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Chapter 8 (DC)
Methods of Analysis
And Selected Topics

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8.3 SOURCE Transformation

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Voltage Source Convert to Current Source

E
I= R p = Rs
Rs

Current Source Convert to Voltage Source

E = IR p Rs = R p

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RT = = 0.92 
1 1 1 1
+ + +
R1 R6 R2 R4

Vab = − IT RT = −6.44 V
E 9V E 20 V
I1 = 1 = =3A I2 = 2 = = 10 A
R1 3  R2 2 
− Vab 6.44 V
I 3 = = = 1.07 A
R3 6

Practice Book [Ch 8]

IT = I 2 − I1 = 10 A − 3 A = 7 A Problem: 7 ~ 10 and 14
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EXAMPLE 8.3.1 Using the source conversion find the value of voltage V6.
E4 = I 3 R1 // 2 = 8 V

E 10 V R7 = R1 // 2 + R3 = 6  E
I1 = 1 = =5A I 4 = 4 = 1.33 A
R1 2  R7

R E5 = I 4 R7 // 4 = 4 V
R
R1 // 2 = 1 = 1  R7 // 4 = 7 = 3 
2 I 3 = I1 + I 2 = 8 A 2

R6
V6 = E5
R7 // 4 + R5 + R6
= 1.1 V

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KVL for Mesh/Loop Analysis

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law [KVL]

In closed path, according to KVL: Summation of Voltage Drop = Summation of Voltage Rise
Positive if current entering Positive if current entering
through positive terminal. through negative terminal.
Negative if current entering Negative if current entering
through negative terminal. through positive terminal.

V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6 = 0
0 = E1 − E2 + E3 − E4 − E5 + E6
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5 + IR6 = 0
(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6 )I = 0 V1 + V2 + V3 = E1 + E2 − E3 0 = ( E1 + E3 + E6 ) − ( E2 + E4 + E5 )
(R1 + R2 + R3 )I = E1 + E2 − E3
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If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current through the resistor is the
assumed current of the loop in which Kirchhoff’s voltage law is being applied, plus the assumed currents of
the other loops passing through in the same direction, minus the assumed currents through in the opposite
direction.

Example: Write the loop equations for the following circuit.

Loop 1:

R1I1 + R2 I1 + R3 ( I1 − I 3 ) + R4 ( I1 − I 2 ) + R5 ( I1 − I 2 ) = 0
(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 )I1 − R3I3 − R4 I 2 − R5 I 2 = 0
(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 )I1 − (R4 + R5 )I 2 − R3I3 = 0
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Loop 2: Loop 3:

R5 ( I 2 − I1 ) + R4 ( I 2 − I1 ) + R6 ( I 2 − I 3 ) + R7 I 2 + R8 I 2 = 0 R9 I 3 + R11I 3 + R10 I 3 + R6 ( I 3 − I 2 ) + R3 ( I 3 − I1 ) = 0

(R5 + R4 + R6 + R7 + R8 )I 2 − R5 I1 − R4 I1 − R6 I3 = 0 (R9 + R11 + R10 + R6 + R3 )I3 − R6 I 2 − R3I1 = 0

− ( R5 + R4 )I1 + ( R5 + R4 + R6 + R7 + R8 )I 2 − R6 I 3 = 0 − R3 I1 − R6 I 2 + ( R9 + R11 + R10 + R6 + R3 )I 3 = 0

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Three the loop equations for the following circuit.

Loop 1:
(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 )I1 − (R4 + R5 )I 2 − R3I3 = 0

Loop 2:
− ( R5 + R4 )I1 + ( R5 + R4 + R6 + R7 + R8 )I 2 − R6 I 3 = 0

Loop 3:
− R3 I1 − R6 I 2 + ( R9 + R11 + R10 + R6 + R3 )I 3 = 0

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8.7 MESH ANALYSIS

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8.7 MESH ANALYSIS

Step 1: Assign a distinct current in the Step 2: 2. Indicate the polarities within each loop
clockwise direction to each independent, closed for each resistor as determined by the assumed
loop of the network. It is not absolutely direction of loop current for that loop.
necessary to choose the clockwise direction for
each loop current.

+ − + − + −
− +
−
I1 I2
+ + −
− + − +

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Step 3: Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. [Consider
voltage is positive if current entering through negative terminal of an elements and voltage is negative if
current entering through positive terminal of an elements]
a. If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current through the resistor is
the assumed current of the loop in which Kirchhoff’s voltage law is being applied, plus the assumed
currents of the other loops passing through in the same direction, minus the assumed currents
through in the opposite direction.
b. The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the assigned loop currents.
Loop 1: From a terminal
12 I1 + 68I1 + 47( I1 − I 2 ) + 22( I1 − I 2 ) = 5 V + 6 V
(12 + 68 + 47 + 22)I1 − 47 I 2 − 22 I 2 = 11V
149 I1 − 69 I 2 = 11V

Loop 2: From b terminal

11I 2 + 22( I 2 − I1 ) + 47( I 2 − I1 ) + 27 I 2 = −6V − 9V
(11 + 22 + 47 + 27 )I 2 − 22 I1 − 47 I1 = −15V
− 69 I1 + 107 I 2 = −15V

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149 I1 − 69 I 2 = 11V
− 69 I1 + 107 I 2 = −15V

Step 4: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.
 149 − 69  I1   11V 
− 69 107   I  = − 15 V 
  2   

D 142
149 − 69 I1 = 1 = = 12.7 mA
D= = 149  107 − (−69)(−69) = 11182 D 11182
− 69 107
D2 − 1476
11V − 69 I2 = = = −131.99 mA
D1 = = 11V  107 − (−15V)(−69) = 142 D 11182
−15V 107

149 11V
D2 = = 149  (−15V) − (−69)(11V) = −1476
− 69 −15V

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EXAMPLE 8.16 Write the mesh equations for the network in Fig. 8.40, and find the current through the 8 
and 7  resistors.
16 − 2
D= = 16  9 − (−2)  (−2) = 140
−2 9

4 −2
D1 = = 4  9 − (−2)  (−9) = 18
−9 9

16 4
D2 = = 16  (−9) − (−2)  4 = −136
−2 −9
Loop 1 : (8 + 6 + 2)I1 − 2 I 2 = 4
Loop 2 : (2 + 7 )I 2 − 2 I1 = −9 D 18
I1 = I8 = 1 = = 0.13 A
D 140
16 I1 − 2 I 2 = 4
− 2 I1 + 9 I 2 = −9 D2 − 136
I 2 = I 7 = = = −0.97 A
D 140

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EXAMPLE 8.13 Write the mesh equations for the network in Fig. 8.32, and find the branch currents.

6 −4
D= = 6  10 − (−4)  (−4) = 44
− 4 10

− 10 − 4
D1 = = (−10)  10 − (1)  (−4) = −96
1 10

6 − 10
D2 = = 6  1 − (−4)  (−10) = −34
−4 1

D − 96
Loop 1 : (2 + 4)I1 − 4 I 2 = −6 − 4 I1 = I 2 = 1 = = −2.18 A
D 44
Loop 2 : (4 + 6)I 2 − 4 I1 = 4 − 3
D2 − 34
I 2 = I 6 = = = −0.77 A
6 I1 − 4 I 2 = −10 D 44
− 4 I1 + 10 I 2 = 1
I 4 = I1 − I 2 = −2.18 A − (−0.77 A) = −1.41 A

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EXAMPLE 8.7.1 (a) Write the mesh equations for each loop of the networks. (b) Using determinants, solve for
the loop currents. (b) Find the current of each branch.

+ − + − + −
+ − + −
I1 − +
I2 − + I3
a b c

Loop 1: Start from point a Loop 3: Start from point c

R1I1 + R2 ( I1 − I 2 ) = E1 R4 ( I 2 − I 3 ) + R5 I 3 = − E2
(R1 + R2 )I1 − R2 I 2 = E1 − R4 I 2 + ( R4 + R5 )I 3 = − E2

Putting the values of resistances and voltages:

Loop 2: Start from point b
3I1 − I 2 = 10V
R2 ( I 2 − I1 ) + R3 I 2 + R4 ( I 2 − I 3 ) = 0 − I1 + 10 I 2 − 5 I 3 = 0V
− R2 I1 + ( R2 + R3 + R4 )I 2 − R4 I 3 = 0 − 5 I 2 + 8 I 3 = −6V

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3I1 − I 2 = 10V 3 −1 0   I1  10V 

− I1 + 10 I 2 − 5 I 3 = 0V − 1 10 − 5  I 2  =  0V 
    
− 5 I 2 + 8 I 3 = −6V  0 −5 8   I 3  −6V 

3 −1 0 3 −1 0 3 −1 D = (3)(10)(8) + (−1)(−5)(0) + (0)(−1)(−5)

D = −1 10 −5 D = −1 10 −5 −1 10 − (0)(10)(0) − (3)(−5)(−5) − (−1)(−1)(8)
0 −5 8 0 −5 8 0 −5 = 240 − 75 − 8 = 157

10V −1 0 10V −1 0 10V −1 D1 = (10)(10)(8) + (−1)(−5)(−6) + (0)(0)(−5)

D1 = 0V 10 −5 D1 = 0V 10 −5 0V 10 − (0)(10)(−6) − (10)(−5)(−5) − (−1)(0)(8)
−6V −5 8 − 6V −5 8 − 6V −5 = 800 − 30 − 250 = 520

3 10V 0 3 10V 0 3 10V D2 = (3)(0)(8) + (10)(−5)(0) + (0)(−1)(−6)

D2 = − 1 0V −5 D2 = − 1 0V −5 −1 0V − (0)(0)(0) − (3)(−5)(−6) − (10)(−1)(8)
0 −6V 8 0 − 6V 8 0 − 6V = −90 + 80 = −10

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3 −1 10V 3 −1 10V 3 −1 D3 = (3)(10)(−6) + (−1)(0)(0) + (10)(−1)(−5)

D3 = − 1 10 0V D3 = − 1 10 0V −1 10 − (10)(10)(0) − (3)(0)(−5) − (−1)(−1)(−6)
0 −5 −6V 0 −5 − 6V 0 −5 = −180 + 50 + 6 = −124

Check or Justification of Results:

D 520 3I1 − I 2 = 10V
I1 = 1 = = 3.31 A
D 157 − I1 + 10 I 2 − 5 I 3 = 0V
D − 10 − 5 I 2 + 8 I 3 = −6V
I2 = 2 = = −0.0637 A or − 63.7 mA
D 157
D − 124
I3 = 3 = = −0.79 A or − 790 mA 3I1 − I 2 = 3  3.31 − 0.0637 = 10V
D 157
− I1 + 10 I 2 − 5 I 3 = − 3.31 + 10  0.0637 − 5  0.79 = 0V
− 5 I 2 + 8 I 3 = − 5  0.0637 + 8  0.79 = − 6V
(Justified)

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Write the mesh/loop equations for the following networks.

I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2

Loop 1 : Loop 1 : Loop 1 :

(4 + 8)I1 − 8I 2 = 4 (4 + 3)I1 − 3I 2 = −10 − 12 (5.6 + 2.2)(k) I1 − 2.2(k) I 2 = 10 + 20
Loop 2 : Loop 2 : Loop 2 :
(8 + 2)I 2 − 8I1 = −6 (3 + 12)I 2 − 3I1 = 12 (2.2 + 3.3)(k) I 2 − 2.2(k) I1 = −20 − 30

12 I1 − 8 I 2 = 4 7 I1 − 3I 2 = −22
(7.8k) I1 − (2.2k) I 2 = 30
− 8 I1 + 10 I 2 = −6 − 3I1 + 15I 2 = 12
− (2.2k) I1 + (5.5k) I 2 = −50

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Write the mesh/loop equations for the following networks.

I3 I4
I1 I2 I3

I1 I2
Loop 1 : (2.2 + 9.1)I1 − 9.1I 2 = 18
Loop 2 : (9.1 + 7.5 + 6.8)I 2 − 9.1I1 − 6.8 I 3 = −18
Loop 1 : (1.2 + 2.2 + 22)I1 − 22 I 2 − 2.2 I3 = 5
Loop 3 : (6.8 + 3.3)I 3 − 6.8 I 2 = −3
Loop 2 : (22 + 8.2 + 1.1)I 2 − 22 I1 − 8.2 I 4 = −18
11.3I1 − 9.1I 2 = 18
Loop 3 : (2.2 + 6.8 + 4.7 )I 3 − 2.2 I1 − 4.7 I 4 = 6
− 9.1I1 + 23.4 I 2 − 6.8 I 3 = −18
Loop 4 : (4.7 + 2.7 + 8.2 )I 4 − 8.2 I 2 − 4.7 I 3 = −6
− 6.8 I 2 + 10.1I 3 = −3
25.4 I1 − 22 I 2 − 2.2 I 3 = 5
− 22 I1 + 31.3I 2 − 8.2 I 4 = −18
− 2.2 I1 + 13.7 I 3 − 4.7 I 4 = 6
Practice Book [Ch 8] Problem: 28 ~ 34 − 8.2 I 2 − 4.7 I 3 + 15.6 I 4 = −6

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Write the mesh/loop equations for the following networks.

I2 Loop 1 : (6 + 5 + 10)I1 − 5I 2 − 10 I 3 = 6

Loop 2 : (5 + 5 + 5)I 2 − 5I1 − 5I 3 = 0

I1
I3 Loop 3 : (10 + 5 + 20)I 3 − 10 I1 − 5I 2 = 0

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NODAL ANALYSIS

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8.9 NODAL ANALYSIS

Steps of Nodal Analysis:
1. Convert voltage sources to current sources.
2. Determine the number of nodes within the network.
2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a subscripted value
of voltage: V1, V2, and so on.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at each node except the reference.
Assume that:
(a) all unknown currents leave the node for each application of Kirchhoff’s
current law (KCL).
(b) Each node is to be treated as a separate entity, independent of the
application of KCL to the other nodes.
4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.

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EXAMPLE 8.20 Apply nodal analysis to the network in Fig. 8.49.

Step 1 and 2: The network has three nodes with the bottom node
defined as the reference node (at ground potential, or zero volts),
and the other nodes as V1 and V2.
Step 3: For node V1, the currents are defined as shown in the
following Figure (b) and Kirchhoff’s current law is applied:
I2 I1 + I 2 + I = I E
I1 + I 2 = I E − I
Solution: Convert the voltage sources to V1 V1 − V2
current sources as shown in Figure (a). I1 + = IE − I
R1 R2
V2 1 1   1 
V1  + V1 −  V2 = I E − I
 R1 R2   R2 
(b) 1 1 1
 + V1 −  V2 = 8 − 2
8 4  4
0V 3V1 − 2V2 = 48
(a)

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For node V2, the currents are defined as shown in the following
Figure (c) and Kirchhoff’s current law is applied:
I2
3V1 − 2V2 = 48
− 5V2 + 7V2 = 40

I3 3 −2
D= = 21 − 10 = 11
−5 7
48 − 2
D1 = = 336 + 80 = 416
40 7
(c)
I 2 + I3 = I 3 48
D2 = = 120 + 240 = 360
− 5 40
 1 1   1 
 + V2 −  V1 = I
 2
R R3  R2  D 416
V1 = 1 = = 37.82 V
1 1  1 D 11
 + V2 −  V1 = 2
 4 10   4 D
V2 = 2 =
360
= 32.72 V
D 11
7V2 − 5V1 = 40

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Step 3: For node V1, the currents are defined as shown

in the following Figure (a) and Kirchhoff’s current law
is applied:
1 1  1
I1 + I 3 = 4  + V1 −  V2 = 4 7V1 −V2 = 48
 2 12   12 
For node V2, the currents are defined as shown in the
following Figure (b) and Kirchhoff’s current law is
applied:
Step 1 and 2: The network has three nodes with the
bottom node defined as the reference node (at
ground potential, or zero volts), and the other nodes
as V1 and V2.
(b)
I 2 + I 3 = −2

 1 1 1 3V2 −V1 = −24

 + V2 −  V1 = −2
(a)  12 6   12 

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7V1 − V2 = 48
− V1 + 3V2 = −24

7 −1
D= = 21 − 1 = 20
−1 3

48 − 1
D1 = = 144 − 24 = 120 Here, V1> V1
− 24 3

7 48
D2 = = −168 + 48 = −120
− 1 − 24

D 120
V1 = 1 = =6V
D 20
D − 120
V2 = 2 = = −20 V
D 20

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EXAMPLE 8.24 Find the voltage across the 3  Step 3: For node V1, the currents are defined as
resistor in Fig. 8.61 by nodal analysis. shown in the following Figure (b) and Kirchhoff’s
current law is applied:

1 1 1 1
 + + V1 −  V2 = 4 11V1 − 2V2 = 48
 2 4 6 6

For node V2:

Solution: First convert two voltage sources to current
sources. 1 1 1  1
V1 V2  + + V2 −  V1 = −0.1 18V2 − 5V1 = −3
 6 3 10  6

Simplified form:
11V1 − 2V2 = 48
− 5V1 + 18V2 = −3

Step 1 and 2: The network has three nodes with the 11 − 2

bottom node defined as the reference node (at ground D= = 198 − 10 = 188
− 5 18
potential, or zero volts), and the other nodes as V1 and V2.

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11V1 − 2V2 = 48
− 5V1 + 18V2 = −3
Current of branches:
48 − 2
D1 = = 864 − 6 = 858
− 3 18
V 4.56 V
11 48 I 2 = 1 = = 2.28 A
D2 = = −33 + 240 = 207 2 2
−5 −3
V 4.56 V
I 4 = 1 = = 1.14 A
D 858 4 4
V1 = 1 = = 4.56 V
D 188 V −V 4.56 V − 1.1V
I 6 = 1 2 = = 0.577 A
D 207 6 6
V2 = V3 = 2 = = 1.1 V
D 188 V 1.1V
I 3 = 2 = = 0.367 A
3 3
V 1.1V
I10 = 2 = = 0.11 A
10  10 

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Write the nodal equations for the following networks.

V1 V2
V1 V2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 + + V1 −  V2 = 5 12V1 − 5V2 = 50  + V1 −  V2 = 4 − 2 3V1 − V2 = 8
 2 5 2  2  2 4  4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 + V2 −  V1 = 3 3V2 − 2V1 = 6  + + V2 −  V1 = 2 10V2 − 5V1 = 40
 2 4  2  4 20 5   4

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Write the nodal equations for the following networks.

1 1 1 1
 + + V1 −  V2 = −5 − 3 9V1 − 3V2 = −48
 3 6 4   4

 1 1 1
 + V2 −  V1 = 3 − 4 3V2 − 2V1 = −8
 4 8   4

V1 V2

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Write the nodal equations for the following networks.

1 1 1
 + V1 −  V2 = −5
 2 2  2
2V1 − V2 = −10

1 1 1 1 1 1
 + + + V2 −  V1 −  V3 = 0
 2 9 7 2   
2  2
158V2 − 63V1 − 63V3 = 0
V1 V2 V3
1 1 1 1
 + + V3 −  V2 = 5
 2 2 4  2
5V2 − 2V2 = 20

Practice Book [Ch 8] Problem: 41 ~ 44

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8.12 Y− (T−) and −Y (−T)

CONVERSIONS

Circuit configurations are often encountered in which the resistors do not

appear to be in series or parallel. Under these conditions, it may be
necessary to convert the circuit from one form to another [i.e. convert from
Y/T to / or / to Y/T] to solve for any unknown quantities

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Y (Wye)
a c

Rc
Ra

Rb

T (Tee)

a Ra Rc c

Rb

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 (Delta)
a
a

Rab
Rab Rca b Rca

Rbc
Rbc
b c c

 (Pai)

a Rab b

Rca Rbc

c c

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Conversion from Y (T) to  ()

Calculate Rab, Rbc and Rca

Rabc = Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra

R R R + Rb Rc + Rc Ra
Rab = abc = a b
Rc Rc

R R R + Rb Rc + Rc Ra
Rbc = abc = a b
Ra Ra
Here, Ra, Rb and Rc are known.
R R R + Rb Rc + Rc Ra
Rca = abc = a b
Rb Rb
If Ra = Rb = Rc = RY then Rab = Rbc = Rca = R = 3RY For derivation of these equations
go through Eq. (8.3a) to (8.4 c)

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Conversion from  () to Y (T)

Calculate Ra, Rb and Rc
Rabc = Rab + Rbc + Rca

R R Rab Rca
Ra = ab ca =
Rabc Rab + Rbc + Rca

R R Rbc Rab
Rb = bc ab =
Rabc Rab + Rbc + Rca
Here, Rab, Rbc and Rca are known.
R R Rca Rbc
Rc = ca bc =
Rabc Rab + Rbc + Rca

R
If Rab = Rbc = Rca = R then Rab = Rbc = Rca = RY =  For derivation of these equations
3
go through Eq. (8.5a) to (8.5c)

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Problem 51(a) [P. 342]. Using a -Y or Y- conversion, find the current I in each of the networks in Fig.
8.134(a).
a
Rad R1 Rabc = Rad Rbd + Rbd Rcd + Rcd Rad
= (2)(1) + (1)(3) + (3)(2)
d b = 2 + 3 + 6 = 11
Rcd Rbd

R2
c R 11
Rab = abc = = 3.67 
Rcd 3
Solution: First, marked four nodes (a, b, c, and d)
in the circuit.
R 11
Rbc = abc = = 5.5 
Let, Rad = 2 , Rbd = 1 , Rcd = 3 , R1 = 2 , and Rad 2
R2 = 4 

Here, Rad, Rbd, and Rcd made Y connection where d

R 11
is common point. So, this Y connection is going to Rca = abc = = 11
convert  connection. Rbd 1

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RT = ( Rca ) //( Rab // R1 ) + ( Rbc // R2 )

a = (11 ) //(3.67 // 2 ) + (5.5 // 4 )
= (11 ) //1.29 + 2.32
I
Rab 3.67  R1 2 = (11 ) //3.61
+ 11  b
20 V
Rca
= 2.72 
− Rbc 5.5  R2 4

c
E 20 V
I= = = 7.35 V
RT 2.72 

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Problem 51(b) [P. 342]. Using a -Y or Y- conversion, find the current I in each of the networks in Fig.
8.134(b).
Here, Rab = Rbc = Rca = R = 6.8 k
R1 R2
R
so, Ra = Rb = Rc = RY = 
Rab 3
a b 6.8 k
Rbc
= = 2.27 k
Rca 3
c
Solution: First, marked four nodes (a, b, and c) in R1 4.7 k R2 1.1 k
the circuit. a b
+
Let, R1=4.7 k, R2=1.1 k, Rab=Rbc=Rca= 6.8 k 8 V Ra 2.27  Rb 2.27 
−
Here, Rab, Rbc, and Rca made  connection. So, this Rc 2.27 
 connection is going to convert Y connection. I
c

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RT = [( R1 + Ra ) // ( R2 + Rb )] + Rc
= [(4.7 k + 2.27k ) // (1.1k + 2.27k )] + 2.27k
= [(6.97k ) // (3.37k )] + 2.27k
= 2.27k + 2.27k
= 4.54k

E 8V
I= = = 1.76 mA
RT 4.54 k

Practice Book [Ch 8] Problem: 51 ~ 56

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8.11 BRIDGE NETWORKS

1 1
1 4

2 4 2 4

2
3 3
3

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Balanced Bridge Network

If the ratio of R1 to R3 is equal to that of R2 to R4, the
bridge is balanced, and I = 0 A or V = 0 V.

If this condition is not satisfied, to solve the bridge circuit use the other techniques.

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Example 8.11.1: Find the current I for the following network.

Solution: Here: R1 = 4 = 2 and R2 = 2 = 2 so R1 = R2

R3 2 R4 1 R3 R4

RT = 3 + (4 // 2 ) + (2 // 1 ) = 5 
E 20 V
I= = = 4A
RT 5

RT = 3 + (6 // 3 ) = 5 
E 20 V
I= = = 4A
RT 5

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