P = −∂Eb /∂V

Eb =| Ebe | g(a)

g(a) = −(1 + a + 0,05a3 )e−a

e
a = (rws − rws )/l

"1/2
| Ebe |
!
l= e Be
12πrws
e
rws |Ebe | Be
Eb (rws )

P 3((V /V0 )1/3 − 1)

= (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a2 )e−a
Be (V /V0 )2/3
V0
 B = −V (∂P/∂V )T

2,3
(∂B/∂P )T = 1 + η
3
e
η rws /l

P = −∂Eb /∂V

Eb =| Ebe | g(a)

P = − | Ebe | ∂g(a)/∂V = − | Ebe | (∂g(a)/∂a)(∂a/∂V )

P = − | Ebe | (∂g(a)/∂a)(∂a/∂rws )(∂rws /∂V )

g(a) = −(1 + a + 0,05a3 )e−a

2
dg(a)/da = ((1 + a + 0,05a3 ) − (1 + 0,15a ))e−a

2
= (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a )ae−a

e
a = (rws − rws )/l

∂a/∂rws = 1/l

4 3
V = πr
3 ws

2
∂V /∂rws = 4πrws
 P = − | Ebe | (∂g(a)/∂a)(∂a/∂rws )(1/(∂rws /∂V ))
1 ## a ## −a 2 1
P = − #Eb # e (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a )a 2
l 4πrws

e
1 ## a ## −a 2 rws − r
ws 1
P = − 2 #Eb # e (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a ) 2
l 4πrws

"1/2
| Ebe |
!
l= e Be
12πrws

e
1 # a # −a 2 r −r 1
P = −$ % ##Eb ## e (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a ) ws 2 ws
|Ebe | 4πrws
e B
12πrws e

e e
P 2 (rws − r
−a
ws )rws
= − (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a )
Be 2
rws

1/3 1/3 1/3

P −a 2 (V − V0 )V0
= − (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a )
Be V 2/3

1/3 1/3 1/3

P −a 2 (V − V0 )V0
= − (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a )
Be V 2/3

P 3((V /V0 )1/3 − 1)

e
=− (1 − 0,15a + 0,05a2 )e−a
B (V /V0 )2/3

∂P
B = −V
∂V

! "
∂Eb
P =−
∂V

! "
∂P ∂ ∂Eb
=−
∂V ∂V ∂V
 ! "
∂P ∂ ∂Eb ∂rws
=−
∂V ∂V ∂rws ∂V

& 2
'
∂P ∂Eb ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ rws
=− +
∂V ∂rws ∂V ∂V ∂rws ∂V 2

& ! " 2
'
∂P ∂ ∂Eb ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ rws
=− +
∂V ∂rws ∂V ∂V ∂rws ∂V 2
& ! " 2
'
∂P ∂ ∂Eb ∂rws ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ rws
=− +
∂V ∂rws ∂rws ∂V ∂V ∂rws ∂V 2

& 2 ! "2 ! " 2

'
∂P ∂ Eb ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ rws
=− 2 + +
∂V ∂rws ∂V ∂rws ∂V ∂rws ∂rws ∂V 2

& 2 ! "2 2
'
∂P ∂ Eb ∂rws ∂Eb ∂ rws
=− 2 +
∂V ∂rws ∂V ∂rws ∂V 2
2
V = 43 πrws
2
dV = 4πrws drws

2 2
d V = 8πrws d rws

drws 1
= 2
dV 4πrws

2
d rws 1
2
=
dV 8πrws

& 2 ! "2 ! "'

∂P ∂ Eb 1 ∂Eb 1
=− 2 2 +
∂V ∂rws 4πrws ∂rws 8πrws

& 2
'
∂P 1 ∂ Eb 1 ∂Eb
=− 2 4 2 +
∂V 8π rws ∂rws 8πrws ∂rws
 # e#
Eb = #Eb # g(a)
# #

∂Eb # e # ∂g(a)
= #Eb #
# #
∂rws ∂rws

∂Eb # e # ∂g(a) ∂a
= #Eb #
# #
∂rws ∂a ∂rws

e
rws − rws
a=
l

∂a 1
=
∂rws l

g(a) = −(1 + a + 0,05a3 )e−a

∂g(a) a 3
= e (1 + a + 0,05a ) − (1 + 0,15a2 )e−a
∂a

∂g(a)
= e−a (a − 0,15a2 + 0,05a3 )
∂a

2 ! "
∂ Eb ∂ ∂Eb
2 =
∂rws ∂rws ∂rws

2 !# # "
∂ Eb ∂ # e # ∂g(a) ∂a
2 = #Eb #
∂rws ∂rws ∂a ∂rws
2 # e # ∂ ! ∂g(a) ∂a "
∂ Eb
=
# #
2 #Eb #
∂rws ∂rws ∂a ∂rws
2
∂g(a) ∂ 2 a
! "
∂ Eb # e # ∂g(a) ∂a
# #
2 = b + 2
∂rws ∂a∂rws ∂rws ∂a ∂rws
#E #
 ! "
∂ ∂a ∂ 1
= =0
∂rws ∂rws ∂rws l

2 # e # ! ∂ ! ∂g(a) ∂a ""
∂ Eb
= #Eb #
# #
2
∂rws ∂a ∂rws ∂rws

2 # e # ! ∂ ! ∂g(a) ∂a " ∂a "

∂ Eb
= #Eb #
# #
2
∂rws ∂a ∂a ∂rws ∂rws

2
∂ 2 ∂a
! ! ""
∂ Eb # e# ∂g(a) ∂ ∂a ∂a
= +
# #
2 #Eb #
∂rws ∂a2 ∂rws ∂a ∂a ∂rws ∂rws

2
& "2 '
∂ 2 g(a)
!
∂ Eb # e# ∂a
= #Eb #
# #
2
∂rws ∂a2 ∂rws

∂a 1
=
∂rws l

∂a 1
=
∂rws l

! "2
∂a 1
=
∂rws l2

∂g(a)
= e−a (a − 0,15a2 + 0,05a3 )
∂a

∂ 2 g(a) ∂ ( −a
e (a − 0,15a2 + 0,05a3 )
)
=
∂a2 ∂a

∂ 2 g(a)
= −e−a (a − 0,15a2 + 0,05a3 ) + e−a (1 − 0,3a + 0,15a2 )
∂a2

∂ 2 g(a)
= e−a (−a + 0,15a2 − 0,05a3 + 1 − 0,3a + 0,15a2 )
∂a2
 ∂ 2 g(a)
= e−a (1 − 1,03a + 0,3a2 − 0,05a3 )
∂a2

2
# e#
∂ Eb #E #
2 = 2b e−a (1 − 1,03a + 0,3a2 − 0,05a3 )
∂rws l

# e# # e#
∂P #E # #E #
b −a 2 3 b
= 2 4 2
e (1−1,03a+0,3a −0,05a )+ e−a (a−0,15a2 +0,05a3 )
∂V 16π rws l 8πrws l

* ! " +
∂B 4 3 ∂ ∂P ∂a
= − 1 + πrws
∂P 3 ∂a ∂V ∂P

# e#
,
∂
!
∂P
" #E #
b
e−a −1 + 1,03a − 0,3a2 + 0,05a3 − 1,03 + 0,6a − 0,15a2
- .
=− 2 4 2
∂a ∂V 16π rws l
# e# /
#E #
b −a 2 3 2
+ e (−a + 0,15a − 0,03a + 1 − 0,3a + 0,15a )
8πrws l

# e#
,
∂
!
∂P
" #E #
b
e−a −2,03 + 1,63a − 0,45a2 + 0,05a3
- .
=− 2 4 2
∂a ∂V 16π rws l
# e# /
#E #
b −a 2 3
+ e (1 − 1,03a + 0,3a − 0,3a )
8πrws l

∂Eb ∂Eb ∂rws

P =− =−
∂V ∂rws ∂V

# e#
#E #
b
P =− 2 l
e−a (a − 0,15a2 + 0,05a3 )
4πrws
# e#
#E #
b
dP = − 2 l
e−a (−a + 0,15a2 − 0,05a3 + 1 − 0,3a + 0,15a2 )da
4πrws
# e#
#E #
b
dP = − 2 l
e−a (1 − 1,3a + 0,3a2 − 0,05a3 )da
4πrws
 2
∂a 4πrws l
= − e −a
∂P |Eb | e (1 − 1,3a + 0,3a2 − 0,05a3 )

0 , & # e#
∂B 4 3 #E #
b
= − 1 + πrws − e−a (−2,3 + 1,63a − 0,45a2 + 0,05a3 )+
∂P 3 16π 2 rws
4 l2

# e# '/ +1
#E # 2
*
b 4πr ws l
+ e−a (1 − 1,03a + 0,3a2 − 0,3a3 ) ∆(−1) − e −a
8πrws l |Eb | e (1 − 1,3a + 0,3a2 − 0,05a3 )

e
rws = rws

e
rws − rws
a= =0
l

0 , # e# # e# / * +1
#E # #E # 2
∂B 4 3 b b 4πrws l
= − 1 + πrws − (−2,3) + − e
∂P 3 16π 2 rws
4 l2 8πrws l |Eb |

0 # e# # e# * +1
#E # 2 2
4 3 #Eb #
* +
∂B 4 3 b 4πrws l 4πrws l
= − 1 + πrws (2,3) − e − πrws − e
∂P 3 16π 2 rws
4 l2 |Eb | 3 8πrws l |Eb |
2 3
∂B 2,3 3 2 4
=− 1− rws + πrws
∂P 3l 3
2 3
∂B 2,3
= −1 + η
∂P 3

rws
η=
l

TM
 ! "1/2
4 2 51/2 0,827kT
u = e B
rws
e
k T rws
B

e
rws − rws =l

l
"1/2
| Ebe |
!
l= e B
12πrws

|Ebe |

TM = 0,032 |Ebe | /K.

rws
l

|Ebe | 2
TM = 7,217x10−4 η
k
e
η = rws /l

! "1/2
4 2 1/2
5 0,827kT
u = e B
=l
rws

"1/2 "1/2
| Ebe |
! !
0,827kTM
e B
= e B
rws 12πrws

| Ebe |
0,827kTM =
12π
 | Ebe | | Ee |
TM = = 0,032 b
(12π)(0,827k) k

e 4 51/2 e
rws = u2 + (0,15)rws

51/2
u2 e
4
= rws

! "
0,827kTM 2e 2

e B
= (0,085) ws )
rws
& 2 e 2
'
(0,085) (rws ) e
TM = rws B
0,827k

"1/2
| Ebe |
!
l= e B
12πrws

| Ebe |
! "
2
l = e B
12πrws
e
! "
1 12πrws B
=
l2 | Ebe |

| Ebe |
! "
e
rws B=
12πl2

& 2 e 2 "'
| Ebe |
!
(0,085) (rws )
TM =
0,827k 12πl2

& 2
& e 2
''
(0,085) | Ebe | (rws )
TM =
12π(0,827)k l2
e
η = rws /l
& 2
'
(0,085) | Ebe | 2
TM = η
12π(0,827)k
 h2 ▽2 Ψ e2
− 2
− Ψ = EΨ
8π m 4πϵ0 r

! "
2r
Ψnlm (r, θ, φ) = Nnl Fnl Ylm (θ, φ)
naB

Nnl
2
|Ψnlm (r, θ, ϕ)|
! "1/2
2 (n − l − 1)!
Nnl =
n2 [aB (n + 1)!]3

an radio = (4πϵ0 h2 )/me2 Ylm (θ, φ)

θ φ
gnl (r) = Nnl Fnl (2r/naB )

6∞
r2 (gnl (r))2 dr = 1.
0

Fnl (ρ)

Fnl (ρ) = e−ρ/2 ρl L2l+1

n+l (ρ)

2r
ρ=
naB

L2l+1
n+l (ρ)
 n−l−1
7 [(n + l)!]2 ρk
L2l+1
n+l (ρ) = (−1)K+2l
(n − l − 1 − k)!(2l + 1 + k)!k!
k=0

6
⟨r⟩ = r | Ψnlm (r, θ, φ) |2 dr
en todo el espacio

6
4 25
r = r2 | Ψnlm (r, θ, φ) |2 dr
en todo el espacio

aB
⟨r⟩ = [3n2 − l(l + 1)]
2

4 2 5 2 n2
r B [5n2 + 1 − 3l(l + 1)].
2
n

⟨r⟩ 3d, 4s 4p.

n
Fnl

h2 1 d2 h2 (l(l + 1) e2
! "
− (rFl ) + − Fl = EFl
8π 2 m r dr2 8π 2 mr2 4πϵ0 r
E mv 2 /2
V (r)

mvr2 /2
vr
L
L2 /2mr2

E = mvr2 /2 + V (r) + L2 /2mr2 .

L2 h2 l(l + 1)/4π 2 , mvr2 /2

2 2 2
h ▽ /8π m
l
l
 Y lm l =
0, 1, 2
1
Y00 = l=0
(4π)1/2

⎫
Y1−1 1/2 senθeiφ ⎪
⎬
- 3 .1/2
Y10 = 4π cosθ l=1
- 3 .1/2 ⎪
iφ ⎭
Y11 = − 8π senθe

- 15 .1/2 ⎫
Y2−2 = 32π senθe−2iφ ⎪
⎪
- 15 .1/2 ⎪
Y2−1 = 8π senθcosθe−iφ
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
- 5 .1/2
Y20 = 16π (3cos2 θ − 1) l=2
- 15 .1/2 ⎪
Y21 = − 8π senθcoseiφ
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
- 15 .1/2 ⎪
Y22 = 32π sen2 θe2iφ
⎭

| Ylm (θ, φ) |2

(i) (ii)

l,
px , py , pz , dxy , dyz , d3z2 −r2 , dx2 −y2
m,

e1 , e2 , e3 a 1 , a2 , a3
L
e1 , 2 , e3 a 1 , a2 , a3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
e1 L11 L12 13 a1
⎝ e2 ⎠ = ⎝ L21 L22 23 ⎠ ⎝ a2 ⎠ .
e3 L31 L32 L33 a3

a1 a1 a1
A = a1 + a2 + a3
|a1 | |a1 | |a1 |

e1 e2 e3
A = e1 + e2 + e3
|e1 | |e2 | |e3 |
 A∆ |aa11 | = a1
a1
|a1 |

a1 e1 e2 e3 a1
a1 = A∆ = (e1 + e2 + e3 )∆
|a1 | |e1 | |e2 | |e3 | |a1 |
a1 e1 a1 e2 a1 e3 a1
a1 = A∆ = e1 ∆ + e2 ∆ + e3 ∆
|a1 | |e1 | |a1 | |e2 | |a1 | |e3 | |a1 |

a2 e1 a2 e2 a2 e3 a2
a2 = A∆ = e1 ∆ + e2 ∆ + e3 ∆
|a2 | |e1 | |a2 | |e2 | |a2 | |e3 | |a2 |

a3 e1 a3 e2 a3 e3 a3
a3 = A∆ = e1 ∆ + e2 ∆ + e3 ∆
|a3 | |e1 | |a3 | |e2 | |a3 | |e3 | |a3 |

⎞ ⎛ e1 a1 e2 a1 e3 a1
⎞⎛
|e1 | ∆ |a1 | |e2 | ∆ |a1 | |e3 | ∆ |a1 |
⎛ ⎞
a1 e1
e1 a2 e2 a2 e3 a2
|e1 | ∆ |a2 | |e2 | ∆ |a2 | |e3 | ∆ |a2 |
⎝ a2 ⎠ = ⎜
⎝
⎟⎝
⎠ e2 ⎠
a3 e1 a3 e2 a3 e3 a3 e3
|e1 | ∆ |a3 | |e2 | ∆ |a3 | |e3 | ∆ |a3 |

| e1 ⟩ , | e2 ⟩ , | e3 ⟩ . | a1 ⟩ , | a2 ⟩ , | a3 ⟩

| e1 ⟩ , | e2 ⟩ | e3 ⟩ | a1 ⟩ , | a2 ⟩ , | a3 ⟩

3 3 3 3
7 7 77
⟨ej | Ψ⟩ = ⟨ej | I |Ψ⟩ = ⟨ej | ai ⟩ ⟨ai |Ψ⟩
j=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

| 1 ⟩ , | 2 ⟩ | 3 ⟩ , ..., | N ⟩ | 1′ ⟩ , | 2′ ⟩ | 3 ⟩ , ..., | N ′ ⟩ .
H Hij = ⟨ i/ H / j ⟩
Hi′ j ′ = ⟨i′ / H ′ / j ′ ⟩ .

H11 + H22 + H33 · · · + HN N = H1′ 1′ + H2′ 2′ + H3′ 3′ + · · · + HN ′ N ′ .

7 7
Hii = Hi′ i′
 N
7 7 7 ## ′ B C ′ ## ##7 ## ′ B C ′ ##
⟨i| H |i⟩ = ⟨i| #i i #H # #i i # i⟩
i=1 i

N
7 777 ′ BC ′# # ′BC ′#
⟨i| H |i⟩ = ⟨i| i i # H #i i # i⟩
# # #
i=1 i ′
i i
′

N
7 7 7 ## ′ B C ′ ## 7 C ′ ## ## ′ B
⟨i| H |i⟩ = |i⟩ ⟨i| #i i# i # H #i
i=1 i ′
i
′
i
D
i |i⟩ ⟨i| = 1
N N
7 7 C ′ ## ## ′ B
⟨i| H |i⟩ = i # H #i
i=1 ′
i

H2 |1⟩ | 2⟩ 1s

| Ψ⟩

| Ψ ⟩= c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩.

⟨1 | 1 ⟩= ⟨2 | 2 ⟩= 1,
|1⟩ |2⟩ S : ⟨1 | 2 ⟩= ⟨2 | 1 ⟩ = S .
⟨1 | H | 1 ⟩ = ⟨2 | H | 2 ⟩ = E0
⟨1 | H | 2 ⟩ = ⟨2 | H | 1 ⟩= β .

S=0

| Ψ ⟩= c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩.

H |Ψ⟩ = E |Ψ⟩

H(c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩. ) = E(c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩. )

c1 H | 1 ⟩+c2 H | 2 ⟩. = E(c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩. )

 ⟨1|

c1 ⟨1| H | 1 ⟩+c2 ⟨1| H | 2 ⟩. = E(c1 ⟨1| 1 ⟩+c2 ⟨1| 2 ⟩. )

c1 E0 + c2 β = E(c1 + c2 S)

c10 − E) + c2 (β − ES) = 0

⟨2|

c1 ⟨2| H | 1 ⟩+c2 ⟨2| H | 2 ⟩. = E(c1 ⟨2| 1 ⟩+c2 ⟨2| 2 ⟩. )

c1 β + c2 E0 = E(c1 S + c2 )

c1 (β − ES) + c2 (E0 − E) = 0

# #
# (E 0 − E) (β − ES) #
# #=0
# (β − ES) (E0 − E) #

2 2
(E0 − E) − (β − ES) = 0

(E0 − E) = ±(β − ES)

(E0 − E) = (β − ES)

(−E + ES) = (β − E0 )

E(S − 1) = (β − E0 )

(β − E0 )
Eb =
(S − 1)

(E0 − E) = −(β − ES)

 (−E − ES) = (−β − E0 )

E(S + 1) = (β + E0 )

(β + E0 )
Ea =
(S + 1)

⟨ Ψ |Ψ⟩ = 1 ⟨1| + c2 ⟨2|)1 |1⟩ + c2 |2⟩)

2 2
⟨ Ψ |Ψ⟩ = 1 ⟨1| 1⟩ + c1 c2 ⟨1| 2⟩ + c1 c2 ⟨2| 1⟩ + c2 ⟨2| 2⟩)

2 2
⟨ Ψ |Ψ⟩ = 1 + c1 c2 S + c1 c2 S + c2 ) = 1

2 2
(c1 + 2c1 c2 S + c2 ) = 1

c1 (β − ES) + c2 (E0 − E) = 0

(E0 − E) = (β − ES)

c1 (β − ES) + c2 (β − ES) = 0

c1 = −c2

2
(2c2 − 2c2 c2 S) = 1

2
c2 (2 − 2S) = 1

1
c2 =
(2 − 2S)1/2
 1
c1 = −
(2 − 2S)1/2

1 1
|Ψb ⟩ = − |1⟩ + |2⟩
(2 − 2S)1/2 (2 − 2S)1/2
S=0
1 1
|Ψb ⟩ = − |1⟩ + |2⟩
(2)1/2 (2)1/2

(E0 − E) = −(β − ES)

c1 (β − ES) − c2 (β − ES) = 0

c1 = c2

2 2
(c1 + 2c1 c2 S + c2 ) = 1
2
(2c1 + 2c1 c1 S) = 1

2
c1 (2 + 2S) = 1

1
c1 =
(2 + 2S)1/2

1
c2 =
(2 + 2S)1/2

1 1
|Ψa ⟩ = 1/2
|1⟩ + |2⟩
(2 + 2S) (2 + 2S)1/2
S=0
1 1
|Ψa ⟩ = |1⟩ + |2⟩
(2)1/2 (2)1/2
 −|β|.

H 11 = H22 = H33 = 0

H12 = H23 = H31 = β

| Ψ ⟩= c1 | 1 ⟩+c2 | 2 ⟩+c3 | 3 ⟩ .

H |Ψ⟩ = E |Ψ⟩

c1 ⟨1| H |1⟩ + c2 ⟨1| H |2⟩ + c3 ⟨1| H |3⟩ = Ec1

c1 ⟨2| H |1⟩ + c2 ⟨2| H |2⟩ + c3 ⟨2| H |3⟩ = Ec2

c1 ⟨3| H |1⟩ + c2 ⟨3| H |2⟩ + c3 ⟨3| H |3⟩ = Ec3

c2 ⟨1| H |2⟩ + c3 ⟨1| H |3⟩ = Ec1

c1 ⟨2| H |1⟩ + c3 ⟨2| H |3⟩ = Ec2

c1 ⟨3| H |1⟩ + c2 ⟨3| H |2⟩ = Ec3

⟨1| H |3⟩ = ⟨3| H |1⟩ = 0

−Ec1 + c2 β = 0

c1 β + −Ec2 + c3 β = 0

c2 β − Ec3 = 0
 # #
# −E β 0 #
# #
# β
# −E β #=0
#
# 0 β −E #
2 2
−E(E − β ) − β(−βE) = 0

2 2 2
−(E − β ) + β = 0
1/2
E = ±2 β

1/2
E=2 β

1/2
E = −2 β

c2
c1 =
21/2

1/2 1/2
c1 β + −2 2 βc1 + c3 β = 0

c1 = c3

1/2
c2 β − c3 2 β=0
1/2
c2 = c3 2

c2 β
c3 =
E

c2
c3 =
21/2

2 2 2
c1 + c2 + c3 = 1

2 2 2
c1 + 2c1 + c1 = 1
 1
c1 = = c3
2

−1/2
c2 = 2

m
$ %1/2 $ %
2 mjπ
cj = N +1 sen N +1
| Ψ2 ⟩ | Ψ3 ⟩
E
1 B 1/2
| Ψ1 = (| 1 +2 | 2 ⟩+ | 3 ⟩ . )
2

E
1
| Ψ2 = 1/2 (| 1 ⟩+ | 3 ⟩ . )
2

E
1 B 1/2
| Ψ3 = (| 1 −2 | 2 ⟩+ | 3 ⟩ . )
2

⟨1| H |3⟩ = ⟨3| H |1⟩ = β

−Ec1 + c2 β + c3 β = 0

c1 β − Ec2 + c3 β = 0

c1 β + c2 β − Ec3 = 0

# #
# −E β β #
# #
# β
# −E β #=0
#
# β β −E #

2 2 2 2
−E(E − β ) − β(−βE − β ) + β(β + βE) = 0

2 2 2
−E(E − β ) + 2β (E + β) = 0

2
−E(E − β)(E + β) + 2β (E + β) = 0
2
(E + β)(−E(E − β) + 2β ) = 0

2 2
(E + β)(−E + Eβ + 2β ) = 0
 2
(E + β) (−E + 2β) = 0

Ea = −β

Eb = 2β
E = 2β
−2βc1 + βc2 + βc3 = 0

−2c1 + c2 + c3 = 0

βc1 − 2βc2 + βc3 = 0

c1 − 2c2 + c3 = 0

βc1 + βc2 − 2βc3 = 0

c1 + c2 − 2c3 = 0

2 2 2
c1 + c2 + c3 = 1

1
c1 = c2 = c3 = √
3
2πjm
m (i )
1 N
cj = 1/2 e
N
|Ψ2 ⟩ |Ψ3 ⟩
E E
1 (i 2π ) (i 4π )
| Ψ1 = √ (e 3 | 1 +e 3 | 2 ⟩+ | 3 ⟩ . )
3
E E
1 (i 4π
3
) (i 2π )
| Ψ2 = √ (e | 1 +e 3 | 2 ⟩+ | 3 ⟩ . )
3

−
e Ecad Eanillo Ocad Oanillo
1/2
1 3/2
2 β 2β 4 (2 + 1)
3/2
1 3/2
2 β 4β 2 (2 + 1)
3/2 1/2
2 β 3β 2
3/2 3/2
2 β 2β (2 − 21 )
1/2 1/2
2 β β (2 − 41 )
 EA EB
β

EA = EB

⇒ H/Ψ ⟩= ε/Ψ ⟩

CA ⟨A/H/Ψ ⟩+CB ⟨A/H/B ⟩= E ( CA ⟨A/A⟩ + CB ⟨A/B⟩ )

CA (EA − E) + cb β = 0

⟨B/

CA ⟨B/H/A ⟩+CB ⟨A/H/B⟩ − E (CA ⟨B/A ⟩+CB ⟨B/B⟩ )

CA β + CB (EB − E) = 0

# #
# E −E β
⇒ ## A # = (EA − E) (EB − E) − β 2
#
β EB − E #

= E 2 + E (EA + EB ) − β 2 + EA EB

! " F
2
EA + EB + (EA + EB ) +4 β 2 − EA EB
- .

⇒E= =
2

EA + Eb
∝=
2

EA − EB
∆=
2
G G
=∝ + A2 + β 2 Ea =∝ + A2 + β 2
G
Eb =∝ − A2 + β 2
 CB β EA β
⇒ CA = ⇒ =
E∆ − E Cb EA − E
X = A/B

CA β 1
= G = √
CB ∆ A2 + β 2 X + X2 + 1

2
CA 1 1
2 = √ = √
CB 2 2
X + 2X X + 1 + X2 +1 1+ 2X 2 + 2X X 2 + 1

2
CA 1
=
Cb2
G
1 + 2x − 2x x2 f |
2

i i
CA CB =

b a
b CB a CA
CA =$ %1/2 CA = - √ .1/2
1 + 2X 2 + 2x x + 1
G
1 + 2x2 + 2x x + |
- b .2 g 2
b b CB (CB )
⇒ CA CB =- √ .1/2 ; cab caA = - √ .1/2
1 + 2x2 + 2x x + l 1 + 2x2 + 2x x + 1

- b .2
b b CB
CA CB = - √ .1/2
1 + 2x2 + 2x x2 +

- b .2
b b 2 CB
2CA CB = - √ .1/2
1 + 2x2 + 2x x2 + 1

# b #2 2
#C # a
b b a a b |CB |
2CB CB +CA CB =$ %1/2 + $ %1/2
1 + 2x2 − 2x (x2 + 1)1/2 1 + 2x2 = 2x (x2+1 )1/2

# b #1/2 2
2 #CB a
b b a a
# 2 |CB |
2CB CB +2CA CB = $ %1/2 + $ %1/2 = 0
1/2 1/2
1 + 2x2 + 2x (x2 + 1) 1 + 2x2 − 2x (x2 + 1)
 ∆ EA − EB
EA = EB X = =0
β 2β
b b a a
⇒ CA = CB y CA = CA
√
⟨Ψ/Ψ⟩ = 1 = CA = CB = 1/ 2

0
1/2
2
1/2
0

E(k)

E(k) = α + 2βcoska

k
π/a π/a a α
β

Ψk
l
νκ = ⟨Ψκ | p | Ψκ ⟩ ,
m

h d
p=
2πi dx
m
 Ψκ (x) = eikx u(x)

u(x) = u(x + a) Ψk

2π dE(k)
υκ (x) =
h dk
Ψk (x)

h2 d2 Ψκ (x)
− + V (x)Ψκ (x) = E(k)Ψκ (x)
8π 2 m dx2
k
1/m ⟨Ψκ | p | Ψκ⟩
k −k

a=1 | β |= 1eV.

ikx
h2 d2 e u(x) ikx ikx
− + V (x)e u(x) = E(k)e u(x)
8π 2 m dx2

2 ikx
! d2 e u(x) ikx ikx
− + V (x)e u(x) = E(k)e u(x)
2m dx2

2
! 2 ′ ′′
− (−k u(x) + 2iku (x) + u (x)) + V (x)u(x) = E(k)u(x)
2m
k
2
! ′ dE(k)
− (−2ku(x) + 2iu (x)) = u(x)
2m dk
i
2
! ′ dE(k)
− (−iku(x) − u (x)) = i u(x)
m dk

′ m dE(k)
(iku(x) (x)) = i u(x)
!2 dk

h d ikx
p= e u(x)
2πi dx
 2
! ikx ′ ikx
p= (e u (x) + u(x))
i

l
νκ = ⟨Ψκ | p | Ψκ ⟩
m

H 2
I
1 ikx ! ikx ′ ikx
ikx
νκ = e u(x) | (e u (x) + ike u(x)) | e u(x)
m i

2
1 ! C ′ B
νκ = u(x) | (u (x) + iku(x)) | u(x)
m i

2 J E
1 ! m dE(k)
νκ = u(x) | 2 i u(x) | u(x)
m i ! dk

J E
1 dE(k)
νκ = u(x) | u(x) | u(x)
! dk

1 dE(k)
νκ = ⟨u(x) | u(x)⟩
! dk

⟨u(x) | u(x)⟩ = 1

1 dE(k)
νκ =
! dk
k

E(k) = α + 2βcoska

dE(k)
= −2aβsenka
dk

1 dE(k) 1
νκ = = (−2aβsenka)
! dk !
−k
 1 dE(k) 1 1
νκ = = (−2aβsen(−ka)) = (−4aβsen(ka))
! dk ! !

π
a − πa π
a

E(k) = α + 2βcoska

π
E(k) = α + 2βcos a
a
E(k) = α + 2βcosπ = α − 2β

dE(k)
=0
dk

1 dE(k)
νκ = =0
! dk
− πa

E(k) = α + 2βcoska

π
E(k) = α + 2βcos − a
a
E(k) = α + 2βcos(−π) = α − 2β

dE(k)
=0
dk

1 dE(k)
νκ = = 0.
! dk
a=1 | β |= 1eV

E(k) = α + 2cosk

E(k) = α + 2cosk

dE(k)
= −2senk
dk

1 dE(k) 1
νκ = = − 2senk
! dk !
 N
1 7 (κ)
| Ψκ ⟩ = Cj |j⟩
N 1/2 j=1

N k − simo
(κ)
m t −2e | cm (t) |2 ,
e

(k)
cm (t)

c(k)
m (t) = e
ikma −((2πiE(κ)t)/h)
e /N 1/2
(κ)
−2e | cm (t) |2 = −2e/N.
m m−1 k − simo
m m+1
k − simo
m
m−1 m+1
vk

(k)
2e | cm (t) |2

d 4πe 7 (k) (κ) (κ)

−2e | c(κ) 2
m (t) | = − c (t) ∗ Hmj cj (t) − c(k)
m (t)Hjm cj (t)∗
dt ih j m

|j⟩
|m∥ H mj
H jm j
m j
m m+1 j =m+1
−(8πeβ/hN )sen(ka)
k − simo

d
H |Ψ⟩ = i! |Ψ⟩
dt

d
⟨Ψ| H |Ψ⟩ = ⟨Ψ| i! |Ψ⟩
dt
 d
⟨Ψ| H |Ψ⟩ = i! ⟨Ψ| |Ψ⟩
dt
N N
1 77 (κ) (κ)
⟨Ψ| H |Ψ⟩ = ⟨m| Cm (t)HCj (t) |j⟩
N m=1 j=1
N N
1 7 7 (κ)∗ (κ)
⟨Ψ| H |Ψ⟩ = C (t) ⟨m| H |j⟩ Cj (t)
N m=1 j=1 m
N N
1 7 7 (κ)∗ (κ)
⟨Ψ| H |Ψ⟩ = C (t)Hmj Cj (t)
N m=1 j=1 m

N N
d i! 7 7 (κ)∗ d (κ)
i! ⟨Ψ| |Ψ⟩ = ⟨m| Cm (t) Cj (t) |j⟩
dt N m=1 j=1 dt

N N
d i! 7 7 (κ)∗ d (κ)
i! ⟨Ψ| |Ψ⟩ = ⟨m| j⟩ Cm (t) Cj (t)
dt N m=1 j=1 dt
N
d i! 7 (κ)∗ d (κ)
i! ⟨Ψ| |Ψ⟩ = C (t) Cj (t)
dt N m=1 m dt
N N N
i! 7 (κ)∗ d (κ) 1 7 7 (κ)∗ (κ)
Cm (t) Cm (t) = C (t)Hmj Cj (t)
N m=1 dt N m=1 j=1 m

N
(κ)∗ d (κ) 7
(κ)∗ (κ)
i!Cm (t) Cm (t) = Cm (t)Hmj Cj (t)
dt m=1

d ## (κ) ## d $ (κ)∗ (κ)

%
i! #Cm (t)# = i! Cm (t)Cm (t)
dt dt
! "
d ## (κ) ## (κ)∗ d (κ) (κ) d (κ)∗
i! (t) = i! C (t) C (t) + C (t) C (t)
dt m m
dt m m
dt m
#C #

! "∗
(κ)∗ d (κ) (κ)∗ d (κ)
i!Cm (t) Cm (t) = −i!Cm (t) Cm (t) =
dt dt

⎛ ⎞∗
N N
(κ) (κ)∗
7 7
(κ)∗ (κ)
=⎝ Cm (t)Hmj Cj (t)⎠ = Cm (t)Hjm Cj (t)
j=1 j=1
 ∗
Hmj = Hjm

N
(κ) d (κ)∗ 1 7 (κ) (κ)∗
Cm (t) Cm (t) = − C (t)Hjm Cj (t)
dt i! j=1 m

N
(κ)∗ d (κ)∗ 1 7 (κ)∗ (κ)
Cm (t) Cm (t) = C (t)Hmj Cj (t)
dt i! j=1 m

N
d ## (κ) ##2 1 7 $ (κ)∗ (κ) (κ) (κ)∗
%
#Cm (t)# = Cm (t)Hmj Cj (t) − Cm (t)Hjm Cj (t)
dt i! j=1

d ## (κ) ##2
I = −2e #C (t)#
dt m

N
2e 7 $ (κ)∗ (κ) (κ) (κ)∗
%
I=− Cm (t)Hmj Cj (t) − Cm (t)Hjm Cj (t)
i! j=1

m+1
2e 7 $ (κ)∗ (κ) (κ) (κ)∗
%
Im,m+1 = − Cm (t)Hmj Cj (t) − Cm (t)Hjm Cj (t)
i! j=m

2e $ (κ)∗ (κ) (κ) (κ)∗

%
Im,m+1 = − Cm (t)Hmm Cm (t) − Cm (t)Hmm Cm (t)+
i!

(κ)∗ (κ)
(κ) (κ)∗
+Cm (t)Hmm+1 Cm+1 (t) − Cm (t)Hm+1m Cm+1 (t))

Hmm+1 = Hm+1m = Hm−1m = Hmm−1 = β

1 1 1 −ika
c(k)
m (t) = e−ikma eiE(t)/h eik(m−1)a e−iE(t)/h = e
N 1/2 N 1/2 N

(κ) (κ)∗ 1 ika

Cm Cm−1 = e
N

(κ)∗ (κ) 1 1 eika

Cm Cm+1 = e−ikma eiE(k)t/h eik(m+1)a e−iE(k)t/h =
N 1/2 N 1/2 N
 (κ) (κ)∗ 1
Cm Cm+1 = e−ika
N 1/2

& ika −ika

'
2e e −e
Im,m+1 =− β
N! i
& ika −ika
'
2e e −e
Im,m+1 =− β
N! i

AB
β
A B εΛ
εB . A−B a

π/2a +π/2a.

dA (E) dB (E)

A B

N
7
|Ψ⟩ = CAi |Ai ⟩ + C2 |Bi ⟩
i=1

H |Ψ⟩ = E |Ψ⟩

7 7
⇒ CAi H |Ai ⟩ + CBi H |Bi ⟩ = E CAi |Ai ⟩ + CBi |Bi ⟩
i i

⟨Ai |
⎛ ⎞
7
⇒ ⟨Ai | ⎝ CAi H |Ai ⟩ + CBi H |Bi ⟩⎠ =
j
 C Bj−1 ⟨Ai |H| Bi−1 ⟩ + CAi ⟨Ai |H| Ai ⟩ + CBi ⟨Ai |H| Bi+1 ⟩ =

C Bi−1 β + CAi εA + CBi β

H #& I
# 7
Ai # E CAi |Ai + CBi |Bi ⟩= EcAi
#
#
i

⟨Bi |
H ## I
#7
Bi #
# CAi H |Ai ⟩ + CBi |Bi )= CAi β + CBi εA + CAi+1 β
# j

$ 7
⟨Bi | E CAi |Ai ⟩ + CBi |Ai ⟩ = ECBi

⇒ (εA − E) CAi + β (CBi−1 + CBi ) = 0

β (CAi + CAi+1 ) + (εβ − E) CBi = 0

CAi = CAi+l ⇒ CAj = CA eikjb = CA eikj2a

2π
⇒ CA eika = CA eik(j+1)a ⇒ 1 = eika ⇒ K =
a
CBj = CA eikjb = CA eikj2a
$ %
⇒ (εA − E) CA eikj2a + βCB eikj2a + eik(j−1)2a = 0

$ %
β eikj2a + eik(j+1)2a CA + (εB − E) CB eikj2a = 0

−ik2a
- . - . 3
εA −-E CA + βC B 1+e =0
ec. seculares
βCA 1 + e−ik2a + (εB − E) CB = 0
.

β 1 + e−ik2a
# - . #
# (εA + E)
# = (εA − E) (εB − E)−β 2 1 + e−i2ka 1 + ei2ka
# - .- .
# -
# β 1 + e−ik2a
.
(εB − E) #
 eika + e−i2ka = 2cosk2a

= (εA − E) (εB − E) − β 2 (2 + 2cos2ka)

= E 2 − E (εA + εB ) + εA εB − 2β 2 (1 + cos2ka)

pero cos2ka = cos2 ka − sen2 ka = 2cos2 ka − 1

⇒ E 2 − E (εA + εB ) + εA εB − 4β 2 cos2 ka = 0

F
2
(εA + εB ) ± (εA + εB ) − 4 (εA εB ) (−4β 2 cos2 ka) = 0
E=
2

K
εA + εB εA − εB 2
= ± ( ) + 4β 2 cos2 ka
2 2
εA = εB ⇒

E = εB + 2βcoska

eik2a = 1 ⇒ cos2ka + isen2ka ⇒ sen2ka = 0

nπ
k=
2a

! "
2nπ n
⇒ cos 2ka = cos a = (1) = 1
a2

n=1
$ π%
⇒ intervalo es 0, para k centrada
a
- π π.
− 2a , 2a
 $ a %N 6 dk ds/dk
D (E0 ) = d
=
2π E=E0 dk (E (K)) dE/k

a dk
6
d (E0 ) = d
2π E=E0 dk (E (K))

εA − εB
=△
2
⎛ L ⎞
! "2
d d ⎝ (εA + εB ) εA − εB
(E (k)) = − + 4β 2 cos2 ka⎠
dk dk 2 2

1 4(2β 2 cos ka sen ka) 4β 2 coskasenka

= =
(△2 + 4β 2 cos2 ka)1/2
G
2 △2 + 4β 2 cos2 ka
d
dk (E (K))
coska
&! ! ""2 ! "2 '1/2
εA + εB εA − εB β
⇒ E− − = cos ka
2 2 β2

.1/2 β
= E 2 − E (εA + εB ) + 2εA εB
-
= cos ka
β2

1/2
sen ka = (1 − cos ka)

$ %1/2
1/2 E−E(εA +εB )+2εA εB
d ( E − E (εA + εB ) + 2εA εB ) 2βa 1 − 4β 2
(E (k)) = 1/2
dk (△2 + E 2 − E (εA + εB ) + 2εA εB )

2 senkF (m − n)a
ρmn =
π m−n
 77
EBond = ρmn Hnm

7 7 2 senkF (m − n)a
EBond = Hnm
π m−n
|m − n| = 1
72
EBond = senkF aβ
π

2
EBond = N senkF aβ
π

EBond 2
= senkF aβ
tomo π

E = α + βcoska

EBond 1
F
= 4β 2 − (E − α)2
tomo π

1 1
d(E) =
π (4β 2 − (E − α)2 )1/2

2
E =∝ +2βcos ka ⇒ (E− ∝) = 4β 2 cos2 ka

1 1 1 N
d E = −2βasenada ⇒ d(E) = D(E) = 1/2
π 2β Senka π4β − (E− ∝)2 |
2

EF
N βcoska
6 6
⇒ Eband = 2 (E− ∝)d(E)dE = 2 (−2βa senka)dk
π2βsen ka π2βsenka
|K|≤KF

βa 4βa sinka KF −4β

6
=− coska dk = − |0 = sinka
π π a π
|k|≤KF

4 |β| senka
=
π
 m

∂Ebanda 7 ∂Hmn ∅Hnm

= ρnm + ρmn .
∂xm ∂xm ∂xm
n̸=m

77 6 EF
Eband = ρji HIJ =2 ED(E) dE
i j

KE
a
6
ρmn = eika(Rn−Rm)a dk
π KE=−K1

7
Eband = ρjj Hjj + ρij Hji
i̸=j

∂ ∂ 7
= (Eband ) = ρjn HRijm + ρAijn Hjn =
∂xm ∂xm
m̸=j

7 ∂ ∂ ∂
= ρmn Hnm + ρnm Hnm + ρnm Hmn
∂xm ∂xm ∂xm
i̸=j

∂
+ρnm Hmn
∂xm

& '
Ki
∂ ∂ a
6
iK.(Rn−Rm)a
pero (ρmn ) = e dK =
∂xm ∂xn π K=−KF

KF KF
a a
6 6
= eiK.(Xn−Xm)a dk = − eik(Xn−Xm)a jka dk
π K=−KF π K=Ki

KF KF
∂ a ∂ jKa2
6 6
(ρnm )− ejk(Xm−Xn)a d/∝ = eik.(Xm−Xn)a dk
∂xm π K=KF ∂Xm π K=KF
 ∂ ∂
⇒ (ρmn ) = − (ρnm )
∂Xm ∂Xm

∂ 7 ∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ Eband = ρmn Hnm + ρmn Hnm + ρnm Hmn +
∂Xm ∂Xm ∂Xm ∂Xm
i̸=j

∂ 7 ∂ ∂
+ρnm Hnm = ρmn Hnm + ρnm Hmn
∂Xn ∂Xm ∂Xm
i̸=j

s
β
(ξ x , 0, 0) x, y, z

x s
4β/eξx e
| β |= 1eV ξx = 1 m−1 s = 4m

E (K) =∝ +2β (cos (Kx a) + cos (Ky a) + cos (KZ a))

2π 1
vk = ∇k E(k) = ∇k E(k)
h !

1 $ $ %%
vk = ∇k ∝ +2β cos (kx a) î + cos(ky a)ĵ + cos (kz a) k̂
!

−a $ %
= 2β sen (kx a) î + sen(ky a)ĵ + sen (kz a) k̂
!
⇒

F = −eE

Fx = eEx

εt Ex t
⇒ adems k = k0 + = kx = k0x +
! !
 dx = v(k)x dt

2
vx = aβ sen kx a
!

! ! ""
−2a Ex t
= βsen a k0 +
! !

sena k0 E!X t = sen2a

- .
periodo

!
⇒ T = (2π − k0 )
Ex a

! "
T k0 !
⇒ = π− k0 = 0
2 2 aEx

T /2 ! ! ""
−2 EX t
6
x= aβsen a k0 + dt
u ! !

EX t
- .
2! βcosa k0 + ! T /2
=+ a |0
! a Ex

2 cosπ − cos0 4β
x= β =
−eEx eEx

−1
si |β| = 1eV Ex = 1V m

4 1e v
⇒x= = 4m
1.1eV m−1
 a
s
α β(β < 0).

E(k) = α + 4β(cos(kx a/2)cos(ky a/2) + cos(ky a/2)cos(kz a/2)

+cos(kz a/2)cos(kx a/2)).

E(k)

E(k) = α + 12β − βa2 k 2 .

E(k)

√ R1 = a (i+j) R2 = a (i−j)
∂r = a/ 2 XY |R3 = a2 (−i−j) R42= a (−i+j)
2 2

xy

R = a (i+k) R5 −a
2 (i+k)
xz |R64 = a2 (−i−k) R7 = a2 (i+k)
2

R = a (j+k) R9 = a
2 (j−k)
Y z |R810 =2a (−j−k) R11 = a
2 2 (−j+k)

H/Ψk ⟩ = E (k) /Ψx ⟩ =

 1 7
|Ψk ⟩ = 1/2
eik•Rn |Rn ⟩
N3 j

a
R0 = √
2
(0, 0, 0)

⇒ ⟨R0 |H |Ψk ⟩ = E (k) ⟨R0 |Ψk ⟩ = E (k)

∞
7
E (k) = ⟨R0 |H| Rn ⟩ eik•Rn =
n=0

#
#
# ∝ m=j
⟨Rj |H| Rjn ⟩ = #
# β j < m " j + 12
# 0 en otro caso

= ⟨R0 |H| R0 ⟩ eik∆R0 + ⟨R0 |H| R1 ⟩ eiK∆R1 + ⟨R0 |H| R2 ⟩ eik.∆R2 +

+ ⟨R0 |H| R3 ⟩ eik∆R3 + ⟨R0 |H| R4 ⟩ eik∆R4 + ⟨R0 |H| R5 ⟩ eik∆R5 +

⟨R0 |H| R6 ⟩ eik∆R6 + ⟨R0 |H| R7 ⟩ eik∆R7 + ⟨R0 |H| R8 ⟩ eik∆r8 +

⟨R0 |H| R9 ⟩ik∆R9 + ⟨R0 |H| R10 ⟩ eik∆R10 + ⟨R0 |H| R11 ⟩ eik∆R11 +

⟨R0 |H| R12 ⟩ eik∆R12

K∆R0 = 0

a a a
K∆R1 = (kx , ky , kz ) (110) = (kx + ky ) K∆R5 = (Kx + Kz )
2 2 2

a a
K∆R2 = (Kx − Ky ) K∆R6 = (Kx − Kz )
2 2

a a
K∆R3 = (−Kx − Ky ) K∆R7 = (−Kx − Kz )
2 2

a a
K.R4 = (−Kx + Ky ) K.R8 = (−Kx + K−z )
2 2
 a a a
K∆R9 = (Ky + Kz ) K∆R10 (Ky − Kz ) K1 R10 = (−Ky − Kz )
2 2 2

a
K∆R12 = (−Ky + Kz )
2

$ a a a
E (k) =∝ +β ei 2 (kx +ky ) + ei 2 (kx −ky ) + ei 2 (−Kx −Ky ) +

a a a
+ei 2 (−kx +ky ) + ei 2 (kx +kz ) + ei 2 (kz −ky ) +
a a a a
+ei 2 (−kx −kz ) + ei 2 (−kx +kz ) + ei 2 (ky +kz ) + ei 2 (ky −kz )

a a
+ei 2 (−ky −kz ) + ei 2 (−ky +kz ) )=

$ a a
$ a %%
=∝ +β ( ei 2 kx 2cos (ky a/2) + e−i 2 kx cos k +
2

a kz a a kz a
+ei 2 kx 2cos + e−i 2 k2 kx cos +
2 2

a kz a a kz a
+ei 2 ky cos + e−i 2 ky cos )
2 2

" ! ! ! "" ! "

kx a kz a kx a
E (K) =∝ +2β [ (cos (ky a/2)) 2cos + cos 2cos
2 2 2
! ! "" ! "
kz a ky a
+ cos 2cos ]
2 2
* +
kx a ky a kx a kz a ky a kz a
E (k) =∝ +4β cos cos + cos cos + cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2

E (k)

E (k) =∝ +12β − βa2 k 2

2 2
cosθ ≃ 1 − θ2! = 1 − θ2
" & '!
a2 ky2 a2 kx2 a2 - 2 . a4 ky2 kx2
! " ! "
ky a kx a
cos cos ≃ 1− 1− 1− Kx + Ky2 +
2 2 4 4 8 18
 a2 kx a2 kz2 a4 - 2 . a4
! " ! " ! "! "
Kx a kz a
cos cos ≃ 1− 1− = 1− kx + ky2 + k 2x kz2
2 2 4 4 8 46

& '!
a2 ky2 a2 kz2 a2 - 2 . a4
! " ! " "
ky a kz a
cos cos ≃ 1− 1− = 1− ky + kz2 + ky2 kz2
2 4 4 2 8 46

! " ! " ! " ! "

kx a ky a kx a kz a ky a Kz a
⇒ cos cos + cos cos + cos cos ≃
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
a2 - 2 a2 |k|
kx + ky2 + kz2 = 3 −
.
≃3−
4 4
* ! " ! " ! " ! "
kx a Ky a kx a Kz a
⇒ E (k) =∝ +4β cos cos + cos cos
2 2 2 2
! " ! "
ky a kz a
+cos cos ]≃
2 2

a2
! "
4
≃∝ +4β 3 − |K|2 =∝ +12β − a2 βk 2
4 4

2
k 2 = |K|

E (k) ≃∝ +12β − a2 βk 2

|kF | ≪ 1

! "1/2 1/2
E− ∝ −12β (E − (∝ +12β))
k= =
−a2 β a |β|1/2

2
∇k E (k) = ∇k ∝ +12β − a2 βk 2 = −2a βk
- .

$ a %3 6 ds $ a %3 6 8πkdk
⇒ d (E) = = =
2π |∇k E (k)| 2π 2a2 |β| k
 & '
1/2 1/2
a k a (E − (∝ +12β)) (E − (∝ +12β))
= 2 = 2 1/2
= 3/2
= d (E)
2π |β| 2π |β| a |β| 2π 2 |β|

⇒ EL max y min de E (k)

E (k)min =∝ +12β ki = 0

i = x, y, z β<0

π
E (k)max =∝ −12β ki =
∝

(1)
µ(k) = 0

(2)
µ(k) = 4x3 = 12

(3)
µ(k) = 4∆2 = 8

EA A EB
B EA > EB
β

1 7$ (n) (n)
%
|ψ n (k)⟩ = 1/2
cA (k) |Rm , A⟩ + cA (k) |Rm + τ, B⟩ eik·Rm
N3

n n=1 n=2
N3 Rm
m − simo τ B
a
A τ 2 [100]
# a 5 #
H #ψ (n) (k) = E (n) (k) #ψ (n) (k)
5
|0, A⟩ |τ, B⟩

(n) (n)
(EA − E (n) (k))cA (k) + f (k)cB (k) = 0
 (n) (n)
f (k)cA (k) + (EB − E (n) (k))cB (k) = 0

kx a ky a kz a
f (k) = 2β(cos + cos + cos )
2 2 2

E (1) (k) = ε − (∆2 + f 2 (k))1/2

E (2) (k) = ε − (∆2 + f 2 (k))1/2

ε = (EA +EB )/2 ∆ = EA −EB )/2

⟨A |H| A⟩ = εA ⟨B |H| B⟩ = εB

εA > εB
# I
#
# (n) 1 7 M (n) # B
(n)
N
#Ψ (k) = 1/2 CA (k) #Rm , A +CB (k) |Rm + τ, B ⟩ eik∆Rm
#
# N3 m
# B #
H #Ψ(n) (k) = E (n) (k) #Ψ(n) (k) ⟩
# #

a
τ= [100]
2
7 $ (n) (n)
% 7 $ (n) %
⇒ CA (k) H |Rm , A ⟩ + CB (k) H |Rm + τ, B ⟩ eik∆Rm = E (n) (k) CA (k) |Rm , A ⟩+ +
m m

(n)
+C (k) #Rm + τ, B eik∆Rm
# 5.
B

⟨0, a|
7$ (n)
%
(n)
CA (k) ⟨0, A |H| Rm , A⟩ + CB (k) ⟨0, A |H| Rm + τ, B⟩ ) eik∆Rm =
m

7$ (n) (n)
%
= E (n) (k) CA (k) ⟨0, A |Rm , A ⟩ + CB (k) ⟨0, A |Rm + τ, B ⟩ eik∆Rm
m
 ⟨r + T |Ψ (k) ⟩ = eik∆T u (k)

⟨0, A |H| Rm + τ, B⟩ = eik∆τ ⟨0, A |H| Rm , B⟩ )

(n) (n) (n)

CA (k) εA + CB (k) βeik∆τ = E (n) (k) cA
a a −a a
τ= [100] = (±1, 0, 0) = (0, ±1, 0) = (0, 0 ± 1)
2 2 2 2
a a a
eik∆τ = eik∆,zj = ei 2 kx + ei 2 ky + ei 2 kz +
D
⇒ j
a a a
e−i 2 kx + e−i 2 ky + e−i 2 kz
kx a ky a kz a
= 2cos + 2cos + 2cos
2 2 2
! "
kx a ky a kz a
= 2 cos + 2cos + 2cos
2 2 2

! "
kx a ky a kz a
2β cos + cos + cos = f (k)
2 2 2
(n) (n)
⇒ CA (k) εA − E (n) (k) + f (k) CB (k) = 0
- .

⟨τ, B |
7$ (n)
%
(n)
CA (k) ⟨τ, B |H| Rm , A⟩ + ⟨τ, B |H| Rm + τ, B⟩ CB (k) =
m

(n) (n)
7
= E (n) (k) CA (k) ⟨τ, B | Rm , A⟩ + CA (k) ⟨τ, B | Rm + τ, B⟩
m

a a a a
τ= [1, 0, 0] = (±1, 0, 0) = (0, ±1, 0) = (0, 0, ±1)
2 2 2 2
a a a a a a a
7
eik∆τ = eik∆τj = ei 2 kx + eiky 2 + eikz 2 + e−ikz 2 + e−ikx 2 k + e−iky 2 + e−ikz 2
j

kx a ky a kz a
= 2cos + 2cos + 2cos
2 2 2

⟨τ, B |H| 0, A⟩ = eik∆τ ⟨0, B |H| 0, A⟩ = eik∆τ β =

 ! "
kx a ky a kz a
= 2β cos + cos + cos = f (x)
2 2 2

$ %
(n) (n)
f (x)CA (k) + εB − E (n) (k) CB (k) = 0

$ %
(n) (n)
E (n) (k) − εA CA (k) + f (k) CB (k) = 0

$ %
(n) (n)
f (k) CA (k) + E (n) (k) − εB CB (k) = 0

# (n) # $
# E (k) − εA f (k) %$ %
# = E (n) (k) − εA E (n) (k) − εB −f (k)2 =
#
#
# f (k) E (n) (k) − εB #

2
= E (n) (k) − E (n) (k) (εA + εB ) − f 2 (k) + εA εB

F
2
(εA + εB ) ± (εA + εB ) + 4f 2 (k) − 4εA εB
E (n) (k) =
2

L! "2
εA + εB εA + εB .1/2
+ f 2 (k) = ε ± △2 + f 2 (k)
-
= ±
2 2

.1/2
⇒ E (1) (k) = ε + △2 + f 2 (k)
-
= εantibonding

.1/2
E (2) (k) = ε − △2 + f 2 (k)
-
= εbonding

k=0
kj a
cos = 1 kj = 0 j = x, y, z
2
$ %1/2
⇒ E (1) (k) = ε + △2 + (6β)2
$ %1/2
2
E (2) (k) = ε − △2 + (6β)
 $ %1/2
2
E (1) (k) − E (2) (k) = 2 △2 + (6β)

π
kx = ky = kz = ±
a

kj a π
cos =0 kj = ± j = x, y, z
2 a

E (1) (k = ±π/a) = ε + △

E (2) (k = ±π/a) = ε − △

AE = E (1) − E (2) = 2△

2△ = εA − εB

(0)
µ(k) = 1
(1)
µ(k) = 0
(2)
µ(k) = 8∆1 = 8
(3)
µ(k) = 8∆1∆1 = 8

(ssσ) − 2 31/2 (spσ) − 3 (ppσ)

- .
β1 =
4
εs − εp
∆=
4
sp3

1$ √ %
h= |s⟩ + 3 (| px ⟩ + |py ⟩+ | pz ⟩)
2
 1$ √
h2 = |s⟩ + 3 (|px ⟩− |py ⟩−pz ⟩ )
2

1 $C ## √ √ √ %$ √ √ √ %
β1 = ⟨h2 |H| h1 ⟩ = s #+ 3 ⟨px | − 3 ⟨py | − 3 ⟨pz | H |s⟩ + 3H |px ⟩ + 3H |py ⟩ + 3H |pz ⟩
4

1 √ √ √ √
= (⟨s |H| s⟩) + ⟨s |H| px ⟩ 3 + ⟨s |H| py ⟩ 3 + ⟨s |H| pz ⟩ 3 + ⟨px |H| s⟩ 3
4

+3 ⟨px |H| px ⟩ + 3 ⟨px |H| py ⟩ + 3 ⟨px |H| pz ⟩ −

√
− 3 ⟨py |H| s⟩ − 3 ⟨py |H| px ⟩ − 3 ⟨py |H| py ⟩ − 3 ⟨py |H| pz ⟩ −
√
− 3 ⟨pz |H| s⟩ − 3 ⟨pz |H| px ⟩ − 3 ⟨pz |H| py ⟩ − 3 ⟨pz |H| pz ⟩ =

1$ %
= (ssσ) − 231/2 (spσ) + 3 (ppπ) − 3 (ppπ) − 3 (ppπ)
4

1M N
= (ssσ) − 231/2 (spσ) − 3 (ppπ)
4
⟨hi |H| hj ⟩ = ∆ j ̸= j

# E
# 1
⇒ ##h1 = (|s ⟩+ |px ⟩+ |py ⟩+ |pz ⟩)
2
# E
#h1 = 1 (|s ⟩+ |px ⟩− |py ⟩− |pz ⟩)
#
# 2

1
= ⟨h2 |H| h1 ⟩ = (⟨s| + ⟨px | − ⟨py | − ⟨pz |) (H |s⟩ + H |px ⟩ + H |py ⟩ + H |pz ⟩)
4
1
= (⟨s |H| s ⟩+ ⟨s |H| px ⟩ + ⟨s |H| py ⟩ + ⟨s |H| pz ⟩ +
4
+ ⟨px |H| s⟩ + ⟨px |H| px ⟩ + ⟨px |H| py ⟩ + ⟨px |H| pz ⟩

− ⟨py |H| s⟩ − ⟨py |H| px ⟩ − ⟨py |H| py ⟩ − ⟨py |H| pz ⟩

− ⟨pz |H| s⟩ − ⟨pz |H| px ⟩ − ⟨pz |H| py ⟩ − ⟨pz |H| pz ⟩

 1
= (Ep − Ep )
4

T0
∼ kT,

T0
T0 Fe Fe
△x △ p # ! tenemoscasolimite

△x △ p ≃ ! △x=1

! ! ! 6.26x10−34J.s
⇒ △p = = = = = 6.626x10−24Kgm/s
△x 1 1x10−10 m 1x10−10 m
p2
Ek = 2m mH = 1.6736x10−27kg

Ek = 1.3116597775x10−20J

Ek = kT

Ek
T = = 949.7898443 k = 949.79k
k

b.c.c

R1 = a2 (111) R5 = a2 (11 − 1)
R2 = a2 (−111) R6 = a2 (−11 − 1)
R3 = a2 (−1 − 11) R7 = a2 (−1 − 1 − 1)
R4 = a2 (1 − 11) R8 = a2 (1 − 1 − 1)

# I # I
# # 1 7
H #Ψ (k) = E (k) (k) |Ψ (k) ⟩
# (k)
#Ψ (k) = eik∆R |Rm
#
1/2
# # (N3 ) m

⇒ ⟨R0 |H| R0 ⟩ =∝

⟨R |H| Rj ⟩ = β j = 1, .., 8
 $ a
⇒ ⟨R0 |H| Ψ (k)⟩ = ⟨R0 |H| R0 ⟩ + β ei 2 (kx +ky +kz ) +

a a a a
+ei 2 (−kx +ky +kz ) + ei 2 (−kx −ky +kz ) + ei 2 (kx −ky +kz ) + ei 2 (kx +ky −kz )

a
+ei 2 (−kx +ky −kz ) + e(−kx −ky −kz ) +

a
+ei 2 (kx −ky −kz ) )

$ a $ a a a a
=∝ +β ei 2 kz ei 2 ky 2cos kx + e−i 2 ky 2cos kx )+
2 2
$ a a a a a
+ e−i 2 kz ( ei 2 ky 2cos kx + e−i 2 ky 2cos kx ))=
2 2
$ a a a% a a a
=∝ +β 2cos kx 2cosky 2coskz =∝ +8βcos kx cos ky cos kz
2 2 2 2 2 2

V
EF
∂EF
∂V = − 2E
3V
F

3E/5
2ET /(3V ), Er

10ET /(9V ).
0K

EF
1
6
⟨E⟩ = ED(E)dE
N 0

EF
1 E4πV m
6
1/2
⟨E⟩ = (2mE) dE
N 0 h3

EF
2V π
6
3/2
⟨E⟩ = (2mE) dE
N h3 0

EF
2V π
6
3/2 3/2
⟨E⟩ = (2m) E dE
N h3 0
 3 3/2 1/2
4πL m 2 2 5/2 ET
⟨E⟩ = ( EF ) =
N h3 5 2

2 2
h k
E=
8π 2 m

& 2
'1/3
3π N
k=
V

31
⟨E⟩ = EF
52
−
2e
3
⟨E⟩ = EF
5

H I O kF 2 2 2
2 2 h k
h k 0 2m 4πk dk
⟨E⟩ = = O kF
2m 4πk 2 dk
0

2 5
h kF
2m 4π 5
⟨E⟩ = 3
4π k3
2
h 3kF2 3
⟨E⟩ = = kF
2m 5 5

J E
!k 3
⟨v⟩ = = VF
m 4

! "
∂P
B = −V
∂V T
 ∂E 2 EF
P =− =
∂V 3 V

! "
2 EF ∂E 1
B = −V − 2 +
3 V ∂V V
! "
10 EF
B=
9 V

K = [0, 0, 0] K = (2π/a)[1, 0, 0]
a
2π 2m 2m
banda a c !2 E (k00) !2 E (kx , 0, 0)
1 (0, 0, 0) 0 kx2
- π .2 2 - π .2 - .2
2 (±1/2, 0, ±1/2) y (±1/2, ±1/2, 0) a- .î + a- .(ĵ, k̂)
2
(kx ± a ) + πa
π 2

π 2 π 2 - .2
3 (0, ±1/2, ±1/2) a -ĵ +
2
k̂ 2 k 2 + 2 πa
. a
π 2 2
.2
k ± 2π
-
4 (±1, 0, 0) 2 î
- 2π .a2 a
- .2
5 (0, ±1, 0) y (0, 0, ±1) (ĵ, k̂)2 k 2 + 2π
- 2π .2 2a - 2π .2 2
a -
2π 2
(ĵ, k̂)2 k ± 2π
- . .
6 (±1, ±1, 0) y (±1, 0, ±1) î + +
-a 2π .2 2 a- 2π .2 2 a - .2 a
7 (0, ±1, ±1) ĵ + k̂ k 2 + 2 2π
- 2π .2 2a - 2π .2 2a - 2π .2 2 a-
2π 2
k ± 2π
- . .
8 (±1, ±1, ±1) a î + a ĵ + a k̂ a + 2 a

2
|G| = 0
- .2 .2 - .2
|G|2 = 2 πa k ± πa + 2 πa
-
- .2
k 2 + 2 πa
2 - .2 2π 2
|G| = 2π
- .
a k± a
- .2
k 2 + 2π
#a 2 #
#G # = 2 2π 2 2π 2
- . - . - 2π .2
k+ +
- a .2 a a
k 2 + 2 2π
- a.2 .2 - .2
|G|2 = 3 2π k ± 2 πa + 2 2π
-
a a

ξ(r)
ψ(r)
ξ(r)
7
ψ=ξ+ ac φc
c
 φc ac

ac = ⟨φc | ξ⟩
ψ
ψ H |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩
7
H |ξ⟩ + (E − Ec |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

H |φc ⟩ = Ec |φc ⟩ H
T V,

& '
7
T |ξ⟩ + V + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | |ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

7
(E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc |
c
D
c (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc |

|ξ⟩

E,

H |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩
⟨ψ|
(E − Ec )

|Ψ ⟩
⟨Ψ |Ψ ⟩ = 1 |Ψ ⟩
7
Ψ⟩ = |Ψi ⟩
i

2
1i=j
⟨Ψi |Ψj ⟩ = δij
̸ j
0i=
 D |φc ⟩
⟨φc |Ψ|⟩ = ⟨φc |(|ξ ⟩+ a
c c |φc ⟩ )
|φc ⟩
7
⟨φc |ξ ⟩ + ac ⟨φc |φl ⟩= ⟨φc |ξ ⟩ + a0 ⟨φc |φc )
c

⟨φc |ξ ⟩ + ac = ⟨φc |ξ ⟩ + a0

|Ψ ⟩ ⟨φc |Ψ ⟩ = 0 c

0 = ⟨φc |ξ ⟩ + ac

ac = − ⟨φc |ξ ⟩

H |Ψ ⟩= E |Ψ ⟩
H |φc ⟩= Ec | φc ⟩
# I # I # I # I
# # 7 # # 7
H #Ψ = E #ξ + ac H #φc = E #E + ac E |φc ⟩=
# # # #
# # c
# # c

# I
# 7
⇒ H #ξ + ac (EC − E) |φc ⟩= E |ξ ⟩
#
#
c

# I
# 7
⇒ H #ξ + (EC − E) ac |φc ⟩= E |ξ ⟩
#
#
c

# I
# 7
H #ξ + (Ec − E) |φc ⟩ac = E |ξ ⟩
#
# c

ac = − ⟨φc |ξ ⟩
# I
# 7
⇒ H #ξ + (EC − E) |φc ⟩(− ⟨φc |ξ ⟩) = E |ξ ⟩
#
#
c

# I
# 7
⇒ H #ξ + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc |ξ ⟩ = E |ξ ⟩♯
#
# c

H =T +V
 & ' & '
7
⇒ T +V |ξ⟩ + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | |ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

& '
7
⇒ T |ξ⟩ + V |ξ⟩ + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | |ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

& '
7
⇒ T |ξ⟩ + V + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | |ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

7
⇒V + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc |
c
D
⇒ c (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | ⟩ 0
⇒ Ec ⟨E E Ec

|φc ⟩ ⟨φc |

mxm ⟩0
& '
7
T |ξ⟩ + V + (E − Ec ) |φc ⟩ ⟨φc | |ξ⟩ = E |ξ⟩
c

⟨Ψ|

⟨φc |Ψ ⟩ = ⟨φc |Ψ ⟩ = 0

7
⟨Ψ |T | ξ⟩ + ⟨Ψ |V | ξ⟩ + (E − Ec ) ⟨Ψ |φc ⟩ ⟨φc |ξ ⟩ = ⟨Ψ |E| ξ⟩
c

∗ ∗
⟨Ψ| = |Ψ⟩ |ξ⟩ = ⟨ξ| H∗ = H

⟨ξ |H| Ψ⟩ = ⟨ξ |E| Ψ⟩

H |Ψ⟩ = E |Ψ⟩

(E − Ec )
|Ψ⟩
 fn
n En

1
fn =
1 + exp((En − EF )/kT

Ef k

7
S = −k fn lnfn + (1 − fn )ln(1 − fn ),
n

A A = U −TS

7
U= fn En
n

A
7
A = N EF − kT ln(1 + exp((EF − En )/kT ))
n

∂A
−( ∂V )T
EF

A = U − TS

7 7
= fn En − T (−k) fn ln (fn ) + (1 − fn ) ln (1 − fn )
n

7 7
= fn En + T K fn ln (fn ) + ln (1 − fn ) − fn ln (1 − fn )
n
! "
7 7 fn
= fn En + KT fn ln + ln (1 − fn )
n n
1 − fn

1 + exp EnKT
- −E .
1 F
−1
1 − fn = 1 − - En −EF . = - En −EF .
1 + exp KT 1 + exp KT
 $1 %
En −EF ! "
fn 1+exp KT EF − En
= $ % = exp
1 − fn exp
En −EF
KT
KT
$ %
En −EF
1+exp KT

& - En −EF . '

exp
! ! ""
En − EF
ln (1 − fn ) = ln - KT
En −EF
. = ln exp −
1 + exp KT
KT

! ! "" ! ! ""
En − EF En − EF En − EF
−ln 1 + exp = −ln 1 + exp = ln (1 − fn )
KT KT KT

! ! "! ""
fn EF − En EF − En
ln = ln exp =
1 − fn KT KT
! "
7 7 fn
△= fn En + T K fn ln + ln (1 − fn )
n n
1 − fn

! " ! ! ""
7 7 EF − En En − EF En − EF
= fn En + KT fn + − ln 1 + exp
n n
KT KT KT

! ! ""
7 7 7 7 En − EF
== fn EF + En − EF − KT ln 1 + exp
n n n n
KT

* +
En − EF 1
exp =- - EF −En ..
KT exp KT

! "
En − EF 1
1 + exp =1+ - EF −En .
KT exp KT

exp (EF − En ) + 1
=
exp EFKT
- −En .

& - −En . '

1 + exp EFKT
! "
En − EF
= ln 1 + exp = ln =
exp EFKT
- −E .
KT n

! " ! "
EF − En EF − En
= ln 1 + exp − ln exp =
KT KT
 ! "
EF − En EF En
= ln 1 + exp − +
KT KT KT

!
EF − En
"
7 7 7 7 En En
△= fn EF + En − EF − KT ln 1 + exp − +
n n n n
KT KT KT

! "
7 7 EF − En
△= fn EF − KT ln 1 + exp
n n
KT

fn
En

7
fn = N
n

7 7 En
U= fn En =
1 + exp EnKT
- −EF .
n n

7 7 EF nE
U= fn EF = - En −EF . = n = 2N
n n
1 + exp KT
2

7 2N En
fn En = = N En
n
2

! " ! 7 ! ! """
∂△ ∂ EF − En
P =− =− N EF − KT ln 1 + exp =
∂V T ∂V KT T

! ! ""
N∂ 7 ∂ EF − En
= EF + KT ln 1 + exp =
∂V ∂V KT

7 exp EF −En
- . ! "
2 N EF KT 1 ∂EF ∂En
= + KT −
1 + exp EFKT
- −E .
3 V n
n KT ∂V ∂V

En V
∂En
=0
∂V
 2 EF 7 exp EFKT
- −E .
2 N EF n

p= − - EF −En .
3 V 3 V n 1 + exp KT
-E
F −En $ 1
.
exp KT = En −EF
%
exp KT

! "
EF − En 1
1 + exp =1+ - En −EF . =
KT exp KT

1 + exp EnKT
- −E .
F

= - En −EF .
exp KT

-E $ 1
F −En
%
En −EF
.
exp exp KT 1
- KT −En . = = - En −EF . = fn
exp EFKT
$ %
En −EK
1+ 1+exp KT 1 + exp KT
$ %
En −EK
exp KT

& - En −EF . '

2 EF 7 exp
p= N− - KT
EF −En
.
3 V n
1 + exp KT

& '
2 EF 7 1
= N− -E
n −EF
.
3 V n
1 + exp KT

1
fn = - En −EF .
1 + exp KT

& '
2 EF 7
p= N− fn =0
3 V n

dv v
m + m = −eξ
dt τ
ξ = ξ0 eiwt
w
! "
1 − iwτ
σ(w) = σ(0)
1 + (wτ )2
 σ(0) = ne2 τ /m.
σ(w).
j = −nev = σξ
dv v eξ
+ =
dt τ m

1
6
µ(t) = exp dt = et/τ
τ

! "
t/τ dv v eξ
e + = − et/τ
dt τ m
! t/τ "
de eξ
v = − et/τ
dt m
ξ = ξ0 eiwt
eξ0 t( τ1 +iw )
=− e
m
* ! "+
d $ t/τ % eξ0 1 + iwτ
e v =− exp t
dt m τ
* ! "+
d $ t/τ % eξ0 1 + iwτ
6 6
e v dt = − exp t dt
dt m τ
* ! "+
t/τ eξ0 τ 1 + iwτ
⇒e v=− exp t
m 1 + iwτ τ

eξ0 τ eξ0 iwt 1 − iwτ

exp iwt = −
( )
⇒v=− τe 2
m (1 + iwτ ) m 1 + (wτ )

ξ0 τ (1 − iwτ ) iwt
⇒ j = −env = e2 n $ %e = σξ = σε0 eiwt
m 1 + (wτ )2

ne2 (1 − iwτ ) (1 − iwτ )

σ= τ 2
= σ0
m (1 + (iwτ ) ) (1 + (wτ )2 )

Ag

100
 +∞

h2
− ▽2 ψ = Eψ
8π 2 m
ac

h2
Ec = (n2 + n2y + n2z )
8ma2c x
nx ny , nz ≥ 1.

3 1/3
aS = ( ) ac
4π

d2 R 2 dR l(l + 1)
+ − R+R =0
dρ2 ρ dρ ρ2
ρ = kr

8π 2 mE
k2 =
h2
l (= 0, 1, 2, ...).
R=0 r = aS
ρ
l

R = Ajl (ρ)
 A E

jl (kan ) = 0

jl (ρ) ρ
l. n = 1, 2, 3...
ρ

h2
8ma2c

1
(Ψk (r)) = V 1/2 eik∆r
k = (kx , ky , kz ) r = (rx , ry , rz )
⇒k∆r = (kx yx + ky ry + kz rz )

∂ 2 Ψk (r) ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 Ψk (r) = = 2 Ψk (r) + 2 Ψk (r) + 2 Ψy (r)
∂r ∂rx ∂ry ∂rz

∂ ∂ 1 i(ky rx +ky ry +kz rz )

⇒ Ψk (r) = e
∂rj ∂rj V 1/2

1
= kj ei(kx rx +ky ry +kz rz ) j = x, y, z
V 1/2

∂2 1
Ψk (r) = − 1/2 kj2 ei(kx rx +ky ry +kz rz )
∂rj2 V

7 ∂2 2
1 - 2 2 2
. (kx rx +ky ry +kz rz ) |k| ik∆r
Ψ k (r) = − k + k + k e = − e
j
∂rj2 V 1/2 x y z
V 1/2

2
!2 − |k| i.k.r 2
⇒− e = Eeik∆r |k| = k 2
2m V 1/2
 !2 k 2 h2 k 2
E=
2m 8π 2 m
3
V = |L|

L = (Lx , Ly , Lz )

Ψk (0) = Ψk (L)

eikx Lx = e0 = 1

eiky Ly =1

eikz Lz = 1
eiθ = cosθ + isenθ

coskj Lj + i sen kj Lj = 1

senkj Lj = 0

nj π
kj =
L

cos kj Lj = 1

2nj π
kj Lj =
Lj

nj
Lj a

L j = ac

2nj # 1
& '
h2 2 h2 4n2x π 2 4n2y π 2 4n2z π 2
E= 2 k = + +
8π m 8π 2 m a2 a2 a2
 1 h2 - 2
nx + n2y + n2z
.
E= 2
8 ma

4 3
πa = a3s
3 s

! "1/2
3
as = ac
4π

⎡ ⎤
77 7 1/2
Ecoh = ε⎣ V (rij ) − c ρi ⎦
i j̸=i i

ε c
i j V (r) rij
i j ρi
φ(r), i
7
ρi = φ(rij )
j

V (r) φ(r)
$ a %n
V (r) =
r

$ a %m
φ(r) =
r
a m n
n > m ≥ 4.

a
r
a
c

nSnf
c=
m(Snf )1/2

Snf
7 ! a "n
Snf =
rij
j̸=i

e εSnf
Ecoh = [2n − m]
2m

(2n − m)nεSnf
B=
36Ω
Ω (a3 /4).

ρ
ρ ρ0 . ρ1/2 ρ = ρ0

1
ρ1/2 ≈ (ρ0 )1/2 + (ρ − ρ0 ).
20 )1/2

nSnf $ a %m
2$ % 3
a n
V ef (r) = ε − .
r mSnf r

β
 εa εB εA > εB

εB − εA > 2z |β| .

7
|ψ⟩ = ai |i⟩
i

|i⟩ i ai
H |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩

|ai |
|E − εj | ≤ |β|
|aj |

j j
|aj | ≥ |ai | i

|E − εj | ≤ z |β| .

εA − z |β| ≤ E ≤ εA + z |β|

εB − z |β| ≤ E ≤ εB + z |β|

z β