Module 1

Atom and Chemical

Reaction
Unit 1 Atom
Unit 2 Chemical Reaction
 Unit 1
Atom
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Attempt made by Democritus
3.3 Attempt made by John Dalton
3.3 Attempt made by J.J Thomson
3.4 Attempt made by Thomson’s Atomic Model
3.6 Attempt made by Ernest Rutherford
3.5 Attempt made by Niels Bohr
3.6 Attempt made by Erwin Schrödinger
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Mark Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
The atom is the basic unit of matter and serves as our starting point for the study of chemistry.
The atom is composed of the subatomic particles protons, neutrons, and electrons. Scientists
have studied atoms for hundreds of years and have developed a number of different models to
describe them, as experimental technology has improved and new discoveries have been made.
Models of atoms were postulated and discarded before the right one was discovered. In this
module you will be expose to the various atomic models that are posted and discarded until the
final one was accepted.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. List out the various scientists who attempted to explain Atom.
2. State the name of scientist that discovered neutron
3. Write with at least 70% accuracy, brief accounts of the attempts made by the two scientists
and the result of these attempts.
4. Explain William Thomson’s Atomic Model
5. State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
6. Explain the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Attempt made by Democritus
Democritus was a Greek philosopher who was the first person to use the term atom (atomos:
meaning indivisible). He thought that if you take a piece of matter and divide it and continue
to divide it you will eventually come to a point where you could not divide it any more. This
fundamental or basic unit was what Democritus called an atom.
He called this the theory of the universe: All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of matter
too small to be seen.
He assumes that:
1. There is an empty space between atoms
2. Atoms are completely solid
3. Atoms have no internal structure
4. Each atom (of a different substance) is different in size, weight and shape.
Interestingly, these thought about atoms are philosophical concepts, but apparently never
considered performing experiments to test their ideas.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. Define atom?
2. What is the major contribution of Democritus to the development of atom ?

3.2 Attempt made by John Dalton

John Dalton was the first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the first modern atomic model.
He assumes that:
1. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can participate in a chemical change.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed, but are instead rearranged to yield
substances that are different from those present before the change
3. Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms
4. When elements react, it is their atoms that have combined to form new
compounds.
5. The atoms of an element are identical in all respects, i.e. size, mass, density,
chemical properties, but they differ from the atoms of other elements.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1. Who was the first scientist that first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the first modern
atomic model?
2. What are the major findings of John Dalton in the development of modem atomic
model?
3.3 Attempt made by J.J Thomson and Robert Millikan
Joseph John Thomson was a British physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the
discovery of the electron, the first subatomic particle to be discovered. He used his research on
cathode ray tube (Figure1) technology in this discovery.
Figure 1: Cathode Ray Tube

Deflection of Cathode Rays by an Electric Field. As the cathode rays travel toward the right,
they are deflected toward the positive electrode (+), demonstrating that they are negatively
charged.

How does this Tube Work?

1. Nearly Empty tube (Air has been sucked out)
2. An electric charge is passed through the tube. Travels from cathode to anode
3. The charge is invisible, so to see where it traveled a fluorescent screen is placed at
back of tube. Where the beam hits, a dot will appear on the screen. You could also
use a fluorescent gas and the whole tube will light up.
4. This beam will always travel straight if not interfered with.
5. The deflection coils each has a specific charge. One is positive and the other is
negative.
6. Thomson showed that the charge would deflect away from the negative coil. He then
stated that this charge was thus a negative charge.
J .J Thomson also predict the mass of the negative charge he discovered. He then found out
that this charge was 1000 times lighter that a hydrogen atom. He made a bold statement
saying that this negative charge must be inside an atom. This negative charge (he called
corpuscles) later became known as the electron.
Subsequently, the American scientist Robert Millikan (1868–1953) carried out a series of
experiments using electrically charged oil droplets, which allowed him to calculate the
charge on a single electron. With this information and Thomson’s mass-to-charge ratio,
Millikan determined the mass of an electron:
 It was at this point that two separate lines of investigation began to converge, both aimed at
determining how and why matter emits energy.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Give the name of the scientist that discovered the electron in an atom.
2. Which scientist calculate the charge on a single electron. .
3.4 Thomson’s William Atomic Model

Using what he had discovered, Thomson predicted what an atom should look like. These are
the key points to Thomson’s Atomic Model:
Thomson atomic model was proposed by William Thomson in the year 1900. This model
explained the description of an inner structure of the atom theoretically. It was strongly
supported by Joseph John Thomson, who had discovered the electron earlier.
Some of the Assumptions of Thomson’s Atomic Model
1. Because of its design this model is known as the plum pudding model
2. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it
Postulate
3. An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are
equal in magnitude

Figure 2: Thomson’s Atomic Model

Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
i. It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to explain
how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom. Therefore,
This theory also failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an atom
ii. Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils
iii. No experimental evidence in its support

Self-Assessment Exercise 4
 State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model

3.5 Attempt made by Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford was not convinced about the model of the atom proposed by Thomson. He
thus set up his now famous Gold Foil Experiment.
The atom, as described by Ernest Rutherford, has a tiny, massive core called the nucleus. The
nucleus has a positive charge. Electrons are particles with a negative charge. Electrons orbit
the nucleus. The empty space between the nucleus and the electrons takes up most of the
volume of the atom.
1. He fired alpha particles (positively charged) at a gold foil.
2. He measured the deflection as the particles came out the other side.
3.Most of the particles did not deflect at all. Every now and then a particle would deflect all the
way back.
4. He said that there must be a positive centre of the foil. He called this centre the nucleus.

Figure 3: Rutherford’s Atomic Model (Planetary Model)

1. The nucleus of the atom is a dense mass of positively charged particles.

2. The electrons orbit the nucleus
3. A problem raised was: Why are the negatively charged particles not attracted by the
positively charged nucleus
4. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a mini solar system and that the electrons orbited
the nucleus in a wide orbit. That is why it is known as the planetary model.

Self-Assessment Exercise 5

1.Explain the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?

3.6 Attempt made by Niels Bohr

Niels Bohr agreed with the planetary model of the atom, but also knew that it had a few
limitations. Using his knowledge of energy and quantum physics he was able to perfect
Rutherford’s model. He was able to answer why the electrons did not collapse into the nucleus.

Figure 4: Bohr’S Atomic Model (Rutherford’s - Bohr’S Model)

1.Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy.
2. The lower the energy of the electron, the lower the orbit.
3. This means that as electrons fill up the orbitals, they will fill the lower energy level first.
4. If that energy level is fill (or at capacity), a new energy level will begin.
5. Radiation is when an electron moves from one level to another. Problems with this theory:
Electrons do not travel on a specific orbit or path.

Self-Assessment Exercise 6

1. Explain the Bohr’S Atomic Model (Rutherford’s - Bohr’S Model

3.7 Attempt made by Erwin Schrödinger

Erwin Schrödinger was a revolutionary physicist who used Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle to come up with the atomic model that we still use today. Austrian physicist Erwin
Schrödinger (1887-1961) developed an “Electron Cloud Model” in 1926. It consisted of a
dense nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons at various levels in orbitals. Schrödinger
and Werner Heisenburg (1901-1976) mathematically determined regions in which electrons
would be most likely found. The probability of the finding the electrons in the orbitals are
sometimes referred to as “lobes.” They used the mathematical equations for the behaviour of
waves following the work on waves by Louis de Broglie (1892-1987).
Schrödinger’s Atomic Model (Cloud Model)
1.An electron does not travel in an exact orbit
2. We can predict where it will probably be
3. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought to be.
4.The type of probability orbit is dependent on the energy level described by Bohr
Figure 5: Schrödinger’s Atomic Model (Cloud Model)

Self-Assessment Exercise 7

Do the electron travel in an exact orbit?

4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the Scientists tradition of recording and system knowledge gained through
observations and experiments has enabled us to learn about the discovering of the atoms.
Even some of the assumptions that were not correct were used to further understand the
structure and composition of atoms.
5.0 Summary

In this unit, we have discussed the various contribution of different scientist to the
development of atom. The smallest part of an element is called an atom and each atom (of
an element) is different in structure from other atoms (of other elements). An atom can be
divided in smaller subatomic particles: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons. The nucleus is the
centre of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus. As we go up
the periodic Table, an electron and proton is added. Electrons occupy a certain energy level
(of a certain size). Once the energy level is full, a new level begins. Within each of these
levels are specials types of orbitals. These depend on the energy level. Each orbital can
contain two electrons.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1. What is an atom?
2. List out the various scientists who attempted to explain Atom.
3. Which scientist that discovered neutron
4. What are the assumptions of William Thomson’s Atomic Model
5. State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
6. Explain the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?
7.0 References/Further Reading

Sharma K. K. and Sharma L. K. (2006): A Text of Physical Chemistry, Forth Revised

Edition, Vikas Publishing House, PVT Ltd, New Delhi.
Peter Atkins and Julio de Paula (2010): Atkins’ Physical Chemistry, Ninth Edith, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Thomas Engel and Philip Reid (2006): Physical Chemistry, Pearson, Benjamin
Cummings, San Francisco, U. S.

Unit 2
Chemical Reaction
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Chemical Reaction
3.2 Evidence of chemical reactions
3.3 Writing Chemical Equation
3.4 Reactants and Products
3.5 Coefficients and Subscripts in a Chemical Reaction
3.6 Balancing a Chemical Equation
3.7 Chemical Symbols
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Mark Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The language used in chemistry is seen and heard in many disciplines, ranging from medicine
to engineering to forensics to art. The language of chemistry includes its own vocabulary as
well as its own form of shorthand. Chemical symbols are used to represent atoms and elements.
Chemical formulas depict molecules as well as the composition of compounds. Chemical
equations provide information about the quality and quantity of the changes associated with
chemical reactions. The concept of a chemical reaction dates back about 250 years. It had its
origins in early experiments that classified substances as elements and compounds and in
theories that explained these processes. Development of the concept of a chemical reaction had
a primary role in defining the science of chemistry as it is known today. The concept of
chemical reactions involving the combination of elements clearly emerged from his writing,
and his approach led others to pursue experimental chemistry as a quantitative science. This
unit will lay the foundation for our study of the language of chemistry. The concepts of this
foundation include the understanding of chemical reactions.

2.0 Learning Content

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. Explain Chemical reaction
2. Identify the evidence for chemical reactions
3. Derive chemical equations from narrative descriptions of chemical reactions.
4. Write and balance chemical equations in molecular.
5. Identify the reactants and products in any chemical reaction
6. Convert word equations into chemical equations
7. Use the common symbols such as (g), (l), (s), (aq), and → appropriately when writing
a chemical reaction.
8. Explain the roles of subscripts and coefficients in chemical equations.
9. Balance a chemical equation when given the unbalanced equation.
10. Explain the role of the Law of Conservation of Mass in a chemical reaction
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Chemical Reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical
substances to another. Chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions
of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to
the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical
equation. In a chemical change, new substances are formed. In order for this to occur, the
chemical bonds of the substances break, and the atoms that compose them separate and
rearrange themselves into new substances with new chemical bonds. When this process occurs,
we call it a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more
substances are changed into one or more new substances.
Self-Assessment Exercise 1
Define Chemical Reaction

3.2 Evidence of Chemical Reactions

To identify a chemical reaction, we look for a chemical change. A chemical change always
produces one or more types of matter that differ from the matter present before the change. The
formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the iron,
oxygen, and water present before the rust formed. The explosion of nitroglycerin is a chemical
change because the gases produced are very different kinds of matter from the original
substance.
.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2
Explain chemical change

3.3 Writing Chemical Equation

One or more chemicals can convert into one or more new substances through a chemical
reaction. Chemical equations are used to describe chemical reactions. Reactants appear on the
left side of chemical equations, yields are indicated by an arrow (→), and products appear on
the right.
Assessment Exercise 3

What are Chemical equations

3.4 Reactants and Products

We must state the components that are present at the start and the end of a chemical reaction
in order to describe it. Reactants (r) are the substances present at the beginning of a reaction,
while products (p) are the substances present at the final stage of a reaction.
When reactants are placed in a reaction vessel, a reaction can take place that yields products.
Reactants, or whatever we have as our beginning ingredients, are the starting materials. The
reactants' interactions with one another in the reaction vessel produce the products, which are
simply what is produced.
Reactants (starting materials) → Product (Final stage)

Self- Self-Assessment Exercise 4

Differentiate between reactant and product

3.5 Coefficients and Subscripts in a Chemical Reaction

Chemical equations use two different kinds of numbers. The chemical formulas for the
reactants and products have subscripts, and coefficients are added in front of the formulas to
show many molecules of the material are consumed or created.

Figure: Balancing Equations. You cannot change subscripts in a chemical formula to balance
a chemical equation; you can change only the coefficients. Changing subscripts changes the
ratios of atoms in the molecule and the resulting chemical properties.
The subscripts are part of the formulas and once the formulas for the reactants and products
are determined, the subscripts may not be changed. The coefficients indicate the number of
each substance involved in the reaction and may be changed in order to balance the equation.
The equation above indicates that one mole of solid copper is reacting with two moles of
aqueous silver nitrate to produce one mole of aqueous copper (II) nitrate and two atoms of solid
silver.
Self-Assessment Exercise 5

Differentiate between subscripts and coefficients

3.6 Balancing a Chemical Equation

The equation cannot be balanced by altering the subscripts of the reactants or the products since
the identities of the reactants and products are fixed. To do so would alter the chemical identity
of the species being described.
The process of writing chemical equation are as follows:
Step 1: Identify the type of reactant and product.

Write a word equation, Hydrogen gas + Oxygen Gas (reactant) → Water (product)
Step 2: Write the chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
H2(g)+ O2(g) → H2O(l)
Step 3: Count the number of each type of atom in reactants and products
H2(g)+ O2(g) → H2O(l)
Lift hand side (LHS) : H=2; O=2;
Right hand side (RHS): H =2; O=1
Step 4: Balance the equation:
Compare the number of each type of atom on both sides (reactants and products) and try to
balance the reaction by placing appropriate coefficients in front of the reactants and products.

2H2(g)+ O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Step 5: Check whether the reaction is balanced or not (atoms on LHS = Atoms on RHS)
2H2(g)+ O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

LHS: H =4 O=2;
RHS: H =4; O=2
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to produce magnesium oxide. Write the balanced chemical
equation for this reaction.
Self-Assessment Exercise 6
Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions and identify the type of
reaction in each case.
(a ) In the thermite reaction, iron (III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron and
aluminium oxide.
(b ) Magnesium ribbon is burnt in an atmosphere of nitrogen gas to form solid magnesium nitride.
(c ) Chlorine gas is passed in an aqueous potassium iodide solution to form potassium
chloride solution and solid iodine.
(d ) Ethanol is burnt in the air to form carbon dioxide and water and releases heat.

3.7 Chemical Symbols

Chemical symbols are the notations that represent chemical elements. Instead of using full
names to refer to elements in chemistry, using a symbol made of two letters make things more
straight forward. It is a short hand method used to illustrate better chemical reactions in science
diagrams based on how we use short names in our everyday lives. Using chemical symbols is
all about quickly identifying elements and chemical reactions. Early chemists used to assign
short names and strange marks to new elements that developed into specific characters over
time. Most of the time, you can quickly identify the element by seeing its symbol, which is the
purpose of using them. There are a few special symbols that we need to know in order to "talk"
in chemical shorthand. In the Table below is the summary of the major symbols used in
chemical equations. Table 1 shows a listing of symbols used in chemical equations.

Table 1: Symbols used in chemical equations

Symbol Description Symbol Description
(s) Solid + Used to separate
multiple reactants of
products
(l) Liquid formula written above
Δ the arrow is used as a
→ catalyst in the reaction

(g) Gas net forward reaction

(aq) aqueous (dissolved in water) reaction in both
[c]
directions
→ Yield sign; separates reactants equilibrium[d]
from products
replaces the yield sign for stoichiometric relation
reversible reactions that reach =
equilibrium
triangle indicates that the reaction ↔ resonance (not a
is being heated reaction)
↑ Alternately, an arrow without
↓ parentheses is used in some cases
to indicate formation of a gas ↑ or
precipitate ↓. This is especially
useful if only one such species is
formed.

Self-Assessment Exercise 7

Write and explain four Symbols used in chemical equations

4.0 Conclusion
CONCLUSION
• Chemical reaction - The process in which one or more substances are changed into
one or more new substances.
• Reactants - The starting materials in a reaction.
• Products - Materials present at the end of a reaction.
• Balanced chemical equation - A chemical equation in which the number of each type
of atom is equal on the two sides of the equation.
• Subscripts - Part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products that indicate
the number of atoms of the preceding element.
• Coefficient - A small whole number that appears in front of a formula in a balanced
chemical equation.
5.0 Summary

A chemical reaction is the process by which one or more substances are changed into one or
more new substances. Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations. Chemical
equations have reactants on the left, an arrow that is read as "yields", and the products on the
right. We use various types of chemical symbols in chemistry. There are many symbols for
elements, equations and molecular structures. Using the correct symbols is the only way to
illustrate anything related to chemistry like atoms, molecules and reactions. To be useful,
chemical equations must always be balanced. Balanced chemical equations have the same
number and type of each atom on both sides of the equation. The coefficients in a balanced
equation must be the simplest whole number ratio. Mass is always conserved in chemical
reactions.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1. Which of the following is a chemical reaction?
a. Freezing liquid mercury.
b. Adding yellow to blue to make green.
c. Cutting a piece of paper into two pieces.
d. Dropping a sliced orange into a vat of sodium dydroxide.
e. Filling a balloon with natural air.
a. Painting a wall blue.
b. A bicycle rusting.
c. Ice cream melting.
d. Scratching a key across a desk.
a.
2. Questions

3. Is each chemical equation balanced?

a. 2Hg(ℓ) + O2(g)→Hg2O2(s) 2Hg(ℓ) + O2(g)→Hg2O2(s)
b. C2H4(g)+2O2(g)→2CO2(g)+2H2O(g)C2H4(g)+2O2(g)→2CO2(g)+2H2O(g)
c. Mg(NO3)2(s)+2Li(s)→Mg(s)+2LiNO3(s)Mg(NO3)2(s)+2Li(s)→Mg(s)+2LiNO3(s)
7.0 References/Further Reading

Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was
authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is licensed CK-12. Original
source: https://www.ck12.org/c/chem
Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is licensed CC BY 4.0Original
source: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/.