2.

1 The Impact of fascism on Italian foreign policy: the origins 1870-1933

Background:

- Unification = 1861
- Italian society after 1870 = divided across geographical, religious + social lines 
weakened Italian govs  unrest/discontent by Italy’s involvement in WWI 
Mussolini rise to power + Fascist Party 1922
- Mussolini  pursued Italian foreign policy influenced by number of factors:
1. Geographical positions + limited economic resources
2. Versailles Settlement
3. Nationalist views on destiny of Italy to become great power + empire
4. Earlier foreign policy humiliations
5. Changing international context
6. Fascist ideology

Liberal Italy 1870-1923

The long-term factors contributing to the weakness of Liberal Italy 1870-1923

National Identity Lack of national identity due to recent unification.

Regionalism dominated.
Piedmont most dominant state; laws and political system imposed on the other states.
North = industrial
South = agricultural = poorer

Catholic Church
Breakdown in relations between Church + State during unification = divided Italy

Anti-clerical policies of the liberal governments = 1914, Vatican urged Catholics not to
vote (Italy religious/catholic country)

Working-class protest Middle and upper class dominated political system, only wealthy elites could vote.
Until 1930 = all men over 30 could vote.

Liberal governments were often corrupt + only represented needs of upper-middle

class = peasant discontent.

General strike 1914. Working-class movement in the late 19th century.

1892 the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) was founded.

Trade unions were closed and the PSI was banned

 Giovanni Giolotti (PM 1903-5, 1906-09, 1911-14) worked towards electoral and
welfare reform (for socialists) + allowed religious education in schools (rapprochement
with Church) = initially successful

But economic recession due to Italian-Turkish war 1911-12. Giolotti pursued war
under pressure from Italian nationalists + able to seize Libya from Turkey  PSI
appalled at imperialist war + many on the left rejected the idea of working with liberal
parliamentary parties

Nationalist opposition Italian Nationalist Association founded in 1910.

Filippo Marinetti (poet) = established Futurist movement = glorified war and criticised
the liberal gov. ‘Great Power’ = Italy’s destiny

Nationalists believed that unification was unfinished because Tretino and Trieste
(‘unredeemed Islands’) remained under Austrian rule despite containing large
numbers of Italian speakers

Italy only had a small empire compared to Br, Fr, Ge

Minor Gains in Africa (excluding Libya):

Eritea (1885)
part of Somaliland (1889)
Failure to capture Abyssinia 1896. (Battle of Adowa) = humiliated

Impact of WWI on Italy 1915-18

Italy’s reasons for joining Entente Alliance

1914 = EU split into 2 alliances  Triple Entente (Br, Fr, Russ since 1907) + Triple Alliance
(It, Ge, Aus since 1882)

Italy’s politicians divided during intervention crisis (conflicts, revolutions, settlements,

diplomatic relations that shaped post war EU’ landscape that contributed to ongoing
instability )after WWI  Italy remained neutral

Right-wing liberals hoped if Italy joined Entente = gain Italian-speaking territories of Austro-
Hungarian Empire  Treaty of London 1915 Br, Fr, Russ (Italy would gain land like Southern
Tyrol if it joined WWI with Allies)

This intervention caused division on the left  PSI against ‘imperialist’ intervention VS
other liberals that supported war to destroy Liberal Italy + foster revolution = ‘revolutionary
action groups’ set up

Benito Mussolini = leading member of PSI who initially supported war but then h=changed
his mind = expelled from PSI + his editorship of its newspaper Avanti
Giolitti + liberals + Catholic church opposed war

Impact of War:
Task 3: Debate! “Italians were justified in viewing the Versailles Settlement as a mutilated victory”  in the treaty
Italy was promised lands that it did not end up receiving

Evidence which supports the view Evidence which challenges the view

 Battle of Caporetto Oct 1917 = Italian’s suffered

huge losses  pushed back by Austrians +
German + advanced more than 100km
 600,000 men were dead and 100,000s  Battle of Vittorio Oct 1918 won against Austrian
wounded. Casualty rate was higher than Britain
(39.1% and 35.8%)

 Resentment towards the liberal government for

mismanagement of the war  liberal gov 1918-
22 lost control = fewer seats in chamber in 1919
elections = not able to form coherent coalition
gov = short term govs = undermined credibility
of democratic parliamentary system

 PM Vittorio Emmanuelle Orlando had not  Italy received:

obtained the territory Italy had claimed from - the province of Tyrol,
the defeated Austro-Hungarian empire. - the Istrian peninsular,
- the port of Trieste and
- the Dodecanese islands.
 Did not receive the expected port of Fiume, - Also an Albanian port and acquired Albania as a
Dalmatia and colony. protectorate.

 The differences between foreign minister,

Sydney Sonnino and Orlando were exploited by  Had not been promised Fiume
the other great powers  Orlando = willing to
renounce Tialian claims to Dalmatia in return
for the port of Fiume but Sydney disagreed =  Didn’t get territory because of internal rivalries.
got neither
Fascism

Fascist Party + post-war situation:

- Fascist party benefited as fascism isn’t based on clear doctrine/theories  could appeal to a wide range of
groups across the class divide
- Italians embraced its demands for strict law + order after the violence on the streets following WWI
- 1921 elections:
1. Fascists (PNF) = 35
2. Catholic Party = 108 seats
3. Socialists + Communist = 138 seats
- Italian politics was polarizing
Impact of D’Annunzio + Fiume Affair on Fascism
Sept 1919 = Gabriele D’Annunzio led 2,000 ex-soldiers to occupy Fiume by force in protest against the
Italian govs agreement to hand the port over to Yugoslavia Gov  gov proved too feeble to remove
D’Annunzio until Giolitti was returned as PM in dec 1920 = whole affair undermined the credibility of the
Italian democratic system

Impact of economic factors  rise of Fascism

1919 = 2 million unemployed

‘Two Red Years’ 1919-1920 = widespread fear of communism across EU  Fascist against
communism

Mussolini+ Fascists gained support from wealthy industrialists as they opposed communism
(ideologically + physically) + (similar to the support the Nazis got from industrialists)

Fascism supported by Catholic Church -> significant political force in Italy. Pope Pius XI
backed Mussolini

1922 = loss of faith in Italian state

Task 4: Identify the key factors that led to Mussolini’s appointment as Prime Minister in 1922 (pp.94-95)

Factor Explanation

Weakness of liberal Lack of national identity = Fascism encourages nationalism. Corrupt governments of
government liberal Italy = more support for other parties. Futurist movement glorifies war and
criticises liberal gov for not making Italy a great power. Fascism promises to do this.

Fear of the spread of Rich and middle class supported Fascism as an alternative to communism, which became
communism popular in the inter-war years due largely to the economic problems in Italy.
Two Red Years “Biennio Rosso”. Socialists tried to take control. 21 January 1921 – Italian
Communist Party formed. Conservatives thought they could control the fascists.

WW1 Huge losses of life and high economic cost of supplying an army. Italians felt it was a
mutilated victory and resentment to the ‘Great powers’ grew. Fascism said it would make
Italy great. Also divided the liberals as some supported intervention whilst others
opposed intervention.
 Violence on the It was believed that the Fascist parties and Mussolini’s blackshirts could bring order to
streets of Italian cities the violence on the streets (even though they contributed to this)

High inflation. 2 million unemployed at the end of 1919.

Post war economy

Catholic church Pope Pius XI backed Mussolini as he thought it would improve the position of the Church,
which had been undermined by the Liberal governments.

Context: 2 liberal governments collapsed in 1922 and were unable to control violence on
March on Rome the streets.

August 1922, Socialist and communists called a general strike  public believed
Mussolini could restore order.

September 1922, Mussolini outlined his support for the monarchy in a speech. He also
worked with conservatives to support his appointment as PM.

24th October 1922, Fascists decide to march on Rome (Mussolini was receiving increasing
pressure from his regional bosses, the Ras to seize power).
- 40,000 black shirts chanted ‘to Rome’

27 October = Fascists station themselves outside of Rome and start to seize control of
government buildings.

The government resigns/ PM Facta stays. He asks the King to declare martial law so that
the Army could crush the fascist revolt. At first King agreed but then changed his minded
+ sided with Mussolini

October 30th the King appoints Mussolini as PM, even though they only had 35 members
in parliament + had regularly participated in violence

Mussolini’s consolidation of power Nov 1922-Jan 1927

Background: Mussolini was PM of a coalition cabinet in which only 4 out of 12 minister were fascists

1) Nov 1922 Emergency powers given to the new gov (to reform administration + tax system)
2) Feb 1923 – Nationalists join the Fascist Party
3) July 1923 = Acerbo Law passes = party that won most votes in election = automatically be given 2/3 rds of
seats in parliament for strong gov
4) April 1924, Fascists increase their representation in parliament from 7-66% through intimidation
 5) May 1924 liberal Giacomo Matteotti is killed after criticising the Fascists
6) Jan 1925, Mussolini takes responsibility for the violence of the Fascists. Most members of parliament resign.
Mussolini becomes Il duce.
7) Dec 1925 – Mussolini given executive powers. End of multi-party state. Press controlled. End of elections.
End of trade unions.
8) Nov 1926/Jan 1927 – increased repression. Secret police OVRA created. Trial without jury + death penalty
expanded to include action against authorities

Did Mussolini create a totalitarian state?

Totalitarian state = gov has total control over all aspects of citizen’s life: political, economic, cultural, social
Life under Mussolini:
 Conform to Fascist expectations + comply with states laws
 Secret police + militia = no overt opposition
 Employees of state had swear oath of loyalty to regime
Some limits to Mussolini’s control – Vatican and King. Therefore not fully totalitarian.

What factors influenced Mussolini’s foreign policy?

After 1925: programme of action with these aims:

- Increase national pride + consolidate domestic support for rgime

- Dominate Balkans
- Dominate Mediterranean
- Build an empire + gain ‘living space’
- Expand its territories in Africa
- Spread of fascism in other countries
Why?

- Disappointment over Versailles Settlement

- Make Italy a more significant force in international politics

How successful was Mussolini’s foreign policy in the 1920s?

Overview:

1930s = Italys foreign foreign policy would become more fascist in character

Foreign Policy Aim Extent to which Mussolini achieved this aim in the 1920s

Increase national Fiume, Corfu, Libya?, Lacarno

pride
Mussolini believed Fascist Italy = second Roman empire

Consolidate No evidence that his Foreign Policy consolidated domestic support.

domestic support
for the regime

Revise the post-war Fiume became Italian in 1924. Was unable to get the Italian/Austrian border discussed at
settlement of 1919- Locarno. Mussolini funded right-wing groups in Germany and secretly trained German pilots in
20 Italy.

Some success:
Dominate the
Balkans Yugoslavia:
- Funded ethnic groups in Yugoslavia that wanted independence e.g. Croats to
undermine French influence there

Albania:
- 1924 = Italian backed leader, Ahmed Zog, took power in Albania.
- 1926 treaty of friendship; Albania became an Italian protectorate (after Mussolini
invested in Zog’s regime + helped train the Albanian army)
Some Success:
Dominate the
Mediterranean Greece:
- 1923 = invaded Corfu (after Italian official killed on Greek border with Albania)  LON
condemned + demanded withdraw  Britain threatened with navy = Italy withdrew
- Mussolini demanded payment of 50 million lire of composition from the Greeks

Fiume
- 1924 = gained control of the port of Fiume (In the Pact of Rome the Yugoslavs gave in
 and the port was ceded to Italy)

Build an Empire Supported independence movements against the French in Morocco. Albania. Libya.
(spazio vitale/ living
space); expand its
territories in Africa

Foster the spread of Not successful; could suggest that Albania had adopted Fascism. Funded right wing groups in
Fascism in other Germany.
countries

Relations with Western European powers:

France:
- Undermined French influence in Yugoslavia
- Italy was hostile to France as it had claims over French territories of
Corsica, Nice, Sardinia
- Mussolini jealous of French North Africa = supported opposition
movements to French control in Tunisia + Morocco
- Mussolini aimed to replace French influence in Balkans + territory around
the Adriatic

Other Powers:

- Mussolini wanted to present himself as modern like the rest of Western

Europe
- October 1925 = Mussolini met with leaders from Britain, Germany,
Belgium + France at Locarno (Switzerland)  7 agreements aimed to
secure post-war settlement + normalize relations with Germany
(Rhineland Pact signed to prevent further conflict between Germany,
France, Belgium)

Locarno conference:

- Mussolini failed to get the Italian border with Austria included in the
Locarno Treaties
- Played key parti in the meetings
 - ‘Locarno Spirit’ = period of cooperation
- Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 (60 signatures) = denounced use of war as means
to resolve disputes
- But… Mussolini funded right-wing group in Germany + secretly trained
German pilots in Italy (breach of Treaty of Versailles)

Expansion of Italy’s Empire in Africa:

- Supports independence movements against French in Morocco

- Brutally crushed revolt in Libya in 1922-28
- 1928 = ‘pacification’ campaign became full-scale war  put down with
massive force + executions
- 1928 = Mussolini signed treat of ‘Friendship’ with Abyssinia (despite his
goals to conquest there)

LON:

- Mussolini frustrated with failure of traditional diplomacy but had to

support disarmament efforts of LON
- 1927 = Mussolini informed Italian Parliament he would expand Italian air
force until it could ‘blot out the sun’

1930s:

Relations with Soviet Union:

- Oct 1917 = Bolsheviks seized power = Italy broke off formal diplomatic
relations with Soviet Union
- 1921 Italy ‘recognized’ new gov of Soviet Union  2 trade agreements
with Moscow
- 1924 Italy formally recognized Soviet Union
- Rapallo Treaty 1922 = Italy + Bolshevik Russia renounced all territorial +
financial claims following WWI (both dissatisfied with post-war settlement)
- Fascist Italy + Communist Russia = good terms throughout
- t 1920s

What Impact did economic issues have on Italian foreign policy?

Aims of Mussolini’s 1) Autarky (Self-Sufficiency)

economic policies 2) Consolidate political control
3) An economy that could support a militarist state

1) Lack of raw materials

Italy’s economic 2) Low literacy rate of Italians
weaknesses 3) South = less industrialised

Productivism 1) To solve economic weakness Mussolini promoted productivity

2) Focus on heavy industry rather than consumer goods.
3) High taxation to fund the development of this area = burden on working
class

1) New way of organizing the economy = alternative to Capitalism or Socialism

Corporate State  advantaged of socialism/capitalism but without its disadvantages
2) All people working for the national good. Serve national interest +regulated
economy + all interests protected + class conflict would cease
3) Practice: Known as the ‘elaborate fraud’ labour exploited

1) Led to increased grain production + imports fell by 75%

Battle for Grain 1925 2) But other crops declined e.g. olives.
3) South = most negative impact = not suitable soil for wheat + the state failed
to redress poverty in south due to big landowners

Battle for the Lira 1926 1) Mussolini Increased from 154 lira to 90 lira to the British Pound = exports
fell.
2) Consumers had to pay more for imported goods due to tariffs
3) 1927 = gov cut wages by 10%
Mussolini Law 1928 Programme of land reclamation = An expensive failure.
Overall = pursuit of an assertive fascist foreign policy was hampered by the
continued weakness of Mussolini’s economy