These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

CHAPTER - 1
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
• FLOWER – It is the modified stem of a plant.
• STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER:

WHORLS

Non – Essential (sterile) Essential ( fertile )

Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium

Outermost whorl of - whorl of petals - Whorl of stamens -Whorl of pistils

sepals inside calyx - Male reproductive part -Female reproductive
of the flower part of the flower

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

- The process by which male and female gametes from two parents combine to generate
new creatures is known as sexual reproduction.
- Flower is the main reproductive organ of a plant which contains the male and female
reproductive organs.
- Flowers are structurally divided into the following different whorls:
○ Calyx - group of sepals, usually green in colour.
○ Corolla - group of petals, brightly coloured.
○ Androecium - male reproductive part of a flower consisting of the stamen having filament
and anther.
○ Gynoecium - female reproductive part of a flower known as pistil or carpel consisting of
stigma, style and ovary.

• There are three stages involved in sexual reproduction in flowering

plants:

i) Pre-fertilization

ii) Double fertilization

iii) Post-fertilization

Pre-Fertilisation: Structures and Events

• STRUCTURE OF STAMEN:
- Typical stamen consists of two parts, long and slender stalk called filament and
terminal bilobed structure called anther.
o Filament–Sterile part which connects the anther to the thalamus or petals of the flower.
o Anther-Fertile part, within which are formed pollen grains.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- Anther is usually bilobed, each lobe has two theca and thus known as dithecous. Each
theca has two microsporangia (four in total) and thus a typical angiosperm anther is
tetrasporangiate.
- Each microsporangium develops and become the pollen sac that produces a large
number of microspores known as pollen grains.

• MICROSPORANGIUM:
Each microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers:
o Epidermis : it is the outermost wall layers which performs the function of protection.
o Endothecium : it is present in the form of radial bands and helps in the dehiscence of
anther.
o Middle layers : 1-3 layers, helps in the formation of pollenkit.
o Tapetum : innermost wall layer, provides nourishment to the developing pollen grains
and also secretes sporopollenin which forms the outer wall of pollen grains.

- The centre of each microsporangium consists of homogenous mass of sporogenous

tissue.
- Each cell of the sporogenous tissue has the potential to undergo meiosis and produce
four haploid microspores or pollen grains.

Protective and helps in the

Dehiscence of pollen grains.

Provides nourishment to
the developing pollen
grains.

FIG: Walls of Microsporangium

• MICROSPOROGENESIS:
- The process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell through meiosis
is called microsporogenesis.
- The sporogenous tissue of microsporangium is differentiated into microspore
https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI
 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
mother cell or pollen mother cell.
- Each microspore mother cell has the potential to give rise to a microspore tetrad.
- After meiosis, four haploid microspores are enclosed by a callose wall.
- During the process of development, the enzyme Callase degrades the wall between the
microspores and the microspores separate to form the pollen grains.

• POLLEN GRAINS:
- Pollen grain represents the male gametophytes.
- It is spherical in shape, measuring about 25-50 micrometer in diameter.
- It is covered by two layers.
- The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of sporopollenin, which is one of the
most resistant organic materials known. It can withstand high temperature and strong
acids and alkali.
- The exine has prominent apertures called germ pore (where sporopollenin is absent),
through which the pollen tube germinates.
- The inner wall of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin and continuous layer made
of cellulose and pectin.
- The pollen grain further divides and forms two unequal cells, the vegetative cell and
generative cell.
- The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly
shaped nucleus.
- The generative cell is small, has spindle shaped nucleus and floats in the cytoplasm of
vegetative cell.
- This pollen grain having the generative and vegetative cell is known as the two-celled
stage. In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage.
- In others the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes before
pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage).

FIG: Microspore maturing into a pollen grain.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

FIG: Matured Pollen Grain

Due to the presence of sporopollenin, The exine has different micro-sculpturing

the pollen grains can be preserved for patterns which has helped in the field of
many years as a fossil and help in taxonomy. It has helped to assign a
many taxonomical studies. sculpturing pattern to a particular plant, a
family, genus or species.

- Pollen grain may cause severe allergies and bronchial afflictions.

- It may cause chronic respiratory disorders – asthma, bronchitis, etc.
- Pollen grain of Parthenium or carrot grass which came into India as a contaminant
with imported wheat causes pollen allergy.
- Pollen grains are rich in nutrients hence used as pollen tablets for food supplements.
- Pollen consumptions increase performance of athletes and race horses.

In wheat and rice the pollen grain lose viability

VIABILITY OF POLLEN GRAINS: within 30 minutes of their release.
the viability depends on
temperature and humidity. In Rosaceae, Leguminaseae and Solanaceae,
- pollens remain viable for several months.
https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI
 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

CRYOPRESERVATION:
- These stored pollens can be used later for plant
breeding to improve certain characteristics of
To increase the viability, the
the plants or can be used if the plants face
extinction or become critically endangered.
pollens are maintained at lower
temperature i.e., 196°c in
• STRUCTURE OF THE GYNOECIUM:
pollen banks. This is known as
- The Gynoecium represents the female
reproductive part of the flower.
cryopreservation.
- Gynoecium also known as pistil or carpel is
made up of:
○ Stigma-Landing surface for the pollens.
DEFINITION:
○ Style-Passage for the pollen tube to the ovary.
○ Ovary-Embryo sac with the female gamete
UNICARPELLARY –having a
i.e., egg is present. single carpel.
- The Gynoecium may contain single pistil MULTICARPELLARY- having
(monocarpellary) or may have more than one
multiple carpels.
pistil
(multicarpellary).
- Multicarpellary pistil is further divided into
o Apocarpous- Multicarpellary condition in which carpels are not fused together.
Example: Michelia
o Syncarpous- Multicarpellary condition in which the carpels are fused together
Example: Papaver

FIG: Multicarpellary Syncarpous and Apocarpous pistil of Papaver and Michelia.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule).
- The placenta located inside the ovarian cavity.
- Megasporangia or ovules arise from the placenta.
- The number of ovules inside the ovary may be single or many.
• STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE:
- Ovule is a small structure attached to the
placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle.
- The body of the ovule fused with the funicle in
the region called hilum.
- An ovule consists of the nucellar tissue
protected by one or two coats called
integuments, except at a small opening left at
one end, known as micropyle.
- Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza,
Note: Ovule in which integuments
representing the basal part of the ovule.
are absent is called Ategmic ovule,
e.g., Santalum.
• MEGASPOROGENESIS:
- The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called
Megasporogenesis.
- In the centre of the ovule there is a mass of tissue called nucellus.
- Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials.
- One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother
cell (MMC).
- It is a large diploid cell containing dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
- The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.
- Only one megaspore is functional while the other three degenerates.
• FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE:
- The functional megaspore developed into the female gametophyte.
- Female gametophyte is known as the embryo sac.
- Development of embryo sac from a single megaspore is called as monosporic type of
embryo sac.
- The nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by mitotic division to form two nuclei
which move to the opposite pole, 2-nucleated embryo sac.
- Two successive mitotic division leads to formation of 4-nucleate and later 8-nucleate
stages of the embryo sac.
- All mitotic divisions are free nuclear type; karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis.
- Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells.
- Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end, constitute the egg apparatus.
- The egg apparatus, in turn consists of two synergids and one egg cell.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- Synergids have special filiform apparatus, which play an important role in guiding the
entry of pollen tube into the synergids.
- Three cells arranged towards chalazal end are called antipodal cells.
- The large central cell has two polar nuclei.
- A typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8- nucleated and 7-celled.

FIG: Development of Embryo Sac from Functional Megaspore

• POLLINATION:
- The process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
another flower is known as pollination.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
• TYPES OF POLLINATION:
o Autogamy
- The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
- In open and exposed anthers and stigma autogamy
is rare.
- Viola, Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of
flowers:
Chasmogamous: exposed anther and stigma
Cleistogamous: closed anther and stigma.
- Cleistogamous flowers are invariably
autogamous and produces assured seed set even in
the absence of the pollinator.
o Geitonogamy
- The transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma of a different flower on the same
plant.
- Pollination by pollinating agent.
- Genetically similar to the autogamy.
- Example: Maize FIG: self pollination

o Cross-pollination or Xenogamy
- It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of another
flower on another plant of the same or
different species.
- It is commonly called as cross-pollination.
- It brings genetically different types of pollen
grains to the stigma.
- It brings maximum genetic variations.
FIG: cross pollination
• AGENTS OF POLLINATION:
There are two main agents-
○ Abiotic
○ Biotic
- Abiotic-The agents like air and water are abiotic agents that help in pollination.
- Biotic- The agents like birds, insects and animals are biotic agents that help in
pollination.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
o ANEMOPHILY:
- Pollination of plants by air is known as anemophily.
The following are the characteristics of pollens and stigma of plants pollinated
by air –
- Plants produces enormous amount of pollen when compared to the number of
ovules available for pollination to compensate the uncertainties of pollination.
- Flowers with well exposed stamens.
- Large feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.
- Most wind pollinated flower contains single ovule in one ovary and numerous
flowers packed into an inflorescence e.g. corn cob.
- Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
o HYDROPHILY:
- Pollination of flower by water is known as hydrophily.
- This type of pollination is very rare, about 30 genera, mostly monocot.
- Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Zostera are the common example for Hydrophily.
- In Vallisneria, the pollen grains are released on the surface of water, the female
flower reaches the surface of water through a long stalk and pollens are carried
to the stigma of the female flower through water currents.
- In sea grasses like Zostera the pollen grains remain submerged in the water and
fertilisation takes place within the water.
- Pollen grains are long, ribbon like and carried passively inside the water.
- Pollen grains are protected from wetting by mucilaginous covering.
o POLLINATION BY BIOTIC AGENT:
-
Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating agents.
-
Among the animal, insect particularly bees are the dominant biotic agents for
pollination.
The following are the characteristics of flowers of plants pollinated by biotic
agents–
- Insect pollinating flowers are very large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar.
- Small flowers present in cluster to make them conspicuous.
- Flower pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours.
- Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards for insects.
o ENTOMOPHILY
- The pollination of the flowers by insects is
known as entomophily.
The following are the features of flowers
pollinated by insects –
- They are brightly coloured and produce a
large number of pollen grains.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- Flowers produce nectar or produce a sweet fragrance.
- In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs: e.g. Amorphophallus.
-A species of moth and Yucca plant cannot complete their life cycle without each other. The
moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn
get pollinated by the moth.
-Many insects may consume pollen or nectar without bring about pollination. Such
floral visitors are referred as pollen/nectar robbers.

o OUTBREEDING DEVICES:
- Majority of the flowering plants produce hermaphrodite flower and undergo
autogamy.
- Continuous autogamy or self-pollination results in inbreeding depression.
- Flowering plants have developed many devices to avoid self-pollination and to
encourage cross-pollination. Such devices are called Outbreeding devices.

Self
Incompatibility

Anther and
Stigma at Unisexual Flowers
different positions
Outbreeding
Devices

Pollen release and Spatial separation

stigma receptivity of anther and
unsynchronised stigma

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

• ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION:
- One of the major approaches of crop improvement programme.
- It helps the breeders to obtain plants with desired characteristics

- Emasculation – removal of anther from the flower before dehiscence using

a pair of forceps.
- Bagging – covering the emasculate flower with a bag of suitable size usually
made up of polythene or butter paper to protect the flower from
contamination.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
o STEPS IN ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION:

• POLLEN-PISTIL INTERACTION:
- The pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen, whether it is compatible or
incompatible. If it is compatible, the pistil accepts the pollen and promotes the
formation of pollen tube for fertilization.
- If the pollen is incompatible pollen germination does not take place on the
stigma or the pollen tube does not grow through the style.
- A chemical dialogue between the components of the pollen and the pistil
results in the acceptance or rejection of the germination of the pollen tube.
- The ability of the pistil to recognize the pollen by continuous dialogue mediated
by chemical like Boron, Inositol and sucrose level.

• Double fertilization:
- The pollen grains land on the stigma of the flower and then the pollen tube is
formed which passes through the style into the embryo sac of the ovule.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- After reaching the locule, the pollen tube enters the ovule.
- After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes
into the cytoplasm of the synergids.
- Syngamy: one of the male gametes fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote.
- Triple fusion: The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a
triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
- Since two type of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac
the phenomenon is termed as double fertilization.

POST-FERTILIZATION: STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

Events of endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovule into seed and
ovary into fruit, are collectively termed as post-fertilization events.
• Endosperm:
- Development of endosperm takes place before the embryo development.
- Primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm.
- Cells are filled with reserve food material and are used for the nutrition of the
developing embryo.
On the basis of development, the Endosperm can be of the following types
- Nuclear Endosperm-The division of the primary endosperm nucleus where the
nuclear divisions are not accompanied by the wall formation. This leads to the
formation of a structure that has many nuclei suspended in the sap.
- Cellular Endosperm-The division of the primary endosperm nucleus results in the
formation of multinucleate condition with regular wall formation.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- In coconut, the water is actually free nuclear endosperm, while, the white kernel is
the cellular Endosperm.
Endosperm may be consumed completely during embryo developed or it may be
consumed during germination of seed.

• EMBRYO:
- The zygote develops to form the embryo only after some of the endosperms are
formed.
- The embryo develops at the micropylar end.
- Embryo development takes place in following stages:
o Proembryo
o Globular stage
o Heart shaped
o Matured embryo.

Fertilised zygote Stages of embryo development

o Dicotyledonous Embryo
- A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of
an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
- Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the
epicotyls.
- Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule
which gives rise to the shoot.
- Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the
hypocotyl.
- The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the
radicle, covered with a root tip.
https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI
 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
- The root tip is covered by the root cap.

o Monocotyledonous Embryo
- Possesses only one cotyledon.
- In grass family the cotyledon is called
scutellum.
- Scutellum is situated towards one side
of the embryonal axis.
- Radicle and the root cap are enclosed
by a sheath called coleorhiza.
- The portion of the embryonal axis
above level of attachment of scutellum
is called the epicotyl.
- Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule
and a few leaf primordia enclosed by a
hollow foliar structure called the
coleoptile. s

• FRUIT:
- The ovary matures into a fruit after fertilisation.
- There are two types of fruits formed:
○ True Fruit- It develops from the ovary only and no other part
of the flower takes part in the formation of the fruit.
Example: Mango, Tomato.
○ False Fruit- It is a fruit in which thalamus of the flower also
Contributes in fruit formation along with the ovary.
Example: Strawberry, Apple, Cashew.
Pericarp - In fruits, the wall of the ovary develops into the pericarp.
Parthenocarpic fruits - Fruit developed without fertilization are called
Parthenocarpic fruits.

• SEED:
- The ovules in the ovary develop into the seeds.
- Seed is the final product of the sexual reproduction.
- Seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and an embryo axis.
https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI
 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess
The seeds are basically of two types-
○ Albuminous or Endospermic: The seeds that have a large amount of
endosperm.
Dicotyledonous Example: Sunflower, Castor
Monocotyledonous Example: Wheat, Maize, Onion
○ Non-Albuminous or Non–Endospermic: These are the seeds in which
the endosperm is used up during the course of development. They
store food in their cotyledons.

Structure of a Dicot Embryo Structure of a Monocot Embryo

Perisperm - Remaining persistent nucellus in the matured seed is called

perisperm. E.g. black peeper, beet.
Dormancy - In some conditions, the seeds do not germinate immediately but
undergo a period of dormancy. Dormancy means that the seeds
are in an inactive stage. The seed enters the period of dormancy
due to severe cold or heat, non-availability of water or oxygen.
The Oldest Seeds:
- Lupinus articus was excavated from the Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated
and flowered after 10,000 years of dormancy.
- Seeds of Phoenix dactylifera evacuated at King Herod’s palace near Dead
Sea are about 2000 years old viable seed.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI

 These notes are provided by Studifysuccess

• APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY:

- The production of seeds without fertilisation is called Apomixis.
- Apomixis is very common in Asteraceae and grasses.
- Apomixis is a type of asexual reproduction which mimics the sexual
reproduction.
- Diploid egg cell is formed without meiosis and develops into seed
without fertilization.
- Ovule having more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony.
- In Citrus and Mango, the nucellar cells starts dividing, protrude into the
embryo sac and develop into embryo.

https://www.studifysuccess.com Made by: KASHISH TYAGI