition Theorem
• The superposition theorem applies to ac circuits in the same way it
applies to dc circuits.
• This theorem is important if the circuit has operating at different
frequencies. In this case, since the impedance depend on the
frequency, we must have a different frequency domain circuit for each
frequency.
• The superposition theorem makes the problem into single frequency
problem by breaking the circuit.
• So the circuit can be simplified by operating individual source with
different frequency at a time.
Numerical: Find Vo of the circuit using superposition theorem
Source Transformation
• Source transformation in the frequency domain involves transforming
voltage source in series with an impedance into a current source in
parallel with an impedance or vice versa.
Numerical: Calculate Vx in the circuit using superposition theorem.
 Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit
• Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are applied to ac circuits in the same way as
they are to dc circuits.
• A linear circuit is replaced by a voltage source in series with an impedance.
• A linear circuit is replaced by a current source in parallel with an impedance.
Numerical: Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit
Numerical: Find the Thevenin's equivalent of the circuit as seen
in figure below across terminals a-b.
Numerical: Obtain current Io for the circuit shown below using Nortons
theorem.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
RLC series circuit with variable frequency
voltage source

• In the circuit shown, the voltage source is has variable frequency.

• The inductive reactance (XL) causes the total current lag the source voltage,
similarly capacitive reactance (XC) has opposite effect.
• It also causes total current to lag, lead or in phase with voltage source.
• When they are in in-phase XL and XC cancel each other and the circuit
becomes purely resistive.
• With the supply voltage of variable frequency, at a particular frequency, XL
will be equal to XC, such a condition is called resonance.
Series Resonance

During any given half cycle of the

input voltage, polarities of the
voltage across inductor and
capacitor are of opposite sign.
 Effect of variation of frequency on current and voltage drops

Effect of Variation of Frequency of Supply Voltage in

an R–L–C Series Circuit: (a) Current; (b) Voltage
Across R; (c) Voltage Across C; (d) Voltage Across L
and (e) Voltage Across C and L

At resonant frequency, Z=R, and hence the current is maximum, as Z is minimum. The voltage across capacitor and inductor
Can be much larger than the supply voltage but these two voltages oppose each other making their combined voltage as zero.
• Under resonance condition, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is
equal to the resistance of circuit, the current is maximum in the circuit and the
voltage across capacitor is equal to inductor which is more than the source
voltage (several times).
• So a series resonant circuit is called voltage resonant circuit.
• As frequency is increased above resonant frequency, XL continues to increase
and XC continues to decrease.
• The total reactance XL-XC will increase, and hence the current will decrease.
• As current decreases, the voltage across resistance decreases. Further VL and
VC will decrease but the difference of VL and VC will be increasing.
• When frequency increased to a high value, the circuit current will approach
zero,
• Accordingly VR and VC will approach zero and VL approach VS.
Effect of variation of frequency on Z and PF
RLC series circuit as Band Pass
Filter
• A series RLC circuit with LC part is placed in
between input and output as shown. The output is
taken as resistor.
• At fr, XC=XL, and cancel each other, the circuit
works as band pass filter.
• Signals at fr are allowed to pass from input to
output without any reduction in amplitude because
LC part is not offering any opposition.

• In fact for a range of frequencies extending below and above fr, a significant strength of
input signal will pass to the output circuit. This band of frequencies is called pass band.
• The signals at frequencies lower or higher than the pass band appearing at input are
rejected by the circuit.
Band width of pass band
Q-factor of a coil
Q-factor of a series RLC resonant circuit
Series RLC circuit as band stop filter
• When the output is taken from LC portion of an RLC
circuit, series resonant circuit acts as band stop filter.
• It rejects the signals with the frequencies between lower
and upper cutoff frequencies and will pass those signals
with frequencies lower than lower cut-off frequency and
higher than higher cut-off frequency.
• This filter is called band stop/reject filter (BSF).
• For BSF, output current and voltage are minimum at fr.
Parallel Resonance
 Ideal tank circuit
• In the tank circuit, the current is zero, there exist current in the inductor and
capacitor.
• Such a parallel resonant circuit is often called as tank circuit.
• Normally, a tank stores water or some liquid. Here, the circuit stores energy.
• At resonance, energy is stored in the magnetic field of the current carrying
inductive coil and in the electric field of the capacitor.
• This stored energy is transferred back and forth between the inductor and
capacitor on alternate half cycles.
• On alternate half cycles, the inductor gets energized while the capacitor is
de-energized and vice-versa and this process continues definitely.
Parallel Resonance (Non-Ideal Tank circuit)
Resonant Frequency
Effect of parallel resonance
Q-factor of parallel resonant circuit
Non-ideal Tank circuit
Resonant frequency
Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance
Transient Condition in networks
• Electrical networks contain resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Inductors
and capacitors are energy storing devices.
• The energy stored in L & C changes from their initial level to the final level
called settling time (generally fraction of a second).
• The time taken by a circuit to change from one steady state condition to
another steady state condition is called transient time.
• A transient condition in networks occurs due to switching operations.
• During the transient period, the current and voltages change from their
initial values to the new values.
• When a circuit is switched on, there exist two sources of energy in the circuit.
• One source is the initial stored energy in inductances and capacitances at the
time of switching.
• The second energy source is the energy, that is, applied externally in the form of
voltage or current sources.
• The complete response of a circuit representing a system can be represented in
two parts, namely, its forced response or steady state response and transient
response.
• The transient response or solution shows the way the circuit responds when a
forcing function (a voltage) as input changes in energy state.
• Transient response depends upon the circuit parameters and their initial charge
condition.
• Transient response of electrical circuits can be determined either by using
differential equations or by using Laplace transform.
• Usually, the analysis of RL or RC circuits can be performed by using kirchoffs
laws.
• The application of kirchoffs laws to resistive circuits results in algebraic
equations, while applying the to RL and RC circuits leads to differential
equations, which are difficult to solve than algebraic equations.
• The differential equations resulting from analyzing RL and RC circuits are of the
first order circuits.
• A first order circuit is characterized by a first order differential equations.
• There are two ways to excite the first order circutis: The first is by initial
conditions of the storage elements in the circuits so called source-free circuits
(energy is initially stored in the capacitive and inductive element).
• Source free circuits are by definition free of independent sources, they may have
dependent sources.
• Second way of exciting the first order circuits is by independent sources.
 Source free RC circuit
• Source free RC circuit obtained by when its dc source is
suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the
resistors.
• The natural response depends on the nature of the circuit alone, with no external
sources. In fact, the circuit has a response only because of the energy initially
stored in the capacitor.
• The natural response is illustrated graphically, at t=0, the initial condition can be
identified. As t increases, the voltage decreases towards zero.

• The rapidity with which voltage decreases is expressed

in terms of time constant, denoted by τ.
• The time constant of a circuit is the time required for
the response to decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent
of its initial value.
 Source free RL circuit
• Source free RL circuit obtained by when its dc source is
suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the inductor is released to the
resistor.
Example: Assuming that, i(0)=10A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit shown
below.
Example: The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long
time. At time t=0, the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t>0.
Singularity functions
• Singularity functions also called as switching functions. They serve as
good approximations to the switching signals that arise in circuits with
switching operations.
• Singularity functions are the functions that either are discontinuous or
have discontinuous derivatives.
• The three most widely used singularity functions are : Unit Step, Unit
Impulse and Unit Ramp.
Unit Step function
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for
positive values of t.
• It is undefined at t=0.
• It changes abruptly from 0 to 1.
• It is dimensionless, like other functions sine and cosine.
• If the abrupt change occurs at t=to, instead of t=0,
• Then unit step becomes
• The step function is used to represent an abrupt change in voltage,
current, like other changes that occur in circuits of control systems and
digital computers. For example, the voltage may be expressed in terms
of step function as

• If we let t0=0, then v(t) is simply the step voltage V0u(t).

• A voltage of source of V0u(t) is as shown, its equivalent circuit is
shown in figure below. From the figure, the terminals ab short
circuited for t<0 and v=V0, appear at terminals for t>0
 Step response of an RC circuit
• When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or
current source can be modeled as a step function, and the response is known
as a step response.
• On applying KVL to the above circuit,
• where v, is the voltage across capacitor. For t > 0, becomes
• On rearranging the terms,
• Integrating on both sides and introducing initial conditions,

• Taking exponential on both sides,

• Thus

• This is known as complete response of the circuit to a sudden

application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor voltage is
initially charged.
 Response of an RC circuit with
initially charged capacitor

Step response of an RC circuit with

initially uncharged capacitor: (a) voltage
response, (b) current response.
• v(t) has two components, there are two ways of decomposing this into two
components.
• The first is to break it into a natural response and a forced response. The
second is to break into transient and a steady state response.
• Starting with the natural response and forced response, we write the total
response as
• where
• The natural response of the circuit is vn and vf is known as forced response
because it is produced by circuit when the external force is applied.
• The natural response eventually dies out along with the transient
component of the force response, leaving only the steady state component
of the forced response.
• Another way of looking at the complete response is to break into two
components—one temporary and the other permanent, i.e.,

• The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out
with time.
• The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after an
external excitation is applied.
• The first decomposition of the complete response is in terms of the source of
the responses, while the second decomposition is in terms of the permanency
of the responses.
• Under certain conditions, the natural response and transient response are the
same. The same can be said about the forced response and steady-state
response.
• Example: The switch in Figure has been in position A for a long time. At t=0, the switch
moves to B. Determine v(t) for t>0 and calculate its value at t =1 s and 4 s.
• Example: In figure shown below, the switch has been closed for a long time and is
opened at t=0. Find i and v for all time.
Step response of RL circuit

The steady-state response is the value of the current a long time after the switch
in Figure (top) is closed. The transient response essentially dies out after five
time constants. At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the
voltage across it is zero. The entire source voltage V s appears across R.
Step responses of an RL circuit
with no initial inductor
current: (a) current response,
(b) voltage response
• Example: Find i(t) in the circuit shown below for t>0, Assume that the switch
has been closed for long time.
• Example: At t=0, switch in figure is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4s later. Find
i(t) for t>0. Calculate i for t=2s, and t=5s.
Laplace transform
• Usually differential equations are used to describe the complete behavior of the circuit.
• Laplace transform is a powerful tool for turning differential equations into algebraic
equations, thus greatly facilitates the solution process.
• The Laplace transform method follows the same process (as in phasor approach): we use the
Laplace transformation to transform the circuit from the time domain to the frequency
domain, obtain the solution, and apply the inverse Laplace transform to the result to
transform it back to the time domain.
• The Laplace transform is significant for a number of reasons.
• First, it can be applied to a wider variety of inputs than phasor analysis.
• Second, it provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial conditions,
because it allows us to work with algebraic equations instead of differential equations.
• Third, the Laplace transform is capable of providing us, in one single operation, the total
response of the circuit comprising both the natural and forced responses.
Region of convergence for
the Laplace transform.
Properties of the Laplace Transform
• Linearity:
• Scaling:

• Time Shift:

• Frequency Shift:
• Time Differentiation:

• Time Integration:
Inverse Laplace Transform
• Given F(s), how do we transform it back to the time domain and
obtain the corresponding f (t)?
• Steps to Find the Inverse Laplace Transform:
• 1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion.
• 2. Find the inverse of each term by matching entries.
• Simple Poles:

• Repeated Poles:
Complex Poles
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF R–L SERIES CIRCUITS HAVING DC
EXCITATION
• For the circuit shown, at t=0, switch is closed
and DC voltage applied to series RL network.
• Let i(t) current flowing through the circuit
after closing the switch.