Notes of Unit-II(KCA-101)

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer

hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Important functions of an operating System:

1. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data
and similar other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to
programs and user data.

2. Control over system performance –

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records
the response time between service requests and system response to
have a complete view of the system health. This can help improve
performance by providing important information needed to troubleshoot
problems.

3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various
tasks and users, this information can be used to track resource usage
for a particular user or group of user.
4. Error detecting aids –
Operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and
avoid the malfunctioning of computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers,
assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each
byte or word is assigned a certain address. Main memory is a fast
storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to
be executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory. An Operating
System performs the following activities for memory management:
It keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used
by which user program. The memory addresses that have already been
allocated and the memory addresses of the memory that has not yet
been used. In multi programming, the OS decides the order in which
process are granted access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates
the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates
the memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O
operation.
7. Processor Management –
In a multi programming environment, the OS decides the order in which
processes have access to the processor, and how much processing
time each process has. This function of OS is called process
scheduling. An Operating System performs the following activities for
processor management.
Keeps tracks of the status of processes. The program which perform
this task is known as traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is
processor to a process. De-allocates processor when a process is no
more required.

8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
performs the following activities for device management. Keeps tracks
of all devices connected to system. designates a program responsible
for every device known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which
process gets access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates
devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they
are no longer required.

9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain other directories and other
files. An Operating System carries out the following file management
activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access
settings and status of every file and more… These facilities are
 collectively known as the file system.

Moreover, Operating System also provides certain services to the computer

system in one form or the other.

The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed
in the following manner:

1. Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for

execution of all types of programs whether it be user programs or
system programs. The Operating System utilises various resources
available for the efficient running of all types of functionalities.
2. Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is
responsible for handling all sort of inputs, i.e, from keyboard, mouse,
desktop, etc. The Operating System does all interfacing in the most
appropriate manner regrading all kind of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is difference in nature of all types of peripheral
devices such as mouse or keyboard, then Operating System is
responsible for handling data between them.
3. Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for
making of decisions regarding the storage of all types of data or files,
i.e, floppy disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc. The Operating System decides
as how the data should be manipulated and stored.
4. Error Detection and Handling: The Operating System is responsible
for detection of any types of error or bugs that can occur while any task.
The well secured OS sometimes also acts as countermeasure for
 preventing any sort of breach to the Computer System from any
external source and probably handling them.
5. Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use
of all the resources available by deciding which resource to be used by
whom for how much time. All the decisions are taken by the Operating
System.
6. Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the
functionalities taking place in the computer system at a time. All the
details such as the types of errors occurred are recorded by the
Operating System.
7. Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is
responsible for using all the information and resources available on the
machine in the most protected way. The Operating System must foil an
attempt from any external resource to hamper any sort of data or
information.

Types of operating system System

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each
user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

● Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

● CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
● Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals,
to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a
logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing

Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example,
in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst
or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as
batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

● Provides the advantage of quick response.

 ● Avoids duplication of software.
● Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

● Problem of reliability.
● Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
● Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
(such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size
and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

● With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
● Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
● If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
● Better service to the customers.
● Reduction of the load on the host computer.
● Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a
private network or to other networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003,

Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

● Centralized servers are highly stable.

● Security is server managed.
● Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
● Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

● High cost of buying and running a server.

● Dependency on a central location for most operations.
● Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of
a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device
in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed
time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In
these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Multiprogramming Systems
● In this the operating system picks up and begins to execute one of the jobs from

memory.

● Once this job needs an I/O operation operating system switches to another job

(CPU and OS always busy).

● Jobs in the memory are always less than the number of jobs on disk(Job Pool).
 ● If several jobs are ready to run at the same time, then the system chooses which

one to run through the process of CPU Scheduling.

● In Non-multiprogrammed system, there are moments when CPU sits idle and

does not do any work.

● In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be idle and keeps on processing.

Time Sharing Systems are very similar to Multiprogramming batch systems. In fact time
sharing systems are an extension of multiprogramming systems.

In Time sharing systems the prime focus is on minimizing the response time, while in
multiprogramming the prime focus is to maximize the CPU usage.

Command based & GUI based OS

GUI vs CLI Comparison Table

Below is the topmost comparison between GUI vs CLI

Basis of GUI CLI

comparison

Basic This user interface This user interface

enables the user to enables a user to give a

interact with electronic command to interact

 devices with the help of with an electronic

graphical icons and device

visual indicators.

Ease of The graphical user Due to the need to

understating interface is visually remembering

intuitive. It is easy to commands, it is difficult

understand for to handle and requires

beginners expertise.

Memory It requires more memory It requires less memory

Requirement as it consists of a lot of as compared to GUI.

graphical components.

Speed It generally uses a Because the keyboard is

mouse to execute used to execute the

commands. The speed commands, the speed

of GUI is Slower than of the CLI is Faster than

CLI. GUI
Appearance One can change the It is not possible to

appearance with a change the appearance

customizable option.

Flexibility More flexible than CLI Less flexible than GUI

Device used Keyboard and mouse Keyboard

Precision Low as compared to the High as compared to

CLI the GUI

Advantages of GUI over CLI

● One can edit the configuration manually

● One can memorize tasks easily as in CLI one has to type commands the

terminal which may be difficult for most of the beginners.

● It enables average computer users to interact with the computer. No

need to have expertise in the computer

● The main feature of any software is its ease of use. The customer often

preferred the software are offered a user-friendly interface. As GUI

offers the same it is beneficial in increasing the selling of the software.

Elements of OS are

(a)Shell / command interpreter or Desktop

(b)File Management Module

(c) I/O device Management module

(d)Kernel

(e) Processor Mgt Module

(f) Memory Mgt Module

(g) Secondary Memory Mgt Module

Computer Network :-A computer network is a group of computers linked to

each other that enables the computer to communicate with another computer
and share their resources, data, and applications. A computer network can be
categorized by their size.Networks are the backbone of business today and are
used for everything from retrieving the Internet or printing a document or
 downloading an attachment from an email. They can refer to a few numbers of
devices in a single room to millions of devices spread across the globe.

Computer networks have some common applications –

● Share available hardware resources

● Share software and database
● Establish communication among connected computers
● Exchange of data and information
● Share information over geographically wide areas

Computer networking provides a large number of benefits to its users-

● Sharing
● Connectivity
● Increased speed
● Decreased cost
● Improved security
● Centralized software management
● Electronic mails
● Flexible access

Personal Area Network (PAN)

As the most basic type of network, a PAN consists of a wireless modem, one or two
computers, mobile phones, printers, tablets, etc. These types of networks are usually
found in small offices or residences and are managed from a single device by one
person or organization. It can also be used to communicate between personal devices
to connect to a digital network and the Internet itself.
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN connect a number of computers and low- voltage devices over short distances (in a
building or in close proximity between two or three buildings) to share information and
resources. Companies normally manage and maintain LAN. All machines on LAN are
connected to one cable. Usually, it is a private network. LAN can connect to wide area
networks (WANs) with routers to transmit data quickly and safely.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
The WAN connects large number of computers spreading across a long geographical
distance. This allows computers and low- voltage devices to communicate remotely
over a large network. Due to WAN’s capacity of wide reaching; it is usually owned and
maintained by several administrators or the public. The majority of WAN networks are
used to transmit large data blocks between their users.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These network types are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs– and include
elements of both network types. MANs cover a whole geographical area (typically a city
or town, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance are carried out by one
person or company (local council, large company, etc.).
Campus Area Network (CAN)
Campus area network consists of a LAN connection with a limited geographical area.
Network devices such as switches, routers, optical fiber etc. are entirely owned by the
campus network owner. Typically, these types of networks are seen in universities, large
K-12 school districts or small companies. They can be spread over several buildings
which are relatively close together so that users can share resources.

Network Topology

Types of Topology
There are five types of topology in computer networks:

1. Mesh Topology

2. Star Topology

3. Bus Topology

4. Ring Topology

5. Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology
In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the
network through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it
means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only.
Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be
connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh
topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect
other links and the communication between other devices on the network.

3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus

unauthorized access is not possible.

4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and
headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of

I/O ports required must be huge.

3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large

number of devices with a dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device
called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate
through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first
send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated
device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs
to be connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install

3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be

connected with the hub only.

4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.

5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work
without hub.

2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the

central system of star topology.

Bus Topology
In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to
this main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that
connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted
over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main
cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone
cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.

Ring Topology

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either
side of it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the
devices on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known
as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it
sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a
repeater, if the received data is intended for other device then repeater
forwards this data until the intended device receives it.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Easy to install.

2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only

two links are required to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel
forward due to failure.

2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topology

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For

example a combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid
topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example,
scalability is our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus
technology.

2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the

existing networks with different topologies.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.

3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Data Communication & Computer Network

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications
network that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between
networked computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless
media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network Basic Understanding

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers
is called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates
information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either
wired or wireless media.

Network Engineering
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip
level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the
whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and
they depend on each other only to take input and send output.

Internet
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest
network in existence on this planet.The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can
have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and
uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using
IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to
IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge
level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various
continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

Applications of Communication & Computer Network

Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide
numerous advantages:
● Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
● Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
● Information sharing by using Web or Internet
● Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
● IP phones
● Video conferences
● Parallel computing
● Instant messaging

DCN - Computer Network Models

Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip
level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the
whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and
they depend on each other only to take input and send output.

Layered Tasks
In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into
small tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works
dedicatedly to process the task only. Every layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to
be done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either
initiated by layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by
the-top most layer, it is passed on to the layer below it for further processing. The lower
layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower layer. If the
task is initiated by lower most layer, then the reverse path is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to
execute its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of
encapsulation header and tail.

OSI Model
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI
model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has
seven layers:

● Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the

application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with
the user.
● Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote
host should be presented in the native format of host.
● Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For
example, once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains
this session for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time
span.
● Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
● Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.
● Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and
onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
● Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output,
pulse rate etc.

Internet Model
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet
Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication
model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.The
internet is independent of its underlying network architecture so is its Model. This
model has the following layers:

● Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact
with the network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.
● Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major
protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures
data delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end
delivery.
● Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host
addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.
● Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual
data.Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying
network architecture and hardware.