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IOQM Concepts Revisited

Created By : Topic : Polynomial with

J V Raghunath integer coefficients
IOQM Concepts Revisited J V Raghunath

Overview
We will learn about,
1. Polynomial
2. Monic Polynomial

1 Polynomial
Polynomial is an algebraic expression that is of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ F (or in Z) are called coefficients of the polynomial and n ∈ N0

is the degree of the polynomial, if an ̸= 0. Here F denotes anyone of C (or) R (or) Q,
i.e., Complex numbers, Real numbers, Rational numbers respectively. A polynomial
over Z means that its coefficients are integers represented by f (x) ∈ Z[x]. Here is
an interesting property particularly for Polynomials over Z.
Theorem 1.1. If P (x) is a polynomial over Z, then for any distinct u, v ∈ Z,

u − v | P (u) − P (v)

Proof. Let P (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +an−2 xn−2 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 , where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈
Z. Now for any distinct u, v ∈ Z,

P (u) = an un + an−1 un−1 + an−2 un−2 + · · · + a1 u + a0

P (v) = an v n + an−1 v n−1 + an−2 v n−2 + · · · + a1 v + a0
⇒ P (u) − P (v) = an (un − v n ) + an−1 (un−1 − v n−1 ) + an−2 (un−2 − v n−2 ) + · · · + a1 (u − v)
But we know, am − bm = (a − b)(am−1 + am−2 b + am−3 b2 + · · · + abm−2 + bm−1 )
⇒ u − v divides all the terms in the expression of P (u) − P (v)
⇒ u − v | P (u) − P (v)

Notice that P (x) ∈ Z[x] ⇒ P (u) − P (v) ∈ Z. So we need, P (x) ∈ Z[x].

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IOQM Concepts Revisited J V Raghunath

Question 1.1. Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Prove that
if P (P (· · · P (x) · · · )) = x for some integer x (where P is iterated n times, for
any n ∈ N), then P (P (x)) = x.

Sol. Let us say that the integer x such that P (P (· · · P (x) · · · )) = x is “a”.
| {z }
n times
Now by the Theorem 1.1, P (a) − a | P (P (a)) − P (a)
⇒ |P (a) − a| ≤ |P (P (a)) − P (a)|, since absolute value of divisor is always less
than (or) equal to the absolute value of dividend to get an integer quotient.
Continuing this way we get,

|P (a) − a| ≤ |P (P (a)) − P (a)| ≤ |P (P (P (a))) − P (P (a))| ≤ · · ·

· · · ≤ | P (P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))) − P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))|

| {z } | {z }
n+1 times n times

= |P (a) − a|
Hence,

|P (a) − a| = |P (P (a)) − P (a)| = |P (P (P (a))) − P (P (a))| = · · ·

· · · = | P (P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))) − P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))| = |P (a) − a|

| {z } | {z }
n+1 times n times

CASE 1:
If above equation is equal to 0, then P (P (a)) = P (a) = a.
CASE 2:
If numbers in first equality have opposite signs, then
P (a) − a = P (a) − P (P (a)) ⇒ P (P (a)) = a, we are done.
CASE 3:
If numbers inside both modulus in first equality have the same sign, then
we take some equality in which adjacent numbers inside modulus have op-
posite signs. Obviously they have to switch sign because (P (a) − a) +
(P (P (a)) − P (a)) + (P (P (P (a))) − P (P (a))) + · · · + (P (P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))) −
| {z }
n times
P (P (· · · P (a) · · · ))) = 0 and all of them cannot have the same sign.
| {z }
n−1 times
Let us represent P (P (P (· · · P (x) · · · ))) = P k (x).
| {z }
k times
Hence, P k (a) − P k−1 (a) = −(P k+1 (a) − P k (a)), for some k ∈ N ≤ n
⇒ P k−1 (a) = P k+1 (a). Now take “P ” function both sides for n − k + 1 times
to get,
P n−k+1 (P k−1 (a)) = P n−k+1 (P k+1 (a)) ⇒ P n (a) = P n+2 (a) ⇒ P (P (a)) = a .
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IOQM Concepts Revisited J V Raghunath

Question 1.2. Polynomial P (x) ∈ Z[x] takes values ±1 at three different

integer points. Prove that it has no integer zeros.
[Hint : Divisibility condition of polynomials over Z]

2 Monic Polynomial
Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , with an ̸= 0, then f (x)
is said to have degree n with leading coefficient an . If the leading coefficient of a
polynomial is 1, then it is said to be a Monic polynomial.
Theorem 2.1 (Division Algorithm). Let f (x) and g(x) be polynomials with coeffi-
cients in F (or in Z) and let g(x) be non-zero. Then there exist unique polynomials
q(x) and r(x) with coefficients in F (or in Z) such that,

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x),

where r(x) is either the zero polynomial or a non-zero polynomial of degree less than
the degree of g(x).
Here q(x) is called the quotient and r(x) the remainder, obtained on dividing f (x)
by g(x). If r(x) is the zero polynomial, we say that f (x) is divisible by g(x) over F
(or in Z) or that g(x) is a factor of f (x) over F (or in Z).

Proof. Consider the set S = {f (x) − p(x)g(x) | p(x) ∈ F(x)} of polynomials and
by the Well-ordering principle, the set S contains a polynomial of least degree,
say m. Note that m < deg g, otherwise we can manipulate p(x) in such a way that
f (x)−p(x)g(x) has degree less than m, which would be a contradiction. Hence, there
exists polynomials q(x), r(x) such that f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) and deg r < deg g
(or) deg r = 0.
For the uniqueness proof, let there be some other pair of polynomial q ′ (x), r′ (x),
such that q(x)g(x) + r(x) = q ′ (x)g(x) + r′ (x) ⇒ g(x)(q(x) − q ′ (x)) = r′ (x) − r(x).
But the degrees of LHS and RHS do not match unless q(x) − q ′ (x) = 0 because
deg r < deg g ⇒ q(x) = q ′ (x), r(x) = r′ (x).

Theorem 2.2. Let f (x), g(x) be two polynomial with integer coefficients with g(x)
being a monic polynomial. By the Division Algorithm, there exist unique polynomial
q(x), r(x), such that f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x), where deg r < deg g. Then q(x), r(x)
will also be polynomials with integer coefficients.

Proof. Let f (x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + am−2 xm−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , g(x) = xn +

bn−1 xn−1 + bn−2 xn−2 + · · · + b1 x + b0 , where a0 , . . . , am , b0 , . . . , bn−1 ∈ Z. Now just

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IOQM Concepts Revisited J V Raghunath

by comparing coefficients, we get q(x) = am xm−n + (am−1 − am bn−1 )xm−n−1 + · · · ,

which can be proved to be a polynomial with integer coefficients by induction and
hence r(x) = f (x) − q(x)g(x) will be a polynomial with integer coefficients.

Theorem 2.3 (Rational Root Theorem). If a polynomial with integer coefficients

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 has a rational root of the form r = ± pq with
gcd(p, q) = 1, then p | a0 and q | an .
p
Proof. Suppose q
is a root of f (x). Then
 n  n−1
p p p
an + an−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 = 0.
q q q
By shifting the a0 term to the right hand side, and multiplying throughout by q n , we
obtain an pn + an−1 pn−1 q + . . . + a1 pq n−1 = −a0 q n . Notice that the left hand side is a
multiple of p, and thus p | a0 q n . Since gcd(p, q) = 1, Euclid’s lemma implies p | a0 .
Similarly, if we shift the an term to the right hand side and multiply throughout by
q n , we obtain

an−1 pn−1 q + an−2 pn−2 q 2 + · · · + a1 pq n−1 + a0 q n = −an pn .

Note that the left hand side is a multiple of q, and thus q | an pn . Since gcd(p, q) = 1,
Euclid’s lemma implies q | an . In particular, this tells us that if we want to check
for ’nice’ rational roots of a polynomial f (x), we only need to check finitely many
numbers of the form ± pq , where p | a0 and q | an . This is a great tool for factorizing
polynomials.

This also tells us that for monic polynomial with integer coefficients, every rational
root is an integer root.

Question 2.1. Let p(x) be a monic polynomial of degree four with distinct
integer roots a, b, c and d. If p(r) = 4 for some integer r, prove that r =
1
4
(a + b + c + d)
[Hint : Use Factor Theorem]

Question 2.2. Find all rational zeroes of P (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 19x2 − 9x + 9.

[Answer : −3, −1, 12 , 3]

Question 2.3. How many rational roots does x1000 − x500 + x100 + x + 1 = 0
have?
[Answer : 0, why? ]