Digital Electronics Unit 6

Unit 6 Boolean Algebra – Part II

Structure:
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Simplification of Boolean Expressions
6.3 Minimization Techniques for Boolean Expressions
Karnaugh map
Quine McCluskey method
6.4 Implementing Boolean Expressions Using NAND Gates
6.5 Implementing Boolean Expressions Using NOR Gates
6.6 Summary
6.7 Terminal Questions
6.8 Answers

6.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you have studied the rules and laws of Boolean algebra.
There are lots of applications that require the use of Boolean algebra. When
the Boolean expression gets complicated or large, it will be difficult for the
programmer or the designer of the digital systems to simplify the expression.
In digital system design, one of the main objectives is to implement a
Boolean function using minimum number of discrete gates. This reduces the
cost of the circuit as the number of gates used in implementing a Boolean
function reduces. Simplification of Boolean function can be performed using
a Boolean algebra. However, simplification using algebraic process can be
tedious, and at the end of process, the designer is not always sure whether
the simplest solution is obtained or not. Moreover, when the variables are
more, simplification becomes complicated and the designer should
remember all the rules and laws. This is really difficult. So instead of using
algebraic process, Boolean function can be simplified easily by plotting the
function to Karnaugh map which uses simple rules to reduce the Boolean
function. Up to six variables simplification of Boolean function using
karnaugh maps will be very straightforward. But when the number variables
are more than six, tabulation method developed by Quine and McCluskey
will be the better method to simplify the Boolean function. This method is
called Quine-McCluskey method or tabular method. In this unit we will study

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simplification of Boolean expressions using Boolean algebra, Karnaugh map

and Quine-McCluskey Methods.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 simplify the given expressions using rules and laws of Boolean algebra.
 define Karnaugh map
 minimize the given expressions using Karnaugh map and McCluskey
method
 explain implementing Boolean expressions using NAND gates
 explain implementing Boolean expressions using NOR gates

6.2 Simplification of Boolean Expressions

Simplification of Boolean expressions is mainly used to reduce the gate
count of a design. Less number of gates means less power consumption,
sometimes the circuit works faster and also when the number of gates is
reduced, cost also comes down. There are many ways to simplify a logic
design. Some of them are given below.
 Boolean algebra
 Karnaugh Map.
 Quine-Mc Cluskey method or tabular method

In this section we will be looking only at simplification using rules and laws
of Boolean algebra. The remaining methods will be discussed in the next
section 6.3.
Now let us see some examples of simplification of given logic expressions
using rules and laws of Boolean algebra.
Example 6.1: Simplify the Boolean expression XY′Z′+XY′Z′W+XZ′
Solution: XY′Z′+XY′Z′W+XZ′
=XY′Z′ (1+W) +XZ′
=XY′Z′+XZ′ ∵ 1+W=1
=XZ′ (Y′+1)
=XZ′ ∵ Y′+1=1

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Example 6.2: Simplify the Boolean expression X+X′Y+Y′+(X+Y′) X′Y

Solution: X+X′Y+Y′+XX′Y+Y′X′Y
=X+X′Y+Y′ as XX′=0, and YY′=0
=X+Y+Y′ as X+X′Y=X+Y
=X+1 as Y+Y′=1
=1 as X + 1=1
Example 6.3: Simplify the Boolean expression Z(Y+Z) (X+Y+Z)
Solution: Z(Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) given
=(ZY+ZZ)(X+Y+Z)
= (ZY+Z) (X+Y+Z) as ZZ=Z
=Z(X+Y+Z) as Z+ZY=Z
=ZX+ZY+ZZ
=ZX+ZY+Z as ZZ=Z,
=ZX+Z as Z+ZY=Z
=Z as Z+ZX=Z
Example 6.4: Simplify the Boolean expression (X+Y)(X′+Z)(Y+Z)
Solution: (X+Y)(X′+Z)(Y+Z)
= (XX′+XZ+YX′+YZ)(Y+Z)
=(XZ+YX′+YZ) (Y+Z) as XX′=0
=XZY+YYX′+YYZ+XZZ+YX′Z+YZZ
=XZY+YX′+YZ+XZ+YX′Z+YZ as YY=Y, ZZ=Z
=XZY+XZ+YX′+YX′Z+YZ as YZ+YZ=YZ
=XZ(Y+1) +YX′+YZ (X′+1) as Y+1=1, X′+1=1
=XZ+YX′+YZ
Now it seems that it cannot be reduced further. But apply the following trick:
The above expression can be written as
XZ+YX′+YZ(X+X′) as X+X′=1
=XZ+YX′+YZX+YZX′
Rearranging the terms we get
XZ+YXZ+Y X′+YX′Z
=XZ (1+Y) +YX′ (1+Z)
=XZ+YX′ as 1+Y=1, 1+Z=1

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Example 6.5: Simplify AB(A + B)(B + B).

Solution: AB(A + B)(B + B)
= AB( A+ B)(B)
= AB(AB+BB)
= AB(AB+B)
= AB AB+ ABB
= AB+AB
= AB
Example 6.6: Simplify the expression (A + C) (AD + AD’) + AC + C and
realize the simplified expression using logic gates. Also write the truth table
for the simplified expression.
Solution: (A + C)(AD + AD’) + AC + C
= (A + C)A(D + D) + AC + C
= (A + C)A + AC + C as D+D’=1
= AA +AC+ AC + C
= A + AC + C as AA=A, AC+AC=AC
= A(1 + C) + C
=A+C As 1+C=1
Logic diagram is as shown in figure 6.1 below.

Figure 6.1: Logic diagram for the expression A+C

Now the truth table for the simplified expression A+C is shown in the
table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Truth table for the expression A+C

A C A+C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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Example 6.7: Simplify the following Boolean expression using rules and
laws of Boolean algebra and write the truth table and logic circuit for the
simplified expression.

The truth table of the simplified logic function is shown in the table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Truth table for AB+BC+AC

A B C AB BC AC AB+BC+AC
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Logic diagram of simplified logic function is shown in the figure 6.3.

Figure 6.2: Logic Diagram of the expression AB+BC+AC

Solution:

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Self-Assessment Questions
1. Less number of gates means less power consumption. (State true or
false)
2. The Boolean expression X+X′Y+Y′+(X+Y′) X′Y after simplification yields
____________.
3. The expression (A + C)(AD + AD) + AC + C can be minimized to
_____________.

6.3 Minimization Techniques for Boolean Expressions

There are two popular minimization techniques for Boolean expressions
apart from Boolean algebra. They are:
1. Karnaugh map
2. Quine McCluskey Method or Tabular method
6.3.1 Karnaugh Map
Maurice Karnaugh a telecommunication engineer invented Karnaugh in
1953 at Bell Labs.
A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a visual representation of a Boolean function.
The idea is to recognize patterns in the visual representation and thus find a
minimized circuit for the Boolean function. K-maps are generally used in
simplification of two, three or four variables Boolean function, but can be
cumbersome for five or more variables
We can use Karnaugh map as a systematic method to obtain simplified
sum-of-products (SOPs) Boolean expressions. A K-map consists of a grid of
squares called Cells and each square (or cell ) represents either a minterm
or a maxterm. A K-map of n variables will have 2 squares. The map is
arranged so that squares representing minterms or maxterms which differ
only by one variable are adjacent both vertically and horizontally. For a
Boolean expression, product terms are denoted by 1's, while sum terms are
denoted by 0's.
Two variable K map:
The figure 6.3 shows the various ways of k-map for 2 variables.

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Figure 6.3: K map for 2-variables: Different styles of row and column
identification

From the figure 6.4 it is evident that there are different ways of writing a
K-map. We can write a k-map for minterms and maxterms as well but
normally minterms will be preferred. The minterm are represented in k-map
as shown in the figure 6.4(d).
K map for 3-Variables: For three variables, there are eight possible
combinations and each cell in K-map corresponds to one of the
combinations.
The figure 6.4 shows the various ways of k-map for 3 variables.

Figure 6.4: K map for 3-variables: Different styles of row and column
identification

Once we have placed the 1's in the map, there is a simple procedure that
we apply.

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K map for 4-variables: The figure 6.6 shows the various ways of k-map for
4 variables.

Figure 6.5: K map for 4-variables: Different styles of row and column
identification

K-map is a compact way of representing a truth table and is a technique that

is used to simplify logic expressions. For example, consider the truth table
for the function f (x, y, z) shown in the table 6.3.

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Table 6.3: Truth Table for the function f(x, y, z)

.
This can be transformed into K-map as shown in the figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6: K-map for table 6.3

Before analyzing the procedure, understanding its basics is necessary. As

there are many simple functions in Boolean functions, K-maps are useful.
The simple functions in Boolean function are known as product function;
product functions can be the product of a few variables or all variables. The
product terms can have both normal variable and its complements. For
example, A, A'B and ABC are all product functions but A + B' and AB + CD
are not product functions.
Minimization Technique: The following procedure or technique can be
used while solving given expression using K-map.
 The expression to be minimized should either be in Sum of product
(SOP) form or in product of sum (POS) form. But generally sum-of-

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products (SOP) form will be preferred (If necessary, the conversion

process is applied to create the sum-of-products form).
 The function is mapped onto the K-map by placing 1 in those squares
corresponding to the terms in the expression to be simplified (The other
squares may be left blank or filled with 0's).
 Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.
 Draw loops around adjacent groups of two, four, or eight 1s on the map.
The loops may overlap. Start grouping in the order of eight 1’s(Octet),
four 1’s(Quad), two 1’s( Pair) and single 1’s. A group must be as large
as possible.
 Every square containing 1 must be considered at least once.
 If a square that is containing 1 cannot be placed in a group, then leave it
out to include in final expression.
 Consider don’t cares (X) if given in the expression to form a group that
covers larger number of 1’s. Don’t care values may be considered as
1 in case of SOP and 0 in case of POS expressions respectively.
 Remove the redundant group whose all number 1’s are covered by
other groups.
 Compare the adjacent variables of the group horizontally and vertically
and Eliminate the variable(s) that appear(s) with its (their)
complement(s) within a loop, and save the variable(s) that is (are) left.
 Write the product term for every group.
 Write the SOP expression by summing all product terms. This will give
the final simplified expression.
Before we see some of the examples of grouping, let us study the
definitions of the terms, Pair, Quad and Octet.
Pair: A group of two 1’s is called a pair.
Quad: A group of four 1’s is called a quad.
Octet: A group of eight 1’s is called an octet.

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Figure 6.7: Pair, Quad and Octet

The simplified logic expression obtained from a K-map is not always unique.
Groupings can be made in different ways as shown in figure 6.8. But before
drawing a K-map, the logic expression must be in canonical form. The
various ways of grouping 1’s are shown below:
 Opposite corner cells form a group.

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 Groups should include any cell containing a 1.

 Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.

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 Each group should be as large as possible.

 Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group.

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 Groups may overlap.

 Groups may wrap around. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped
with the rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with
the bottom cell.

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 There should be as few groups as possible, as long as this does not

contradict any of the previous rules.

Groups of Four 1’s:

Group of eight 1’s:

Now let see some of the examples for simplification of given Boolean
expressions using K-map method.

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Example 6.9: Simplify the Boolean function F= X'Y+XY

Solution: The given equation is in SOP form. We draw the k-map for
function F with marking 1 for X'Y and XY positions. We make groups of
two 1's as shown in figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8: K-Map for F= X'Y+XY

As you can observe horizontally, the corresponding variables X and X' get
cancelled and when we observe the group vertically it corresponds to
only Y. So final simplified expression is F = Y
Example 6.10: Simplify F= X'Y+XY+XY' using K map.
In this example there are two variables X and Y. It requires a 2 variable
K-map. We draw the k-map with marking 1 for X'Y, XY and XY positions.
Now combine two 1's as shown in figure 6.9 to form two single terms.

F=X+Y
Figure 6.9: K map for X'Y+XY+XY'

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In the above example, the bottom horizontal group corresponds to the

variables X when it is observed horizontally. And when we observe the
same group vertically, it corresponds Y and Y'. Since this variable is present
in both uncomplemented and complemented forms, it gets cancelled. This
results in the term X.
Now consider the second group (i.e. vertical group). When we observe this
group, it corresponds to X and X'. This group gets cancelled as the
variables are present both in complemented and uncomplemented form. But
when we observe it vertically, it corresponds to the variable Y. So we obtain
the term Y.
Combining both the resultant terms of the groups, we get F= X+Y. This is
the final expression in simplified form.

Example 6.11: Simplify using K-map.

Solution: Since there are three variables, we use a three variables k-map
as shown in the figure 6.10.

F = AB + BC
Figure 6.10: K-map for Example 6.11

Example 6.12: F(X, Y, Z) = (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

Solution: Since there are three variables, we use a three variables k-map
as shown in the figure 6.11.

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F=X+Z
Figure 6.11: K-map for Example 6.12

Example 6.13: Simplify F (W, X, Y, Z) = (4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15)

Solution: The k-map for this four variable function is drawn as shown in
figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12: K-map for Example 6.13

Example 6.14: Simplify the following expression using K-map and write the
logic circuit for the simplified expression. Also write the truth table.

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Solution: The k-map is drawn as shown in figure 6.13. The table 6.4 shows
the truth table of

Figure 6.13: K-map for Example 6.14

The logic diagram for the expression F= AB+CD is shown in figure 6.14.
The table 6.4 shows its corresponding truth table.

Figure 6.14: Logic diagram for F=AB+CD

Example 6.15: Simplify f (a, b, c, d)= ∑m(0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14).

Solution: Write the Karnaugh Map and enter 1’s as shown in figure 6.15 in
the corresponding cells.

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Figure 6.15: Karnaugh Map for example 6.15.

Now group the 1’s starting from groups of eight 1’s, then four 1’s, two 1’s as
shown in figure 6.16.

Figure 6.16: Karnaugh Map simplification for example 6.15

Finally we get,
f = aIdI + bdI+ aIbc+abId + cIdI
Example 6.16: Simplify the following expression using K-Map.

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Solution: The K-map and its simplification is shown in figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17: K- Map for example 6.16.

Implicant: An implicant is a "covering" (sum term or product term) of one

or more minterms in a sum of products (or maxterms in a product of sums)
of a Boolean function. In other words, an implicant is a single minterm
(or maxterm) or group of minterms (or maxterms) that can be combined
together on the K-map. The figure 6.18 illustrates this concept.

Figure 6.18: Implicant

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In the figure 6.18, A'B'C', A'BC', A'BC, ABC, A'C', A'B, and BC are the
implicants
Prime implicant: A prime implicant is an implicant of the function that is
not included in any other implicant of the function. The figure 6.19 illustrates
this concept.

Figure 6.19: Prime Implicants

Essential Prime implicant: An essential prime implicant is a prime

implicant that includes at least one ‘1’ that is not included in any other prime
implicant. The figure 6.20 illustrates this concept.

Figure 6.20: Essential prime implicant

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We can observe that figure 6.20(a) shows all prime implicants, but the figure
6.20(b) shows only the essential prime implicants that have at least one ‘1’
and that are not included in any other prime implicants.
Redundant Group: In a redundant group all its elements (all 1’s) are
covered by other groups. The figure 6.21 illustrates this concept.

Figure 6.21: Redundant Groups

Don’t Cares:
In some digital systems, certain input conditions never occur during normal
operations and hence the corresponding output never appears. Since the
output does not appear it is indicated by an X or d in the truth table. A "don't
care" condition is a combination of inputs for which the designer doesn't
care what the output is. Therefore "don't care" conditions can either be
included in or excluded from any rectangular group, whichever makes it
larger. Don’t care conditions are indicated on the map with a dash or X. This
X can be 0 or 1. This means don’t cares can be treated as 0’s and 1’s
whichever is more convenient in the process of k-map simplification.
Karnaugh maps also allow easy minimizations of functions whose truth
tables include "don't care" conditions.
Consider the truth table shown in the table 6.5 in which the output is low for
all input entries from 1001 and ‘X’ from 1010 through 1111. The don’t care
conditions are denoted by ’X’.

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Table 6.5: Don’t care condition

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The K-map for the truth table 6.5 is shown in the figure 6.22.

Figure 6.22: K-map for the table 6.5

Here three don’t cares are treated as 1’s to get a quad which eliminates two
variables. The remaining don’t cares are treated as 0’s.
Steps to be followed to apply don’t care conditions:
1. For the given truth table, draw a K-map with 0’s, 1’s and don’t cares.
2. Encircle the actual 1’s on the K-map in the largest groups, by treating
don’t cares as 1’s.
3. After the actual 1’s have been included in groups discard the remaining
don’t cares visualizing them as 0’s.
Example 6.17: Minimize the function
F (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1, 3,7,11,15) + d(0,2,5).
Solution: The figure 6.23 shows the Karnaugh map for the above function.

F= A’B’+CD
Figure 6.23: K map for example 6.17

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In the Karnaugh map of figure 6.23, the minterm m0 and m2 i.e., A′B′C′D′
and A′B′CD′, are don’t care terms and its value is assumed as 1s, while
making a quad. The simplified SOP expression of the above function can
be written as
F= A’B’+CD.
Example 6.18: Example: Simplify the Boolean function
F(w, x, y, z) = S(1,3,7,11,15)+ d(w, x, y, z) = S(0,2,5)
Solution: The figure 6.24 shows the Karnaugh map for the above function.

Figure 6.24: K-map for the example 6.18

Activity 1:
Write Boolean expression that has minimum of 4 minterms with 2 don’t
care conditions and simplify it using a K-map.

6.3.2 Quine McCluskey method

When a Boolean expression contains more than six variables, then it
becomes very difficult to solve the expression using Karnaugh map method.
In such cases the Quine–McCluskey (Q-M) method can be used to solve
Boolean equations. This method was developed by W.V. Quine and Edward
J. McCluskey. This method is sometimes referred to as the method of prime
implicants or the tabulation method. It is functionally identical to Karnaugh
mapping, but the tabular form makes it more efficient for use in computer

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algorithms, and it also gives a deterministic way to check that the minimal
form of a Boolean function has been reached.
The method involves two steps:
1. Finding all prime implicants of the function.
2. Use those prime implicants in a prime implicant chart to find the
essential prime implicants of the function, as well as other prime
implicants that are necessary to cover the function.
Now we consider the following example 6.20 to explain Quine-McCluskey
method of solving given Boolean expressions.

Example 6.19: Solve F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0,2,3,6,7,8,9,10,13) using Quine-

McCluskey method.

Solution:
The following steps are followed to simplify the given Boolean expression
using Quine-McCluskey method.
Step 1: If the function is not given in binary minterm form, then translate the
decimal values to binary notation of minterms.
The F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0,2,3,6,7,8,9,10,13) can be written as
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0000, 0010, 0011, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1101)

Step 2: Minterms are grouped depending upon number of one’s they have
and entered in table form as shown in the table 6.6

Table 6.6: Quine-McCluskey Method-Step 2.

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Step 3: The minterms in the adjacent blocks are compared to determine the
minterms which are differed by only one bit. Replace the missing literal
by – and place the minterms in the next column. The minterms in the
present column which are combined are placed with a check mark as shown
in the table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Quine-McCluskey Method for Step 3

Step 4: The minterms in the adjacent blocks are compared to determine the
minterms which are differed by only one bit. Note -’s must line up. Replace
the missing literal by – and place the minterms in the next column. The
minterms in the present column which are combined are placed with a
check mark. This step is shown in the table 6.8. This process is completed
until further comparison is not possible. This completes the first phase of
Q-M method.
Table 6.8: Quine-McCluskey Method for Step 4

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The terms which are not marked with ‘√’ are the Prime implicants. From the
table 6.8 the prime implicants and corresponding literals (or variables) are:
(8, 9) 100-
(9, 13) 1-01
(0, 2, 8, 10) 0-0-
(2, 6, 3,7 ) 0-1-
But all the prime implicants may not be necessary. To find out the essential
prime implicants, follow the step 5 and 6.
Step 5: The prime implicant chart is to be formed with minterms in a row
and prime implicants in column. When there is intersection of minterm and
the prime implicant, the  placed as shown in the table table 6.9.
Table 6.9: Quine-McCluskey Method for Step 5

Step 6: Select prime implicants for minterms with only one  in a column as
shown in the table 6.10
Table 6.10: Quine-McCluskey Method for Step 6

The minterms with only one  are the essential prime implicants as they are
absolutely necessary to form the minimized Boolean expression. So
minterms (0, 2, 8,10) and (2,3,6,7) are essential prime implicants. Note that
the minterms already covered are dropped. For example, the single tick
mark() is selected for column 0 and 3 and corresponding minterms are
marked with star mark (*). The remaining single tick marks() for the
columns 3, 6,7,10 and 13 have been dropped since the corresponding
minterms are already covered.
Step 7: Repeat step 6 for minterms with only two  in a column. If the
minterms of those colums are already included, then not required to be

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considered. This step is shown in the table 6.11. This step is required to
include some minterms that are still not covered.
Table 6.11: Quine-McCluskey Method for Step 7

In table 6.11, two  correspond to columns 2, 8 and 9. These can be

dropped since corresponding minterms are already covered.
Now the expression is
F(A,B,C,D) = 1-01 + -0-0 + 0-1-
Step 8: Translate to literal notation
1-01 = AC’D,
-0-0 = B’D’
0-1- = A’C
Therefore, the final expression is: F (A,B,C,D) = AC’D + B’D’ + A’C
Don’t Cares:
It is important to note that don’t cares are used to find out prime implicants
but not compulsory to include in the final expression. Now we consider the
following example 6.21 to explain the method.
Example 6.20: Solve G(A,B,C,D) = m(2,3,6,8,9,10,13) +d(0,7) using
Quine-McCluskey Method.
Solution: The following steps are used.
Step 1: Translate to canonical minterm representation
G(A,B,C,D) = m(2,3,6,8,9,10,13) +d(0,7)
Step 2: Form table and find prime implicants. Include minterms and don’t
cares in table. Since G(A,B,C,D) is just F(A,B,C,D) with mintems
0 and 7 changed to don’t cares.
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0010, 0011, 0110, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1101) +∑d( 0000, 0111)

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Step 3, Step 4, Step 5: These steps would be identical to steps 3,

through 5 of the above example 6.19. See the steps 3 through 5 of
example 6.19 above.
Step 6: Form table with don’t cares missing. Only include required minterms.
Note that columns 0 and 7 are missing. Check required minterms covered
by each prime implicant. This step is shown in table 6.12.
Table 6.12: Step 6 of example 6.21

Step 7: Select column in which a specific minterm is only covered by one

prime implicant. i.e. select only one  in a column. This step is shown in
table 6.13.
Table 6.13: Step 7 of example 6.21.

Step 8: Repeat step 7 for minterms with only two  in a column. If the
minterms of those colums are already included, then not required to be
considered. This step is shown in the table 6.14
Table 6.14: Step 8 of example 6.21.

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In table 6.14, two  correspond to columns 2, 8 and 9. These can be

dropped since corresponding minterms are already included.
The essential prime implicants marked by * are: 1-01 , -0-0 , 0-1-
Step F: Translate back to literals.
G(A,B,C,D) = 1-01 + -0-0 + 0-1-
G((A,B,C,D) = AC’D + B’D’ +A’C
Self-Assessment Questions
4. A ________________is a visual representation of a Boolean function.
5. In a K map, a group of eight 1’s is called ____________.
6. Don’t care value may be considered as _________ in case of SOP and
__________ in case of POS expressions respectively.
7. The simplified form of the expression using
K-map is _______________.
8. A ______________ is an implicant of the function that is not included in
any other implicant of the function
9. When the number of variables are more than six in a given Boolean
expressions, Quine–McCluskey (Q-M) method will be used.
(State true or false)

6.4 Implementing Boolean Expressions Using NAND Gates:

The implementation of a Boolean function with NAND-NAND logic requires
that the function be simplified in the sum of product form. The relationship
between AND-OR logic and NAND-NAND logic is explained using the
following example.
Consider the Boolean function: Y = A B C + D E + F. This Boolean function
can be implemented using AND-OR logic as shown in figure 6.25.

Figure 6.25: AND-OR logic for the expression Y = A B C + D E + F

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Figure 6.26 shows the AND gates are replaced by NAND gates and the OR
gate is replaced by a bubbled OR gate.

Figure 6.26: NAND-Bubbled OR

The implementation shown in figure 6.26 is equivalent to implementation in

figure 6.26, because two bubbles on the same line represent double
inversion (complementation) which is equivalent to having no bubble on the
line. In case of single variable, F, the complemented variable is again
complemented by bubble to produce the normal value of F.
The three inputs bubbled OR gate shown in figure 6.26 can be replaced by
a three input NAND gate as shown in figure 6.27.

Figure 6.27: NAND-NAND

The NAND gate with same inputs gives complemented result; therefore F′ is
replaced by NAND gate with F input to its both inputs. Thus all the three
implementations of the Boolean function are equivalent.

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From the above example we can summarize the rules for obtaining the
NAND-NAND logic diagram from a Boolean function as follows:
 Simplify the given Boolean function and express it in sum of products
form (SOP form).
 Draw a NAND gate for each product term of the function that has two or
more literals. The inputs to each NAND gate are the literals of the term.
This constitutes a group of first-level gates.
 If Boolean function includes any single literal or literals draw NAND
gates for each single literal and connect corresponding literal as an input
to the NAND gate.
 Draw a single NAND gate in the second level, with inputs coming from
outputs of first level gates.

6.5 Implementing Boolean Expressions Using NOR Gates:

The NOR function is a dual of the NAND function. For this reason, the
implementation procedures and rules for NOR-NOR logic are the duals of
the corresponding procedures and rules developed for NAND-NAND logic.
The implementation of a Boolean function with NOR-NOR logic requires that
the function be simplified in the product of sums (POS) form. In product of
sums form, we implement all sum terms using OR gates. This constitutes
the first level. In the second level all sum terms are logically ANDed using
AND gates. The relationship between OR-AND logic and NOR-NOR is
explained using the following example
Consider the Boolean function: Y = (A + B +C) (D + E) F
The Boolean function can be implemented using OR-AND logic, as shown
in the Figure 6.28.

Figure 6.28: OR-AND

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In figure 6.29, the OR gates are replaced by NOR gates and the AND gate
is replaced by a bubbled AND gate.

Figure 6.29: NOR-Bubbled AND

The implementation shown in figure 6.29 is equivalent to implementation

shown in figure 6.28 because two bubbles on the same line represent
double inversion (complementation) which is equivalent to having no bubble
on the line. In case of single variable, F, the complemented variable is again
complemented by bubble to produce the normal value of F.
In figure 6.30, the output NOR gate is redrawn with the conventional
symbol.

Figure 6.30: NOR-NOR

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The NOR gate with same inputs gives complemented result. Therefore, F is
replaced by NOR gate with F input to its both inputs. Thus all the three
implementations of the Boolean function are equivalent.
From the above example, we can summarize the rules for obtaining the
NOR-NOR logic diagram from a Boolean function as follows:
 Simplify the given Boolean function and express it in product of sums
form(POS form)
 Draw a NOR gate for each sum term of the function that has two or
more literals. The inputs to each NOR gate are the literals of term. This
constitutes a group of first level gates.
 If Boolean function includes any single literal or literals, draw NOR gate
for each single literal and connect corresponding literal as an input to the
NOR gate.
 Draw a single NOR gate in the second level, with inputs coming from
outputs of first level gates.

Activity 2:
Write Boolean expressions of any digital circuit that involves six variables
and simplify using Quine–McCluskey (Q-M) method.

Self-Assessment Questions
10. The implementation of a Boolean function with __________logic
requires that the function be simplified in the sum of product form.
11. The NOR function is a dual of the ___________ function.
12. In product of sums form, we implement all sum terms using AND gates.
(State true or false)

6.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:
 Simplification of Boolean expressions is mainly used to reduce the gate
count of a design.
 The ways to simplify a logic design are: Boolean algebra, Karnaugh
Map, and Quine-Mc Cluskey method.
 A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a visual representation of a Boolean
function.

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 K-map consists of a grid of squares called Cells and each square (or
cell ) represents either a minterm or maxterm.
 A group of eight 1’s is called an octet.
 In K-map, groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.
 A prime implicant is an implicant of the function that is not included in
any other implicant of the function.
 An essential prime implicant is a prime implicant that includes at least
one 1 that is not included in any other prime implicant.
 When a Boolean expression contains more than six variables, then in
such cases the Quine–McCluskey(Q-M) method can be used to solve
Boolean equations.

Glossary:
A Karnaugh map (K-map): A visual representation of a Boolean function.
Pair: A group of two 1’s is.
Quad: A group of four 1’s.
Octet: A group of eight 1’s.
Implicant: A product term that is included in the function.
Prime implicant: An implicant of the function that is not included in any
other implicant of the function.
Essential prime implicant: A prime implicant that includes at least one 1
that is not included in any other prime implicant.
Don’t Cares : A condition that exists for a combination of inputs for which
the designer doesn't care what the output is.

6.7 Terminal Questions

1. Simplify the Boolean expression XY′Z′+XY′Z′W+XZ′
2. Simplify the Boolean expression AB(A + B)(B + B) using Boolean
algebra.
3. What is K-map? Explain.
4. Simplify F (W, X, Y, Z) = (4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) using K- map.

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5. Explain the following.

a) Implicant
b) Prime implicant
c) Essential Prime implicant
6. Explain about don’t care condition.
7. Explain with an example the Quine McCluskey tabular method.

6.8 Answers
Self-Assessment Questions
1. True
2. 1
3. A+C
4. Karnaugh map (K-map)
5. Octet
6. 1, 0
7. F= AB+BC
8. Prime implicant
9. True
10. NAND-NAND
11. NAND
12. False
Terminal Questions
1. XY′Z′+XY′Z′W+XZ′ = XZ′. Refer to section 6.2 for more details.
2. AB(A + B)(B + B) = A. Refer to section 6.2 for more details.
3. A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a visual representation of a Boolean
function. Refer to sub-section 6.3.1 for more details.

4. . Refer to sub-section 6.3.1 for more details.

5. (a) An implicant is a "covering" product term (or sum term) of one or
more minterms in a sum of products (or maxterms in a product of
sums) of a Boolean function.
(b) A prime implicant is an implicant of the function that is not included
in any other implicant of the function.
(c) An essential prime implicant is a prime implicant that includes at
least one 1 that is not included in any other prime implicant.
Refer to sub-section 6.3.1 for more details.

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6. A condition that exists for a combination of inputs for which the designer
doesn't care what the output is. Refer to sub-section 6.3.1 for more
details.
7. When a Boolean expression contains more than six variables, then it
becomes very difficult to solve the expression using Karnaugh map
method. In such cases the Quine–McCluskey (Q-M) method can be
used to solve Boolean equations. Refer to sub-section 6.3.2 for more
details.

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