3.

2 PSYCHOANALYTIC AND ADLERIAN

APPROACH

There are many theoretical models of psychology and counselling. Some are
best utilised for particular situations and needs. Often, an eclectic approach, or
the utilisation of several approaches is best for the resolution of
problems. Effective counselors scrutinise all theories and match them to personal
beliefs about the nature of people and change. Since the 1950s, psychologists
have adopted a number of diverse approaches to understanding human nature
and behaviour. Most counselling approaches fall within four broad theoretical
categories: psychoanalytic, affective, cognitive and behavioural. In addition to
these, there are Cognitive Behavioural approaches also which are gaining
importance in recent years.
Different approaches exist because there are different ways of explaining the
phenomena, for example, emotions can be explained in terms of the thoughts
associated with them or the physiological changes they produce. Psychologists
try to explain psychological phenomena from a range of different perspectives,
and so use different approaches.

3.2.1 Psychoanalytic Approach

This approach developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 1900s, involves analysing
the root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind
and the conscious mind's relation to it. Psychoanalysis can take on a variety of
forms, varying from practitioner to practitioner. Psychoanalytical and
psychodynamic therapies are based on an individual's unconscious thoughts and
perceptions that have developed throughout their childhood, and how these affect
their current behaviour and thoughts.
Psychoanalysis focuses on an individual's unconscious, deep rooted thoughts
that often stem from childhood. Through free association, dreams or fantasies,
clients can learn how to interpret deeply buried memories or experiences that
may be causing them distress.
i) View of Human Nature
The Freudian view of human nature is dynamic. According to him, human nature
could be explained in terms of a conscious mind, a sub conscious and an
unconscious mind. The conscious mind is attuned to the events in the present, to
an awareness of the outside world. The subconscious mind is an area between
the conscious and unconscious mind which contains aspects of both. Within the
subconscious are hidden memories or forgotten experiences that can be
remembered if a person is given the proper cues. Finally beneath the subconscious
mind is the unconscious mind, the most powerful and least understood part of
36
the personality. The instinctual, repressed and powerful forces of the personality Theoretical Approaches to
exist in the unconscious. Counseling

ii) Id, Ego and Super Ego

ld is a concept equivalent to a demanding child and it is ruled by the pleasure
principle. It refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part of the personality. Its
main goal is to reduce tension created by our primitive drives such as hunger,
sex, aggression and irrational impulses.
Ego is a concept analogous to a traffic policeman and it is ruled by the reality
principle. Ego's job is to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration
the reality of the situation. The ego is sometimes called "the executive" of an
individual's personality. It is responsible for the higher cognitive functions such
as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning.
Superego is the third concept which can be equaled to that of a judge and it is
ruled by the moral principle. Superego represents the rights and wrongs of the
society. It has two subparts: the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience
prevents us from doing morally wrong or bad things. The ego ideal is that part of
the superego that includes the rules and standards for good behaviours. These
behaviours include those that are approved of by parental and other authority
figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value, and accomplishment.
The ego ideal motivates the person to do what is morally proper. The superego
helps to control the id impulses, making them less selfish and more morally
CorrecL.

iii) Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Ego-defense mechanisms are normal behaviours which operate on an unconscious
level and tend to deny or distort reality. They help the individual to cope up with
anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed. They have adaptive value
if they do not become a style of life to avoid facing reality. Some of the major
defense mechanisms described by psychoanalysts are the following:
1) Repression: It is the withdrawal of an unwanted idea, affect, or desire from
consciousness by pushing it down, or repressing it, into the unconscious
part of the mind.
2) Reaction formation: I is the fixation of an idea, affect, or desire in
consciousness that is opposite to a feared unconscious impulse.
3) Projection: It is a form of defense in which unwanted feelings are displaced
onto another person.

4) Regression: When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon

coping strategies and revert to pattens of behaviour used earlier in development.
5) Sublimation: It is the diversion or deflection of instinctual drives, usually
sexual ones, into non-instinctual channels. It allows us to act out unacceptable
impulses by converting these behaviours into a more acceptable form.
6) Denial: It is used to describe situations in which people seem unable to face
reality or admit an obvious truth.
7) Rationalisation: It is the substitution of a safe and reasonable explanation
for the true, but threatening cause of behaviour.
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Introduction
8) Displacement: Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings
and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening.
9) Intellectualisation: It allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful,
emotional aspect of the situation and instead focuses only on the intellectual
component.
iv) Role ofa Counselor
Counselors who practice psychoanalysis play the role of experts. They encourage
their clients to talk about whatever comes in their mind, especially childhood
experiences. After a few face to face interactions such an environment is created,
often have the client lie down while the analyst remains out of view, in which the
client feels free to express difficult thoughts. The role of the analyst is to let the
clients gain insight by reliving and working through the unresolved past
experiences that come into focus during sessions. The development of transference
is encouraged to help clients deal realistically with unconscious material.
Psychoanalytic counselors also use diagnostic labels to classify clients and help
develop appropriate plans for them.
V) Goals
The goal of psychoanalysis varies according to the client, but they focus mainly
on personal adjustment, usually inducing a reorganisation of internal forces within
the person. In most cases, a primary goal is to help the client become more aware
of the unconscious aspects of his or her personality, which include repressed
memories and painful wishes. A second major goal is to help a client work through
a developmental stage, not resolved in primary goal. If accomplished, clients
become unstuck and are able to live more productively. A final goal is helping
clients cope with the demands of the society in which they live. Psychoanalysis
stresses environmental adjustment, especially in the areas of work and intimacy.
vi) Techniques
Free Association: Client reports immediately without censoring any feelings or
thoughts. The client is encouraged to relax and freely recall childhood memories
or emotional experiences. In this way, unconscious material enters the conscious
mind, and the counselor interprets it. At times clients resist free association by
blocking their thoughts or denying their importance. Psychoanalysts make the
most of these moments by attempting to help clients work through their resistance.
Dream Analysis: Dream analysis is considered the first scientific approach to the
study of dreams. In this clients report dreams to counselor on regular basis. Freud
believed that dreams were a main avenue to understanding the unconscious.
Counselor uses the"royal road to the unconscious" to bring unconscious material
to light. Clients are encouraged to remember dreams. The counselor analyse two
aspects; The Manifest Content (obvious meaning), and the Latent Content (hidden
but true meaning).

Analysis of Transference: Transference is the client's response to a counselor as

if the counselor were some significant figure in the client's past, usually a parent
figure. This allows the client to experience feelings that would otherwise be
inaccessible. The counselor encourages this transference and interprets positive
or negative feelings expressed. Analysis of transference allows the client to achieve
insight into the influence of the past. Counter-transference: It is the reaction of
38 the counselor towards the client that may interfere with objectivity.

Interpretation: Interpretation should consider part of all above mentioned Theoretical Approaches to
Counseling
techniques. When interpreting, the counselor helps the client understanding the
meaning of the past and present personal events. It consists of explanations and
analysis of a client's thoughts, feelings and actions. Counselor points out, explains,
and teaches the meanings of whatever is revealed. Counselors must carefully
time the use of interpretation.
 3.5 BEHAVIOURALAPPROACH
This approach is based on the premise that primary learning comes from
experience and applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted
behaviours. The initial concern is to help the client analyse behaviour, define
problems, and select goals. Behavioural Therapy is effective for individuals who
50

require treatment for some sort of behaviour change, such as addictions, phobias Theoretical Approaches to
Counseling
and anxiety disorders. It concentrates on the 'here and now' without focusing on
the past to find a reason for the behaviour. The behavioural approach says that
people behave in the way that their environment has taught them to behave, e.g.
through rewards and punishments, modeling, ete. So this approach attempts to
change the way the environment reinforces particular behaviour and works at
applying learning principles to help people to learn new behaviours by behavioural
experiments, role playing, assertiveness training, and self management training.
Four Aspects of Behaviour Therapy
1) Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning certain respondent behaviours, such as knee jerks and
salivation, are elicited from a passive organism.
2) Operant Conditioning
It focuses on actions that operate on the environment to produce consequences.
If the environmental change brought about by the behaviour is reinforcing. the
chances are strengthened that the behaviour will occur again. If the environmental
changes produce no reinforcement., the chances are lessened that the behaviour
will recur.

3) Social Learning Approach

It gives prominence to the reciprocal interactions between an individual's
behaviour and the environment.

4) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

It emphasises cognitive processes and private events (such as client's self-talk)
as mediators of behaviour change.
i) View of Human Nature
As the behaviourist views human nature, humans are neither good nor bad but
are living organisms capable of experiencing a variety of behaviours. Their
personality is composed of traits. The behaviourist believes that people can
conceptualise and control their behaviour and have the ability to learn new
behaviours. In addition, people can influence the behaviour of others as well as
be influenced by the behaviour of others. Behaviourists concentrate on behavioural
processes as they are closely associated with overt behaviour and believe that all
behaviour is learned, whether it is adaptive or maladaptive. They also believe
that learning and development occur in one of the three ways:
respondent learning.
operant conditioning and
social modeling.
ii) Role ofa Counsellor
A counsellor may take one of the several roles, depending on his or her behavioural
orientation. The counsellor functions as a consultant, teacher, advisor and
facilitator. The behaviour counsellor tries to help the individual to learn new and
more adaptable behaviours and to unlearn old non adaptable behaviours. The
behaviour counsellor focuses attention on the individual 's ongoing behaviours 51
 Introduction and their consequences in his own environment. He tries to restructure the
environment so that more adaptable patterns of behaviour can be learned and
non adaptable patterns of behaviour can be unlearned. An effective behavioural
counsellor operates from a broader perspective and involves the client in every
phase of counselling.
iiü) Goals
Basically behavioural counsellors want to help clients make good adjustments
to life circumstances and achieve personal and professional objectives. Amajor
step is to reach mutually agreed upon goals. Blackham and Silberman(1971)
suggests four steps in this process:
1) Defining the problem
The clients are asked to specify when, where, how and with whom the
problem arises.
2) Take a developmental history
Knowledge about how the client has handled past circumstances.
3) Establish specific goals
Counselors help clients break down goals into small, achievable goals.
4) Determine the best method for change
Helping the client to reach desired goal by choosing the appropriate method.
Continuous assessment of the effectiveness of method is must.

iv) Techniques
General behavioural techniques are applicable to all behaviour theories, although
a given technique may applicable to a particular approach at a given time in a
specific circumstance.
Systematic desensitisation: This is a technique used specifically with phobias.
It helps the client to pair relaxation with previously feared stimuli.
Aversive therapy: It is almost the opposite of systematic desensitisation and
has the client pair some aversive stimuli (e.g., nausea, pain, disturbing images,
etc.) with some behaviour that he/she is having difficulty giving up. For example,
a person trying to quit drinking might take a drug that makes her nauseous
whenever she drinks alcohol. Both systematic desensitisation and aversive therapy
make use of classical conditioning learning principles -learning that occurs when
things get paired together. Systematic desensitisation "teaches" the client a new
thing by pairing relaxation with something they fear whereas Aversive therapy
"leaches" a new thing by pairing a bad experience with some behaviour they
want to eliminate.

Behaviour Modification programs: These approaches try to increase positive

behaviour and decrease negative behaviour by using reinforcements and
punishments in the most effective ways based on learning principles. The
counselor will try to help the parents identify in what ways the undesired behaviour
is being reinforced and eliminate that reinforcement and help them develop ways
to reinforce desired behaviour.
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Use of Reinforcers: Reinforcers are those events which increase the probability Theoretical Approaches to
of occurrence of a desired behaviour in the future by applying consequences that Counseling
depend on the behaviour in question.
Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positive consequences to workers
who perform desired behaviours- Pay. promotions, interesting work, praise,
awards.

Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negative consequences when workers

perform desired behaviours-Nagging, complaining.
Punishment: Administering negative consequences to undesirable behaviours
in an effort to decrease the probability that the behaviour will occur again in the
future.

Shaping: It is a process in which undifferentiated operant behaviours are gradually

changed into a desired behaviour pattern by the reinforcement of success
approximations, so that the behaviour gets closer and closer to the target behaviour.
Extinction: When pairing of conditioned and unconditional stimulus stops then
association weakens and conditioned response becomes less frequent till it
disappears.
Generalisation: Conditioned response occurs in response to stimuli which are
similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination: Conditioned response does not occur to all possible similar

stimuli-learned difference between stimuli

The cognitive behavioural approach examines the patient's beliefs and behaviours.
Individuals hold beliefs about themselves and relationships that affect behaviour.
Negative beliefs lead to maladaptive behaviours. By examining and challenging
these beliefs with new information, subsequent new behaviours can change. This
approach also examines behaviours directly so that new, more adaptive behaviours
can be developed. This approach is especially beneficial for changing habits,
learned behavioural patterms, phobias, and many forms of depresion.