Ataeifar et al.

, Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594

https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION |

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Iranian female students’ perceptions of the
impact of mobile-assisted instruction on their
Received: 06 May 2019
English speaking skill
Accepted: 28 August 2019 Farideh Ataeifar1, Firooz Sadighi1*, Mohammad Sadegh Bagheri1 and Fatemeh Behjat2
First Published: 10 September 2019

*Corresponding author: Firooz Abstract: The study aimed at investigating the impacts of mobile-assisted
Sadighi, Professor, Ph. D in Linguistics. instruction on improving Iranian female EFL learners’ speaking skill and exploring
English Language Department, Shiraz
Branch, Islamic Azad University, their perceptions of the experience. Random sampling was applied to select 90
Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: [email protected] female students at the Zand Higher Education Institute in Shiraz, Iran. Their ages
ranged from 18 to 24. They were randomly assigned to one control and two
Reviewing editor:
Shuyan Wang, Instrcution, The experimental groups. The control group was subjected to traditional instruction and
University of Southern Mississippi,
USA
the experimental ones were subjected to mobile-assisted instruction on their
course-related contents through Voice Thread and Twitter as their out-of-class
Additional information is available at
the end of the article activities for three months. The needed data were collected using speaking papers
of the Preliminary English Test and an interview. A paired samples t-test and one-
way ANOVA were used to compare the performances of the participants in the
speaking pre- and post-tests. Findings revealed mobile-assisted instruction played
a prominent role in improving learners’ speaking skill. The interview results showed
the majority of the participants (71.25%) had positive attitudes toward mobile
learning. This study provided experimental evidence that both Voice Thread and

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Farideh Ataeifar is an English instructor and Ph. What goes on inside and outside of the classroom
D candidate in TEFL in Shiraz, Iran. She has is very important to successful foreign language
taught English at different institutes and uni- learning. In EFL contexts, since learners have hard
versities. Her research interests include online access to native speakers of English and authentic
language learning, mobile learning, and the use materials, they, therefore, encounter many pro-
of technology in English for academic purposes blems in practicing English speaking skill. An
instruction. effective educational environment can create the
Firooz Sadighi received his Ph. D degree from atmosphere in which both language students and
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, educators enjoy language learning procedure.
U.S.A. in 1982. His research areas cover syntax, Thus, the current study aimed to investigate the
semantics, second language acquisition, psy- integration of technology through the use of
cholinguistics, and reading skills and strategies. mobile applications into EFL learning/teaching
Mohamad Sadegh Bagheri holds a Ph. D in environment to provide more affordances for
TEFL from Shiraz University. His research areas authentic and meaningful use of English than are
cover research, testing, online learning, and available in traditional classrooms. Based on the
mobile learning. results, the mobile-assisted environment provided
Fatemeh Behjat received her Ph. D degree the opportunity for the students to practice
from the Islamic Azad University, Shiraz. She is English speaking in a place where lessons were
a faculty member of the Islamic Azad University available in both speech and text, and they had
of Abadeh. Her research interests include access to a full variety of available high-quality
blended language learning, online language websites helping them with their speaking skill
learning, and mobile learning. very efficiently.

© 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

Page 1 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

Twitter could be used as educational tools to help the students of English as

a foreign language to improve their speaking skill.

Subjects: Educational Research; Education Studies; Information Technology

Keywords: Mobile-assisted instruction; perception; speaking skill; twitter; voice thread

1. Introduction
Over the past two decades, mobile devices have moderately been introduced into educational
contexts. As reviewed by Sung, Chang, and Liu (2016), the usage of handhelds in educational
contexts was more effective compared to laptops because of the distinctive features of mobile
devices, such as instant access to information, individualized interfaces, and immediate commu-
nication and feedback. According to Yuniarti (2014), the technology helped English foreign lan-
guage (EFL) teachers and learners by making resources reusable and available instantly and
cutting down feedback time.

Mobile devices also increase the impacts of individual pedagogies like inquiry learning and self-
reliant learning (Yuniariti, 2014). Furthermore, these devices provide opportunities for learners to
use language meaningfully and authentically without being limited to place and time (Hsu, Hwang,
& Chang, 2013). These affordances have persuaded a number of EFL teachers and students to
appraise mobile devices as effective tools and integrate mobile learning into their learning strat-
egy. English institutes have also shown growing interest in the implementation of mobile learning
in their curricula.

In spite of these affordances, some scholars have criticized the implication of mobile phones in
educational environments. For example, Dashtestani (2016) stated most EFL students do not use
their mobile phones for academic purposes, so their teachers do not allow them to use the devices
in the class. Ally (2013) argued many people had negative attitudes toward the use of mobile
phones in EFL learning contexts because they thought the technology caused a distraction.

1.1. Statement of the problem

Some teachers, the researcher among them, believe what goes on inside and outside of the
classroom is very important to successful foreign language learning. As Richards (2014) argued,
“while language teaching has always been seen as a preparation for out-of-class uses of language,
much of the focus in language teaching in the past has typically been on classroom-based
language learning” (p. 1). Yet, the available affordances consisting of a restricted range of literacy
and discourse practices are hence limited in the classroom-based language learning. As a result,
EFL learners encounter many problems in practicing English speaking skill.

In EFL contexts like Iran, language learners have hard access to native speakers of English and
authentic materials, and many English institutes are not equipped with language laboratories
either. Another challenge is the short amount of time given to EFL students to practice speaking
in large class sizes (Suzanzan & Bagheri, 2017). Due to these challenges, there is a gap between
students’ current speaking capabilities and the expected ones, which leads to both EFL teachers
and students’ dissatisfaction with their language teaching/learning processes.

To overcome these challenges and minimize language learning barriers, Kompan, Edirisingha,
Canaleta, Alsina, and Monguet (2019) insisted that teachers and learners seek novel ways to
use technological tools to improve language learning environments and ultimately enhance
both the quality of teachers’ instruction and active role of students in language learning
processes. How to integrate technology into language teaching/learning is still an unresolved
problem (Kolomieets & Guryeyeva, 2018). The next problem, regarding a large number of these
tech tools which can be applied to provide more affordances for authentic and meaningful use

Page 2 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

of English, if used effectively, is which of these tools can assist learners to overcome the
difficulties of learning a foreign language. Since if these problems are not scrutinized thor-
oughly, teachers may wrongly recommend solutions which are not matched students’ learning
problems, the new utilization of these tools requires further investigation (Ravenscroft,
Warburton, Hatzipangos, & Conole, 2012).

So far, these issues have been little scrutinized within the mobile-assisted instruction context,
particularly in Iran. Thus, this research was designed to introduce mobile-assisted language
learning through the use of two mobile applications (Voice Thread and Twitter) as a transitional
step for practicing English speaking in Iran–moving away from classroom-based language learn-
ing/teaching and toward mobile-assisted language learning/teaching.

In addition, since learners’ perceptions of their learning experience affect their performances,
the investigation of their perceptions is worthwhile. Hence, this paper was also designed to explore
the participants’ perceptions of mobile-assisted language learning experience.

1.2. Significance of the study

The results of the present study may encourage EFL teachers to try using mobile applications,
which are not originally considered as educational tools (Millard, 2010), as some additional
resources inside and outside of the classroom. According to Dugartsyrenova and Sardegna
(2017), mobile applications can assist language learners to improve their speaking skill, develop
the process of reflection, and enhance their creativity and self-evaluation by providing them with
extra time and resources to plan their learning procedures independently.

In Iran, many schools do not have language laboratories; therefore, the integration of mobile
learning into EFL teaching/learning could also provide additional resources for the school systems
to help EFL learners to practice this vital English skill (i.e., speaking skill) by interacting with people,
especially with native English speakers. Moreover, the investigation of students’ perceptions
provides better insights for EFL teachers and curriculum developers regarding the ways to promote
students’ oral proficiency.

2. Literature review

2.1. Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)

According to Young (2012), questions posed by students supply teachers’ immediate feedback and
shape how the class session materials are offered in a face-to-face instruction. Some students find
face-to-face classes specifically intriguing because they can talk to their teacher and get instant
responses to their questions or concerns. The major disadvantage of face-to-face teaching is that it
is bound to a specific time and space (Young, 2012). This limitation might result in students’ losing the
opportunity of interacting with both teachers and peers once they leave the class. This issue cannot be
simply ignored at the age of communications technology when mobile devices are added each day to
enhance collaborative learning (Jaldemark, Hrastinski, Olofsson, & Oberg, 2018).

Pachler, Ranieri, Manca, and Cook (2012) explored educational perspectives on the use of mobile
devices and concluded that these devices can help both teachers and students to overcome the
limitations of face-to-face learning by increasing access to learning materials.

Sun et al. (2017) integrated a mobile social networking site into EFL classes in China to
investigate the effects of MALL on learners’ speaking skill. They found that speaking skill was
improved in both experimental and control groups from pre-test to post-test; however, the gains
by the experimental group using mobile devices were significantly larger than those of the control
group because MALL eliminated geographic boundaries and provided collaborative learning envir-
onments in which students had access to a wide variety of learning resources. Additionally, MALL

Page 3 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

assisted students to improve their speaking by increasing flexibility and giving freedom feelings to
them.

Rosell-Aguilar (2018) conducted a large-scale survey to investigate the attitudes of 4095 learners
toward MALL. The participants’ responses to an online questionnaire with 30 items indicated that they
found mobile devices as reliable tools which assisted them to enhance their language knowledge.

2.2. EFL students’ struggles in MALL

Although existing research demonstrates the advantages of MALL, Zhang, Song, and Bruston
(2011) concluded that using mobile phones caused distractions and forgetting. They investigated
the effects of MALL on students’ vocabulary learning. 78 Chinese students from two classes were
selected as the participants of the study and assigned to two control and experimental groups. The
control group was subjected to MALL and the experimental group was subjected to paper-based
instruction. The MALL group worked on lists of vocabulary through mobile phone SMS service while
the control group studied the same lists via paper materials. Results demonstrated that there was
no significant difference between two groups.

Similarly, Hayati, Jalilfar, and Mashhadi (2013) indicated that using mobile devices may lead
teachers to take a passive role in the classroom, and teacher-based interaction is better and more
effective than MALL. Lai and Zheng (2018) interviewed 18 university students in Hong Kong to find
out their perceptions of using mobile phones to learn English. Results indicated that the use of
mobile phones mostly facilitated learning, though it did not improve the participants’ authenticity
and social interactions.

Lim and Lee (2015) investigated the effects of two modes of task performance (face-to-face and
mobile-assisted) on sixteen Korean EFL students’ interactions. The participants preferred face-to-
face mode because it provided them more meaningful negotiations. The researchers found signs
of a struggle among the learners using mobile devices to improve their speaking skill. They pointed
out the learners depended on nonverbal information existing in the sounds and images posted to
them so heavily that they were not able to develop their verbal skill. The learners have been further
aggravated due to inconvenience in practicing English on the small screens of their mobile phones.

Along the same vein, Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) addressed a serious concern- “psycho-social
challenges”- among EFL students in MALL settings. Arguing that EFL students encountering
“psycho-social challenges” believe that mobile phones have been developed for the purpose of
entertaining and socializing rather than learning a foreign language, the researchers concluded
positive features of mobile phones do not necessarily guarantee successful EFL learning.

2.3. Voice thread (VT)

Voice Thread (VT) is “an interactive, multimedia presentation technology that allows users to

hold conversations around images, documents, videos, and audio” (Dunn, 2012, p. 79). Dunn
(2012) added VT is a very flexible Web 2.0 technology which can accommodate a wide variety of
practicing activities and learners’ needs. He conducted a quasi-experimental study to investigate
the impacts of using VT on students’ oral skill. The control group used language laboratory and the
experimental one used VT for practicing speaking. The results of MANOVA showed the VT group
outperformed the control one in their oral proficiency. The participants of the VT group reported
that VT gave them the opportunity to repeatedly record their voices and later listen to their
recordings. As a result, they were able to practice speaking as many times as they wished and
ultimately to improve their speaking skill.

In the same vein, Pontese and Shimamuzi (2014) selected VT to improve students’ speaking skill.
The participants recorded and posted their voices, and “they would revisit their work either
concerning grammar (accuracy), vocabulary (lexical appropriacy), or pronunciation (prosodic

Page 4 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

feature), leading to their linguistic development” (Pontese & Shimamuzi, 2014, p. 181). The
technology allowed the students to post comments in English around images, sound and video
clips, and questions posted by the teacher. The comments they received from their teacher
improved their confidence and made them feel validated.

In an investigation into the effects of VT on students’ English speaking skill, Dugartsyrenova and
Sardegna (2017) integrated VT activities into face-to-face instruction. The participants stated that
VT helped them to develop their speaking skill by providing them with extra time and resources to
plan their learning procedures independently. They reported the most helpful features of VT were
its record and playback which assisted them to improve their language skills, develop the process
of reflection, and enhance their creativity and self-evaluation. However, they did not consider the
application as a proper substitute for face-to-face communication, as their use of VT was sig-
nificantly affected by their preferences for English learning tasks.

Delmas (2017) explored the role of VT in creating an online community for 39 U.S. adult learners.
The participants reported they felt more connected to their peers because VT assisted them to record
their voices and add the recordings to the online tasks. While they were listening to their teacher’s
voice recordings through VT, this application made the teacher seem real, so students felt more
connected to their teacher. Since VT had privacy controls, comment moderation, and a system of
identities which allowed all the students in the class to work within one account, it was of great help
for getting students use and develop their speaking skill in a fun and creative way (Richards, 2014).
They valued the application as a helpful and enjoyable tool in language learning processes.

Unlike, Ebadi and Asakereh (2018) conducted a case study in Iran and concluded that VT was
not helpful. They divided the students into two experimental and control groups. The control group
conducted face-to-face speaking activities while the experimental group performed both face-to-
face and online activities through VT. Results indicated that the experimental group could not
outperform the control one in their speaking skill even though the experimental group participants’
responses to a semi-structured interview revealed they appreciated the experience.

2.4. Twitter
Since 2009, Twitter has been introduced as a language teaching/learning tool. Antenos-Conforti
(2009) pointed out that Twitter can create a sense of community in which learners participate in
language learning procedure willingly.

Junco, Heiberger, and Loken (2011) investigated the effects of Twitter on college students’ engage-
ment and grades. The ANOVA results showed that the experimental group’s engagement was
significantly increased, and they had higher semester grade point averages after using the application.

Along the same line, Lomicka and Lord (2011) proposed that learners using Twitter learn and
share information in a collaborative learning environment. Their findings revealed that participants
greatly appreciated communicating and sharing information in the active community.

Hattem (2014) conducted a case study and used Twitter to improve the grammatical compe-
tence of the participants. Retweet feature of Twitter provided the teacher with the opportunity to
give the students corrective feedback in an advanced grammar class. Discourse analysis of the
students’ tweets revealed they could perceive mistakes, positive feedback, and corrections. Later,
they accurately produced and monitored complex grammar in their tweets. The researcher
detected the existence of negotiation of meaning among the participants practicing grammar by
using Twitter. Some other researchers also argued Twitter developed interactions among learners
(Castrillo de Larreta-Azelaic, 2015; Kim, Park, & Baek, 2011).

Fouz-Gonzales and Mompean (2016) used pre- and post-tests interviews to investigate the
effects of Twitter on students’ pronunciation. The participants were selected from a language

Page 5 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

school in Spain. During the treatment, the researchers sent the students a number of tweets
including the pronunciations of problematic words and asked them to listen to audio and video
files. Results revealed that the treatment had positive effects on students’ pronunciation since
they paid more attention to stressed syllables which were always problematic for them.
Interestingly, it was found that participants were actively engaged during the experience.

As the existing research demonstrates, mobile devices have been introduced as ideal learning
tools for EFL learners because of their three distinctive features: Mobility, accessibility, and con-
nectivity. Research has demonstrated MALL, when used appropriately, creates the collaborative
environment in which language learners have multimedia interaction opportunities to develop
their pronunciation, speaking and communication skills. The integration of MALL in EFL classrooms
helps both learners and instructors to overcome the limitations of traditional language instruction
by increasing access to various useful learning materials as well as interacting with their teachers
and classmates using English.

2.5. Purpose of the study

In an EFL context like Iran, teachers who want to provide efficient lessons encounter various chal-
lenges, such as insufficient teaching materials and large class sizes (Suzanzan & Bagheri, 2017). To
overcome the challenges, they can take advantage of new technologies such as mobile applications to
enhance both the quality of their instruction and the active role of their students in EFL learning
processes. The problem is how students can make use of these applications to enhance their language
skills, particularly their verbal skill. Moreover, regarding a large number of mobile applications that can
be used in language teaching and learning, the next question of the present research is which of the
applications can assist learners to overcome the difficulties of learning a foreign language. Hence, this
study scrutinizes how EFL teachers can motivate their students to use their mobile devices to improve
their communicative use of English.

As Pufahl and Rhodes (2011) proposed, with regard to the application of synchronous and
asynchronous technologies in order to improve students’ productive skills (i.e., speaking and
writing), more research is required. Because most of the Web 2.0 technologies were originally
designed to be employed for sharing information and processing data, they were not considered as
educational tools (Millard, 2010). In the literature, therefore, few studies have been carried out on
how they can be used in teaching/learning environments. As a result, this study fills a clear gap.

Based on the pieces of the evidence mentioned above, the questions which are raised in this
study are as follows:

(1) Is there any significant difference between the speaking skill of Iranian female EFL students
exposed to mobile-assisted instruction and the speaking skill of those exposed to traditional
instruction?
(2) Which of the mobile applications, VT or Twitter is more efficient to improve Iranian female
EFL learners’ speaking skill?
(3) What are the opinions of Iranian female EFL learners about MALL, in general, and the use of
mobile applications, in particular, for improving their speaking skills?

3. Methodology

3.1. Design
This mixed-methods study was designed by incorporating both quantitative and qualitative modes,
which indicates that a part of the data is collected quantitatively, and a qualitative method is
followed to gather additional data (Johnson & Christensen, 2004). Mixed-methods research assists
readers to gain a broader, deeper understanding of the study, increase confidence in the results,
enhance completeness and accuracy, and finally contribute to overall validity (McKim, 2017). The

Page 6 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

quantitative part had a true experimental design; that is, it enjoyed all the characteristics of a true
experimental research, such as randomization, pre- and post-tests, control and experimental
groups, and treatment. The qualitative part was done through an interview at the end of the
instruction. In mixed-methods studies, the qualitative part is of secondary importance as it is often
applied to supply additional clarification (Dornyei, 2007).

3.2. Participants and setting

A total of 110 EFL sophomore students majoring in English translation at the Zand Higher
Education Institute in Shiraz, Iran, participated in the study. All the participants were female
because only female students were conveniently available to participate in the study, which
can be considered as one of the limitations of the study. They were selected based on
random sampling. This sampling was employed because they were supposed to be at the
same level. They were aged from 18 to 24 (M = 20.58; SD = 2.23) and were native Persian
speakers with minimum opportunity to communicate with English native speakers. They had
been studying English for approximately six years at school. In order to observe the ethical
issues, the purpose of the research was explained to them, so they participated in the study
voluntarily. To measure their level of proficiency, an internet-based test (iBT)—which is
a current test form of TOEFL—was given to the group. The researchers selected 90 partici-
pants whose scores were one standard deviation (SD) less than or greater the mean on the
normal distribution curve as the target sample of the study. The majority of the participants
held high school diploma degrees. Only five (5.55%) held bachelor’s degrees in different fields
of study, such as psychology, accounting, and management. Eight students (8.88%) enrolled
in other language institutes before coming to the Zand Higher Education Institute. Most of
the students (93%) were locals but some (7%) were from other cities and were living in the
dormitory.

The speaking test of the Preliminary English Test (PET) provided by Cambridge English Language
Assessment was given to them (M= 14.15; SD= 0.83), and the results of one-way ANOVA showed
that they were homogeneous in their speaking ability before the treatment. Then, they were
randomly assigned to one control and two experimental groups. These three groups included
the Control group (n=30), VT group (n=30), and Twitter group (n=30).

The researcher works as a teacher at the Zand Higher Education Institute. Her role was
presented by teaching the participants of both control and experimental groups. She also inter-
viewed the participants in the experimental groups. All the participants were her students in the
2018-2019 fall academic year.

3.3. Instruments
To collect quantitative and qualitative data and to provide proper answers to the previously
mentioned research questions, two different instruments were used in this study. The speak-
ing tests of two parallel versions of the Preliminary English Test (PET) provided by Cambridge
English Language Assessment were used as the pre- and post-tests to differentiate the
participants’ performances before and after the treatment. Each pre-test and post-test,
which took about 10–12 minutes for each student, showed how good the subject’s spoken
English was in making conversation. There were three parts to the tests: General introduc-
tions, discussion about a photograph, and discussion about a topic. Using PET as the pre- and
post-tests in the current study had the following advantages: First, there are parallel forms of
the test which are readily available. Second, the assessment criteria and scale are accessible
and well-defined; therefore, the chance of examiner’s being biased or subjective is the least.
Finally, Cambridge examinations are all designed around validity, reliability, impact, and
practicality. For this study, to ensure inter-reliability of the pre-test, a second trained and
experienced assessor listened to the recorded voices once more and scored them according
to the PET speaking scale as the first rater (i.e., the researcher) did. Next, the Pearson

Page 7 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

correlation was obtained. The high index of inter-rater reliability (r = 0.98) indicated that the
two raters gave consistent estimates of the participants’ speaking scores.

The second instrument was a semi-structured interview that was researcher-made. Based on
the literature review and what the researcher expected to ask (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002), she
formulated the interview questions in advance. The interview was used to elicit information
about the students’ attitudes toward mobile learning and the use of mobile applications for
improving their speaking skill. To ensure the relevance of the questions to the construct being
studied, three professors of the field were asked to validate the questions. They were asked to
determine whether they were relevant regarding the research questions. They were also asked to
write some comments about them. The experts’ comments helped the researcher to reconstruct,
eliminate and reword some questions. It included 5 questions allowing the interviewees to show
their opinions freely. Necessary explanations were provided in order to remove the ambiguity
involved. The interview was conducted through a face-to-face conversation in English after the
treatment.

3.4. Data collection procedures

First, the participants of the study were randomly sampled from available sophomore female
students majoring in English translation at the Zand Higher Education Institute in Shiraz, Iran.
The speaking test of the PET was conducted as the pre-test to find out if all the participants
were homogeneous before the treatment and to compare their performances before and after
the treatment. For the pre-test, which took about 10–12 minutes, the participants in both
control and experimental groups were examined one by one in the class by their teacher who
was the researcher. The test had three parts. For the first part, they were first asked to
introduce themselves and talk about their family, hobbies, likes, and dislikes. For the second
part, they were given two pictures of Paris and Toronto, and were asked to look at the pictures
for 5 minutes and describe them. For the last part, they were asked to discuss which city or
country they would prefer to visit. All their audio responses were recorded by the teacher. After
the pre-test, the students were randomly divided into one control and two experimental groups.
Before the treatment, the teacher introduced the experimental groups the applications and the
ways they could be used thoroughly. In class, they watched YouTube videos such as https://
youtu.be/ypyXRqedG6s and https://youtu.be/5jWNpLvdocU and learned how to download and
make their own accounts on VT or Twitter. Afterward, the teacher started the treatment for
three months. She adopted traditional instruction to teach all the participants in the control and
experimental groups their routine lessons in the classroom for 1 hour per week. However, they
followed different activities out of class. The students in the control group did the activities
presented in ACT Series books, while the participants in the experimental groups were subjected
to VT or Twitter to do their out-of-class activities. For the control group, the teacher asked the
students to do the activities presented in four sections in each unit: Communication Spotlight,
Conversation Close-Up, Speaking Target, and Real-Life Snapshot. These speaking activities include
several conversations which incorporate vocabulary, structures, and useful expressions from
each unit in a natural dialog about the theme of the unit. The main objective of doing these
speaking activities is to help the students to speak as naturally as possible. For the first
experimental group, the teacher selected the topics from ACT Series book by the students’
course content for that week, uploaded some pictures and sound clips related to the topics, and
sent them to the students’ accounts on VT. For the second experimental group, she uploaded
pictures and videos related to the topics of their weekly course content and sent them to the
students’ accounts on Twitter. Next, she asked them to download, watch, and listen to her
recommended pictures, audio, and video posts. Then, she asked them to record and post their
English comments about her posts via the application. The teacher posted her comments on
their production via the application. Then, they listened to their teacher’s comments on the
application. Later, they recorded different versions based on the teacher’s comments on the
application and posted to the teacher. In class, all the participants in both control and experi-
mental groups were asked to give an oral presentation of what they did out of class every

Page 8 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

session. The teacher gave all the participants the required feedback. She also told them what
they were doing more differently than before. The strategies included pinpointing, caring,
providing an example answer, and rephrasing. Figure 1 illustrates the learning cycle.

Having done the treatment in about three months, the teacher gave them the post-test, i.e., the
parallel version of the PET, to investigate the impact of the treatment on the experimental and
control groups. It was taken with the same procedures and under the same condition as the pre-
test. Similarly, the post-test had three parts: General introductions, discussion about a photograph,
and discussion about a topic. For the post-test, the teacher selected holiday as the topic for
discussion and asked the participants to describe two pictures related to the topic and talk
about their last holiday. All the responses were recorded by the teacher.

For the scoring procedure for both tests, the teacher herself listened to the recorded responses and
scored them by applying performance descriptors from the Analytical Speaking Test Assessment scale
of the PET test provided by Cambridge English Language Assessment. The grading rubrics rated the
participants from 1 (minimal proficiency) to 5 (superior proficiency) for the following criteria: 1)
grammar and vocabulary, 2) discourse management, 3) pronunciation, and 4) interactive commu-
nication. For instance, if a participant was scored 1 on the descriptor of grammar and vocabulary, the
score could show that the participant had insufficient mastery of simple grammatical forms and used
limited vocabulary to discuss the assigned topic. The scale also offered a conversation chart to assist
the teacher to convert the participant’s performance on the pre- and post-tests into a numerical score.
The scores could show whether the participant had the ability to achieve the standards of oral
proficiency. The participants’ scores could range from 4 to 20.

As the final step, the teacher interviewed the students in the experimental groups to identify
their perceptions of the mobile applications that they used during the treatment. The interview
was conducted through a face-to-face conversation in English in the classroom after the treat-
ment. The interview took about 5–10 minutes and the students were interviewed one by one. They
were asked to answer the following questions:

(1) Did you find mobile applications useful and tend to employ them when learning English?
(2) Did you recognize the positive effects of mobile applications on your studies?

Figure 1. Students’ learning

cycle (Rogers, 2002, p. 112).
learners
record
audio texts

teacher feedback
sets and
speaking reactions
task and from
new cycle
begins teacher

further
feedback learners
and record
reactions audio texts
from again
teacher

Page 9 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

(3) Will you instead have mobile-assisted instruction?

(4) Are you experienced and reassured enough to employ mobile applications to learn English
by yourself in the future?
(5) Will you use mobile applications like VT and Twitter to enhance your verbal skill?

The participants’ answers were recorded, transcribed, and coded. By the participants’ comments,
their positive, negative, and uncertain answers were coded by converting them into Agree,
Disagree, and Undecided. The item Agree showed the participants were in favor of using MALL.
Disagree implied they were against MALL. In some cases, the participants had no idea of using
MALL. They answered conservatively or even did not answer at all. In case the researcher could not
decide whether they agreed or disagreed, she coded these answers as Undecided. The researcher
allowed the interviewees to reveal their viewpoints freely.

3.5. Data analysis procedures

In the process of quantitative analysis, to ensure inter-reliability of the pre-test, a second trained
and experienced assessor listened to the recorded voices once more and scored them according to
the PET speaking scale as the first rater (i.e., the researcher) did. Next, the Pearson correlation was
obtained. To see if all the participants in three groups were at the same level in terms of speaking
ability before the treatment, a one-way ANOVA was run. After the treatment, a paired samples
t-test was run to see if there had been any significant difference in speaking performances of all
groups in the pre- and post-tests. Then, the participants’ gain scores were calculated to determine
the degree of improvement in speaking. The statistical procedures involved a one-way ANOVA
followed by a Scheffe test. The one-way ANOVA was employed to determine the possible effect of
both traditional and mobile-assisted instructions on the participants’ gain scores in speaking test.
To see where exactly the area of difference was, the Scheffe was employed. To analyze the data of
the qualitative part, the number of Agree, Disagree, and Undecided responses was counted. The
data of the qualitative part were presented in the form of frequencies and percentages in order to
obtain a better interpretation of the qualitative data, a clear understanding of the phenomenon,
and finally a logical degree of validity in conducting the research (Dornyei, 2007). To make the data
easy for implementation, the data gathered through the pre-and post-tests and the interview were
tabulated. The SPSS software version 22 was used to conduct all the statistical procedures.

4. Results

4.1. Results before the treatment

The speaking test of the PET was conducted and the participants’ recorded voices were scored by the
teacher (Rater 1) according to the PET speaking scale. To ensure inter-reliability of the PET, a second
trained and experienced assessor (Rater 2) listened to the recorded voices once more and scored them
as Rater 1 did. The descriptive statistics of both tests graded by the two raters were presented in Table 1.

Next, the Pearson correlation was obtained. As shown in Table 2, the high index of inter-rater reliability
(r = 0.98) indicates two raters gave consistent estimates of the participants’ speaking scores in the PET.

The results of one-way ANOVA in Table 3 show that the significance level is 0.24 for speaking,
which is higher than 0.05. Therefore, it can be concluded that there was no significant difference
among groups in their speaking skill before the treatment (p > 0.05).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the PET graded by rater 1 and rater 2

Rater N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
1 90 13.00 15.50 14.155 0.833
2 90 13.50 16.00 14.200 0.850

Page 10 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

Table 2. Inter-rater correlation between the first and second raters’ speaking scores in the
pre-test
Rater 1 Rater 2
Pearson Correlation 1 0.986**
Rater 2 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
Pre-test N 90 90
Rater 1 Pearson Correlation 0.986**
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 90 90

Table 3. One-way ANOVA for the homogeneity of participants in the control and experimental
groups in the speaking pre-test
Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Speaking 2.022 2 1.011 1.445 0.241
pretest Between
Groups
Within Groups 60.867 87 0.700
Total 62.889 89

4.2. Results for research question one

To respond to the first research question of the study, the researcher tried to find out if there is any
significant difference between the speaking skill of Iranian female EFL students subjected to
mobile-assisted instruction and the speaking skill of those subjected to traditional instruction. To
compare the participants’ speaking performances in the pre- and post-tests and to investigate the
effect of the treatment on their speaking skill, a paired samples t-test was run with the results
presented in Table 4 (p > 0.05).

As reported in Table 4, the significance level for all groups is 0.000. So, it can be concluded there is
a significant difference in the participants’ speaking performances in both tests for all groups. This result
shows the instruction has been effective for all groups, and they performed better in the post-test.

The scores gained by the participants through speaking tests in all groups were collected and
compared to see if there was any significant difference both between the control and experimental
groups and among the experimental groups. To achieve this goal, a one-way ANOVA was run on
their speaking gain scores (Table 5).

As indicated in Table 5, the significance level for speaking is less than 0.05, suggesting that there
was a significant difference among groups in their obtained speaking scores (p < 0.05).

4.3. Results for research question two

The second research question addresses which of the mobile applications, VT or Twitter, is more
efficient to improve the speaking skill of Iranian female EFL learners. To discover precisely the area
of difference, a Scheffe test was performed (Table 6).

According to Table 6, both experimental groups outperformed the control one, suggesting the
effectiveness of the treatments. The comparison of the control group with experimental groups
showed the VT group had the highest performance, followed by the Twitter group and the control
group.

Page 11 of 19
 Table 4. Paired samples t-test to compare the performances of the participants’ speaking scores in the pre- and post-tests
Paired Differences
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594

95% Confidence
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Interval of the Difference t df. Sig.
Mean Lower Upper (2- tailed)
Pre-voice
−0.666 1.154 0.210 −1.097 −0.235 −3.162 29 0.000
Pair 1
Post-voice
Pre-twitter
−3.566 1.304 0.238 −4.053 −3.079 −14.973 29 0.000
Pair 2
Post-twitter
Pre-control
Pair 3 −1.966 0.964 0.176 −2.326 −1.606 −11.171 29 0.000
Post-control

Page 12 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

Table 5. One-way ANOVA to compare the participants’ speaking gain scores in the control and
experimental groups
Sum of Df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Speaking 146.756 2 72.878 75.661 0.000
posttest
Between Group
Within Group 83.800 87 0.963
Total 229.556 89

Table 6. Scheffe test to compare the differences among speaking scores gained in the groups
Group 1 Group 2 Mean Std. 95% Confidence interval
(I) (J) Difference Error Sig. Lower Upper
(I-J) Bound Bound
Pair 1 Voicethread −3.100* 0.253 0.000 −3.731 −2.468
Twitter −1.266* 0.253 0.000 −1.897 −0.635
Pair 2 Control 3.100* 0.253 0.000 2.468 3.731
Twitter 1.833* 0.253 0.000 1.202 2.464
Pair 3 Control 1.266* 0.253 0.000 0.635 1.897
Voicethread −1.833 0.253 0.000 −2.464 −1.202
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

4.4. Results for research question three

The last research question asked: What are the opinions of Iranian female EFL learners about MALL, in
general, and the use of mobile applications, in particular, for improving their speaking skill? The
interview data regarding students’ perceptions of mobile applications showed the majority of the
students who used mobile applications to learn English had positive attitudes toward MALL. They were
mostly content with the program and appreciated it. About 81.6% of the participants reported they
would use VT and Twitter to practice speaking. Only 2% of them reported they were not experienced
enough to employ the applications to learn EFL in the future (Table 7).

5. Discussion
The present study aimed to find out if mobile-assisted language learning is preferred over tradi-
tional language learning and to compare the impacts of VT and Twitter on the speaking skill of
Iranian EFL female learners. It also explored the participants’ perceptions of mobile applications.

The first research question was whether there would be a significant difference between the
speaking skill of Iranian female EFL students exposed to mobile-assisted instruction and the
speaking skill of those exposed to traditional instruction. Based on the results, there was
a significant difference between the control and experimental groups with regard to their speaking
skill. The results also indicated through incorporating asynchronous Internet communication
technologies into courses, an independent and collaborative learning experience was facilitated.
This experience contributed to the satisfaction and better accomplishments of the students.
Moreover, mobile technology provided the participants with authentic communication activities
and social interactions that, according to Communicative Language Teaching approach, were both
the means and the goal of learning a new language. The results supported several researchers
who studied the effectiveness of integrating online activities with students’ tasks and concluded
connecting with social networking during classes could aid students in mastering the knowledge
and increasing their skills (Jaldemark et al., 2018; Pachler et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2017).

Page 13 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

Table 7. The frequency and percentages of the participants’ answers to the five questions of
the interview
Questions Agree Disagree Undecided
1. Did you find the mobile applications 44 7 9
useful and tend to employ them to 73.3% 11.6% 15%
learn English?
2. Did you find the positive effects of 43 6 11
mobile applications on your studies? 71.6% 10% 18.3%
3. Will you instead have mobile-assisted 48 3 9
instruction? 80% 5% 15%
4. Are you experienced and reassured 47 2 11
enough to employ mobile applications 78.3% 3.3% 10%
to learn English by yourself in the
future?
5. Will you use mobile applications like 49 2 9
VT and Twitter to enhance your 81.6% 3.3% 15%
speaking ability?

However, the findings did not support the results of Zhang, Song, and Bruston’s (2011) study
which demonstrated MALL caused distractions and forgetting and there was no significant differ-
ence between the control group subjected to MALL and the experimental group subjected to
traditional instruction. Also, the results were not in line with the study carried out by Hayati,
Jalilfar, and Mashhadi (2013) who showed MALL was less effective than traditional instruction.

The second research question was which of the mobile applications, VT or Twitter is more
efficient to improve Iranian female EFL learners’ speaking skill. The comparison of speaking gain
scores of the experimental groups revealed the speaking skill of VT participants was improved
more than the speaking skill of the Twitter group participants. VT gave the participants an
opportunity to talk about their speaking topics and interact over what they would record and
forward to the teacher. As a collaborative multimedia slide show, VT helped the students to have
images and videos and navigate slides. It also enabled them to follow their teacher’s comments by
using videos, voice recordings, audio files, and texts. They could share a VT with their teacher and
classmates and could record comments on the slides. VT persuaded the participants to experience
language learning in multisensory contexts in which they practiced activities such as typing texts,
watching videos, recording voice messages, and drawing. Consequently, English learning was more
appealing in this context. Utilizing this mobile application assisted the teacher in creating
a supportive learning context in which the participants of the experimental groups engaged in
the activities encouraging independent learning. Regarding the positive effect of VT application,
the obtained results supported several researchers who explored how VT provided learners with
extra time and resources to plan their learning procedures independently and ultimately to
improve their speaking skill (Delmas, 2017; Dugartsyrenova & Sardegna, 2017; Dunn, 2012;
Pontese & Shimamuzi, 2014; Richards, 2014). However, the results were not in line with the
study conducted by Ebadi and Asakereh (2018) in Iranian context. They concluded VT could not
help the experimental group students to improve their English speaking although they had positive
attitudes toward using the application.

Concerning the positive impacts of Twitter, the findings were in line with the study of Junco et al.
(2011) which showed learners’ engagement was significantly increased and they had higher
semester grade point averages after using the application. Results were also in agreement with
those of Fouz-Gonzales and Mompean’s (2016) study which indicated the students using Twitter
were actively engaged during the experience and outperformed in their pronunciation.
Interestingly, the findings of Hatem’s (2014) study, which showed Twitter prompted negotiations

Page 14 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

for meaning among learners and developed interactions, were in good agreement with the results
of the present study.

As VT focused on having a conversation and sharing concise messages with the teacher and
classmates, it was more efficient than Twitter. Twitter had the limitation of 140 characters on the
length of each note that the students and the teacher posted. Besides, videos posted and shared
on Twitter should be only 2 minutes and 20 seconds or even less.

With regard to the last research question, i.e. the experimental group participants’ perceptions
of their learning experience, the analysis of the students’ answers to the interview questions
confirmed their interests in using mobile applications to improve their language skills. They
reported that they are now aware of the potential of mobile applications in their future language
learning career.

Regarding the tendency to use MALL for learning English, while 73.3% of the participants
preferred to use the technology, 11.6% disagreed with using it. Among all the students, 15%
were uncertain about their tendency to use MALL because they believed using MALL takes much
time, and it sometimes distracted them from their lessons.

The second interview question was whether they found the positive effects of mobile applica-
tions on their studies. Examining their answers to this question showed that 71.6% of the students
had positive attitudes toward using the applications. For example, a student said that practicing
speaking on Twitter helped her to develop her knowledge of vocabulary. Only 6% believed the
positive impact of MALL on their studies was low, which indicated they disagreed with using MALL
for learning English.

Considering the third interview question, the students were asked if they would instead have
mobile-assisted instruction. 80% of the students were willing to have the instruction. They said
that their teacher’s feedback was significant because they got motivated when they saw their
activities were checked by their teacher. Some students (5%), however, disagreed with having
mobile-assisted instruction. They believed practicing on small screens of mobile phones were too
tiring, indicating they were not interested in using their mobile devices for practicing English.

When students were asked whether they would employ mobile applications to study English by
themselves in the future, 78.3% of the participants were positive about their future use of MALL.
Some students said that when the teacher instructed them how to use VT and Twitter to do their
speaking activities in the first session, they were too confused to do what she assigned them. At
the end of the treatment, they said, they felt satisfied with the experience. 3.3% reported that they
would not employ MALL in the future, and 10% were not certain about it. Although they accepted
the fact that the experience assisted them to improve their speaking skill, they doubted if they
would use the applications by themselves in the future.

As for the last interview question concerning the use of VT and Twitter to enhance their speaking
ability, the majority of the students (81.6%) believed MALL was useful. Some referred to particular
English skills. For instance, a student said that practicing on Twitter gave her the opportunity to
communicate with native speakers of English, which helped her to improve her communication
skill. Another student said that she is more active in the classroom now because VT provided the
opportunity to practice speaking as many times as she liked before sharing it with her teacher and
classmates; therefore, she is not afraid of making mistakes anymore.

All in all, the qualitative findings confirmed the majority of the participants in experimental
groups (71.25%) had positive attitudes toward MALL, which was supported by several researchers
(Lai & Zheng, 2018; Lomicka & Lord, 2011; Rosell-Aguilar, 2018). It is worth mentioning that there
were only few students (6.64%) who disagreed with the program because they believed they had

Page 15 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

to spend much time to do something that could quickly be done in a paper-based class. About
14.66% were uncertain about using MALL because they thought MALL works better in developed
countries where the Internet speed is high enough.

6. Conclusion
Since classroom environments affect how well learners receive instruction, the structuring of the
learning environment is of paramount importance for both teachers and students. An effective
teaching and learning environment can create an atmosphere in which both teachers and students
enjoy foreign language learning procedure. In EFL contexts like Iran and other similar contexts,
learners encounter many problems in acquiring speaking skill due to hard access to native speakers
and authentic materials. The findings of the present study revealed the selected mobile applications
(i.e., Twitter and VT) provided the opportunity for the students to practice speaking as many times as
they liked before sharing it with their teachers and classmates, and they received teacher’s immediate
comments individually, which improved their confidence and made them feel validated. In other
words, they practiced English speaking in a place where lessons were available in both speech and
text, and they had access to a full variety of available high-quality websites helping them with their
language skills very efficiently. As “the main goal is to give EFL learners the time and the space they
need to practice speaking effectively and efficiently” (Bahrani, 2011, p. 283), the results provided
empirical evidence on the importance of integrating mobile applications such as VT and Twitter in
English speaking learning, especially in EFL environments in which classroom size is continuously
increased (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011).

In Iran, some teachers do not allow their students to use their mobile phones in the classroom
due to the limitations of the institute curricula and the strict rules of the institute (Dashtestani,
2016). Providing teachers with more information about the concept of mobile-assisted instruction,
the findings bring about the best use of both physical and virtual environments by them in
improving the learning quality of their students. Hence, both EFL instructors and institute autho-
rities can persuade students to use their mobile phones properly by informing them how modern
technology tools are useful in their speaking and how technology enables them to share knowl-
edge with their key-pals all over the world.

In the view of our research results, we recommend that materials developers incorporate some
online speaking materials in speaking courses by introducing educational applications at the end
of each lesson. Similarly, course designers can plan for integrating tech tools such as mobile
applications in conversation classes and accompany some online activities as follow-up activities
out of the classroom for each English lesson in the students’ textbooks. As a result, students will
have sufficient time to practice English speaking. The findings may also help syllabus designers
include some practical suggestions for achieving learners’ autonomy through a series of tasks
designed to offer students choices about their learning.

One of the objectives of this research was to drive practical implications for encouraging more use of
mobile devices for educational purposes. Based on the results of this study, EFL teachers can be
assured of the effectiveness of MALL in improving their students’ language learning in general, and
their speaking skill, in particular. Moreover, in MALL environments, it would be easier for teachers to
provide immediate feedback on their students’ performances. Thus, they may design their course
instruction in a way that students are encouraged to use their mobile phones for better language
learning. This requires that teachers themselves have good knowledge of the technology. As proposed
by Gomez (2016), it is very important that students have technology-wise teachers who can integrate
tech tools facilitating language teaching and learning in their classroom.

In addition, the results of the present research are beneficial to those instructors who intend to
design a MALL environment and also to the researchers who have been investigating the impacts
of MALL on EFL learning.

Page 16 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

7. Limitations and suggestions for further research

Due to a number of limitations, these results and implications must be interpreted and generalized
with more caution. One of the main limitations of this study is the lack of information on the
participants’ cognitive style. Since learners’ cognitive style satisfaction is the key role in learning
(Shahsavar & Tan, 2011), undertaking further research in this area is recommended. Another
limitation is slow Internet connection in the context of the study which “greatly influenced the
motivation for online learning” (Djiwandono, 2019, p. 36). The third limitation is the characteristics
of the sample. Only female students from one university were selected to participate in the study.
It could be more interesting to do the same research and investigate the effect of gender
differences on learners’ achievements and their perceptions of MALL. Although mixed-methods
methodology has been supported in the literature for several reasons, such as deeper meanings,
confirmation of findings, and multiple perspectives (McKim, 2017), it sometimes becomes so
difficult and time-consuming that might discourage many researchers. Thus, some methodological
purists recommended that researchers choose either quantitative or qualitative approach but not
both. Finally, individual interviews were used to collect the data required for the qualitative part of
the present study, and the data have been interpreted using frequencies and percentages, which
can bring in the probable statistical measurement limitations (Dornyei, 2007). If researchers
conduct in depth investigations of students’ responses to MALL program and use observation
and diaries to collect qualitative data, they may provide researchers a better understanding of the
program.

Funding Castrillo de Larreta-Azelain, D. (2015). Learners’ attitude

The authors received no direct funding for this research. toward collaborative writing in e- language learning
classes: A Twitter project for German as a foreign
Author details language. Revista Española De Lingüística Aplicada,
Farideh Ataeifar1 26, 127–138.
E-mail: [email protected] Dashtestani, R. (2016). Moving bravely toward mobile
Firooz Sadighi1 learning: Iranian students’ use of mobile devices for
E-mail: [email protected] learning English as a foreign language. Computer
Mohammad Sadegh Bagheri1 Assisted Language Learning, 29(4), 815–832.
E-mail: [email protected] doi:10.1080/09588221.2015.1069360
Fatemeh Behjat2 Delmas, P. M. (2017). Using voice thread to create com-
E-mail: [email protected] munity in online learning. Tech Trends: Linking
1
English Language Department, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 61(6),
Azad University, Shiraz, Iran. 595–602. doi:10.1007/s11528-017-0195-z
2
English Language Department, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Djiwandono, P. (2019). Scaffolding moves by learners in
Azad University, Abadeh, Iran. online interactions. International Journal of Foreign
Language Teaching and Research, 7(27), 29–39.
Correction Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics.
This article has been republished with minor changes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
These changes do not impact the academic content of Dugarstyrenova, V., & Sardegna, V. (2017). Developing
the article. oral proficiency with voice thread: Learners’ strategic
uses and views. ReCALL, 29(1), 59–79. doi:10.1017/
Citation information S0958344016000161
Cite this article as: Iranian female students’ perceptions of Dunn, M. (2012). The effect of voice thread integration on
the impact of mobile-assisted instruction on their English high school students’ anxiety and oral proficiency in
speaking skill, Farideh Ataeifar, Firooz Sadighi, Mohammad the foreign language classroom. (Doctoral disserta-
Sadegh Bagheri & Fatemeh Behjat, Cogent Education tion). Retrieved from https://digitalcommens.liberty.
(2019), 6: 1662594. edu/doctoral/618.
Ebadi, S., & Asakereh, A. (2018). Using voice thread to
References enhance speaking accuracy: A case study of Iranian
Ally, M. (2013). Mobile learning: From research to practice EFL learners. I-manager’s Journal of English
to impact education. Learning and Teaching in Higher Language Teaching, 8(3), 29–42. doi:10.26634/
Education: Gulf Perspectives, 10(2), 10–22. jelt.8.3.13998
Antenos-Conforti, E. (2009). Microblogging on twitter: Fouz-González, J., & Mompean, J. A. (2016). Twitter-based
Social networking in intermediate Italian classes. In EFL pronunciation instruction. Language Learning &
L. Lomicka & G. Lord (Eds.), The next generation: Technology, 20(1), 166–190. Retrieved from http://llt.
social networking and online collaboration in foreign msu.edu/issues/february2016/mompeanfouzgonza
language learning (pp. 59–90). San Marcos, TX: lez.pdf.
Computer Assisted Language Instruction Gomez, J. G. (2016). Virtual commitments of practice for
Consortium. non-native K-12 Spanish educators as professional
Bahrani, T. (2011). The implications of the monitor theory development. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
for foreign language teaching. Asia Social Science, 7, https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertation/355
281–284. doi:10.5539/ass.v7n10p281 Hattem, D. (2014). Microblogging activities: Language
play and tool transformation. Language Learning and

Page 17 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

Technology, 18(2), 151–174. http://llt.msu.edu/issues/ technology. In D. Nunan & J. C. Richards (Eds.),

june2014/hattem.pdf Language learning beyond the classroom (pp. 65–74).
Hayati, A., Jalilifar, A., & Mashhadi, A. (2013). Using short New York, NY: Routledge.
message service (SMS) to teach English idioms to EFL Pufahl, L., & Rhodes, N. C. (2011). Foreign language
students. British Journal of Educational Technology, instruction in U.S. schools: Results of a national sur-
44(1), 66–81. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01260.x vey of elementary and secondary schools. Foreign
Hsu, C., Hwang, G., & Chang, C. (2013). A personalized Language Annals, 44(2), 258–288. doi:10.1111/
recommendation-based mobile learning approach to j.1944-9720.2011.01130.x
improving the reading performance of EFL students. Ravenscroft, A, Warburton, S, Hatzipangos, S, & Conole, G.
Computers & Education, 63(1), 327–336. Retrieved (2012). Designing and Evaluating Social Media for
from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/132286/. Learning: Shaping Social Networking into Social
Jaldemark, J., Hrastinski, S., Olofsson, A. D., & Oberg, L. Learning? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28
(2018). Editorial introduction: Collaborative learning (3), 177-294. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00484.x
enhanced by mobile technologies. British Journal of Richards, J. C. (2014). The changing face of language
Educational Technology, 49(2), 201–206. doi:10.1111/ learning: Learning beyond the classroom. RELC
bjet.12596 Journal, 9, 1–18. doi:10.1177/0033688214561621
Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. (2004). Education Rogers, A. (2002). Teaching adults. Berkshire: Open
research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed University Press.
approaches. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Rosell- Aguilar, F. (2018). Autonomous language learning
Junco, R., Heiberger, G., & Loken, E. (2011). The effect of through a mobile application: A user evaluation of
Twitter on college student engagement and grades. the Bussu app. Computer Assisted Language
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27(2), Learning, 31(8), 854–881. doi:10.1080/
119–132. doi:10.1111/jca.2011.27.issue-2 09588221.2018.1456465
Kim, E. Y., Park, S. M., & Baek, S. H. (2011). Twitter and its Shahsavar, Z., & Tan, B. (2011). Does cognitive style affect
implications for its use in EFL learning. Multimedia bloggers’ attitude in an online learning? GEMA
Assisted Language Learning, 14(2), 113–137. Online® Journal of Language Studies, 11(1), 159–171.
Kolomieets, S., & Guryeyeva, L. (2018). Bilateral inter- Stockwell, G., & Hubbard, P. (2013). Some emerging prin-
preting course in blended learning: Experimental ciples for mobile-assisted language learning.
verification. Advanced Education, 10, 82–87. Monterey, CA: The International Research Foundation
doi:10.20535/2410-8286.141437 for English Language Education. Retrieved from
Kompan, R. T., Edirisingha, P., Canaleta, X., Alsina, M., & http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/
Monguet, J. M. (2019). Personal learning environ- 11/TIRF-MALL-Papers-StockwellHubbard.pdf.
ments based on Web 2.0 services in higher Sun, Z., Lin, C., You, J., Shen, H., Qi, S., & Luo, L. (2017).
education. Telematics and Informatics, 38, 194–206. Improving the English speaking skills of young lear-
doi:10.1016/j.tele.2018.10.003 ners through mobile social networking. Computer
Lai, C., & Zheng, D. (2018). Self-directed use of mobile Assisted Language Learning, 30(4), 304–324.
devices for language learning beyond the classroom. doi:10.1080/09588221.2017.1308384
ReCALL, 30(3), 229–318. doi:10.1017/ Sung, Y., Chang, K., & Liu, T. (2016). The effects of
S0958344017000258 integrating mobile devices with teaching and
Lim, C., & Lee, C. (2015). The effects of task modality and learning on students’ learning performance:
type on Korean EFL learners’ interactions. The Journal A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers
of Asia TEFL, 12(2), 87–123. doi:10.1097/ and Education, 94, 252–275. doi:10.1016/j.
MAT.0000000000000161 compedu.2015.11.008
Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative commu- Suzanzan, R., & Bagheri, M. S. (2017). The impact of tech-
nication research methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, nology-assisted instruction (hybrid learning) on Iranian
CA: Sage Publications. EFL students’ oral/aural skills (Unpublished doctoral
Lomicka, L., & Lord, G. (2011). A tale of tweets: Analyzing dissertation). Islamic Azad University, Shiraz.
microblogging usage learners. System, 40(1), 48–63. Young, M. (2012). Exploring the pros and cons of online,
doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.11.001 hybrid, and face-to-face class formats, leading
McKim, A. (2017). The value of mixed methods research: change in public higher education. A provost report
A mixed methods study. Journal of Mixed Methods series on trends and issues facing higher
Research, 11(2), 202–222. doi:10.1177/ education. Retrieved from http://www.washington.
1558689815607096 edu/provost/files/2012/11/edtrends-Formats.pdf.
Millard, J. (2010). Government 1.5- is the bottle half full or Yuniarti, W. D. (2014). Utilizing learning platform for
half empty? European Journal of ePractice, 2010(9), paperless classroom. Vision: Journal for Language
313–343. Retrieved from http://www.epractice.eu/en/ and Foreign Language Learning, 3(2), 105–124.
document/313343. doi:10.21580/vjv3i2295
Pachler, N., Ranieri, M., Manca, S., & Cook, J. (2012). Zhang, H., Song, W., & Burston, J. (2011). Reexamining the
Editorial: Social networking and mobile learning. effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile
British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(5), phones. Turkish Online Journal of Educational
707–710. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01365.x Technology, 10(3), 203–214.
Pontes, C., & Shimamuzi, M. (2014). Learning-to-learn
with ourselves and with our peers through

Page 18 of 19
Ataeifar et al., Cogent Education (2019), 6: 1662594
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1662594

© 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
No additional restrictions
You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

Cogent Education (ISSN: 2331-186X) is published by Cogent OA, part of Taylor & Francis Group.
Publishing with Cogent OA ensures:
• Immediate, universal access to your article on publication
• High visibility and discoverability via the Cogent OA website as well as Taylor & Francis Online
• Download and citation statistics for your article
• Rapid online publication
• Input from, and dialog with, expert editors and editorial boards
• Retention of full copyright of your article
• Guaranteed legacy preservation of your article
• Discounts and waivers for authors in developing regions
Submit your manuscript to a Cogent OA journal at www.CogentOA.com

Page 19 of 19
 © 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative
Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. This work is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution License creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
(the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may
use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.