WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather

● This refers to the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place at a given time.

● Weather conditions develop within the first 10 – 12 km above the ground.

● This zone is called the troposphere.

Climate

● This refers to the average weather conditions experienced at a place for a long period of
time of about 30 – 40 years.

Importance of studying weather

● Weather information is important in the aviation industry eg pilots should know when to
take off or land safely.
● It helps farmers to decide which crop to grow and when to grow it.

● Weather determines whether to irrigate crops or not.

● It influences protection of crops from adverse weather conditions such as frost and hail.

● Weather helps ordinary people to select appropriate clothes to wear.

● Weather information helps in planning sporting activities.

● It helps geographers to get the climatic conditions of different countries.

Weather elements

Weather element Instrument used Unit of measurement

Temperature Six’s thermometer( min & max Degrees Celsius (°c)

thermo)

Humidity Hygrometer (wet & dry bulb) Percentage (%)

Rainfall Rain gauge Millimetres (mm)

Atmospheric pressure Barometer Millibars (mb)

Wind speed Cup anemometer Km per hour/knots

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Wind direction Wind vane Compass points

Sunshine Sunshine recorder Hours and minutes

Cloud cover Eye observation Oktas

The weather station

● This is a place where instruments used to measure weather elements are kept.

● When siting a weather station, one is influenced by the demands of the instruments that
might be sited.
● The factors considered when siting weather stations are generally as follows:
1. Weather stations are sited in open space, away from trees or buildings because so that
readings are not affected the shade they provide. Buildings may also emit heat thereby
falsifying temperature readings. Buildings and trees block rainfall from getting into the
rain gauge. Trees and buildings may also block wind.
2. They are sited on short grass rather than on pavements or hard surfaces. This is because
hard surfaces may result in water splashing into the rain gauge. Hard surfaces also emit
heat which distorts temperature readings.
3. Weather stations should be in a fenced area. This is to avoid vandalism from animals or
people.

The Stevenson Screen

● This is a wooden box used to house particular weather elements.

● The instruments kept in the box are: six’s thermometer, hygrometer (dry bulb and wet bulb
thermometers), barometer.
● The Stevenson screen protects these instruments from damage or vandalism.

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Characteristics of the Stevenson Screen

1. It is made of wood rather than metal. This is because metals conduct more heat into the
screen resulting in higher temperature readings than the actual.
2. It has louvered sides or slats. These allow free circulation of air, which is essential for the
measurement of outside temperature and to allow evaporation from the wet bulb.
3. It is mounted 120 cm above the ground. This makes the thermometers to read air
temperature rather than ground temperature.
4. The screen has a double roof. This enables the reduction of heat into the screen because the
air space between the roofs insulates the screen below.
5. It is painted white. White paint reflects excess heat so that the Six’s thermometer and
hygrometer measure the actual air temperature.
6. The door of the screen faces the south. This minimises the sun’s rays from directly shinning
on the instruments because the rays may raise the temperature.

Siting the Stevenson Screen

● The Stevenson Screen is sited in open space, away from trees or buildings so that readings
are not affected by the shade they provide.
● It is sited on short grass rather than concrete since concrete has artificially high
temperatures.
● It is sited in a fenced area to avoid tampering or damage.\

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Measurement of temperature

● Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness.

● It is measured by a minimum- maximum thermometer or a Six’s thermometer.

The Six’s thermometer

● It combines the minimum and maximum thermometers.

● It contains mercury and alcohol.

● Mercury is used because its boiling very high (250°c) so it is capable of reading very high
temperatures.
● Alcohol has very low freezing point (- 70°c) so the thermometer is capable of recording very
low temperatures.

How the Six’s thermometer works

● When the temperature rises , alcohol in the left expands.

● The alcohol will push the mercury down the left limb and eventually up the right limb.

● The mercury in turn will push the metal index on the right limb so that it will show the
maximum temperature ( eg 15°c)
● If temperatures fall, the alcohol in the left limb contracts and moves back to the bulb on the
left side.
● The mercury will move back up the left limb.

● The metal index above the mercury on the left will be pushed up the left limb to record the
lowest temperature reading (eg 13°c).

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 Vv

How readings on the Six’s thermometer are taken

● Maximum temperature is read from the right side while minimum temperature is read from
the left side.
● The instrument is read at eye level from the lower end of each index.

● The difference between maximum and minimum temperatures is obtained.

● It is reset by a magnet to draw each index back to the mercury.

NB: The Six’s thermometer can be used to get current or present temperature. Current temperature
is temperature shown at any time one visits the weather station. To obtain this, one takes a reading
at the top of the meniscus curve of mercury on either limb of the thermometer (eg 15°c).

Errors that may be made by students in reading temperature

● Students may forget to reset the indexes after taking readings.

● They may take readings above the indexes.

● Students may take minimum temperature on the right limb and maximum temperature on
the left limb.
● They may take temperatures at irregular intervals.

● Students may also make a parallax error.

Temperature statistics

1. Daily temperature range: this is maximum temperature minus minimum temperature for
one day eg 19 -13 = 6 °c.

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 2. Mean daily temperature: this is maximum temperature plus minimum temperature for one
day divided by 2 eg (19 +13) ÷ 2 = 32 ÷2= 16°c.
3. Mean monthly temperature: this is the total of average daily temperatures for the whole
month divided by the number of days in that month.
4. Annual temperature range : this mean temperature of the warmest month minus men
temperature of the coldest month.

eg

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temperatur 21 21 20 19 16 13 13 15 18 22 21 21
e

Annual temperature range= 22- 13 = 9°c

5. Mean annual temperature : this is the total of monthly means divided by 12.

eg 21+21+20+19+16+13+13+15+18+22+21+22=221÷12 = 18.4°c

Measurement of humidity

● Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given volume of water.

● The amount of water vapour that any air can hold depends on its temperature.

● Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air.

● When air temperature increases, it evaporates water from water surfaces thereby
increasing air’s humidity
● If it is cooled sufficiently, it will reach dew point temperature.

● At dew point, temperature air is said to be saturated.

● Any further cooling will result in condensation. Condensation is a process by which excess
water vapour changes into water droplets or ice depending on the temperature of the air.
● Relative humidity expresses how much amount of water vapour is in the atmosphere
compared with the maximum that air of given temperature could hold.
● Relative humidity is measured by wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers (hygrometer) shown
below.

The hygrometer

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How the hygrometer works

● The dry thermometer records the actual air temperature.

● The wet bulb has a muslin cloth tied to its bulb.

● The other end of the muslin cloth is dipped into a container of distilled water.

● On a hot and dry day, more water evaporates from the muslin cloth so that the two
thermometers show a wide difference in the temperatures.
● In contrast on a cool and moist day, there is limited evaporation from the muslin cloth so
there is limited cooling of wet bulb therefore the thermometers show either a small
difference or no difference at all in their readings.

How to obtain relative humidity as a percentage

● Take readings from both dry and wet bulb thermometers.

● Calculate the depression of the wet bulb by subtracting the wet bulb reading from the dry
bulb reading.
● Use the hygrometric or humidity table shown below to get the relative humidity where the
dry bulb temperature intersects with the depression of the wet bulb.

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eg Dry bulb reading = 20°c

Wet bulb reading = 12°c

Depression of wet bulb = 8°c

Therefore, the intersection of dry bulb reading of 20°c and wet bulb depression of 8°c is 37%.

N.B(i) a big difference between the two thermo- humidity is low

(ii) a small between the two thermo- humidity is high

(iii) no difference between the two thermo – air is saturated (100%) – it is raining or if not it
will soon do so.

Measurement of rainfall

● The amount of rainfall received at a weather station is measured by a rain gauge.

● A rain gauge is made up of copper or hard plastic since they do not rust.

● There is a standard (traditional) rain gauge and low cost rain gauge.

Low cost rain gauge

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 ● It is see through or transparent.

● It is located on a post not the ground.

● Measurements are on the same jar.

● It is wider at the top.

● It does not have a funnel.

● It is not cylindrical

Standard or traditional rain gauge

● This rain gauge is partially buried into the ground so that it is not knocked down and to
reduce evaporation of collected rainwater.
● Its top is approximately 30 cm above the ground to limit splashing of rain drops into the rain
gauge.
● The standard rain gauge has the following features.
1. Funnel – for directing rain water into the collecting jar.
2. Outer cylinder – for housing and protecting other parts.
3. Collecting jar – for storing the collected rain water. It has a narrow opening to reduce
evaporation of collected rainwater.
4. Measuring cylinder – for measuring the amount of rain water collected.

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Siting a rain gauge

A rain gauge is sited:

● Away from buildings or in open ground so rainfall is not blocked and prevent rainfall from
roof tops from getting into the gauge.
● Away from trees so that there is no interception of rainfall.

● Clear of people or animals so that there is no interference with the rain gauge.

● On short grass not on concrete to prevent splashes from getting into the rain gauge.

● On flat land so that the rain gauge is no tilted when mounted.

● Where the rain gauge is accessible so that there are no difficulties in getting the readings.

How to obtain rainfall readings

● Visit the station at 8:00 am every day to take readings. (Readings can also be taken after a
downpour to allow for further measurements.)
● Pour water from the collecting jar into the measuring cylinder. (The measuring cylinder is
placed on a flat surface so that water surface is level thereby allowing an accurate
measurement.)
● Take reading on the measuring cylinder at eye level.

● Record the reading in the record booklet.

● Empty the cylinder of water.

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NB: The following errors should be avoided when measuring rainfall.

● Incorrect siting of the rain gauge in various ways eg under trees or near buildings.

● Taking readings at irregular intervals.

● Making a parallax error when taking readings on the cylinder.

● Taking readings when the measuring cylinder is on a tilted surface.

Measurement of atmospheric pressure

● This is the force exerted by the air in the atmosphere.

● Atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer.

● Types of barometer include simple mercury barometer and aneroid barometer and
barograph.

Describing pressure changes

● Pressure below 1000 mb is described as low pressure.

● Pressure between 1000 and 1015 mb is described as moderate pressure.

● Pressure above 1015 mb is described as high pressure.

Relationship between pressure and other elements

Low pressure High pressure

Air rises Air sinks

Weather is unstable Weather is stable

Rain clouds are formed There are clear skies.

Rainfall occurs or there are wet conditions. No rainfall or there are dry conditions.

Wind speed is high There are calm wind conditions

Mercury barometer

● A mercury barometer consists of an inverted tube with mercury and is inserted in a bowl
with mercury.
● It is normally held by a clamp to keep it in position.

● It is kept in a special room.

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How the mercury barometer works

● Atmospheric pressure exerts its force on the mercury in the bowl and mercury in the tube
rises.
● When pressure falls, mercury in the tube also falls.

● The reading is taken in mm but the reading can be converted to mb using a table provided
eg pressure at sea level is 760 mm which is equivalent to 1013 mb.

Aneroid barometer

● The aneroid barometer is kept in a Stevenson screen.

● It has a corrugated metal box inside.

● The box is compressed when pressure rises and expands when pressure falls.

● The compression or expansion is relayed by a series of levers to a pointer that moves on the
face of the dial.
● Some dials have an external pointer (index pointer) which can be used to mark the previous
position of the internal pointer.
● Then, when the reader gently taps on the glass and the inner pointer moves to present
pressure reading, it is immediately obvious whether pressure has risen or fallen.

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 ● A scale is marked on the dial (ranging from 950 on the left to 1060 on the right), and often
with weather conditions associated with different pressures are also shown.

Barograph

● A barograph has an aneroid barometer and a revolving drum covered in graph paper, inside
a case.
● Changes in pressure are transmitted by levers to a pen which marks a continuous trace of
pressure on the rotating graph paper.
● The paper is divided by vertical lines marked in hours and parts of hours , with millibars on
the horizontal scale.

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Wind

● Wind refers to air in motion.

● Characteristics of wind measured at a weather station are wind direction and wind speed.

Measurement of wind direction

● Wind direction is measured by a wind vane.

● Wind direction can also be absorbed by using: wind sock, flag, wet finger, throwing some
grass into the air.

Siting a wind vane

● A win vane is usually sited on top of a tall building.

● Here there is minimum obstruction or disturbance of wind by either buildings or trees so

true wind directions are measured.
● Avoid siting it near play grounds because children may tamper with the instrument.

Features of a wind vane

● A wind vane has points of a compass fixed so that they point in the correct directions.

● Above them is an arrow that can be moved by slight winds.

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How the wind vane operates

● When wind blows, it hits the paddle of the arrow because the paddle provides a large
surface area to catch the wind.
● This makes the arrow to swing round so that the pointer points in the direction where wind
is coming from.

Wind rose

● This is a diagram or chart on which wind direction is plotted.

● It has 8 columns or arms which represent directions.

● Every day, one measurement is added on the appropriate arm representing the wind
direction.
● The most frequently occurring wind is known as the prevailing wind.

● Some wind rose diagrams also show the number of calm days in the centre.

NB: Complete the wind rose if the figure for North is 2 and the figure for east is 1.

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Measurement of wind speed

● Wind speed may be measured in knots by the Beaufort scale.

● At weather stations wind speed is measured by a cup anemometer.

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The cup anemometer

● The anemometer must be placed at least 2 metres above the ground, away from buildings
and trees so that it works accurately since there will be no nearby obstructions.
● The cup anemometer consists of rotating cups which are fixed to the metal arms.

● The arms are mounted on a vertical shaft.

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How the cup anemometer works

● When the wind blows, the force of wind pushes the cups in such a way that they rotate.

● The speed of rotation depends on the strength of the wind.

● Very strong winds make the anemometer to rotate very fast while light winds make it rotate
slowly.
● The speed of the wind is recorded on the speedometer in km per hour.

Measurement of hours of sunshine

● Hours of sunshine are measured by a sunshine recorder.

● A sunshine recorder is made of a glass sphere which is surrounded by a metal frame.

● Inside the metal frame is a sensitised card.

● This card is graduated in in hours and minutes.

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How the sunshine recorder is used

● The sunshine recorder is placed south facing in the northern hemisphere and north facing in
the southern hemisphere.
● It is put in an open space where it is exposed to sun’s rays.

● When the sun shines, the glass sphere focuses the sun’s rays onto a card and burns a trace
on the card.
● As the sun changes position in the sky, the trace is made longer.

● The burning of the trace only occurs when the sun is shining so a discontinuous line shows
that the sun is obscured by cloud.
● At the end of the day the card is removed and the length of the line on the card is measured
to show the hours of sunlight.
● A new card is inserted for the next day.

Digital weather measuring instruments

These instruments such as digital thermometer, digital hygrometer, digital cup anemometer

Advantages of a digital instruments

● They are easy to read or use.

● They give instant measurement so it saves time.

● Readings are very accurate and are given to decimal point.

● The instruments are portable or easy to carry.

● They are robust or strong.

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 ● They are easy to reset.

● They can save data and relay it to a computer.

Disadvantages

● They are expensive

● Use batteries and these may run out.

Clouds

● Clouds are tiny water droplets or ice particles formed by condensation of water vapour.

How a cloud is formed

● heating from overhead sun leads to high temperatures.

● high temperatures lead to evaporation/transpiration.

● There is uplift/rising water vapour.

● Cooling occurs water vapour reaches cooler air.

● This leads to large amount of condensation.

NB: Condensation leads to various forms of precipitation such as rain, hail, sleet, snow, dew and
frost.

● The table below shows cloud types according to their height, colour and shape.

Cloud characteristics

Cloud Level Description Associated

weather

Cirrus High (above 6 km) Thin, white and made of ice crystals. Forms Fine
narrow wisps or threads. Feather- like.

Cirrostratus High (above 6 km) Thin, white layer made of ice crystals. Often Fine
covers the whole sky.

Cirrocumulus High (above 6 km) Thin, white, made of ice crystals and slightly Fine
heaped.

Altostratus Medium (2-6 km) A layer of water droplets, which can be thin Fine
and white or thick and grey.

Altocumulus Medium (2-6 km) A heaped cloud of water droplets, which can Fine
be thick enough to look like grey.

Stratus Low (0-2 km) Thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water May produce

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 droplets, with a fairly flat base.

Drizzle

Cumulus Low (0-2 km) White with a darker, flat base and globular Fine
upper surface. Made of water droplets. May
have a small or considerable vertical extent.

Stratocumulus Low (0-2 km) A layer of cloud with some heaped sections, Fine
giving grey and white parts. Made of water
droplets.

Nimbostratus Base can be low or Thick, dark layer of water droplets. Steady rainy
above 2 km or drizzle.

Cumulonimbus Low base, but the A dense, dark grey cloud with great vertical Very heavy
cloud extends up extent. It grows from a cumulus cloud to rain, or snow
to high levels. have a high billowy head (flat top). showers,
Composed of ice crystals at the top and often with
water droplets at lower levels. hail, thunder
and lightning.

Observation of cloud type

● Students look at the sky or clouds.

● They identify the type or name of cloud from their knowledge about clouds or they compare
with those displayed on a chart like the one shown below.

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Estimation of cloud cover

1. One way of estimating cloud cover involves observing the sky from horizon to horizon. The
area of the sky that is visible is divided into eight equal parts. One then makes a visual
inspection of how much of that area is covered by clouds. Each fraction out of 8 is called an
octa or eights. The number of octas is then recorded as cloud cover.
2. The other method involves observing the amount of clouds directly above the weather
station or any given point. A cardboard with eight holes of the same size is used. One raises
it above his or her head and counts the number of squares filled with clouds and records the
number as a fraction of 8. Its advantage is that it is less subjective in that the number of
holes covered by clouds could be counted. The disadvantage is that holes may not be
uniform from one station to another.

NB: If the sky is obstructed by either fog or mist, one will record that the sky is obscured or there is
poor visibility.

Cloud cover symbols

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Cloud cover, wind direction and speed symbols

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CLIMATE

● This refers to the average weather conditions experienced at a place for a long period of
time of about 30 – 40 years.
● Two major elements of climate are: temperature and rainfall.

● These elements are affected by latitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents, altitude,
winds, cloud cover and pressure.

Factors affecting climate

1. Latitude
● At the equator, the sun is overhead so high intensity insolation is received.

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 ● By contrast, at the poles, the angle of the sun is low so insolation received is low.

● At the equator, insolation is concentrated on a small area but at the poles it is

dispersed over a wide area.
2. Distance from the sea
● Water heats more slowly than land.

● Water also emits heat more slowly than land.

● Therefore, land has higher temperatures during the day while oceans have higher
temperatures at night.
3. Ocean currents
● Warm ocean currents come from equatorial regions to raise the temperatures of the
polar areas.
● Cold ocean currents come from the poles and lower temperatures of equatorial
regions.
● Warm ocean currents promote rainfall formation while cold ocean currents
discourage formation of rainfall.
● Cold ocean currents cool the air above them, reducing the amount of evaporation
from the ocean, and producing dry conditions.
4. Altitude
● In general, air temperature decreases with increasing altitude.

● As altitude increases, pressure on the air is reduced and the air becomes cooler.

● Generally, highland areas have higher rainfall than lowland areas.

5. Cloud cover
● Cloud cover reduces the amount of insolation reaching the surface by reflecting
some of it.
● Clouds also reduce the amount of insolation leaving the surface by absorbing the
radiation.
● If there is limited cloud then incoming shortwave radiation and outgoing shortwave
radiation are at maximum.
● This is the norm in many hot deserts. That is why they have temperatures during the
day and very low temperatures at night.
6. Pressure
● In low pressure systems air is rising.

● It may rise high enough to cool, condense and form clouds and rain.

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 ● This can happen in warm areas, such as equatorial areas (convectional rainfall), at
mountain barriers (relief rainfall) and at weather fronts, when warm air is forced
over cold air (frontal rainfall)
● In contrast, where there is high pressure air is sinking and rain formation is
prevented.
● The world’s hot deserts are located where there is high pressure caused by sinking
air.

Types of rainfall

Convectional rainfall

● It is caused by localised intense heating of the ground by insolation from the sun.

● Warm, moist air rises in form of convective currents.

● It is adiabatically cooled until it reaches due point temperature.

● Condensation leads to formation of cumulonimbus clouds.

● There is occurrence of heavy rainfall associated with thunder and lightning.

● This rainfall is common in the equatorial areas usually in the afternoon.

Relief rainfall

● This formed when warm, moist air from the sea is forced to rise over a mountain barrier.

● As the air rises, it expands, cools and condensation takes place.

● Clouds are formed eg nimbostratus and rainfall is received on the windward side of the
mountain.
● The leeward side is a rain shadow area because dry air descends bringing dry spells and no
rainfall is received

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Frontal (cyclonic) rainfall

● This occurs when a warm air mass and cold air mass meet at a front.

● The warm air mass is forced to rise over a cold, dense air mass.

● Condensation occurs and a nimbostratus cloud develops.

● Rainfall is of long duration- may last for two weeks and is associated with drizzle and light
showers.

Equatorial/ Tropical rainforest climate

Climatic Regions in Africa

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Distribution

● This climate is found within the tropics.

● It found in areas along the equator.

● The climate is found between 5° north and 5° south of the equator.

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 ● Some of the countries which experience this climate are Malaysia, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Gabon, Colombia, Brazil, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Indonesia
and Singapore.

Climate characteristics
Temperature characteristics

● Temperature is high throughout the year eg around 27°c

● Annual temperature range is very small eg 2 - 4°c.

● Temperature is almost constant throughout the year.

Reasons

● Temperature is high because there are no seasons, so the sun is always overhead
throughout the year.
● Temperature range is small because of high cloud cover which reduces excessive
heat loss into outer space hence maintains the temperature.
Rainfall characteristics

● Rainfall is received throughout the year.

● Each month of the has rainfall.

● Total annual rainfall is very high above 1000 mm.

Reasons for high rainfall

● High temperatures promote high rates of evaporation.

● Water vapour rises through convection.

● Rising air cools, condenses forming clouds and rain falls.

● Dense vegetation also promotes high rates of transpiration.

Rainfall – temperature graph for Kisangani (DRC)- case study

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Describe the main features of the climate of Kisangani.

● There are high temperatures of about 25–26°C

● Temperatures are constant (there is low or small temperature range).

● There is high annual rainfall of about 1700 to 1900mm

● Rainfall is is received all year round

● Rainfall fluctuates

Give reasons for the climate of an area of tropical rainforest such as Kisangani

● High temperatures are due to the high angle of sun’s rays on the equator and heat is
concentrated in a small area
● The small annual range of temperature due to constant overhead sun

● The wet climate due to convectional rainfall

● Large amounts of evaporation lead to high rainfall

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 ● Transpiration from abundant vegetation also contributes to high rainfall

Tropical or Hot desert climate

● A desert is an area with an annual average precipitation of less than 250 mm.

● It can be regarded as an arid environment.

Distribution of tropical deserts

1. Deserts are generally located in the zone approximately between 15° and 30° north and south of
the equator eg Kalahari, Mojave, Namib and Sahara. These are caused by sinking air which causes
high pressure hence no rain since clouds are inhibited from farming.

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2. Some deserts are found on the western coasts of continents eg Namib, Sahara, Kalahari and
Atacama. This is a result of the influence of cold ocean currents. In such areas winds blow across a
cold ocean current and no condensation takes place. No rain falls place along the coast as the air
mass warms up and relative humidity decreases, resulting in lack of clouds therefore leading to
formation of deserts.

3. Other deserts are located on the leeward side or rain shadow of great mountain ranges
eg the Atacama desert is on the rain shadow of the Andes mountains. The rain shadow
areas of mountain ranges have low rainfall because of dry air descending from the mountain
top.
4. Some deserts are found in the interior of continents eg Sahara and Great Australian
desert. Areas away from the sea are under the influence of dry air masses so there will be
less rainfall received hence formation of deserts.
Climatic characteristics of tropical deserts
Temperature characteristics

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 ● All tropical deserts have high temperatures during the day and very low
temperatures at night.
● The temperature in tropical deserts is very high.

Reasons for these temperature characteristics

● Temperature range is very high due to absence of cloud cover which results in
temperature extremes being experienced (high temperatures during the day and
very low temperatures at night).
● Hot deserts in the interior of continents are far away from the moderating influence
of oceans.
Rainfall characteristics

● Tropical deserts are dry.

● Total annual rainfall is very low usually less that 250 mm.

● Some months may not have rainfall at all.

Reasons for low rainfall in deserts

● The low amount of rainfall in some deserts is caused by their location in the rain
shadow areas.
● Cold ocean currents also lead to low rainfall in other deserts.

● Air subsidence (sinking) around 23° north and south of the equator creates anti-
cyclonic conditions which inhibit cloud formation hence no rainfall.
● There is also low water vapour in the atmosphere due to limited evapotranspiration.

Temperature rainfall graph for location in the Sahara (northern hemisphere)- case study

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Climatic characteristics shown on the graph

● Temperatures are higher in summer from May to September and lower in winter
from October to April.
● Highest temperature is in July and August around 36°c.

● Lowest temperature is in January around 12.5°c.

● Annual temperature range is high (36- 12.5 = 23.5°c).

● Annual rainfall is very low (17mm per year).

● Only 5 months have rainfall with the highest rainfall recorded in November.

Reasons for the climatic characteristics at both locations

● Air subsidence (sinking) around 23° north and south of the equator creates anti-
cyclonic conditions or high pressure which inhibit cloud formation hence no rainfall.
● There is also low water vapour in the atmosphere due to limited evapotranspiration.

● Low rainfall in the Sahara is also caused by the Canary cold ocean current on the
western edge of the Sahara.
● Temperature extremes are due to absence of cloud cover.

Rainfall temperature graph for a location in the Namib desert (southern hemisphere)

Climatic characteristics shown on the graph

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 ● Temperatures are higher in summer from October to April and lower in winter from
May to September.
● Highest temperature is in December and January ( 23°c).

● Lowest temperature is in July ( 13°c).

● Annual temperature range is high (10°c).

● Annual rainfall is low (about 360 mm per year).

Reasons for the climatic characteristics at both locations

● Air subsidence (sinking) around 23° north and south of the equator creates anti-
cyclonic conditions or high pressure which inhibit cloud formation hence no rainfall.
● There is also low water vapour in the atmosphere due to limited evapotranspiration.

● Low rainfall in the Namib is caused by the Banguela cold ocean current.

● Temperature extremes are due to absence of cloud cover.

Tropical Rainforest and Hot Desert Ecosystems

A natural ecosystem is an area in which plants and animals live in balance with their environment
and are interlinked with it. The tropical rainforests and tropical deserts are two of the world’s major
ecosystems or biomes. The diagram below shows the interrelationships within an ecosystem and
how nutrients are recycled.

Plants need nutrients. Some of these nutrients come from rocks as they are weathered. Leaves fall
to the ground and these decompose and are turned into humus. Humus is mixed with the soil and
the absorbed by the plant roots. However, some nutrients are lost due to leaching.

Tropical rainforest ecosystem

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Adaptation of vegetation to the hot and wet climate

● The vegetation is dense and evergreen due to high rainfall and high temperatures.

● Trees are very tall up to 60 metres due to competition for sunlight.

● Trees have developed buttress roots for support in the wet and muddy soils caused by high
rainfall.
● Trees have climbers or lianas which climb up the trees to get sunlight.

● Trees have broad leaves to increase loss of water due to transpiration.

● Leaves have drip tips to facilitate loss of water after heavy rains.

● Trees are found in 3 distinct layers : the under canopy made of trees which are about 15
metres high, the dense main canopy layer at a height of about 20-30 metres and emergent
layer which reaches a height of 60 metres.
● There is little undergrowth due to limited sunlight reaching the ground because of the main
canopy layer

Relationship between vegetation and the soil

● When trees grow, they remove nutrients from the soil- to be returned later when their
leaves fall.
● Leaves decompose rapidly in the wet and hot conditions.

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 ● This adds humus to the top of the soil.

● However, the deep soil below has few nutrients because of leaching.

● Leaching is the washing down of nutrients in solution from the topsoil by rainwater.

● Trees take up nutrients through their roots, so the shallow buttress allow the trees to access
the nutrients near the surface.

Animals in the tropical rainforest ecosystem

● The rainforest has a rich and diverse animal life.

● This is because the rainforest provides a variety of habitats and abundance of vegetation for
food.
● Examples of animals living on the forest floors are elephants, deer, rhinoceros. In the middle
levels, species of monkey, squirrel, frog, lizard and tree climbing big cats are found. But it is
in the emergent layer that 80% of the animals live.

The value of tropical rainforests for people

● Many medicines to combat illnesses have been derived from tropical rainforests plants eg
quinine from the chinchona tree of Africa and Central America is used to cure malaria.
● Tropical forests provide timber for construction and furniture, fuel for local people and raw
material for industry.
● They also boost the local and national economies by attracting tourists.

● The rainforests provide a home for many native people.

● The forests also provide food such as honey and wild fruits for the natives.

The importance of tropical rainforests for the environment

● Soil erosion is reduced because the roots hold the soil in place.

● The large leaves lessen raindrop impact on the by intercepting them.

● The roots also take up water from the soil – reducing chances of mud flows down the slope.

● Rivers are kept healthy for aquatic life since forests stop soil from being washed into rivers.

● Trees promote high rates of transpiration which result in high rainfall to provide the
necessary water for the ecosystem.
● The forests act as a carbon sink since they take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis they
by reducing enhanced global warming.

Large scale deforestation of tropical rainforest

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The rainforests are being exploited by multi-national companies to provide raw materials for their
industries. Population pressure also contribute to deforestation of the rainforests.

Causes of deforestation in Borneo – case study

Borneo is divided between 3 countries – Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Indonesian part is
called Kilimantan. The causes of deforestation include logging, population pressure, plantations,
hydroelectric power, mining and road construction.

Logging: from the 1970s Indonesia and Malaysia cut down trees from Borneo because they wanted
to boost their economies by exporting timber for uses such as furniture making and pulp and paper
manufacture. Between i980 and 2000 more timber was imported from Borneo than from Africa and
Latin America combined.

Population pressure: between 1970 and 2000, Indonesia moved thousands of Indonesians from
overcrowded islands like Java to less crowded areas like Kilimantan. The migrants provided labour
for the logging companies and roads made for these migrants opened up the forest to the logging
companies.

Plantations: in the 1980s, the deforestation was speeded up as vast palm oil plantations were
planted. Palm oil is widely used in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics and processed foods. By
2004, thes plantations covered one million hectares of Kilimantan.

Hydroelectric power: in Sarawak (in Malaysian Borneo) a large area of forest has been cleared to
provide a reservoir for the Bakun HEP scheme.

Mining: large scale coal mining, especially in the east and south of Kalimantan, has become a big
threat to the forests there.

Road building: roads built to access mines, HEP sites and logging areas open up the forest alongside
them for further deforestation for settlement and other developments.

Consequences or effects of deforestation

● The burning of forests emits a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

● This greenhouse gas contributes to enhanced global warming.

● Forests act as a carbon sink so if they are removed more carbon dioxide from burning fossil
fuels will accumulate in the atmosphere.
● Smoke from burning forests is also a health hazard.

● Deforestation could result in the loss of biodiversity.

● Forest clearance disturbs the hunter gatherer way of life of some natives such as the Penan
people in Sarawak. In Kilimantan, the Dayak people, who are shifting cultivators are also
under threat.
● The numbers of animals and birds are falling down due to loss of habitats. Many animals and
birds are near extinction.
● Deforestation has led to soil erosion thereby reducing soil fertility.

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 ● River pollution is on the increase due to mining operations eg Carajas mine in the Amazon
Basin discharges waste direct into the Amazon river.
● Deforestation has also resulted in low evapotranspiration causing reduced rainfall in some
parts of the rainforest.

Management of rainforests in a sustainable way

Sustainable management refers to wise use of the forests and conserving them for future
generations. The following ways may be adopted:

● Some areas of rainforest may be designated as national parks, which are supposed to
have their wildlife and habitat protected eg the Kutai National Park in Kalimantan.
● Selective logging should be done. This is a technique whereby individual trees are felled
only when they are mature. The idea is that the rainforest canopy is preserved and this
protects the ground below.
● Reforestation or afforestation should be done in areas where forests have been cleared
by logging.
● Ecotourism may also help in managing rainforests. Ecotourism is small scale tourism
where people visit the rainforest in small groups, causing as little disturbance as possible
to the environment and local people. Local people will not cut down trees for short term
gains since they will also be getting income from ecotourism.

Problems faced in management of rainforests

● Illegal logging is a threat to rainforests designated as national parks because is difficult

for park rangers to monitor large areas.
● Roads left behind by selective loggers allow other people to follow them in and open up
the forest further.
● Also, getting the selectively logged tree out of the forest may damage up to 30 other
trees.
● Reforestation or afforestation will concentrate on one tree eg teak, biodiversity is
reduced .

Tropical Desert Ecosystem

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Adaptation of vegetation to the hot and dry conditions

● Many plants have adapted to the dry conditions and these are called xerophytes.

● The vegetation is sparse to minimise competition for water.

● Curled leaves to reduce transpiration

● Shallow roots to trap water before it evaporates

● Some plants called succulents have fleshy stems to store water for use during the long dry
spells.
● Other plants have long taproots of about 7-10 metres to reach groundwater.

● Some plants have horizontal root system just below the surface to quickly absorb water
soon after rains.
● Tree leaves are small or spines and glossy or waxy to reduce water loss.

● Leaves also curl inwards to reduce water loss.

● Some desert plants have short life cycles that is the seeds germinate, grow, flower and
produce new seeds within 3 weeks.
● The seeds can stay dormant for years, but can germinate quickly when it rains.

Animals in tropical deserts

● Animals are active at night (nocturnal) to avoid the heat of the day.

● They have large ears to help to reduce body heat.

● They remain in underground burrows during the day.

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 ● The animals secrete highly concentrated urine to reduce water loss.

● They migrate during the hottest season to escape the heat.

● Camels have long eyelashes and can close their nostrils for protection during sandstorms.

● They can go without water for months and can drink a lot of water quickly when it is
present.
● As food is not readily available, camels store fat in their humps. As this is digested, hydrogen
is released and mixes with oxygen to form water.

For a named area of tropical desert you have studied, explain how the vegetation and wildlife
are adapted to the climate.

Vegetation in the Sonoran Desert – case study

The Sonoran Desert is located in southern USA. Its vegetation includes the saguaro cactus, which
may grow to a height of 15m and may live for up to 175 years. It has a ribbed stem which expands as
it fills with water during the winter wet season. Its stem also reduces wind speed and water loss
from the plant. The plant has sunken stomata which reduce water loss. It has shallow roots to catch
water from storms before it evaporates. Other species with similar adaptations include prickly pear
and barrel and hedgehog cacti. The Palo Verde is a small, drought tolerant tree. It loses its leaves in
the dry season, but its green bark allows it to photosynthesise without leaves. Creosote bushes have
small, dark leaves to reduce transpiration. Plant density in the desert depends on water availability.
Animals have light coloured fur to reflect the sun. The tortoises feed on plants in the spring and the
moisture they obtain is stored in their bladders until the next spring. Many desert animals are small
and they hide in burrows to escape the intense heat of day time. Some are nocturnal and hunt in the
cool of the night.

Opportunities for human activities in tropical deserts

1. Energy

● In the Sahara Desert, Algeria earns half of its money from mining oil and gas eg at Hassi
Messaoud oilfield.
● Algeria is also covering large areas of the desert with solar panels to the turn the sun’s into
electricity. The aim is to export solar power to Europe through cables below the
Mediterranean Sea.

2. Farming and irrigation

● Egypt is 95% desert but it grows produces food for its growing population and for export,
using irrigation along the Nile valley.
● Farming supplies 13% of Egypt’s GDP and employs 32% of the labour force.

3. Mining

● The Namib desert has mineral reserves of diamonds, uranium, copper, zinc and silver.

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 ● Mining provides more than 50% of Namibia’s export earnings.

4. Tourism

● The sunny Namib and Kalahari deserts, with their interesting wildlife provide opportunities
for tourism.

5. Cattle ranching

● This is done in the Kalahari Desert of Botswana to produce beef for export to the EU.

Impacts of human activities in deserts

● In Egypt, irrigated land is suffering from salinity. Irrigation water contains mineral salts.
When the water evaporates from the surface of the soil, the salt crystals are left behind.
● In other deserts, extraction of water for agriculture from underground aquifers has led
groundwater levels dropping quickly.
● Opencast mining in Namibia has destroyed animal habitats.

● The mines are so visually polluting that there is fear that they may deter tourists from
visiting the country.
● Some tourism activities are damaging to the environment. The sand dunes near Walvis Bay
(Namibia), for example, are destroyed by tours on quad bikes, motor bikes and off road
vehicles.

Impacts of human activities in the Sonoran Desert

Some cities notably Phoenix in Arizona, have expanded rapidly at the expense of the desert. The
increased demand for and abstraction of water has lowered water tables. Road construction and
pipelines have affected the movement of mammals, and fenced highways have prevented
pronghorn antelopes, from reaching water supplies. Off- road vehicles have compacted soils and
made them less able to hold water. Overgrazing by cattle has removed more palatable species.
Domesticated animals have escaped into the wild, and reduced grazing availability for wild animals.
The introduction of exotic plant species like tamarisk, has displaced native species such as
cottonwoods and desert willows.

Weather Hazards

These are dangers which are posed by climatic disturbances. A hazard is an event which has
potential to destroy property and human life. Weather hazards include tropical storms and drought.

Tropical storms

● These are low pressure systems associated with high rainfall and heavy winds experienced
within the tropics.

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 ● They are called hurricanes in the Caribbeans and Americas, typhoons in Western Pacific and
Asia, cyclones in the Indian ocean, Africa and Northern Australia.

Distribution of tropical storms

Tropical storms form in the tropics between 5° and 20° North and South of the equator. Tropical
storms are common in:

1. South East Africa for example in Mozambique, Madagascar and Mauritius. Cyclones in these
areas originate in the Indian ocean.
2. Asia for example in South East China and Bay of Bengal. Here the typhoons originate in the
Pacific Ocean.
3. Americas and the Caribbeans for example in USA, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti. The hurricanes
originate in the Atlantic Ocean.

The structure of a tropical storm

● Heated moist air rises from the ocean at B creating low pressure.

● The mass of air rises rapidly.

● Thick cumulonimbus clouds are formed producing heavy rainfall.

● The air cools at high levels and sinks forming an eye at C creating calm conditions at the
centre.

Development of a tropical cyclone

● Tropical storms normally develop over warm sea surfaces when temperatures are hottest
around 27°C in summer.

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 ● The sun will be overhead the tropics, so high temperatures results in excessive evaporation
from the oceans.
● Cumulonimbus clouds develop and heavy rainfall occurs.

● Once they develop, the storms move inland, from east towards continents at great wind
speeds.
● Storms do not form at higher latitudes because in these areas, oceans are not warm enough.

Effects of tropical storms

● Heavy rainfall, for example of 100mm a day, triggers flooding of rivers resulting in loss of life
through drowning.
● There is destruction of property by flooding.

● Clean water sources are contaminated during flooding causing water pollution leading to
diseases like cholera.
● Communication lines such as roads and telephone lines are destroyed.

● Violent winds blow away roof tops and cause collapse of buildings.

● Crops are destroyed leading to food shortages.

● Heavy winds also cause storm surges which cause flooding of coastal areas.

Measures to reduce effects of tropical storms

● There is use of early warning systems by meteorological department, warning people about
the approaching cyclone.
● Awareness campaigns can be conducted that is teaching people on the effects of storms and
what actions to take.
● People should be evacuated from low lands to high lands to reduce risk of being flooded.

● People can insure their property so that in the event of destruction, they are compensated.

● Afforestation programmes can be undertaken, to reduce flood risk.

● There should be use of emergency rescue teams to assist victims of flooding, for example,
civil protection unit, sub aqua unit and red cross.

Case study- Hurricane Katrina, August 2005 ( USA)

Hurricane Katrina developed in the Atlantic Ocean due to rise in temperatures leading to low
pressure systems. The hurricane struck the city of New Orleans and caused one of the worst natural
disasters the USA has ever faced. Hurricane Katrina reached category 5 in terms of intensity and
wind speed reached 280 km/hr. The hurricane had a wide range of impacts. Across Louisiana and
Mississippi, 1836 people were killed. One million people were left homeless because buildings

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suffered extensive damage. There was lack of clean water, food and toilet facilities in New Orleans.
Nearly everyone in New Orleans became unemployed. The total economic impact of Hurricane
Katrina for Louisiana and Mississippi was estimated to be over US$150 billion. Communication
networks failed, many telephones and mobiles did not work, internet access and local television
stations were damaged. The levees and flood walls protecting New Orleans were damaged so 80% of
the city ended up under water.

Why did Hurricane Katrina cause so much damage in a rich country which is usually prepared for
such hazards?

● Many people ignored an instruction to evacuate New Orleans either because they were poor
or because they wanted to protect their homes from looters.
● New Orleans is located in marshlands of the Mississippi delta where land is constantly
sinking.
● Much of the city lies below sea level, the water has to be kept out by artificial levees.

● The levees and flood walls protecting New Orleans were designed to prevent damage from
hurricanes up to category 3. They could not cope with a 6 metre high storm surge.

Drought

This is a condition where the received rainfall is below the normal expected.

Distribution of areas at risk of drought

● Drought occurs in the Sahel region which includes countries such as Ethiopia, Somalia,
Burkina Faso, Sudan, Chad, Mauritania and Niger.
● Drought also occurs in Sub Saharan Africa, for example, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Malawi and Lesotho.

Causes of drought

Natural causes of drought

● Lack of water sources and less vegetation means less evapotranspiration and this leads to
low rainfall.
● Climatic changes have also led to low rainfall in some areas.

● High pressure systems or anti-cyclonic conditions also cause suppression of rain formation
systems.
● The ELNINO effect results in reversal of normal currents which bring precipitation, causing
dry spells.

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 ● Rain shadow effect can trigger drought since on the leeward side, dry descending air will
bring no rainfall.

Human causes of drought

● Deforestation, for example, for fuel, settlement and farmland causes reduction in
evapotranspiration causing low rainfall amounts to be received.
● Siltation of rivers due to stream bank cultivation reduces the sources of evaporation since
rivers are covered by sand hence leading to low amount of rainfall being received.
● Release of greenhouse gases from industry leads to global warming which may cause
abnormal weather patterns such as drought.

Effects of drought

● It needs to crop failure which results in food shortages.

● Food shortages lead to hunger and starvation leading to loss of life.

● Food shortages also cause malnutrition diseases such as kwashiorkor.

● Drought leads to shortage of water as wells and rivers dry up.

● Wilting of vegetation and plants will affect the ecosystem negatively, for example, bare
grounds develop and deserts spread faster.
● It results in serious migration of refugees to seek for food in neighbouring countries.

Measures to reduce effects of drought.

● Dam construction will provide water for irrigation to reduce food shortages.

● Environmental education should be done to make people aware of the causes and effects of
drought.
● Afforestation programmes should be done to increase transpiration which can generate high
rainfall.
● Cloud seeding can be done to increase rainfall activity in the area.

● Early warning systems through weather forecasts may help people to take corrective
measures before drought comes.

With reference to a named area where drought occurs, describe the causes and effects of drought
on the environment and on people living there.

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Case study : Kenya

Most of northern half of Kenya receives less than 400mm of rainfall per year. Rainfall is erratic and
unreliable over most of the country because of it being part of the Sahel region. Deforestation has
contributed to drought as trees have been cut down since most of the people in rural areas use
wood fuel for cooking. Rapid population has also led to clearance of vegetation for settlement and
farming reducing transpiration. The 2008- 2009 season was short so rainfall was lower than normal.

The 2008-20009 drought in Kenya had severe effects. In 2009, 10 million Kenyans needed food aid
after a poor harvest. By April 2009, 30% of the population in northern Kenya was suffering from
acute malnutrition. Reservoirs also dried up which resulted in water and power shortages. Water
supplies to cities such as Nairobi had to be rationed. Water was insufficient for any hydro-electricity
to be produced at Masinga dam. By September 2009, the Masai pastoralists had their pastures
destroyed by drought. Some of them moved to war-torn Somalia and Ethiopia. By September 2009,
at least 60 elephants and hundreds of other animals had died in Kenya.

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