COMPARATIVE EDUCATION NOTES

MEANING OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

There is no single universally accepted definition of comparative education .However any

attempt at defining comparative education must incorporate such aspects as methodology,
content and purpose of any education system. The following are some of the definitions:

1. Nicholas Hans (1958): The step by step study of different and often contrasting
educational systems with a view of understanding their differences and similarities.
2. Epstein, E.H. (1995): A field of study that applies historical, philosophical and social
science theories and methods to international problems to education.
3. Vernon Mallinson (1975): The analytical study of factors that influence the development
of education in historical and comparative perspectives to identify the principles upon
which solutions to educational problems are based.
4. Fraser and Brickman (1968):The analysis of educational systems and problems in two or
more environments in terms of social ,political, economic, cultural, ideological and other
contents in order to understand the factors underlying similarities and differences.

Thus scholars of comparative education:-

 Study educational systems of different countries; why they differ or are similar.
 Attempt to solve problems in education.

Exercise: Summarize the above definitions in your own words.

SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

There are five main perspectives:

1. The subject matter/content perspective: It covers the essential components of

educational systems such as aims, content, curriculum, administration, financing,
teacher education, education structure, etc.
2. Geographical units of study perspective: It comprises intra-national, international,
regional, continental and global or world systems of education.

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 3. The ideological perspective: It compares countries educational systems on the basis
of differing political, social and economic ideologies.
4. The thematic perspective: focuses on themes, topical issues or problems and
compares them within one or more geographical units.
5. The historical (spatial) perspective: Deals with the study of the historical
development of comparative education from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as
the period of travelers' tales to the modern phase known as the period of social
science perspective.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(To teachers, teachers to be, policy makers, planners, managers and students of education)

 To understand our own education system better by knowing its roots and how it has been
influenced by others to be what it is today.
 In order to learn how various societies have endeavoured in historical times to educate
their citizens.
 provides references for reforms.
 To look critically at the similarities and differences between existing educational systems
and determine why these similarities and differences exist.
 To understand that the process of donating and receiving knowledge, acquiring,
reconciling and maximizing it is in the interest of both donor and recipient.
 To benefit from educational experiences of others.
 To make general statements about how education develops and also test how universally
applicable existing theories in education are.
 To broaden our thinking when dealing with educational issues and problems.
 To discover and appreciate other educational systems from the rest of the world, thus
fostering international understanding, peace, and co-operation.
 Achieving international standards in education. Comparative education makes us aware
of international trends in education and guides nations on how to give their citizens a
universally acceptable and relevant education.

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 Leads to satisfaction of intellectual curiosity. It satisfies our natural desire to learn more
about the origins and development of education in various countries in the world.
 So that we are able to reform or improve our education system by providing a reference
point. Comparative education informs us on the reforms that are desirable and possible,
how best to implement them, what successes to emulate and what failures to avoid.
 To understand the differences and similarities between our education system and others.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

 Problems related to methodology

Lack of standardized methodology for use in studying comparative education means
that comparativists borrow from other disciplines. This may result in the collection of
unreliable data and the making of inconsistent conclusions.
 Problems related to language
Different countries have different cultures and language groups.. It is impossible to
study the education system of a country without understanding the languages used.
Therefore a comparatist may be called upon to study fresh language(s) every time he
or she has to study the system of a new country, a process which is both time
consuming and expensive.
 Problems related to subjectivity of analysis
Comparative studies are characterized by the human tendency to view and interpret
issues within one's own social background and experience. Ethnocentrism is an
obvious source of bias as it results in researchers viewing foreign societies through a
selective and distorted screen imposed by their own cultural experiences.
Ethnocentrism regards one's own culture as being superior to others from the
perspective of ones own culture.
Secondly, it is common for analysts to make judgements on issues as they would
want them to be rather than as they really are.
Thirdly the cultural imposed filters affect, not only the language, but also the topics
selected for study and , consequently, the data collected. The problem is compounded
when a researcher with a different cultural background is unable to recognize the
relevance of certain types of data as solutions to a problem.

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 Problems related to interdisciplinary character
On one hand, there is an identity crisis, which may be partly blamed on eclecticism.
Anthropologists, sociologists, historians and philosophers can all make some claim to
comparative education. So, it becomes difficult to identify its limits with respect to
both method and data.
On the other hand , because many of the scholars in comparative education are
strongly affiliated to their specific disciplines, there is a wide diversity of views
within an already diversified scope. Specialists in one discipline may have difficulty
understanding the concepts, assumptions and modes of proof of other disciplines.

 Problems related to dynamic character of education

Education is a dynamic process. As such, comparison between two different
education systems may not be established with certainity. The time component is also
a challenge as the collected data often becomes outdated even before lasting
comparisons can be made.
 Problems of cost
In conducting comparative studies, assembling of data requires a lot of movement
between conducting research in the field and practical application of research
findings. This factor has financial implications which tend to render the work of
comparative education expensive. As a result, most studies are conducted either
through correspondence or document analysis which has its own limitations.
 Problems of national character in determining the theory and practice of education
systems.
National character refers to the culture, context, physical and social environments
which give a society an identity. National character influences educational aims and
the contents of the system. Therefore, comparatists cannot study the aspects of a
country's education system without fully understanding the national character

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METHODS OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Also known as methodological approaches to the study of comparative education. The basic
approaches used in comparative education studies are:

1. Traditional approaches.
These were mainly in use from 1817 to 1945 and they include the following:
(i) Descriptive/statistical method
This involves collection, interpretation, verification and comparison of data about
educational efforts of other nations. The findings are then collated, tabulated and
published, thus providing a standard against which each nation might measure its
progress or shortcomings.
The International Bureau of Education (IBE), UNESCO, and UNICEF have
played a leading role in the provision of such data.
It systematized comparative education. This method has the following
shortcomings:
 The unreliability of statistical data, particularly the inaccuracy of local
records compiled by officials who may exaggerate figures to hide
shortcomings.
 The imprecision of certain non-standardized terms when applied in
different national contexts.
 The feasibility of data interpretation without due regard to social
influences and values and how they affect education.
 Verification of data in international studies is not always possible due to
cost and travel constraints.

(ii) The selective education borrowing approach.

It involves studying of institutions or foreign educational systems with the
intention of improving one's own as long as this is done critically and selectively.
e.g. Japan borrowed extensively from France and Germany in the expansion and
modernization of her education system in 1868.
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 It may also apply when a foreign expert is invited to advise on reform of an
institution or system of education e.g. Mackay Report that led to the change of
educational system from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4. The expert then brings with him/her
borrowed information and experience from his/her own country or school to be
used in a different setting.
The main procedures to be followed in this method are;
 Collection of educational data
 Description of educational data
 Comparison of educational data
 Suggestions for selective cultural borrowing and generalizations in an
attempt to classify national systems according to their distinguishing
features, strengths, problems, practices and characteristics.
Problems associated with this approach
Success in the institutions of one country is no guarantee for similar results in
those of another. National institutions are meant to serve the communities or
societies that house them. The cross-national transplant often finds a difference
and uniqueness in the nationality and national character that makes cultural
borrowing difficult.
While the general principles of education might be common to all nations, efforts
must be made to ensure that there is compatibility between the innovation to be
imported and the entire complex of history, aspiration and institution of the
receiving country for such principles to be viable.

(iii) The historical approach.

In this approach it is assumed that the historical background of each country can
explain the origins and problems of its educational system.

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 It is based on the fact that while borrowing from other educational systems is
possible, educational policies and practices have both cause and effect which are
found in each society’s unique historical experience-National character.
This method advocates for the development of a science of comparative education
to discover the universal historical causes or determinants of educational practices
and to establish laws of education.
The method follows the following procedure:
 Studying each national system of education separately in its historical
context, taking note of differences in terminologies and methods of
collecting and classifying data.
 Analyzing the forces and factors responsible for any differences noted and
grouped into natural, religious, socio-economic or political categories.
 Adopting ideas and practices that appeal to the countries historical
context.
2. Modern approaches
(i) The systematic area studies approach
The major proponent of this approach is George Bereday.
It uses the interdisciplinary approach to systematically survey and analyzes
education systems in different countries to understand differences and similarities
before attempting to borrow and predict.
It follows the following basic steps (procedure):
 Description of aspects of education
 Interpretation and explanation using the interdisciplinary approach
 Classification of contrasting and comparable features
 Comparison-of features of one system with those of other institutions
under study.
 Conclusions and generalizations, focusing on the causes of similarities
and differences.
(ii) The problem-solving approach

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 Also called Holmes problem solving approach. Brian Holmes is formally a
professor of comparative education in London University. He believes that the
essence of research is to provide solutions to problems.
This approach is based on the five stages of reflective or critical thinking as
advanced by one of its proponents John Dewey (an American scholar), i.e.
 Problem identification: This depends on one's personal experience,
background knowledge and awareness of educational issues and debates.
The universality of the problem may make it attractive to compare.
 Problem analysis: This involves subjecting the problem to a reflective and
intellectual activity to clear up a confused situation or complexity.
 Proposed solutions to the problem: Proposals are put forward as likely
solutions to the problems identified earlier.
 Specification of the context: here factors, determinants and conditions that
are likely to influence the outcome of the proposed solutions to the
problem are identified and described.
 Prediction of the consequences: These are anticipated likely outcomes or
conclusions to be drawn from the study.
 Comparison and conclusions: This is a verification stage to check on
whether things have worked as anticipated by those who put forward
proposals or solutions to the problem. That involves comparing the
proposed against actual observable practices.
(iii) The scientific approach
It follows the following procedure
 Problem identification and review of literature: The problem to be
investigated must be carefully chosen as its appropriateness and relevance
will determine the overall quantity of the research. The problem chosen
should be common or universal and that comparative analysis across
national or cultural boundaries will elucidate it and suggest possible
solutions. Review of literature is to examine the practices in other
countries chosen for the particular study in relation to those at home.
 Definition of central concepts, terms and indicators.

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  Selection /sampling of units of study/cases
 Collection of data
 Data analysis and manipulation.
 Interpretation of findings/results
 Drawing of conclusions.

HISTORY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

The development of comparative education can be studied in four stages/phases, each with its
own characteristics;

1. The phase of TRAVELERS' TALES.

-it stretches from the early times in the history of mankind to the end of the 18 th century,
specifically around 1817.
-it is based on the fact that in every society during the ancient period, there existed some
form of education aimed at proper upbringing of children and maintenance of society’s
culture.
-visitors from other societies /countries (for reasons such as commerce/trade, curiosity,
conflict, adventure etc) enquired into educational issues of communities they visited and
reported back. Their major concern was similarities and differences in education systems.
-such visitors in other communities were referred tom as TRAVELERS'.
-they gave descriptive accounts of their journeys and experiences in foreign lands which
included features in foreign systems of education.
-During these ancient times we had contributions by individuals and learning institutions.
-EXAMPLES:
(a) Ancient times;
(i) HERODOTUS (C484-425 B.C)
Visitors came from Greece and they made an attempt to compare Persian and
Greek cultures and education systems.

(ii) XENOPHON (C430-355 B.C).

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 A Greek who described the training of Persian youth for citizenship and leadership.

He compared the aims and structures of the Persian and Greek education systems.

He commented on the relationship in the two county's between education and

Social-occupational status.

(iii) Plato: compared systems of education in Sparta and Athens. In his books 'The

Laws' he discussed how borrowing from the spartian education system would

Improve the Athenian one.

(iv)In Rome, CICERO (106-43 B.C) made comparisons between Greek and Roman

Systems of education.

(b) Middle Age Period

-witnessed an increase in the number of travelers.

-Marco Polo travelled to China and reported on the Chinese education system since the
13thcentury.

-Ibn Khaidun (1332-1406), a Tunisian scholar, travelled and made comparisons between
the Eastern Muslim culture and that of the west.

-A European called Escalante in 1544 commented about the Japanese education system

and said:

'They read and write in the same manner as do the Chinese; their language is similar to

Germany; instruction of the young is entrusted to learned tutors among the nobles, while
the commoners sent their children to Buddhist temples.

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I-tsing an Asian wrote about the University of Nalaida in India which was a centre of
learning. He gave details about teachers, students and buildings.

-Jacob Middendorp (German) wrote about university education in France, Italy, Denmark
and Poland.

-In the 16th century, geographical exploration and discovery intensified, and so did the
desire to study the nature of other education systems.

-scholars from all over the world travelled far and wide, gathering information and
writing about the education systems they encountered.

-In the 17th century countries prepared travel guides for their nationals who ventured
outside their countries. They included observation of schools in other countries in such
guides.

-In the 18thcentury, European nations compared their education systems with intensions
to improve.

-Travelers’ Tales were mainly informal ways of getting to know about the education
systems of other societies.
-such tales formed the first step in understanding education systems of other countries.
-such stories told/given on return from visits to other countries helped to shape
countries education systems .They were eye witness accounts.
Interestingly as those stories may have been to the reading public of their time ;they
were not scientific accounts and had many shortcomings:
 They were mostly descriptive.
 They were influenced by the writers basis and prejudices
 They were not scientific.
 They included obvious exaggerations, understatements and at times deliberate
falsehoods since the purpose of the authors was usually merely to entertain. The
French realized this early and expressed their view in the proverb: A BEAU
MENTIR QUI VIENT DE LOIN (The one who has seen far places can lie
about them without any fear of contradiction).

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 In a nutshell although the reports that were advanced by these travelers were mainly
informal, they formed the first step to understanding education in other countries.

2. The phase of selective education borrowing (19TH century)-Period of pioneers.

This was the post 1817 phase.

 During the 19th century, European countries were characterized by:

-The French Revolution
-The Industrial Revolution
-The agrarian revolution
-The process of colonization
 Educationalists were concerned and disturbed by the social and political disorder
brought about by these processes.
 This period witnessed journeys to foreign countries by travelers with specialized
interests in educational matters.
 They saw in education a chance to improve on the conditions in the world.
 They argued that individual education systems in individual countries were
unreliable in bringing about meaningful change.
 They saw the need of sharing the best ideas and practices in education from
various countries, hence selective borrowing.
 Selective borrowing during this period was motivated by:
-Efforts to develop a methodology or a system of rules to be followed when
studying foreign systems of education.
-A drive to learn lessons from foreign systems of education for the purpose of
borrowing useful ideas.
 This period also witnessed contributions from individuals and other agencies.
 During the 19th century, travelers who went to foreign countries to learn about the
systems of education were experts. They purposely went out to discover and
study education systems in other countries in order to borrow aspects of
education for improvement of their own.

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  Some of the prominent personalities who contributed to the development of
comparative education during the 19th century are:
-Julien de paris (1775-1848): A Frenchman who saw education as a positive
science that could be use to improve the French society. He encouraged the study
of foreign systems of education.
-Victor Cousin (1792-1867): A Frenchman who encouraged borrowing from
other countries to enrich the French system of education.
-Horace Mann (1796-1859): An American who visited many European countries
e.g. Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany and England. He argued that foreign
systems of education could provide a great input in the American system of
education.
 Other personalities were:
-Henry Bernard (1811-1900)-American
-Mathew Arnold (1822-1888)-British
-K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870)-Russian.
 In the 19th century various agencies were also involved in the collection and
dissemination of information regarding education systems:
-The United States office of Education (1867).
-The office of special inquiries and reports in London

This period has some relevancy to present day theory and practice of education. The

Activities were mainly descriptive and utilitarian in purpose. Descriptive studies are

Still relevant in education today. Education is utilitarian today since we still make visits
to other countries or institutions for the purpose of observing what may be of value to be
brought back and be used at home.

3. The phase of concern for cultural context (1900-1945)-The period of the philosopher-
Historians.

The major concerns during this period were:

-The need to be more analytical in the relationships between education and society.

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-The need to understand factors which helped to shape education systems in the world.
-The need to go beyond mere selective borrowing and predict the possibility of success of
education aspects borrowed through a good knowledge of cultural contexts in both the
donor and recipient countries.
A number of individuals made substantial contribution to comparative education during
this period:
(i) Michael Sadler (1886-1943) from England.
-While studying foreign systems of education we should remember that things
outside the school are more important than those inside it, and have control over
the things inside the school.
-He pointed out that a national system of education often lays special emphasis on
those parts of training which the national character needs
-studying foreign systems of education results in our being better equipped to
study and understands our own systems of education.
-He stressed the need to understand the importance of the schools cultural context
and the dangers of piecemeal education borrowing.
-That schools of a society must be studied in the context of the society.
(ii) William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) from America.
-He stressed the fact that what is suitable for one social situation may not be suitable
for another; hence he discouraged outright borrowing of educational ideas.
(iii) Isaac Kandel (1881-1965) from America.
-He emphasized the importance of studying the national character of a character of a
school can only be understood through understanding the country’s national character
(The national character of country is determined by its philosophy and history).

4. The phase of social science perspective: 1945-present.

-The period has witnessed the coming up of new and influential national and
international agencies involved in education inquiry, planning and programme
implementation.
-Increased activity in the study and teaching of comparative education as a subject in
colleges, universities and centers of educational research.

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 -More emphasis has been put on analysis of educational systems. The modes of analysis
have become more quantitative and empirical-data collected has to be analyzed and
interpreted so as to give meaning.
Contribution by individuals.
(i) Vernon Mallinson (Britain)
-Uses the idea of national character as a means of explaining similarities and
differences between education systems; that it determines the kind of education
system of a country.

(ii) Joseph A. Lauweys (Britain)

-Stressed the need to collect reliable data on an international scale in order to facilitate
comparison in education systems.

(iii) Brian Holmes

- He participated in the search for a comparative education methodology.

- He made contributions to the improvement of the problem solving approach as a
methodology in comparative education research.
N/B: There have also been contributions by universities and other organizations
and agencies such as UNESCO, UNICEF, etc.
-They have played a big role in collecting, analyzing and disseminating educational
documentation and information, undertaking surveys and project studies in the area
of comparative education.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE NATIONAL CHARACTER

Objectives

After you have read this chapter you should be able to;

i) Identify the factors that influence National Systems of Education.

ii) Analyze the factors that influence National System of Education.

iii) Evaluate how these factors impact on the educational system of your country.

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Introduction

National character refers to aspects that unite people as one nation and brings out their
uniqueness among other nations.

A national system of education is often defined from the perspective of formal education system.
This includes institutionalized formal education from early childhood education, primary
education, secondary education, tertiary education and university education. The informal and
non-formal education subsets are often assumed to be part of the formal education and if not
ignored altogether, they are given little attention. However, it is important the national
educational system should be wholly inclusive of all the subsets of the educational system, that
is, formal, informal and non-formal education.

In light of this simple understanding of a national system of education, it is important to note

that, behind every system of education, there are factors or features that determine or influence
and hence shape each one of the system. However, the national character of a given system of
education is never determined by one factor, but rather a combination and interweaving of
several factors. Some factors are dominant in one particular system while in another system, they
would be less dominant. Consequently national factors of a country are closely related with
nationalism and national system of education. As such, in the study of comparative education we
should study the factors which make the education of a country national. These factors include
geographical, economic, social, cultural, historical, religions, political, language and
technological. In this chapter we shall study some such factors;

1) Geographical Factors.

The geography of any particular place is often natural, which means that it is undefined by man.
Man in this respect ought to behave in accordance with the geography and nature in particular. In
this regard the education system cum school system is influenced by the geography of the
particular region. By and large the geography of a particular area dictates the type of building
and equipment, means and methods of transporting children to school, school going age of pupils

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among others. However, there are three major geographical aspects that influence the educational
system directly. These are, climatic conditions, population distribution and land configuration. In
regard to climatic conditions they influence the system of education in terms of ,content of
education depend on the continental climate, for example, training of doctors in the tropics is
likely to emphasize more on tropical disease like malaria. Extreme low temperatures in
Continental Europe, affects accessibility to school by young children. Temperatures also affect
the time at which schools can reasonably begin in the morning and when they end. In Norway,
for example, the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the morning and often
temperatures fall to negative 20 degrees. Thus in the Scandinavian countries there are no infant
schools or early childhood education departments in some schools because of extreme
temperatures. Climatic conditions also influence the education system in relation to time of
vacations. In North America and many countries in Europe take school vacations during cold
winter and others during hot summer. In hot climatic conditions especially experienced in arid
and semi-arid areas, learning often takes place during morning hours when it is cool. When it is
hot in the afternoon very little learning takes place due to excessive heat.

In regard to population distribution, which is often as a result of geographical influence also

affects the educational system. Generally worldwide, population is either concentrated in the
urban centers, or scattered in the country side. For example Australia has two systems of
education, that is, one for the urban areas and the other for rural areas. In the urban areas there
are well-equipped schools with adequately qualified teachers and administrative personnel.
While in the rural areas, schools are small with one teacher for ten up to forty students. This is
because farms are far from the nearest schools and daily attendance is difficult. Therefore the
central government is responsible for their administration and financing. The government also
provides the means and organization of correspondence, tuition and traveling teachers. As such
most students receive education through correspondence and occasional visits by the traveling
education inspectors.

In regard to land configuration, this also influences the education system in terms of architectural
structure of farm houses, school buildings, village location and also the whole way of life and
thinking of people because of the rigours of the climate, in some cases, because of closeness of

17
family ties, boarding schools for children are non-existence, except for the few who come from
far and inaccessible places on daily basis. By and large land configuration determines settlement
and location of schools.

2) Economic Factors.

The type of education largely depends on the economic strength of any country. Also the
economic factor determines the content and method of an education system. It is important to
note that formal education is often possible where production exceeds consumption. In
indigenous traditional education people were trained depending on the economic conditions and
needs of the community. From an economic perspective, expenditure on education refers to the
amount or percentage of national revenue spent on education by both individuals and the
government. If the economic condition is poor, education becomes backward in many aspects
while if the economy of a country is strong, then educational aims and the curriculum are given a
special direction for making the country prosperous. For example, in the USA and Japan,
education system is patterned so as to make the individual graduate, strong and capable enough
to stand on his or her own feet after having received education. While in India, college and
university graduate do not know where to go after completing their education and most of the
students continue to stay on in the university as long as they can so that one can post pone for a
few years the problem of the educated - unemployed.

Another economic influence on education is that, the poorer classes in communities tend to be
content with minimum education for their children, and the richer classes are known to be able to
keep their children longest at school because they can afford to meet the costs. In a subsistence
economy, that is, one is which people are just able to make ends meet, educational systems tend
to be informal occurring on the job. On the contrary, where there are enough grants in systems of
education, minimum requirements are met and thus the quality of education is often high. For
example, Britain, France, Japan and the USA among other strong economy countries, they
provide enough grants that are allocated to their systems of education; actually they have enough
funds to support all educational programmes in their education systems. Unlike the case of

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developing countries, where funds are very scarce, which affects even payment of teachers
salaries, essential resource materials such as textbooks are not adequate and in some cases not
even available. As such, this greatly affects the nature of the systems of education in terms of the
content and methods in learning institutions and in essence the whole system of education.

In this regard, the growth of the capacities of individual citizens and national development is of
great importance. In fact, the education system should be such that, it provides opportunities for
the maximum development of each citizen. The aim here is to ensure that the wealth of the
nation is not concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists who manage to attain some level of
education. It is actually by developing individuals that the overall growth of the nation can be
guaranteed. At the same time, there should be no-class distinction in the planning of education
that should be permitted, because this results in neglect of the education of other more capable
citizens. If this happens it often results in social disparities and in the long run weakens the
nation. Proper planning of the education system also calls for the establishment of a proper
national character, which if it lacks, then the necessary leadership and co-operation of the people
will also be lacking. Lack of a proper national character, means that the national education
system will not be able to realize its objectives. Consequently, with good leadership and people's
cooperation, there is much that can be achieved even when adequate economic resources are
wanting. Thus, there is evidence to show that there is a very close relationship between economic
security and the national system of education of any country.

3) The Social and Cultural Factor.

Schools at large often and closely reflect the social patterns prevailing in a particular country. As
such the education system is usually seen as a social factor which must reflect the ethos of the
people that it serves. In this regard, it is the prime aim of education to ensure cultural continuity
through fostering the growth and development of national characteristics that often act as
stabilizing forces. In its simplest definition a culture of a society is the total way of life of the
society. Every society consist of human beings and in whatever state they find themselves they
always have some kind of educational system. This form of education of the society will always

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strive to perpetuate and protect its traditions and aspirations. As such a close study and analysis
of each education system will always reveal the cultural concept and pattern of the community in
question. Also the social patterns of the people in any particular community or country are
reflected in its system of education.

It is important to realize that the culture of the people often changes at a slow pace. In each
culture, there are certain values which are not affected by time and place, for example, faith in
God, love for truth and non-violence and the ideal of universal motherhood and justice are the
permanent values of many cultures of the world. However, radical reforms in a society may be
slowed down or blocked at the level of implementation because of the cultural lag. In African the
various projects for educational reform does indicate that there has been basic cultural charges in
the life of a people from the colonial period into the post independence period. In many countries
of the world today, changes have occurred in the attitude of the youngsters towards their elders,
for example students do not show due respect to their teacher as students did some twenty five or
thirty years ago. The teachers also now care more for the increments, in their salaries and other
allowances then for teaching. In many meetings of teachers, there is more talk of groupism,
backbiting and salaries, than of students' welfare. In some circles, guardians and parents also do
not respect teachers as they did before. All these and others are a clear indication that the
relations between parents and children, sisters and brothers, husband and wife, masters and
servants and between many other units of society have undergone great changes. Thus, we have
begun to discard many old mores and modes and are adopting more liberal attitudes. As such
time and place have been changing many elements of culture and as a result it is being reflected
in the education system in various ways.

Another view of cultural and social change is in the reshaping of the educational machinery to
make for equality of educational opportunity for all. This has led to the widening of the school
curriculum and increased emphasis on the importance of the right kind of technical educational
for the new technological age. As a result, the old dichotomy between a liberal and a technical
education is slowly broken down and the social distinctions which existed mainly because of that
divide have become of no consequence and has been minimized with time. In this regard
therefore, it is necessary to develop love for one's own culture through the education system

20
because it strengthens nationalism. In order to make the country strong and prosperous, the spirit
of nationalism must be nurtured. In each country there are various types of communities, classes,
castes, and interests and due to the lack of national feelings many people ignore national
interests. In many cases minorities are suspicious about the majority and in certain contexts this
may be true of the majority as well. This makes it necessary to inculcate love for the country's
culture and especially through the adoption of a national system of education.

4) The Historical Factor.

Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the nations aims, aspirations, activities
and destiny. This is often reflected through the educational system. Colonialism has been an
important historical factor that can be said to have shaped the education system of many African
countries and others in the world. For example, the Berlin conference in 1815 was dabbed the
scramble for Africa. At this conference the European powers shared African states like a cake.
This latter meant that; the colonies had to take up much of what was in their colonial masters
homeland and to date features in education of these former colonial master are reflected in their
former colonies.

The missionary factor also contributed a great deal in shaping the systems of education in most
African countries. Christian missionaries in particular from Britain, France, Holland, Germany,
Switzerland, and USA among others, have largely influenced the development of the education
system in Africa. In this regard, the present systems of education in many countries of Africa,
Asia, North and South America are actual products of past colonial influence. As such, most of
these countries in their present endeavors in education represent in most cases, heroic efforts of
their colonial heritage.

Another historical element is manifest between periods in history when attempts were made to
try and bring together groups within close geographical boundaries, for example, East Africa,
South Africa, West Africa and North Africa. A close look at these groups reflects features in
their systems of education that tend to have similarities. While on the other hand, historically

21
there have been struggles for the creation of national states, with each state wanting to have its
own unique national identity. The national factors of these countries often show differences that
are reflected in their education system. As such, similarities and differences of education systems
all over the world have a history behind them.

5. Political Factor

The political philosophy which controls the government of a country often has its inevitable
impact on education. The political factor dictates the kind of administration the system of
education will have. They also underlie the features in education system and the functioning of
the same. For example, the fundamental ideas of socialism as a political philosophy were about
the exploitation of labour by capital and this resulted in class mass. As a political philosophy,
socialism recognizes property as the basis of the economic structure of the state which results in
the concentration of civil and legal power in the hands of the property owning class. Socialism
advocates for the nationalization of the means of production; where owners of means of
production do not work and workers who produce do not own anything. A change of such a
social order can only be achieved with reform in education. This would be through a state
mechanism with full control of education and the curriculum and this means that the citizens
must be trained by the state, for the state and in state institutions. In such cases, the details of the
curriculum are often decided by the state authorities and involve functional training of citizens.
The curriculum may also involve scientific training for social utilization purposes.

Good examples of countries that have introduced a socialist system of education are Mexico,
Bulgaria and Cuba. The common features of their education system include monopoly of the
state control on education, secularism, physical and military training political indoctrination in
and out of school and also more emphasis on science subjects. In these states, freedom of
individuals and the idea of tolerance are not accepted. Unlike these countries, France has a
centralized system of education based on its political philosophy. In France, everything to do
with education is controlled from the centre (metropole) which is the central government. In the

22
case of USA and Japan, their education systems are highly decentralized, and are often based on
the democratic influence and the capitalistic political philosophy of these countries.

There is also a close relationship between the national character and the national system of
education. For example, the national character of USA is democratic as such its education system
is democratic in most of its aspects. Nationalism also as a political ideology influences the
system of education in a country. Nationalism could be defined as a psychological feeling within
a group which believes they have common outlook and traditions based on myth of common
ancestry. These common ancestries include race, language, religion and territory and often
strengthen the consciousness of nationality. The racial aspect which is often within the political
ideology of a country may play a significant role in determining features in the education system.
Race refers to a tribe, a nation or a group of nations. Modern population includes people of
different racial origins. The British colonial policy was based on the principle of decentralization
and on the building up of a commonwealth of nations each of which should be free to develop its
own culture and national character. Hence there is a close relationship between national character
and national system of education and the former has been universally accepted as an important
basis of national system of education. Thus the political system of a country is closely related
with its educational programme.

6) Language Factor

Many languages may be spoken in a country, but only one enjoys the status of a national
language. In every country the national language occupies a special place. Also every
government tries to ensure that every one acquires the capacity to express himself through the
national language. Without one's own national language, no country can be said to be strong.

Language in itself is a symbol of the people. Each community or group has an original language
of its own which often suits its environment and stage of cultural development. It is through
language that individuals become members of a community and this is important in building the
national character. Through the native language, the child has the first expression of

23
himself/herself and the world. However, in the modern world today, there is increasing use of
foreign language especially in the school system. This requires a child before entering school to
learn the foreign language. In most cases, before entering school the child acquires proficiency in
mother tongue or native language and in so doing builds up vocabulary covering most of the
objects of sense, impression and daily activities. This means using a different and a foreign
language in school system means superimposing on this basis a language of ideas expressed
entirely in a foreign medium and this often poses a problem to the learners.

In East Africa, Kiswahili has slowly influenced features in the education systems in Kenya,
Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. Kiswahili is a compulsory subject in primary schools
in Kenya and Tanzania. In Tanzania Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in all primary
schools. In South Africa, there are two linguistic groups, the English speaking and the Africans
speaking groups. After the colonization by the British, English was enacted as a medium of
instruction in schools. The inhabitants spoke Afrikaans and had been used to the Dutch school
system. The use of English failed and in 1914 Afrikaans was recognized also as a medium of
instruction in school for African speaking children. As such, in a South Africa, a bilingual
system of education came into being, where some schools use English, while others use
Afrikaans or even both.

French as a language is also used in former French colonies like Cameroon, Tunisia,
Madagascar, Senegal, Rwanda and Burundi. Cameroon also emerges as a bilingual country with
two official languages and two systems of education, that is, the Anglophone to the West and
Francophone to the East. Although the Cameroon government has been trying to put the two
zones together it has proved to remain difficult. Interestingly the ex-British Anglophone system
of education continues to produce local syllabuses with the aim of making secondary school
examination; the ex-French francophone system still clings firmly on the old and move formal
baccalaureate.

By end large in Africa colonialism influenced the language of instruction in schools. In the
former British colonies, pupils were taught in their vernacular in the lower elementary or primary

24
school curriculum. The French colonies put more emphasis on French as a medium of
instruction. To date most of the inherited systems of education still suffer from the effect of the
colonial masters in the school system and at large in the education system. Thus the place of
national language in the development of a national feeling cannot be over-emphasized. As such
in a national system of education, special emphasis is placed on the study of national language.

7) Religious Factor

Religious loyalties also dictate aims, content and even methods of instruction in education.
Indeed, religion and beliefs have also been known to influence and shape aspects in education
system.

In Africa, European Christian Missionaries did influence and continue to influence the education
system. The initiative taken by the Christian churches to extend education and their power to
control development often explains many of the common elements which can be discerned in
education systems in countries that were colonized by the Europeans. For examples schools days
are from Monday to Friday and resting days are Saturday and Sunday. This is more so because
some people have their worship days as Saturday and others on Sunday.

Religious organizations have also been and are still involved in educational development through
building of educational institutions. For example, the catholic Jesuits succeeded in building up
some of the greatest systems of secondary and higher education institution known in history.
There is currently a catholic university establish in Kenya besides many catholic sponsored
primary and secondary schools. The Muslim faithful also have their own establish institutions of
learning as well as other religious groups such as the Hindus, Buddhists.

In Africa, the present systems of education have been influenced by the work which was initiated
by European Christian missionaries who included Catholics, Protestant and Muslim. All these
have influenced features in the education system in the areas, they occupied. Most current is that
the primary and secondary curriculums have religious subjects being taught in schools in Kenya.

25
8) Technological Factors

Technological changes cannot also be ignored in education. Technology and especially modern
technology also influence the education system of the country. Historically, emphasis on
industrial and technical education followed the industrial revolution. Technology affects the type
of education as well as the means of instruction.

With the emergence of computer technology, internet technology, this has revolutionalised the
whole education system especially in the developed countries. Through information
communication technology, home learning has been made possible. Universities are also
adopting projects like AUV and e-learning. Today the influence of technology in education
cannot be ignored. Indeed the challenge is for the educational administrators and policy makers
to see to it that the right infrastructure is in place in order to allow the use of information
communication technology fully and be able to reap its maximum benefits in the education
system especially in the developing world.

Chapter Review

i) Identify factors that shape and influence education systems of the world. ii) Explain how any
of these factors have shaped the education system of your country.

THE EDUCATION SYSTEMS OF COUNTRIES

When discussing education systems of countries the following comes into focus:
 Organization
 Administration
 Financing
 Curriculum
 Teacher education

26
  Educational policies
 Educational opportunities
Education in Kenya
Historical perspective
At independence education was recognized as a basic human right and a powerful tool for
human resource development, national unity and reinstatement of important social and
cultural values.
Important policy documents have emphasized the importance of education in eliminating
poverty, disease and ignorance. Thus increased investment in human capital including health
and education, is identified as one of the four pillars of the government overall economic
recovery strategy.
The government has addressed challenges facing the education sector using education
commissions, presidential decrees, presidential working parties, education task forces,
sessional papers, acts of parliament and legal notices.
Recent policy initiatives have focused on the attainment of Education for All (EFA) and in
particulr, Universal Primary Education (UPE).The key concerns have been access, retention,
equity, quality, relevance and internal and external efficiency within the education system.
The government is committed to the provision of quality education and training as a human
right to all Kenyans in accordance with the laws of Kenya and international conventions
such as EFA.The government is developing strategies for moving the country towards the
attainment of this goal.
Structure of the education system in Kenya
In 1984, the 7-4-2-3 structure and system which was adopted when Kenya attained
independence was replaced with the 8-4-4 structure and system which introduced a broad-
based curriculum at all levels.
The current structure of education and training in kenya comprises three levels.
Basic education
It is divided into two:
 Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE)which caters for zero to five
year olds.

27
  Primary education which lasts eight years and caters for 6-13 year olds. It leads to
Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination. On the basis of marks
obtained in KCPE, learners could either enter secondary schools or youth
politechnics.

Secondary education
It lasts four years and caters for 14-18 year olds. It leads to Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education (KCSE) examination.
Alternatives available for learners who have completed secondary education include:
 A two to three year course in a technical training istitution.
 A two year certificate course in a primary teacher training college (TTC).
 A three year course in a TTC
 A four to six year undergraduate degree course in a university.
 A two to three year certificate or diploma course in nursing or any other vocational
field.

Tertiary education
The tertiary education level comprises all post-secondary school institutions offering
training at certificate and diploma levels.
These include:
 Technical, Industrial, Vocational, Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) institutions
such as institutes of technology, technical institutions and national polytechnics.
These are middle level colleges.
 Teacher Training colleges (TTCs).
 Universities offering degrees, diplomas

Management and administration

Until 2008, the Ministry of Education (MOE) was responsible for the management of all
aspects of education and training. However, previously the management and administration
of education and training in Kenya is spread across three key ministries.
 The Ministry of Education
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  The Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology (MOHEST)
 The Ministry of youth affairs and sports
Discuss the learners the current management in education in Kenya.

The curriculum
Curriculum development in Kenya is centralized under the Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development (KICD) which is the national centre for curriculum development and research.
The key role of KICD is to undertake research and develop and disseminate relevant
curricula and curricula support materials for quality education. The KICD develops
curricula for all levels and categories except university education.
Curriculum development in Kenya has gone through three major phases:
 The adoption phase-This was the curriculum in the period immediately after
independence. It was characterized by imported syllabuses and text books, and
examinations set and marked externally at Cambridge in the United Kingdom.
 The adaption phase-This was the curriculum of the 1970s in which an attempt was
made to adapt the curriculum to local conditions. Curriculum projects undertaken by
KIE during this period included the School Mathematics of East Africa (SMEA)
which was adopted from the British School Mathematics of East Africa and the
School Science Project (SSP) which was adapted from the Nuffield Science Project.
 The indigenization phase-This is the curriculum of the 1980s to date. In this phase a
lot of resources have been used to write the curriculum. Course objectives have been
redefined and learning opportunities clearly spelt out to make the curriculum
relevant to the needs of contemporary society in content, approach and value.
Examples of curriculum projects undertaken by the KIE during this period included
the Primary Education Project (PEP) which was initiated in 1978 and funded by the
World Bank as a direct outcome of the Gachathi report (1976), the New Primary
Approach (NPA) and the unified syllabus for primary schools.
Kenya operates the 8-4-4 system of education whose curriculum aims at providing learners
with adequate intellectual as well as practical skills with an emphasis on vocational and
technical subjects. At its inception, 8-4-4 was aimed at reducing inequality in education,
solving the problems of unemployment, fostering national unity and promoting respect for

29
Kenya's rich cultural heritage. However, due to the high costs involved, the breadth of the 8-
4-4 curriculum has been reduced. Some subjects have been integrated while others have
been made non-examinable.
Subjects offered at primary level:
 English
 Mathematics
 Kiswahili
 Social studies
 Religious education
 Science
Creative arts, Mother Tongue, pastoral programmes, life skills education and physical
education are taught but not examined.

Subjects offered at secondary level:

 English
 Mathematics
 Kiswahili
 Business studies
 History and Government
 Art and Design
 Agriculture
 Biology
 Chemistry
 Physics
 Home science
 Music
 Geography
 French
 Germany
 Arabic

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  Christian Religious Education (CRE)
 Islamic Religious Education (IRE)
 Hindu Religious education (HRE) and computer studies
Life Skills Education is taught but not examined.
Certificate and diploma TTCs offer a curriculum that reflects the subjects offered at primary
and secondary school levels.
Other than the formal curricula, schools and colleges emphasize non- formal and informal
curricula activities which include games, sports, drama, clubs and societies
Except for the lower primary classes (standard 1 to 3) English is used as a language of
instruction at all levels of education. In the lower primary the language of the local catchment
area is used but Kiswahili is used in cosmopolitan settings.
Quality assurance and standards maintenance.
The Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards (DQAS) provides quality assurance
feedback to all education stakeholders. It monitors and offers advice on standards of
education based on all-round standard performance indicators for various areas including the
formal, non-formal and informal curricula to optimize the use of available resources in the
primary and secondary schools, and the certificate and diploma TTCs. The Technical
Accreditation and Quality Assurance department assures quality and standards in middle
level technical and vocational institutions offering certificates and diplomas in various fields.
Curriculum evaluation
The system of education is characterized by nationwide examinations at the end of each
level. This is the responsibility of the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC). The
examinations by KNEC concentrate mainly on attainment of objectives set by KIE in various
subject syllabuses.
Financing of education
Since independence, the government has continued to spend more on education, a factor that
may be attributed to the great demand for education and the change to educational policies
that are expensive to implement. Following the introduction of Free Primary Education
(FPE), for, the government of Kenya has increased its annual education budget. In addition
the government pays salaries to all teachers under the employment of the TSC.
The following are ways through which education is financed in Kenya:

31
 Financing of primary schools is done through the DEBs which prepare the budget for
respective schools and submits them to the MOE. Under the FPE initiative , the
government provides funds to cater for instructional materials, internal quality
assurance, salaries for vital non-teaching staff, co-curricular activities, maintenance of
infrastructure and contingencies. Auditing is carried out on a regular basis by district
auditors and AEOs.
 The ministry of culture and social services, once in a while provides financial and
material assistance to schools, particularly those hit by natural disasters such as
storms and strong winds.
 Social welfare associations such as Kenya Charity Sweepstake, the Lions Club of
Kenya and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) give assistance to schools for
construction of physical facilities and the general improvement of available facilities.
 Foreign agencies that support education include United Nations Children Fund
(UNICEF), United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), Cooperate for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) and Plan
International. They do this through the provision of funds, technical assistance and
material resources.
 Since FPE mainly caters for tuition in public primary and secondary schools, parents
pay fees in ECDE centre's, public boarding primary schools and public boarding
secondary schools. Sponsors may subsidize the cost of education.
 The government provides grants to secondary schools to meet some of the
development and recurrent expenditure. School fees, therefore, ranges from low cost
day schools to high cost national schools.
 The government, with the assistance of development partners, finances in-service
training and capacity building of educational managers through the Kenya Education
Sector Support Programme (KESSP) which is intended to:
-Facilitate the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and EFA.
-Enhance mobilization of resources to support the development of the education
sector.
-Enhance wider participation, ownership and partnerships in education.

32
  Government bursaries are available for learners pursuing secondary and tertiary
education. These are accessed through the respective schools or the Constituent
Development Fund (CDF).
 Some secondary and tertiary education learners have benefited from scholarships
offered by kind individuals, organizations and friendly countries to undertake their
studies both locally and outside the country.
 Public universities receive some funding from the government while private ones do
not receive any grants from the state and, therefore raise funds from their own
sources.
 Local university students attending both public and private institutions are eligible for
a loan from HELB
 Public universities have introduced continuing education programmes offered on a
private sponsorship basis. The funds raised are used to sustain the diverse
programmes offered by the universities.
Challenges facing the provision of education
The following are challenges related to the provision of education in Kenya:
 Sourcing of FPE funds may take time and, in the process interfere with disbursement
of the same to schools.
 Administrative bottlenecks contribute to delays in the disbursement of funds to
schools, consequently interfering with the process of learning.
 Funds given to learning institutions are inadequate in view of the amounts required to
run all the formal, non-formal and informal curricular activities.
 The number of teachers in some primary schools and some areas of subject
specialization at secondary school level is inadequate.
 Teachers are poorly motivated as a result of poor remuneration.
 The quality of education is declining at all education levels due to poor infrastructure,
insufficient physical and material resources and a bloated curriculum. This has
resulted in theoretical coverage of content which makes skills attainment poor. The
primary school curriculum, for example, does not prepare primary school leavers well
enough to undertake education in the TIVET sector.

33
  Natural calamities such as floods and ethnic and inter-territorial violence interfere
with teaching and learning.
 SNE learners and other disadvantaged learners outside the formal education systems
are inadequately catered for.
 Facilities are overstretched as a result of introduction of FPE.
 There is a high learner-teacher ratio in densely populated areas.
 There is diminished community support following the community's misconstrued
role vis-a-vis that of the government in the implementation of FPE.
 There are poor teacher training programmes. The methodology and academic aspects
suffer from the effects of overburdened programmes.
 Internal inefficiencies have arisen from corruption, embezzlement of school funds
and an initial teacher promotion process that emphasized non-performance issues.

Education in Uganda
Education in Uganda is expected to perform the following key functions:
 Eliminate the social and economic inequalities between classes of people.
 Serve as an instrument of change by teaching Ugandans positive values.
 Contribute to uplifting the standards of living of the people of Uganda by inculcating
the proper utilization of knowledge in them.
 Help individuals to develop personal knowledge, both academic and spiritual.
Historical perspective
At independence, Uganda had one of the best higher education systems in Africa, attracting
many learners from neighboring countries. However, the political and economic crisis that
occurred in the subsequent years damaged the education system and created problems in
financing, quality and educational relevance. School enrolment and expenditure increased
steadily in the 1980s, reflecting the high priority Ugandans attached to education. However the
physical infrastructure necessary for education was lacking as many of the facilities had been
damaged.. School maintenance standards suffered, teachers fled the country, and morale and
productivity deteriorated along with real incomes.
In 1995, Uganda adopted a new constitution, paving the way for the election of a civilian
government in 1996. Adult literacy then was estimated at 50% and improving this rate was
34
important to the government. In order to re-establish a national priority on education, the
government adopted a two- year phase policy.
This had the following aims:
 To rehabilitate buildings and establish minimal conditions for infrastructure.
 To improve efficiency and quality of education through teacher training and curriculum
upgrading.
Important long term goals included establishing UPE and shifting the emphasis in post-
secondary education from purely academic to more technical and vocational training.
Implementation of UPE in Uganda began in January 1997 and by January2006 it had been
extended to cover lower secondary school education.
The government has produced several key policy documents to guide the provision of
education. These are:
 The Government White Paper on Education of 1992.
 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995).
 The Children's Statute (1996).
 The Local government Act (1997).
These documents highlight children's right such as food, education, medical care and shelter.
They suggest that the government adopts affirmative action for all marginalized groups. The
government has recently produced a master plan for the education sector, which constitutes an
action based approach to the implementation of the education policies formulated in the 1992
White Paper. The production of the Education Strategic Investment Plan (ESIP), 1998 to 2003
represents a key milestone in the development of education in Uganda. It's aims include:
 Access and equity.
 Improvement in quality.
 Delivery of educational services.
 Capacity building.

Structure of the education system in Uganda.

Uganda follows a 7-4-2-3 model of education, a system which has been in existence since the
1960s.

35
Primary education
Primary education is the first level, consisting of seven primary school grades lasting from
primary 1 to primary 7 and incorporating pre-primary school education.
Entry age is six years and exit age is 14 years. At the end of the primary cycle of education,
the Primary Leaving Examination (PLE) is administered to learners. On the basis of test scores
attained in the PLE, a learner then proceeds for one of the following:
 A four-year course in a secondary school, that is, Ordinary (O) level.
 A three-year course in a technical training institute.
 A four-year course in a TTC.
There has been an increase in school enrolment following the introduction of UPE which was
launched in January 1997 with the government educating, free of charge, four children per
family.
Secondary education
Junior secondary education comprises Form 1 to 4 at the end of which learners sit for the
Uganda Certificate Education (UCE). Alternatives available for graduates from lower
secondary school include:
 Upper Secondary School (A-level).
 Technical training institutes for a two to three -year course.
 Primary teacher training colleges (PTCs) for a two to three-year course
 Government Department Training colleges (DTCs).
Upper secondary education is comprised of Forms 5 and 6, at the end of which learners sit for
the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE) examination. Performance in this
examination determines one's chances of entry to public universities as a government or
privately sponsored learners. It is also used to gauge admissions into other higher education
institutions.
Tertiary education
Uganda's higher education structure is composed of universities, TTCs and a variety of other
tertiary institutions.
Management and administration.
The overall management of education in Uganda is is the responsibility of the Ministry of
Education and sports (MOES). The government of Uganda, through the MOES aims provide

36
 quality education in order to eradicate illiteracy and equip individuals with basic knowledge,
skills and attitudes.
In an attempt to achieve efficient education, the government has restructured the education
system and its staffing to include an element of decentralization. At national level, the MOES
is headed by the minister responsible for education and sports. The educational administrative
structures are based in regional offices as laid down by the Local Government Act (1997).
The decentralization of responsibility in the management of education has created a need to
strengthen the capacity of district authorities to assume this role effectively, by involving the
full participation of the local communities.
The District Education Office provides an important intermediary between schools and the
MOES. At school level, the district education authority appoints two committees in each
school -A school Management Committee and a School Finance Committee. There is also a
PTA in each school comprising of parents, teachers, elders and chiefs. Under the decentralized
programme, each district establishment has an Educational Assessment and Resource Service
(EARS/SNE coordinator to ensure that learners with special needs are catered for.
At the district level the Resident District Commissioner (RDC) and the Chief Administrative
Officer (CAO) are responsible for:
 Preparing the district's education budget and delivering services within that budget.
 Monitoring the use of UPE grants, and the efficient and effective running of schools.
 Ensuring prompt disbursement of UPE grants to schools and overseeing accountability.

The National Council for Higher Education (NCHE), a statutory agency established under
Universities and other Tertiary Institutions Act (2001), regulates the establishment and
management of higher education as well as it's quality and entry qualifications, and advises the
government on higher education issues. This body is also responsible for establishing an
accreditation system and conducting accreditations. The Public Universities Joint Admission
Board (PUJAB) regulates and coordinates the admission of learners into degree programmes
offered in the local public universities, both government and privately sponsored. All teachers
must be registered and hold a license issued by the commissioner for education before they can
be allowed to practice.

37
The curriculum

Curriculum development

The National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) is responsible for designing and
developing the curriculum for basic and secondary education, and advising stakeholders on
educational issues.

Until 1974, most subjects were taught according to the British curriculum and British
examinations were used to measure learner's progress from primary to secondary school. In 1975
the, government implemented a local curriculum and, for a short while, most school materials
were published in Uganda. However, as the economy deteriorated and violence increased, local
publishing almost ceased and examination results deteriorated. The present national primary
school curriculum was published in 1970 and revised in 1990. Evaluation showed that it had
limitations in the area of skills development and was too academically oriented.

The NCDC revised the lower primary curriculum so as to improve literacy level of the learners.
Primary school leavers had been found to be lacking in literacy, numeracy skills and quality of
life. A new thematic curriculum was launched nationally in 2007 for primary 1 and 2008 for
primary 2. This was in line with the government policy as specified in the white paper on
education of 1992. The new skill-based curriculum replaced the skill-based subject curriculum.
In the thematic curriculum, the medium of instruction in all subjects except English, was the
local language. In urban areas, English was used as a medium of instruction but the commonly
used language was to be taught as a subject. Teachers and student teachers were to be trained in
the use of curriculum materials. The curriculum of PTCs was also harmonized with the primary
curriculum.

The NCDC has established the following policies and programmes to enable it achieve its aims:

 UPE-Aprovision of basic and primary education to all Ugandan children of school going
age which has been extended to include secondary school learners with effect from 2006.
 Teacher Development and Management Systems (TDMs)-This programme aims at
improving the quality and equity of primary education in Uganda. Reformed PTCs will
offer outreach as well as pre-service teacher training.

38
  Basic Education, Child Care and Adolescent Development (BECCAD)-This
programmee promotes cognitive and psychosocial development of children and
adolescents within a supportive family and community environment. It also deals with
the preventive of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune
Deficiency (AIDS) and other sexually transmitted diseases.
 Alternative Basic Education for Karamoja (ABEK)-This is a non-formal education
strategy which caters for the uniqueness of the lifestyles of the karamojong.
It is flexible enough to fit into the Karamojong lifestyle. For example, lessons are
conducted under trees so that boys can watch their grazing animals and girls can bring
younger siblings under their care to class.
 Complementary Opportunities for Primary Education (COPE) is an initiative intended to
Support primary school dropouts, so that they are able to continue with their education.
The NCDC developed a programme to reintegrate and rehabilitate children affected by armed
conflict in Gulu district of Northern Uganda. The overall aim of this initiative is to enhance the
availability, quality and appropriateness of psychosocial counseling, reunion with family
members and education, based mainly on vocational skills development.
For effective curriculum implementation of ABEK and Gulu traumatized children's
programmes, primary schools and TTCs within the programme are used as resource centres for
training, development and production of teaching materials.
The curriculum for teacher training thus had to be revised to emphasize the component of SNE.
In-service training of teachers is an ongoing strategy with no time limit. The curriculum offered
in school encompasses co-curricular activities such as games, music, sports, clubs and societies.

Curriculum evaluation
Uganda operates a national examination system in which examinations are prepared,
administered, marked and graded by the Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB).

Financing of education
Under the UPE and Universal Secondary Education (USE) initiatives, the government provides
funds for provision of basic school requirements for primary and secondary school learners.
These include textbooks and other instructional resources.

39
 Through the MOES, the government has also undertaken the training and employment of
qualified teachers and the provision of a conducive environment for school going children by
constructing classrooms to accommodate the increasing number of learners. The maintenance of
feeding programmes for schools and the provision of safe drinking water through sinking
boreholes and digging protected water wells are all part of the government's commitment to
ensure the success of UPE and USE.
A number of measures have been put in place to facilitate the efficient management of funds
meant for free education. They include:
 Every school is required to establish a school finance committee for budgeting purposes.
 All school headteachers, education officers and chief administrative officers must account for
UPE funds monthly as required by the government.
 Details of funds received in schools have to be furnished to the sub-country chairpersons or
chiefs, and the general public.
 District authorities must ensure that all UPE funds are handed over to schools with non being
retained at district level.
 Capitation grants to primary school are spent on instructional materials, co-curricular activities,
administration, school management including maintenance and utilities such as water and
electricity.
The contribution and involvement of parents and the community in education and welfare of learners
in Uganda is recognized and appreciated by the government, as it includes basic care, and emotional,
physical and material support. Parents pay boarding fees, and for food, medical care and scholastic
materials for learners in secondary schools.
Self-help groups and parent groups working within community- based programmes have built the
capacity of the family and community. They contribute towards the construction of school buildings
and encourage members to enroll and support learners in given schools. They also participate in
mobilization activities to support improved learning at home and school, and are actively involved in
sanitation promotion programmes.
In 1992, the White paper and Education Strategic Investment Plan (ESIP) recommended cost sharing,
private sponsorship, evening and weekend programmes, and income generation by public higher
education institutions, Government funding has, therefore, been declining with time.

40
The government extends bursary to some learners. The other learners finance their own education.
Under a system of education finance known as the dual track tuition policy, learners whose
performance in the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE) examination is exemplary at
higher education at no cost while those who do not attain the grade point cut-off mark can enroll at the
universities, but they pay fees for themselves.
Universities have also opened their doors to foreign learners, who sponsor themselves. Funds collected
from such learners go towards the maintenance of the diverse university programmes.
Since the cost of meeting all Uganda's education strategies may not be fully covered by state
resources, the government has encouraged partnership with donors, the private sector, local and
international NGOs, churches and local communities. Organizations such as the Red Barna, and Red
Barnet, UNESCO and UNICEF have played a major role in ensuring the success of UPE and USE.
Their assistance has been both financial and material. Technical capacities have been developed by
bringing in relevant expertise from these agencies.

Challenges facing the provision of education

Uganda has faced major difficulties which have impacted negatively on the development of many
areas of education. Some of these problems included:
 Ongoing insecurity in some parts of the country.
 Political interference in the management of education.
 Rampant corruption and mismanagement of funds.
 Bureaucracy-related cases such as delays in the release of funds for the implementation of
planned programmes.
 Insufficient skilled human resources such as teachers to handle special programmes such as SNE.
 Large class sizes as a result of increased enrolment through UPE.
 Inadequate structures and other resources, in particular classrooms, furniture, books and other
educational materials.
 Inadequate pay or/and delay in payment of teachers' salaries.

41
Education in Tanzania

Education in Tanzania is based on the goals to:

 Guide and promote the development of the citizens of Tanzania.

 Promote the culture and traditions of the people of Tanzania.
 Promote the acquisition and appropriate use of knowledge and skills to improve the conditions of
the people of Tanzania.
 Promote the rational use and conservation of the environment.
 Promote the love and respect for work.
 Enable every citizen to understand the fundamentals of the constitution.
 Promote the acquisition of life skills to meet the changing needs of industry.
 Promote national integration and international cooperation.

Historical perspective
After independence in 1961, the government of Tanzania was determined to launch an education
system that would fit into her socialist policies and favour the economic structure that had been
adopted by Tanzania.
Despite being one of the poorest countries in Africa, Tanzania achieved dramatic increases in primary
school enrolment during the first two decades of independence. However, during the 1990s, economic
decline and public sector mismanagement contributed to a sharp decline in enrolment and the quality
of education. The system of education was failing to deliver functioning schools in many communities
therefore; it was threatening to jeopardize gains already made in the wider social and economic goals.
The decline in the economy provoked an expansion of various fees and levies, thus lowering the
demand for education. Access, quality and curriculum relevance became key issues in the provision
and management of education in Tanzania.
Development of education in Tanzania has taken place in an environment of changing government and
national policies, namely:
 The colonial era ((Before 1961)
 Post independence era (1961-1967)
 Post Arusha Declaration-Ujamaa (1967-1979)

42
  Post Musoma Resolutions (1974-1984)
The government of Tanzania saw the need to make primary and secondary education terminal so that
learners graduating from these levels would be completely prepared for life in the socialist world.

Structure of the education system in Tanzania

Education in Tanzania is based on a 7-4-2-3 structure which constitutes: basic, secondary and tertiary
education.
Basic education
Basic education includes pre-primary, primary and non-formal adult education. Entry age fp
Or this level has been raised from six years at independence to between seven and nine years because
primary education is considered terminal for many learners. At the end of this cycle, learners sit for the
Primary School Leaving Examination. The outcome of this examination is used to determine the
learners' chances of:
 Moving on to junior secondary school.
 Joining non-formal training institutions.
Secondary education
Secondary education is also referred to as secondary level education. It includes two stages, namely O
and A levels of secondary schooling. Entry age for this level ranges between 15 and 17 years. At the
end of the four-year O level secondary schooling, learners sit for the Certificate of Secondary
Education Examination, whose results determine the chances of proceeding to A level schooling or
joining any of the several middle level training institutions offering certificates and diplomas in a
variety of disciplines.
At the end of the two year A level schooling, the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education
Examination is administered. The outcome is used for placement of the learners in any of the various
institutions offering tertiary education.
Tertiary education
Tertiary education is the third level of the education system. This cycle includes programmes and
courses offered by educational institutions such as universities and diploma colleges.
Administration and management of education

43
Two ministries, namely the Ministry of Education and culture, and the Ministry of Higher Education,
manage and coordinate the education sector. However, the ministry of Regional Administration and
that of Local Government also manage basic education.
Reforms in the education sector were introduced in 1995 with the overall objective of ensuring growth
and equitable access to higher education and adult literacy through expansion of facilities, efficiency
gains and quality improvement. In 1997, the government of Tanzania developed a Basic Educational
Master Plan (BEMP) to guide the development and provision of basic education. In 1998, the
responsibility of school management was transferred to local communities. Due to socialist policies
Tanzania's system of education is the most decentralized among the East African countries. Through
this system, less developed regions are given preference in the establishment of new schools.
For effective administration, the ministries are represented at regional, district, divisional and ward
levels through regional officers and coordinators. At the school level, school boards and committees
are elected to mange school programmes, plan and acquire infrastructure and other resources, and
ensure efficient utilization of school property. Educational programmes and service delivery are
planned at regional, district, divisional and ward levels. Ward education officers incorporate
community members in village committees.
At tertiary level, planning and service delivery is vested in the institution's themselves through their
governing councils. Nevertheless, coordination of quality control at this level is the responsibility of
Higher Education Accreditation Council (HEAC).
The curriculum
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) is charged with the responsibility of curriculum
development. The curriculum development process corresponds to the country's philosophy that views
education as a tool for liberating her citizens from colonial and neo-colonial ideologies. Since 1968,
curricula and instructional materials for use in schools in Tanzania have been designed with the hope
of realizing the goals of nationalizing education and promoting self-reliance. Education for self-
reliance emphasis skill acquisition and was necessitated by:
 Expansion of education which resulted in unemployment of school leavers and alienation of
learners from real community life by giving graduates of the education system false hopes.
 Rural-urban migration.
 The presence of cultural misfits as learners openly embraced imported values.
 Elitism which resulted in what became popularly referred to as the "diploma or degree disease".

44
  Inequalities in the Tanzanian society.
Education is less formal in Tanzania since it is guided by the 'Education for Self Reliance' policy. In
the curriculum, Agriculture is given priority and learners are required to involve themselves in
community development projects. Income from such projects goes towards supplementing the
operational and maintenance cost of running the schools.
Social studies which includes History, Geography and Civics, has been localized with the aim of
meeting the local awareness and political needs of the learners. Other subjects such as Crafts, Health
Education, Home Economics, Science and Mathematics are taught and emphasized to ensure proper
integration of learners into rural life. Vocational skills, such as carpentry and a variety of other
technical subjects, are taught throughout primary and secondary education.
Another feature of education in Tanzania is the bilingual policy, which requires learners to learn both
Kiswahili and English and be able to use both languages with proficiency. English is considered
essential in that it links Tanzania to the rest of the world through technology, commerce and
administration. The learning of Kiswahili ensure that learners keep in touch with their cultural values
and heritage. English is taught as a compulsory subject in primary schools whereas in all post-primary
institutions, it is used as a medium of instruction, Kiswahili is the medium of instruction in primary
schools, and it is taught as a compulsory subject at secondary school level. At tertiary level, English is
offered as an optional subject.
Quality assurance and standards maintenance
The responsibility of quality assurance at primary and secondary school level is vested in school head
teachers, ward education officers and school inspectors through the decentralized programme of
empowering communities as per the requirements of the Local Government Act of 1998.
Curriculum evaluation
The system of examination in Tanzania is centralized. It does not totally rely on summative evaluation,
but is characterized by a strong element of flexibility which incorporates continuous assessment of
learners' progress through the regular administration of tests and projects. These account for a third of
the overall evaluation. The general behaviour and attitude of learners are also incorporated in this
evaluation.
Financing of education
 The financing of local education is primarily the responsibility of the Tanzania government. The
government pays teachers and provides grants to schools to meet capital development and

45
 recurrent expenditure. Education is free at the primary level, and is subsidized at secondary and
tertiary levels.
 Schools are expected to supplement the cost of the provision of education by ensuring proper
utilization of school farms. Equally, learners who benefit from free schooling are supposed to
bear weighty responsibilities in the community by involving themselves in development
projects.
 Parents and communities partner with the government to construct and rehabilitate schools, and
to provide furniture and other important materials needed for learning. Funds for such projects
may come from local fund-raising activities, the school garden or contribution from personal
businesses.
 Technical assistance for the construction of community classrooms, toilets and other physical
facilities is provided by district level specialists affiliated with government ministries who
ensure that minimum quality standards are adhered to.
 Educational institutions operated by missionaries, voluntary agencies such as NGOs and private
entrepreneurs charge fees which are used to provide the necessary resources and to pay
teachers.
 Due to the high cost of providing education, the government relies heavily on development
partners, NGO s and United Nations (UN) agencies for financial support. This assistance may
be in the form of funds or technical support.
Challenges facing the provision of education
The following are challenges faced by the Tanzanian government in the provision of education:
 Culturally imposed barriers, which emphasize circumcision of girls and early marriages among
other factors, and which draw attention away from the benefits of formal education.
 Unemployment of school leavers resulting from a mismatch between skills covered in the
curriculum and labour market demands.
 Inadequate funding of education in view of the continuous demands on the government by other
factors such as HIV and AIDS and increase in population.
 Shortage of qualified teachers to cater for increased enrolments at all levels of learning.
 Shortage of instructional resources which affects the quality of teaching, especially in the case of
the vocational and technical subjects.

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Education in Nigeria
Historical context

The Federal Republic of Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country is in the West African sub-
region, bordered by Niger in the north, Chad in the northeast, Cameroon in the east, and Benin in
the west. Nigeria currently has 36 states with a Federal Capital Territory and a population of over
150 million people. Of this population, approximately 30 million are students. The country is
rich in petroleum and many other natural resources. The three dominant tribes are Yoruba in the
southwest, Ibo in the eastern region and Hausa in the north. The official language is English,
although most people speak their native languages in addition to English. English is the only
language used in schools, for reading, writing and speaking.

Education has been recognized as a basic human right since the 1948 adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. A positive correlation exists between the enrollment of girls in
primary school and the gross national product and life expectancy. Because of this correlation,
enrollment in schools represents the largest component of societal investment into human capital.
Rapid socioeconomic development of a nation has been observed to depend on the calibre of
women and their education in that country. Education bestows on women a disposition for a
lifelong acquisition of knowledge, values, attitudes, competence and skills

Structure of education system in Nigeria

Nigeria operates on a 6-3-3-4 system of education

 Primary School — 6 years

 Junior Secondary School — 3 years
 Senior Secondary School — 3 years
 University First Degree — 4 years

Primary and Secondary School

47
Primary education (grades 1-6) is free and compulsory, and offered to children aged 6-12. The
curriculum is geared toward providing permanent literacy, laying a sound basis for scientific,
critical and reflective thinking, and also in equipping children with the core life skills to function
effectively in society.

In 2009, the gross enrollment ratio at the primary level was 89 percent (95 percent male and 84
percent female) according to UNESCO statistics. The net enrollment rate (as a percentage of
children in the 6-12 age group) was a much lower 61 percent (male children 64 percent, female
children 58 percent) in 2007 (UIS) suggesting that many students outside of the primary age
group are attending primary school. In 2008, the primary to secondary transition rate was 44
percent, according to the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (DHS).

Under the new Universal Basic Education (UBE) system of 9-3-4, which replaced the former
universal primary education scheme of 6-3-3-4, students attend six years of primary school and
three years of junior secondary, thus nine years of compulsory and uninterrupted schooling. This
is followed by three years of senior secondary schooling. Until 2006 entry to junior secondary
education was based on the Common Entrance Examination, but entry is now automatic.

The Junior Secondary School Certificate is awarded at the end of junior secondary school.
Students who pass the Junior Secondary Certificate Examination (JSCE) at the credit level in not
less than six subjects may proceed to senior secondary school (grade 10) at either the same
institution, or they may transfer to another institution of their choice.

Core subjects at the junior secondary level include: English, French, science, technology,
Nigerian language (Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba), mathematics, and social studies. Students may also
choose to study a number of elective subjects. A prevocational stream is also available to
students looking to pursue technical or vocational training at the senior secondary level.

A majority of senior secondary school students proceed in the academic stream from junior
secondary school. However, there is also a technical stream, in addition to vocational training
outside of the school system, or apprenticeship options offering a range of terminal trade and
craft awards.

48
Private organizations, community groups, religious bodies, and the federal and state governments
establish and manage secondary schools in Nigeria. All private and public schools offer the same
curriculum but most private schools include the Cambridge International Examination
curriculum, which allows students to take the IGSCE examinations during their final year in high
school. It is also important to note that some private schools offer GCE A-levels, which usually
serve as a gap year after graduation for students that are interested.

The common core curriculum at the senior secondary level consists of: English, one Nigerian
language, mathematics, one science subject, one social science subject, and agricultural science
or a vocational subject. In addition students must take three elective subjects, one of which may
be dropped in the third year.

Students take the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) at the end of grade 12.
The Senior Secondary Certificate (SSC) is awarded to successful candidates. The certificate
lists all subjects in which the student is successful. The SSCE replaced the West African GCE O
and A levels in 1989, although those examinations are still available to students who wish to take
them (see above).

The SSC is issued by the West African Examination Council (WAEC) or the National
Examination Council (NECO), depending on the examination board used. An average grade of
‘credit’ level (C6) or better is required for access to public universities; however some require
higher grades for admission. The standards of the two examinations are essentially the same.
Students register for a maximum of nine and a minimum of seven subjects, which must include
mathematics and English.

A student must get at least a C in English and four other courses relevant to his or her major in
order to sit for the University Tertiary Matriculation Examination. A student applying for
admission to study medicine, computer science or accounting, for example, will be required to
have a minimum of a C in mathematics as well as in English whereas a student applying for a
program in history will not necessarily require a C in mathematics. A maximum of nine grades
are assigned to each subject in both WAEC and NECO examination.

49
Technical and vocational education is available for graduates of junior secondary school. A
two-tier system of nationally certified programs is offered at science technical schools, leading to
the award of National Technical/Commercial Certificates (NTC/NCC) and Advanced
National Technical/Business Certificates. The lower level program lasts three years after
Junior Secondary School and is considered by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board as
equivalent to the SSC.

The Advanced program requires two years of pre-entry industrial work experience and one year
of full-time study in addition to the NTT/NCC. The advanced degrees are typically considered
equivalent to an undergraduate degree. All certificates are awarded by the National Business
and Technical Examinations Board (NABTEB).

TERTIARY EDUCATION

Presently there are 117 universities; 36 federal, 36 state and 45 private universities. The National
Universities Commission (NUC) is the government umbrella organization that oversees the
administration of higher education in Nigeria. The 36 federal universities and dozens of teaching
hospitals and colleges are under its purview. State governments have responsibility for the
administration and financing of the 36 state universities. The NUC approves and accredits
all university programs.

In addition to universities, there are 59 federal and state polytechnic colleges and several
privately owned polytechnics, monotechnics and colleges of education across the country. These
were established to train technical, mid-level manpower and teachers. Currently, there are plans
to upgrade some of these colleges to allow them to award degrees. The colleges are evaluated
and accredited by the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE). A list of approved
polytechnics and other technical colleges is available and approved teaching colleges.

Admissions
For entrance into a Nigerian institution of higher learning, students are required to take the
Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME). Each student can choose up to six
institutions: two universities, two polytechnics and two colleges of education at the point of
registration for the examination. The minimum mark required on the UTME for admission to

50
university is 200 (out of 400). In addition, each institution has cut off marks for various
programs, so a minimum of 200 marks does not guarantee admission, especially for high-
demand programs and institutions. Universities also conduct additional screening before a final
admission decision is made. For the UTME, students must take exams in English and three
subjects related to their proposed major.

All admissions to bachelor degree programs at all Nigerian universities are organized through the
Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB).

According to statistics released by JAMB with the results of the 2011 Unified Tertiary
Matriculation Examination (UTME), federal universities are the preferred choice of a majority of
test takers, followed closely by state universities. Private universities are far less popular. The
University of Lagos was the most popular choice with 99,195 applicants (for 6,106 places),
followed by Ahmadu Bello University (89,760), the University of Nigeria Nsukka (88,177),
Nnamdi Azikiwe University (84,719) and the University of Benin (80,976).

Programs
The duration of undergraduate programs in Nigerian universities depends largely on the
program of study. Programs in the social sciences, pure sciences and humanities are typically
four years; engineering- and technology-related programs are five years; architecture, medicine
and veterinary science require six years (and have longer sessions); and law is five years (two
semester sessions per year).

Students may take either a single-subject honors degree or combined honors. In the former,
students study three subjects in the first year, two in the second year and one in the third. In the
combined honors program students take three subjects in the first year and two subjects in both
the second and third years. In the fourth year, single subject honors students take one subject and
combined-honors students take at least two subjects.

Postgraduate degrees are awarded upon completion of one year of full-time study after the
bachelor degree. These programs are generally offered in education and public administration.

51
Master’s degrees are typically open to holders of a First or Second Class bachelor degree and
usually require one year of full-time study see grading equivalent below. A research thesis may
be required and if so, the program is typically two years in duration.

Doctoral degrees are open to holders of a master’s degree in a related field and usually require
two to three additional years of study beyond the master’s.

Administration

Education in Nigeria is overseen by the Ministry of Education. Local authorities take

responsibility for implementing policy for state-controlled public education and state schools at a
regional level. The education system is divided into Kindergarten, primary education, secondary
education and tertiary education.

Financing of education

Education in Nigeria is the shared responsibility of the federal, state and local governments. The
Federal Ministry of Education plays a dominant role in regulating the education sector, engaging
in policy formation and ensuring quality control. However, the federal government is more
directly involved with tertiary education than it is with school education, which is largely the
responsibility of state (secondary) and local (primary) governments. The education sector is
divided into three sub-sectors: basic (nine years), post-basic/senior secondary (three years), and
tertiary (four to seven years, depending on the major or course of study). Education in Nigeria is
provided by public and private institutions.

Education in South Africa

Historical perspective

According to the Bill of Rights of South Africa's Constitution, all South Africans have the right
to a basic education, including adult basic education and access to further education. The state

52
has an obligation, through reasonable measures, to progressively make this education available
and accessible.
South Africa has one of the highest rates of public investment in education in the world. At about
7% of gross domestic product (GDP) and 20% of total state expenditure, the government spends
more on education than on any other sector.
Government spending on basic education during 2015/16 is estimated at R203 468 billion.
Over the next three years, roughly R640 billion will go towards basic education.

Grade Grade Age Age

Education School/Level Years Notes
From To From To
Education is
Primary Primary School 1 7 7 15 7 compulsory for ages
7 to 15
Secondary Secondary Education 8 12 14 5
Vocational Secondary
Secondary 11 12 16 2
Education
Tertiary College/University

Structure of the education system

South Africa's National Qualifications Framework (NQF) recognizes three broad bands of
education: General Education and Training, Further Education and Training, and Higher
Education and Training.
School life spans 13 years or grades, from grade 0, otherwise known as grade R or "reception
year", through to grade 12 or "matric" – the year of matriculation. General Education and
Training runs from grade 0 to grade 9.
Under the South African Schools Act of 1996, education is compulsory for all South Africans
from the age of seven (grade 1) to age 15, or the completion of grade 9.
General Education and Training also includes Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET),
which is available to adults who want to finish their basic education.
Further Education and Training takes place from grades 10 to 12, and also includes career-
oriented education and training offered in other Further Education and Training institutions –

53
technical colleges, community colleges and private colleges. Diplomas and certificates are
qualifications recognised at this level.
The matric pass rate, which was as low as 40% in the late 1990s, has improved considerably. A
total of 511 152 candidates sat the matriculation exams in 2012, 73.9% of whom passed. This is
an increase of 13.3% since 2009 (60.6%).

Higher education and training

Higher Education and Training, or tertiary education, includes education for undergraduate and
postgraduate degrees, certificates and diplomas, up to the level of the doctoral degree.
A matric endorsement is required for the study of university degrees, with a minimum of three
subjects passed at the higher, rather than standard, grade, although some universities set
additional academic requirements. A standard school-leaving South African senior certificate is
sufficient for technical qualifications and diplomas.
South Africa has a vibrant higher education sector, with 23 state-funded tertiary institutions: 11
universities, six universities of technology, and six comprehensive institutions. There are also
new institutes of higher education, the Northern Cape National Institute for Higher Education,
and the Mpumalanga National Institute for Higher Education.
Many of South Africa's universities are world-class academic institutions, at the cutting edge of
research in certain spheres. Although subsidized by the state, the universities are autonomous,
reporting to their own councils rather than government.
Higher education is also offered at private institution registered with the Department of Higher
Education to confer specific degrees and diplomas.

Teacher education and development programmes have also been strengthened, including funding
for bursaries for trainee teachers.

Financing

54
Compared with most other countries, education gets a very large slice of the public pie – around
20% of total state expenditure. It receives the largest share of government spending.
More money is always needed to address the huge backlogs left by 40 years of apartheid
education. Under that system, white South African children received a quality schooling virtually
for free, while their black counterparts had only "Bantu education", a keystone of the overall
apartheid system.
Although today's government is working to rectify the imbalances in education, the apartheid
legacy remains. Illiteracy rates currently stand at around 18% of adults over 15 years old (about
9-million adults are not functionally literate), teachers in township schools are poorly trained.
Despite the challenges, much has been achieved since apartheid legislation was scrapped. For
example, in 1993 nearly half of all students in higher education institutions were white, but since
1994, black African enrolments have nearly doubled, growing by 91% (or 4.4% a year) and
overall enrolments have grown by 41% (or 2.3% a year).
However, South Africa's student participation rate – that is, the proportion of 18- to 24-year olds
in higher education – is a low 16%.
Equity has yet to be achieved: almost 58.5% of whites and around 51% of Indians enter higher
education. The rate for coloureds is 14.3%, while blacks are even lower at 12%. The reason for
this is generally understood as poor quality primary and secondary schooling, which is a priority
for the current government.
The greatest challenges for schooling lie in the poorer, rural provinces such as the Eastern Cape
and KwaZulu-Natal. Schools are generally better resourced in the more affluent provinces such
as Gauteng and the Western Cape.

Ethiopia: A Country Education Profile (Fact Sheet)

Area: 1,251,280 Sq. Km

Population: 65 Million

55
Languages: Amharic (official), Oromigna, Tigrigna and 80 other major languages are spoken.
English, French, Italian and Arabic are also widely spoken.

Religion: The dominant religions are Ethiopian Orthodox and Islam. Judaism and Animism are
also practiced in some parts of the country.

Economy: Major Industrial Products: food and beverages, textiles, leather, cement, metal
products, paper, plastic products, automotive and tractor assemble tires etc

Major Agricultural Products: coffee, tea, oilseeds, cotton, tobacco, fruits, pepper, sugar cane,
fish and livestock.

Major Exports: coffee, oilseeds, hides and livestock.

Major Imports: machinery and equipment, industrial inputs, pharmaceuticals and chemicals.

Prospects: The country has the highest number of livestock in Africa, is the third largest coffee
exporter and has immense potential for mining (gold, tantalum, platinum, petroleum, coal and
natural gas). The country is endowed with abundant water resources and hydropower,
geothermal, and solar energy potential. It has great potential for a strong labor force as about
50% of the population is in youth age category.

History: The history of Ethiopia, known to many as Abyssinia, is rich, ancient, and still in part
unknown. The first hominid remain known as “Lucy” ( 3.2 million years old) were found in
Ethiopia. Ethiopian history is rich with legends of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
Ethiopia is the only African country never colonized by any European country. In fact, Ethiopia
defeated Italy at the Battle of Adwa (1896), making the first victory of any African nation over a
European colonial power.

Ethiopia has a base of traditional education (church) with its own script which is very elaborate
and complex. The development of modern education in Ethiopia is at an early stage. The
literacy rate at present is one of the lowest in Africa and is estimated at 50 %. In 1999 there were

56
about 9.6 million primary, 3 million junior secondary and 5.7 million senior secondary school
students.

Education structure

There is some pre-primary education for children aged 4 to 6 years but provision is patchy.
Primary school education has two cycles from age 7 to 10 years (grades 1 to 4) and from age 11
to 14 years (grades 5 to 8). Regional exams are taken at the end of grade 8 (Primary school
certificate exam). Secondary education has two cycles from age 15 to 16 years (grades 9 and 10)
and from age 17 to 18 years (grades 11 to 12) leading up to the national exams. The Ethiopian
General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) is taken at the end of grade 10
and requires a pass in at least 5 subjects to pass to the next level. The Ethiopian Higher
Education Entrance Examination (EHEEE) is taken at the end of grade 12. Students passing the
EHEEE are eligible for university if their grades are sufficiently high.

Alternative basic education (ABE) provides flexible, community based first cycle primary
schooling for out of school children.

Students leaving at the end of grade 10 can go to technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) institutions or colleges of teacher training (CTT). TVETs provide an alternative route to
university. Universities offer 3, 4, and 5 year programs for bachelor's degrees, doctor of
medicine and doctor of veterinary medicine. Students who have a bachelor's degree may take a
specialized post graduate program for a master's degree or Ph.D.

Adult and non-formal education provides primary education to adults over age 14 years and is
run by both government and non-government organizations.[11]

First Cycle Primary Schools, Grades 1-4: Children enter primary school at various ages
because of the agrarian nature of the economy and the possibility of transfer from traditional
church or mosque education to modern education. Teaching is in the Mother Tongue for the

57
majority of children depending on their regions. English is taught as a foreign language. There
are about 15 Teacher Training Institutes and there is a plan to increase TTIs through distance
education, correspondence etc.

Second Cycle Primary Schools, Grades 5-8: Admission to first and second cycle primary
schools is open to all students. Usually schools combine the two cycles in a compound. A
substantial number of teachers are certified by going through a one or two year's teacher training
scheme. There are 8 Teacher Training Colleges for this cycle of teachers. Primary enrollment
is about 50%.

The first cycle of primary education concentrates on functional literacy while the second cycle is
preparation for secondary education. In principle, the curriculum aims to link theory with
practice in real life and to use a problem solving approach. Primary education includes:
Languages (mother tongue, Amharic), English, Mathematics, Environmental science, Natural
science (Physics, Chemistry and Biology in grades 7 and 8), Social science (grades 5 to 8) and
Aesthetic education. Secondary school (grades 9 to 10) continues subjects taken in primary
school: English and a national language, Mathematics, Natural Sciences (Physics, Chemistry and
Biology), Social sciences (Civic education, Geography and History) and Physical education.

The secondary school second cycle (grades 11 and 12) continues the Natural Science and Social
science streams. Common subjects are English, Mathematics, Economics and Physical education
while electives are a national language and foreign language (other than English) and a science
course for the Social science stream.

Secondary Schools: At the end of the second cycle of primary education all students in all
regions are required to take the 8th Grade National Examination which is administered by the
National Office for Examination (NOE) in order to ensure the quality of primary education and

58
coverage of the curriculum (standard). Selection to secondary schools is based on the National
Examination results and availability of openings in the regional schools. Students are
streamlined after the National Examination results to various academic, vocational, agricultural,
industrial sciences and home economic fields. The core curriculum for all programs include:
English, Mathematics, Physical and Life Sciences, Social Studies, National Languages and
Physical Education.

At the end of 12th grade students sit for the Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination
(ESLCE) which is administered once a year in March/April with results due in August or
September. Students are required to complete 12 years of primary and secondary education and
pass the 8th and 12th grade National Examinations in order to apply for any higher education.
Examinees should score a minimum of 2.00 on a scale of 4.00 or “C” in at least five subjects:
English, Mathematics (both compulsory) and any other three subjects.

Higher Education: The foundation of universities and colleges is a consequence of primarily a

national initiative in a country which has little tradition of formal education. The Ethiopian
University system has developed in eclectic fashion and has not been modeled on any single
foreign system. The first higher education institute, the Addis Ababa University College was
established in 1950. At present there are 6 universities and 20 colleges including 10 private
colleges accredited by the MOE. The government has taken the initiative in opening new
universities and colleges and expanding and upgrading the already existing colleges of
engineering, education and health sciences in various regions of the country. Tertiary
enrollment is about 1 percent.

The Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) -10 th

Grade National Examination – Last year (June 2001) students have sat for the New National
Examination at the end of 10th grade which is known us the Ethiopian General Secondary
Education of Certificate Examination (EGSECE). These students will be streamlined into

59
Academic (College preparation) and Vocational and Technical schools based on their results.
Those going into academic fields are expected to sit for college entrance examination after two
years of preparation and the others will either join the labor market or be self employed. It is
hoped that the first College Entrance Examination will be given sometime April/May 2003.

Curriculum

The first cycle of primary education concentrates on functional literacy while the second cycle is
preparation for secondary education. In principle, the curriculum aims to link theory with
practice in real life and to use a problem solving approach. Primary education includes:
Languages (mother tongue, Amharic), English, Mathematics, Environmental science, Natural
science (Physics, Chemistry and Biology in grades 7 and 8), Social science (grades 5 to 8) and
Aesthetic education. Secondary school (grades 9 to 10) continues subjects taken in primary
school: English and a national language, Mathematics, Natural Sciences (Physics, Chemistry and
Biology), Social sciences (Civic education, Geography and History) and Physical education. [15]

The secondary school second cycle (grades 11 and 12) continues the Natural Science and Social
science streams. Common subjects are English, Mathematics, Economics and Physical education
while electives are a national language and foreign language (other than English) and a science
course for the Social science stream.[16]

Universities used to have a freshman year to prepare students for a degree but now schools are
expected to prepare students. This has had a knock-on effect of moving the freshman programs
down to grades 11 and 12 and programs for grades 11 to 12 down to grades 9 and 10. The grade
9 to 10 curriculum is now equivalent to grades 11 and 12 in many other countries and it covers
more subjects than most other countries require for university.[17]

The World Bank considers that the curriculum should change from its focus on a few high levels
achievers to education for all. Curriculum content differentiation should start in grades 9 and 10
and undergo further differentiation in grades 11 and 12 to provide alternatives to university.
There should be continued expansion and improvement of quality in both primary and secondary
education to prepare students for different career options in the growing economy. This should
take priority over expanding university education. Primary and secondary education should be

60
laying the foundation for lifelong learning by promoting metacognitive skills such as reading
meaningfully, learning how to learn, group learning, real understanding, cognitive restructuring
and information retrieval.[17]

Examination: The educational system in Ethiopia is organized in cycles or levels of formal

schooling. The first and second cycle primary education is demarcated by internal (classroom)
examination at the end of each cycle and by a National Examination (external examination) at
the end of the second cycle. The secondary education begins from 9 th grade and ends by 12th
grade.

Teacher training

Teachers are trained in 34 colleges of teacher education (CTE) and 10 universities. Previously,
kindergarten and primary schools, grades 1 to 4, required a one or two year teaching certificate
while grades 4 to 8 needed a three-year diploma. Recently, certificates have been replaced by a
three-year diploma for all new primary school teachers. Selection requirements for primary
school teaching include a minimum of 2 in the grade 10 exam (EGSECE), no "F" grades in
mathematics or English and a minimum of "C" in specialist subjects. Student teachers take an
entrance exam and are given an interview to assess interpersonal skills and motivation. Primary
school teachers' cluster training prepares teachers for grades 1 to 4 and linear training prepares
teachers for grades 5 to 8. All students have the same professional training but differ in that
cluster training has composite subject matter while linear training includes three specialist
subjects. These are three year programs for a diploma. A policy revision is expected to up-grade
teacher qualifications to a degree for grades 7 and 8.

Secondary school teachers needed a B.Ed. until 2010. Since 2011, they have to have a B.Sc. or
BA related to secondary school subjects plus a one-year post-graduate diploma in teaching
(PGDT) which includes a practicum accounting for 30% of the credit hours. Student teachers
also take an entrance examination and have an interview for PGDT enrolment.

61
Studies of the practicum in educational faculties at Jimma and Bahir Dar universities
recommend: a) more co-operation between universities and schools to support students, b)
training school supervisors to work collaboratively with students to educate them, rather than be
experts who evaluate them, c) providing school supervisors with role definition and d) public
recognition, in the form of a title with university affiliation, to enhance co-operation. udents
needed improved financial and material support.

Primary school teacher educators are expected to have a first degree in a relevant subject and are
being encouraged to take a second degree. They are expected to develop professionalism by
earning a higher diploma, participating in research and by having primary school teaching
experience. Secondary school teacher educators are expected to have post-graduate degrees in
education and at least three years teaching experience in secondary schools or five years teaching
experience in teacher colleges.

In 2012/13, enrolment in CTEs for regular, evening and summer classes increased from 81,091
(39% female) in 2008/09 to 175,142 ((40.2% female) in 2012/13. Combining the cluster and
linear modalities, the number of graduates has increased from 16,129 (38.8% female) in 2008/09
to 43,890 (43.1% female) in 2012/13. CTE staff have increased from 774 (12.1% female) in
2008/09 to 2044 (8.4% female) in 2012/13.

The education system of Liberia

Historical context

The Liberian education system is emerging from a prolonged and brutally destructive period of
civil unrest. Liberia is significantly behind most other countries in the African region in nearly
all education statistics. After 14 years of civil war, which resulted in the destruction of much of
the country’s trained workforce, the country is still in the process of rebuilding its educational
system. USAID, in concert with other donors, works with the Ministry of Education (MOE) to
address education challenges related to access, quality of instruction, human, and financial
resources.

62
USAID’s education programs focus on improving the quality of teaching and learning
(especially in early grade reading and math), and increasing equitable access to safe learning
opportunities for girls, as well as for youth who missed out on education due to the prolonged
civil conflict. The USAID basic education project is helping rebuild the curricula, teaching and
management staff, instructional and learning resources, data systems and policy environment
essential to providing basic education services to all Liberians.

After the 1997 elections in Liberia, which brought in to place a civilian government, there were
several schools, colleges and universities that were reopened. Most of the schools in the country
are being operated by churches or Christian missions, among which are the Catholic Church,
Methodist, Episcopal and a few others. Others are being by the government under the
supervision of the Monrovia Cooperative School System (MCSS).

Most of the schools are found within the Monrovia area. This is because of the lack of good
roads throughout the entire country. Christian missions have extended their schools to other parts
of the country so as to increase the educational process and ease the mass flow of students into
Monrovia.

Majority of the students can only afford to attend the public or government schools or university
because of the high tuition fees involved. Most of the schools being operated by the government
have poor performance of their students. This due to the low salaries being paid to their
instructors and the lack of good teaching materials. Instructors in most cases pay less attention to
the students.

Unlike the public or government schools, the private or church mission schools are offering a
better quality of education to most of the students. Although there are very few public or
government schools that are struggling to do likewise. Some private schools provide books and
other materials to help ease the problems of getting a good textbook by the students.

There has been a little increase in the number of community colleges and universities in the
county since the civil crisis. The government owned university has re-opened an annex in
another part of the country to increase the number of students wanting to attend the university.
The major problem of this university is financial support. There is very little support for the

63
university by the national government. This in most times including this year has led to the delay
in acquiring a degree at the nation's highest institution of learning. Many times a student spent
six to seven years to earn a degree. Early this year (2000) the national university closed for the
first semester and did not re-opened for nearly two semesters.

There are three private universities now opened which the plan to open a fourth one by the
Methodist Church. There are near five private colleges most of which are being run by the
Catholic Church, and the Episcopal Church.

Structure

Grade Grade Age Age

Education School/Level Years Notes
From To From To
Most of the schools in the
country are being operated
by churches or Christian
missions, among which are
the Catholic Church,
Methodist, Episcopal and a
few others. Others are being
Primary Elementary School 1 6 6 12 6
by the government under the
supervision of the Monrovia
Cooperative School System
(MCSS). English is the
official language of
instruction in Liberian
public schools.
Certificate/diploma
awarded: Examination by
Middle Junior High School 7 9 12 15 3 the West African
Examination Council
(WAEC)
Certificate/diploma
Senior Secondary awarded: West African
Secondary 10 12 15 18 3
Education Examination Council
(WAEC) Certificate
Post- Vocational/Technical 2 Certificate/diploma

64
 Grade Grade Age Age
Education School/Level Years Notes
From To From To
secondary School awarded: Associate Degree
Certificate/diploma
Teacher Training awarded: Primary Teacher's
Vocational 3
(Primary school) Certificate/Grade C
Teaching Certificate
University level first Certificate/diploma
Tertiary 4
stage awarded: Bachelor Degree
Bachelor's Degree in
Teacher Training
Tertiary 4 Education or Grade A
(Secondary school)
Teaching Certificate
University level Certificate/diploma
Tertiary 2
second stage awarded: Masterc Degree
A Master's Degree is
required to teach in Colleges
Teacher Training of Education, together with
Tertiary 2
(Higher Education) a teaching qualification.
University teachers must
hold a Doctorate.
University level third Certificate/diploma
Tertiary 3
stage awarded: Doctorate degree

Kindergarten/pre-primary

Due to the lack of schools within the rural areas of the country, most of this education process is
carried out in the Monrovia between the ages of 3 to 6. During this period the little students are
taught how to identify letters and read.

Primary Education

Education continues to be the victim in war-ravaged Liberia, with what facilities there are, found mainly
in the state capital Monrovia. State schools are poorly operated and private school fees beyond the
reach of the nation’s poor.

Those who do attend kindergartens learn to identify letters and read a little. Thereafter they go on to
primary school for 6 years where they follow courses in arithmetic and general science, and sometimes
also English and bible studies too. At this level students from grades 1 to 6 learn basic reading, English,
arithmetic, general science and bible.

65
Middle Education

Junior high schools are found mainly in Monrovia, and at isolated missions in the countryside.
All are controlled by the ministry of education that prescribes algebra, chemistry, geography,
geometry and physical science as the curriculum. At the end of this period they sit for their west
african examinations.

Secondary Education

Senior high school completes their school education. Here, students study more advanced levels
of junior high school subjects and prepare for university. As 98% of these schools are in the
capital city of Monrovia, it becomes clear that the system is designed around the needs of the
nation’s already-haves.

Vocational Education

Liberian vocational training is little more than a joke in bad taste, with the exception of efforts by
unicef and others. Many young people’s futures were mercilessly ravaged in sectarian violence
through recent years. If they get a job at all (especially in the rural areas) then they are grateful
just to be told what to do.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education has also suffered in the past two decades. The core institutions are the
University of Liberia (founded as a College in 1863), Cuttington University and Harper
Technical College, with contributions also being made by several other private religious
institutions.
The University of Liberia illustrated here offers graduate courses in education and
administration, while Cuttington University adds public health and business administration.

The education system of England

66
It is important to study the education system of England because educational systems of
Anglophone countries (English speaking countries) in Africa are modelled on it.

The current system of education in England is as a result of various English Education Acts:

The education bill of 1870

It introduced a national system of education through:

 Preservation of voluntary schools

 Division of England into school districts
 Giving church denominations/groups an opportunity to aid schools, especially in the
construction of buildings
 Establishment of school boards
 Forbidding the teaching of religion in schools
 Encouragement of the central government to take a greater role in education
This bill led to:
 Increased enrolment in elementary schools in England
 By 1891 elementary education in England had been made both free and compulsory

The Education Act of 1902

It led to:

 All levels of education; elementary, secondary, higher voluntary and state were put under
the control of one single local authority
 The state assumed complete authority/responsibility over all issues to do with education

The Education Act of 1944

 It introduced three stages of education in England-primary, secondary and further
education
 It made it the responsibility of every local authority to contribute towards the education
requirements of it's people

67
  It introduced compulsory education for all children in the ages 5-15 years
 It provided for further education (higher education) for people

The Education Act of 2002

It established the foundation stage of education in England, catering for children aged3-5 years.

Levels of education in England

Pre-primary
Formal education in schools in England starts at the age of three years. Between 3-5 years,
children attend the foundation stage, which is compulsory to all children.
Primary education: Ages 5-11
 Education in England is compulsory from 5 years of age
 Education at this level is also free
 Children are admitted to primary schools without regard to ability
 All state primary schools are of mixed sexes

Curriculum in primary schools is divided into two key stages:

 Key stage 1 (5-7 years)

 Key stage 2 (7-11 years
Promotion form one key stage to another is automatic-does not depend on results of any
assessment. However, there are statutory assessment arrangement on entry to primary school and
at the end of key stages 1 and 2-teacher assessment -internally and externally set and marked or
moderated tests.
Secondary education
 Secondary education is entirely free
 Secondary schools admit pupils from primary without regard to academic ability
 There are two key stages at secondary level i.e key stage 3 (ages 11-14) which lasts 4
years and key stage 4 (ages 14-16) which lasts 2 years
 Two public examinations are taken at secondary level:

68
 (a).The general Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) taken after 2 years at year 11
(b). The General Certificate of Education (GCE)-A level done at ages 13. Students join
University on the basis of this examination.

Higher education
Covers all post-school courses after A-level standard. Includes universities, polytechnics and
colleges. Polytechnics are allowed to offer and award degrees.
Each institution of higher learning is autonomous/independent and determines its own admission
policy and requirements. However, the universities and colleges admission service (UCAs) acts
as a central agency on behalf of the universities and colleges of higher education. It processes
applications of students to universities and colleges.
Teacher education
A 4-year bachelor of education degree course or a bachelor's degree plus a 1-year post-graduate
certificate in education (PGCE)-for both primary and secondary teachers.
Teachers are not civil servants.
They are either employed by local authorities or by individual institutions depending on the type
of school.
Financing and admission of education in England
 Public sector schools are financed by the government and administered through local
authorities
 There are also what are known as grant-maintained schools
 Parents are not required to make any financial contribution to a child's education
 Private sector schools are known as independent schools and rely on fees paid by parents
 In England the responsibility of providing education lies with the department for
education and skills (DEFS)
 The inspection of the schools is done by a separate non-ministerial government
department called the office for standards in education(OFTSTED)
 The planning and funding for further education is the responsibility of the learning and
skills council(LSC)

The education system of USA

69
History
Education in the United States is provided by public schools and private schools.

Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending
somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be
satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program.
In most schools, education is divided into three levels: elementary school, middle or junior high
school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from
kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, up to twelfth grade as the final year of
high school.

There are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered
institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into
college, as the first tertiary degree, and graduate school, is described in a separate section below.

Structure

Student age range

General level (or category) Level (at the beginning of academic
year)

70
 Preschool Pre-kindergarten 3–5
Compulsory education
Kindergarten 5–6
1st grade 6–7
Elementary
2nd grade 7–8
school
3rd grade 8–9
4th grade 9–10
5th grade 10–11
6th grade 11–12
Middle
Junior high 7th grade 12–13
school
school 8th grade 13–14
Freshman/9th Grade 14–15
High Sophomore/10th Grade 15–16
Senior high
school Junior/11th Grade 16–17
school
Senior/12th Grade 17–18
Higher education
First year: "Freshman year" 18-19
Second year: "Sophomore
College Undergraduate 19-20
year"
(University) school
Third year: "Junior year" 20-21
Fourth year: "Senior year" 21-22
Graduate school
Ages vary
(with various degrees and curricular partitions thereof)
Continuing education
Vocational school
Ages vary
Adult education

Preschool and Pre-Kindergarten

Preschool encompasses non-compulsory classroom-based early-childhood education prior to the

age of five to six. Pre-kindergarten (also called Pre-K or PK) is the preschool year immediately
studied before the year of Kindergarten, which is typically studied at age five to six. Preschool
education may be delivered through a preschool or as a reception year in Elementary school.
Head Start Program, the federally funded pre-kindergarten program founded in 1965 prepares
children, especially those of a disadvantaged population, to better succeed in school. However,
limited seats are available to students aspiring to take part in the Head Start Program. Many
community-based programs, commercial enterprises, non-profit organizations, faith

71
communities, and independent childcare providers offer preschool education. Preschool may be
general or may have a particular focus, such as arts education, religious education, sports
training, or foreign language learning, along with providing general education.

Primary education

Historically, in the United States, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for
some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through
fifth grade (or sometimes, to fourth grade, sixth grade or eighth grade). Basic subjects are taught
in elementary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day,
except for specialized programs, such as physical education, library, music, and art classes.
There are (as of 2001) about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.

Typically, the curriculum in public elementary education is determined by individual school

districts or county school system. The school district selects curriculum guides and textbooks
that reflect a state's learning standards and benchmarks for a given grade level. The most recent
curriculum that has been adopted by most states is Common Core. Learning Standards are the
goals by which states and school districts must meet adequate yearly progress (AYP) as
mandated by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This description of school governance is simplistic
at best, however, and school systems vary widely not only in the way curricular decisions are
made but also in how teaching and learning take place. Some states and/or school districts
impose more top-down mandates than others. In others, teachers play a significant role in
curriculum design and there are few top-down mandates. Curricular decisions within private
schools are often made differently from in public schools, and in most cases without
consideration of NCLB.

Public elementary school teachers typically instruct between twenty and thirty students of
diverse learning needs. A typical classroom will include children with a range of learning needs
or abilities, from those identified as having special needs of the kinds listed in the Individuals
with Disabilities Act IDEA to those that are cognitively, athletically or artistically gifted. At
times, an individual school district identifies areas of need within the curriculum. Teachers and
advisory administrators form committees to develop supplemental materials to support learning

72
for diverse learners and to identify enrichment for textbooks. There are special education
teachers working with the identified students. Many school districts post information about the
curriculum and supplemental materials on websites for public access. In general, a student learns
basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such
as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects. Learning
standards are identified for all areas of a curriculum by individual States, including those for
mathematics, social studies, science, physical development, the fine arts, and reading. While the
concept of State Learning standards has been around for some time, No Child Left Behind has
mandated that standards exist at the State level.

Secondary education

A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Secondary education is often divided into two
phases, middle or junior high school and high school. Students are usually given more
independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, and being allowed to choose
some of their class subjects (electives).

"Middle school" usually includes seventh and eighth grade (and occasionally sixth and fifth
grade as well); "Junior high" may include any range from sixth through ninth grades. The range
defined by either is often based on demographic factors, such as an increase or decrease in the
relative numbers of younger or older students, with the aim of maintaining stable school
populations.

High school (occasionally senior high school) usually runs from 9th or 10th through 12th grades.
Students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10),
juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12). Generally, at the high school level, students take a
broad variety of classes without special emphasis in any particular subject. Students are required
to take a certain mandatory subjects, but may choose additional subjects ("electives") to fill out
their required hours of learning. High school grades normally are included in a student's official
transcript, e.g. for college admission.[citation needed]

73
Each state sets minimum requirements for how many years of various mandatory subjects are
required; these requirements vary widely, but generally include 2–4 years of each of: Science,
Mathematics, English, Social sciences, Physical education; some years of a foreign language and
some form of art education are often also required, as is a health curriculum in which students
learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, drug awareness, and birth control. In many
cases, however, options are provided for students to "test out" of this requirement or complete
independent study to meet it.

Many high schools provide Honors, Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate
(IB) courses. These are special forms of honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging
and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. Honors, AP or IB courses are usually
taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade. Some
international schools offer international school leaving qualifications, to be studied for and
awarded instead of or alongside of the high school diploma, Honors, Advanced Placement, or
International Baccalaureate. Regular honors courses are more intense and faster paced than
typical college preparatory courses. AP and IB on the other hand, are college-level classes.

Higher education

Educational attainment in the United States, Age 25 and Over (2009)

Education Percentage

High school graduate 86.68%

Some college 55.60%

Associate and/or bachelor's degree 38.54%

Bachelor's degree 29.0%

Master's degree 7.62%

Doctorate or professional degree 2.94%

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Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following
secondary education, often at one of the 4,495 colleges or universities and junior colleges in the
country. In 2008, 36% of enrolled students graduated from college in four years. 57% completed
their undergraduate requirements in six years, at the same college they first enrolled in. The U.S.
ranks 10th among industrial countries for percentage of adults with college degrees. Over the
past 40 years the gap in graduation rates for wealthy students and low income students has
widened significantly. 77% of the wealthiest of students obtained undergraduate degrees by age
24 in 2013, up from 40% in 1970. 9% of the least affluent quartile obtained degrees by the same
age in 2013, up from 6% in 1970. Like high school, the four undergraduate grades are commonly
called freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (alternatively called first year, second year,
etc.). Students traditionally apply for admission into colleges. Schools differ in their
competitiveness and reputation. Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high
school courses taken, the students' GPA, class ranking, and standardized test scores (Such as the
SAT or the ACT tests). Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a
commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. While colleges will
rarely list that they require a certain standardized test score, class ranking, or GPA for admission,
each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.

Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university
and class requirements to achieve a bachelor's degree in a field of concentration known as a
major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor" in another field of study.) The most
common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor
of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts
(B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.,) or Bachelor of
Philosophy (B.Phil.) Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of
Architecture Degree (B.Arch.)

Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are offered as graduate
study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor's

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degree depending on the program. These professional fields do not require a specific
undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses
that must be taken before enrollment.

Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at
another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a
division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state
agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS)
degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year
college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying
directly to the four-year institution). Some community colleges have automatic enrollment
agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first two
years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one
campus. The community college awards the associate degree, and the university awards the
bachelor's and master's degrees.

Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of
professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master's degree, which could be a
Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or
other less common master's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts
(MFA). Some students pursue a graduate degree that is in between a master's degree and a
doctoral degree called a Specialist in Education (Ed.S.).

After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master's
degree and/or Ed.S. degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), a first
professional degree, or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education,
Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy,
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Podiatry Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine,
Doctor of Psychology, or Juris Doctor. Some programs, such as medicine and psychology, have
formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation, such as residencies and internships, which
must be completed after graduation and before one is considered fully trained. Other professional
programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation

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(although law school graduates must take the bar exam to legally practice law in nearly all
states).

Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student's undergraduate academic
performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam
like the Graduate Record Examination (GRE-graduate schools in general), the Medical College
Admission Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Many graduate and law
schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor's degree to enter their programs;
however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional
work experience before applying. 8.9 percent of students receive postgraduate degrees. Most,
after obtaining their bachelor's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.

A few charity institutions cover all of the students' tuition, although scholarships (both merit-
based and need-based) are widely available. Generally, private universities charge much higher
tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference.
Because each state supports its own university system with state taxes, most public universities
charge much higher rates for out-of-state students.

Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state, and many additional fees apply.
In 2009, average annual tuition at a public university (for residents of the state) was $7,020.
Tuition for public school students from outside the state is generally comparable to private
school prices, although students can often qualify for state residency after their first year. Private
schools are typically much higher, although prices vary widely from "no-frills" private schools to
highly specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual
graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $50,000. Note that these prices do
not include living expenses (rent, room/board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as
"activities fees" or health insurance. These fees, especially room and board, can range from
$6,000 to $12,000 per academic year (assuming a single student without children).

The mean annual Total Cost (including all costs associated with a full-time post-secondary
schooling, such as tuition and fees, books and supplies, room and board), as reported by
collegeboard.com for 2010: Public University (4 years): $27,967 (per year)

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  Private University (4 years): $40,476 (per year)

Total, four-year schooling:

 Public University: $111,868

 Private University: $161,904

College costs are rising at the same time that state appropriations for aid are shrinking. This has
led to debate over funding at both the state and local levels. From 2002 to 2004 alone, tuition
rates at public schools increased over 14 percent, largely due to dwindling state funding. An
increase of 6 percent occurred over the same period for private schools. Between 1982 and 2007,
college tuition and fees rose three times as fast as median family income, in constant dollars

From the US Census Bureau, the median salary of an individual who has only a high school
diploma is $27,967; The median salary of an individual who has a bachelor's degree is $47,345.
Certain degrees, such as in engineering, typically result in salaries far exceeding high school
graduates, whereas degrees in teaching and social work fall below. The debt of the average
college graduate for student loans in 2010 was $23,200. A 2010 study indicates that the return on
investment for graduating from the top 1000 colleges exceeds 4% over a high school degree.
According to Uni in the USA, "One of the reasons American universities have thrived is due to
their remarkable management of financial resources." To combat costs colleges have hired
adjunct professors to teach. In 2008 these teachers cost about $1,800 per 3-credit class as
opposed to $8,000 per class for a tenured professor. Two-thirds of college instructors were
adjuncts. There are differences of opinion whether these adjuncts teach better or worse than
regular professors. There is a suspicion that student evaluation of adjuncts, along with their
subsequent continued employment, can lead to grade inflation.

The federal government supplies around 8.5% of the public school system funds, according to a
2005 report by the National Center for Education Statistics. The remaining split between state
and local governments averages 48.7 percent from states and 42.8 percent from local sources.[96]

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Global Trends in Education

E-learning, distant and open learning

Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy
and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to
students who are not physically \"on site\". It is a process that aims to create and provide
access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and
distance, or both.”. In other words, distance learning is the process of creating an educational
experience of equal qualitative value for the learner to best suit their needs outside the
classroom. Rather than attending courses in person, teachers and students may communicate
at times of their own choosing by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through
technology that allows them to communicate in real time and through other online ways.
Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the
taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course of study.

This emerging technology is becoming widely used in institutions of higher learning around the
globe. With the recent trend of technological advance, distance learning is becoming more
recognized for its potential in providing individualized attention and communication with
students internationally. With the communication technology advancement one lecture in a
certain corner of the world will be attended by millions of students from any corner of the
world. Very soon any person with access to a computer will be able to attend a lecture
transmitted electronically in real time at any time.

Time has come when the traditional face to face regular classes and learning is no longer
supportive of continuing education. Study leaves are no longer entertained by many
companies. Many changes in life styles and other commitments have reduced the available
time for those seeking education to attend regular classes. Demand for continuing education
especially among the working class and generally adults has made distance learning come of
age. Almost everybody is looking for an extra skill that gives them a competitive edge.
Employers are looking for that person with multi skills .due to problems of unemployment
others have found themselves working in different areas away from their initial training and
this necessitates them to seek training in the related area.. Therefore continued training has
become a necessity. Majority of these people seeking further skills have difficulties in attending
the conventional classes on a continuous base. Their life commitments do not leave them with
time to go to college. A research done by Kenya Institute of Open Learning identified the
following as the main obstacles to continued education
a) Time:
Distance

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 Finances (High Cost)
Admission Requirements
Strict calendars
Age

As a natural reaction to these challenges, distance learning has evolved to be a learning mode
of a choice. Distance learning programmes attract mature students and most of the courses are
skills based. This makes it easier for the student to relate the content with day to day work and
own experiences.

Inclusive Education

Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighbourhood
schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate
in all aspects of the life of the school.

Inclusive education is about how we develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs and
activities so that all students learn and participate together.

Neighbourhood schools are the heart of our communities, and Inclusion BC believes they are
essential for a quality inclusive education system. Therefore we believe it is important to support
a public education system in B.C.

Benefits of Inclusive Education

All children benefit from inclusive education. It allows them to:

 Develop individual strengths and gifts, with high and appropriate expectations for each
child.
 Work on individual goals while participating in the life of the classroom with other
students their own age.
 Involve their parents in their education and in the activities of their local schools.

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  Foster a school culture of respect and belonging. Inclusive education provides
opportunities to learn about and accept individual differences, lessening the impact of
harassment and bullying.
 Develop friendships with a wide variety of other children, each with their own individual
needs and abilities.
 Positively affect both their school and community to appreciate diversity and inclusion on
a broader level.

Why is inclusive education important?

It’s important because as Canadians, we value our diverse communities. These communities start
at school, where all students learn to live alongside peers. They learn together; they play
together; they grow and are nurtured together

Multigrade schools

Multigrade schools combine students of different ages and abilities in one classroom, under the
direction of one teacher (Thomas & Shaw, 1992).

Multigrade schools are a cost-effective way of providing a complete educational cycle in

sparsely populated areas and for maintaining services in areas with declining populations. If
properly implemented, multigrade schools offer considerable scope for reducing unit costs while
maintaining or even improving quality.

Thomas & Shaw identify four critical elements for effective implementation, the first of which is
the most important: (1) teachers need to adopt more effective teaching practices to make
multigrade schools function properly; (2) to do so, they require adequate material and physical
inputs of which programmed learning materials and textbooks are of overwhelming importance;
(3) local and regional support networks need to be developed among teachers; and (4) there must
be national level support for pilot programs, including both financial support and active
involvement of a few key multigrade advocates.

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Multiple-shift schooling

In a multiple-shift system, schools cater for two or more entirely separate groups of pupils during
a school day.

Multiple-shift systems can be highly cost-effective. They can permit substantial financial
savings, and do not necessarily cause a decline in quality. And even when introduction of
multiple-shift schooling does cause some loss of quality, the benefits of reduced unit costs and of
larger enrolments may outweigh the cost implied by the loss of quality.

However, Bray stresses that, if multiple-shift systems are to operate cost-effectively, education
authorities must give due consideration to a range of factors (choice of model, management
structures, hours of schooling, out-of -school learning, use of teachers, extra rooms, use of other
community facilities). Bray also points out that "multiple-shift schooling is rarely popular with
the general public" (p98), and there is a need to take account of the social and political context in
policy-making.

Universal primary education

The EFA 2000 assessment report indicates that most countries have set Universal Primary
Education (UPE) as the minimum target in their policies and as a short term goal of attaining
EFA. During the 1960s, a series of meetings convened by UNESCO set target dates for
achieving UPE on compulsory basis for different continents. With reference to Africa, the Addis
Ababa conference set 1980 as the target year for Universal, compulsory and free primary
education in Africa. The uniform goal adopted by the education ministries of Asia, Africa and
Latin America at UNESCO's landmark regional conferences held in the early 1960's was to
achieve UPE within 20 years.

Strategies for the attainment of UPE

The East African countries have used the following strategies to attain UPE:

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  Ensuring that all children, including girls, and those in difficult circumstances or form
marginalized and vulnerable groups, have access to free and compulsory primary
education, and that they complete this cycle.
 Providing the necessary minimum facilities and resources to ensure provision of quality
education.
 Ensuring quality management capacities amongst education managers and other
personnel involved in education at all levels in order to enhance service delivery.
 Making basic education available to learners, and relevant to the learner’s needs.
 Making education equitable in order to eliminate disparities and inequalities.
 Improving the quality of all aspects of education and training so that recognized and
measurable learning outcomes are achieved, especially in literacy, numeracy and
essential life skills.
 Promoting and popularizing open and distance education at all levels of education and
training, as well as continuing education.
 Increasing the proportion of women at all levels of administration and management to
serve as an incentive to boost the education of the girl child.

Challenges leading to the attainment of UPE

The following are challenges limiting the attainment of UPE:

 High poverty levels which justify the need for child labour and limit the extent of
participation of children in education.
 Irrelevant curricula which result in a mismatch between skills provided by education and
those required by the labour market.
 High wastage rates due to overemphasis on examinations, overloaded curricula, early
marriages and other negative cultural beliefs and practices.
 HIV and AIDS which continues to limit access to education for large numbers of
learners.
 Child abuse in the society which mainly affects the girl child.

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  Inadequacies and inequalities in the education system which contributes to the
breakdown of learning, especially in areas with predominantly low levels of basic service
provision, high unemployment levels and sustained poverty.
 Negative attitudes towards differences manifested by some individuals which result in
discrimination and prejudice by members of society.
 Failure by the curriculum to meet the needs of a wide range of learners, thus causing
constant repetition, non-enrollment and school dropouts.
 Inadequate opportunities in post-primary and post-secondary institutions.
 Lack of support services for learners outside mainstream schooling, for example, those
with special needs.
 Inaccurate data collected from within and outside institutions of learning which makes
planning difficult.
 Inaccessibility of learning centers to learners in some areas.
 Run-down and poorly maintained buildings which are unsafe, harsh and extreme.
 Poor mastery of language which makes concepts difficult to understand, thus placing
learners at a disadvantage.
 Restrictive centralized controls which inhibit change and initiative.
 Low quality of instruction and uncoordinated service delivery.
 Lack of adequate and relevant equipment, materials and facilities for teaching and
learning.

Education for All

One of the greatest challenges facing the world today is the growing number of individuals who
are excluded from meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of
their communities. Following the 1948 Declaration of Human Rights, governments all over the
world, particularly in the emerging world, are striving to make education available to a greater
number of their citizens. The goal of Education for All (EFA) was set at the Jomtien World
Conference on Education for All in 1990 where it was acknowledged that most educational
strategies and programmes had largely been insufficient or inappropriate in regard to the needs of
the children and youth who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. This situation had

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been caused by poverty, ethnicity, religion, disability and gender. The six key goals identified for
EFA at the Jomtien Conference were:

 The expansion of early childhood care and development, especially for the poor.
 Universal access to and completion of primary education by the year 2000.
 Improved learning achievement based on the attainment of defined levels of performance.
 A reduction of adult illiteracy rates to one half of the 1990 levels by 2000, with an
emphasis on female literacy.
 Expansion of basic education and training for adults and youths.
 Improved dissemination of knowledge, skills and values required by the youth.

Strategies for the attainment of EFA

Governments are instituting reforms to address challenges related to access, equity, quality and
relevance as a way of attaining EFA. For many countries, Kenya included, the attainment of UPE
is key to their attempts to attain EFA. The government of Kenya has taken the following
additional steps towards EFA:

 Investment in and expansion of quality Early Childhood Education (ECE) by

encouraging private entrepreneurs to invest in it.
 Provision of physical facilities and learning materials to schools managed by District
Centers for Early Childhood Education (DICECE) by the government.
 Allocating resources, such as textbooks and other instructional resources and physical
facilities, to the primary education sector through the UPE programme with the help of
development partners.
 Investing in secondary education by partnering with private investors, NGOs,
communities, donors and other stakeholders in the expansion of existing secondary
schools and the building of new ones.
 Providing additional support to low cost boarding primary and secondary schools in the
arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS).
 Promoting the development and expansion of secondary day schools as a means of
increasing access to and reducing the cost of secondary schooling.

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 Recognizing the non-formal schools that comply with the MOE’s requirements and
providing them with financial and material support.
 Increasing the scope of the school feeding programme to include, not only schools in the
ASAL’s, but also those in the slum areas.
 Introduction of alternative modes of provision of education such as multi-shift, multi-
grade and mobile schools to deal with issues of access to education.
 Providing targeted instructional materials to disadvantaged public secondary schools,
while encouraging parents to carter for infrastructure and operational costs.
 Providing bursaries to poor and needy secondary school learners.
 Regularly reviewing and rationalizing fees and other levies in secondary schools in order
to reduce the financial burden on the government, parents and community.
 Institutionalizing and regularizing in-service training of teachers in order to enhance the
quality of education.
 Institutionalizing guidance and counseling in all primary and secondary schools, and
encouraging research in education.
 Ensuring re-entry into learning institutions for girls who drop out of school due to
pregnancy and early marriages.
 Enforcing legislation against the violation of children’s rights.
 Implementing programmes that enhance inclusive education in all institutions of learning.
 Strengthening institutions that support SNE such as Kenya Institute of Special Education
(KISE) and emphasizing SNE in the Primary Teacher Education (PTE) curriculum.
 Restructuring school and college curricula to include integration of contemporary issues
affecting education such as HIV and AIDS, Information and Communication Technology
(ICT), and environmental and gender issues.
 Developing and standardizing diagnostic assessment tools to facilitate proper
identification and assessment of learners with special needs.
 Popularizing open and distance learning programmes, and targeting educational
personnel and teachers as a way of improving their capacity to offer quality education.

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  Revitalizing and rehabilitating facilities in youth polytechnics to cater for primary school
leavers and restructuring their curriculum in order to provide an alternative path for
leavers of these institutions to access higher education.
 Currying out frequent curriculum reviews to ensure compliance with society and labour
market demands.
 Developing a non-formal curriculum that targets adult education learners and establishing
community learning resource centres and libraries.

Environmental education

Environmental education refers to the natural socio-physical and biological systems within
which all living things interact.

It is the learning process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop the
skills and attitudes necessary for the understanding and appreciation of the interrelatedness
between human beings, their culture and their biophysical surrounding.

The need for a global approach to environmental issues is based on the fact that all countries
share experience on matters related to pollution, population and resource depletion.

The goals of environmental education

As identified by UNESCO in 1977, environmental education seeks to:

 Foster a clear awareness of and concern about economic, political and ecological
interdependence in urban and rural areas. This goal seeks to awaken consciousness to the
environment.
 Provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
commitment and skills needed to conserve the environment.
 Create new patterns of behavior in individuals, groups and societies towards the
environment.

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  Control and manage the interaction of human beings with the total environment, both
natural and man-made, through the formal and non-formal education process.

The 1972 UN Conference in Stockholm called for the establishment of an international

programme on environmental education in and out of school to encompass all levels of
education.

The 1975 UN workshop in Belgrade spelt out the aims of environmental education.

Intergovernmental conferences have also been held to raise the levels of awareness of individuals
and communities on environmental issues. For example, UNESCO and United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP) have recommended the formation of international
environmental education programmes as one approach towards achievement of the goals. An
interdisciplinary approach has been planned with emphasis on both theoretical and practical
involvement. The practical aspects require that the study be based on solving problems within
the surrounding.

Current trends in the teaching of environmental education include:

 Teaching environmental education as a special subject in schools all over the world.
 Schools employing a broad interdisciplinary approach involving Geology, Economics,
Biology, Chemistry and Geography in schools.
 Teachers being encouraged to use the environment when teaching their subjects.
 Adapting environmental education to the local situation.
 Sensitizing the general public on environmental issues.

When selecting the approach to use in teaching environmental education, teachers should
consider the legal, political, economical, ecological, ecological and cultural factors of the whole
community.

The Kenya case

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Kenya faces environmental problems related to its immense resource in wildlife and its large
semi-desert area. The efforts that have been made to protect the environment include:

 In 1974, the National Environment Secretariat was formed under the then Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources and charged with the responsibility of responding to
the challenges of the environment and giving technical advice to the government on
environmental matters.
 Kenya’s public universities and diplomaTTC’s offer environmental education. The
primary TTC’s, primary schools and secondary schools have integrated environmental
education into their various subject syllabuses. Environmental education in Kenya
mainly emphasizes issues related to family planning and population, soil erosion,
conservation measures and the planting of trees.
 National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) has an Environmental Education
and Awareness Department. The functions of this department include;
-Promoting environmental activities through activities such as tree planting.
-promoting public participation in environmental conservation and management
activities.
-coordinating the implementation of national rehabilitation programmes by establishing
collaboration and operational structures between NEMA and various stakeholders such as
schools.
 Several NGOs, clubs and societies in and outside schools are involved in environmental
conservation procedures. Examples include the Green Belt Movement, the Wildlife and
4-K clubs.
 National tree planting exercises have been carried out annually.
 Communities have been sensitized on environmental conservation and have, as a result
participated actively in water and soil conservation.
 The private sector has taken the initiative to conserve the environment as part of their
corporate social responsibility.

In recognition of the strides made in environmental conservation, Kenya is home to UNEP and
the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, commonly known as UN-Habitat.

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 l

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