The City & Guilds Textbook Plumbing 2nd Edition Book 2 LEVEL 3 APPRENTICESHIP
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Mido AbdoThe City & Guilds Textbook Plumbing 2nd Edition Book 2 LEVEL 3 APPRENTICESHIP
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Mido AbdoBook 2
Plumbing
SECOND EDITION
LEVEL 3 APPRENTICESHIP (9189)
LEVEL 3 ADVANCED TECHNICAL DIPLOMA (8202)
LEVEL 3 DIPLOMA (6035)
T LEVEL OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALISMS (8710)
Stephen Lane
Peter Tanner
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 6162 1
© The City and Guilds of London Institute and Hodder & Stoughton Limited 2019
First published in 2019
This edition published in 2022 by
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9781398361621_FM-ch1.indd 2 19/04/22 1:27 PM
Contents
About your qualification v
How to use this book vii
Acknowledgements viii
Picture credits ix
1 Cold water systems, planning and design 1
The legislation relating to the installation and maintenance of cold water systems 1
Cold water system layouts 7
Backflow protection in plumbing systems 46
Design techniques for cold water systems 68
Diagnosing and rectifying faults in cold water systems and components 91
Commissioning cold water systems and components 97
Servicing and maintenance of cold water systems 108
2 Hot water systems, planning and design 115
Different fuels in domestic hot water systems 115
The types of hot water system and their layout requirements 116
Specialist components in hot water systems 138
Design techniques for hot water systems 150
The installation requirements of hot water systems and components 169
Testing and commissioning requirements of hot water systems and components 175
Diagnosing and rectifying faults in hot water systems and components 181
Servicing and maintenance of hot water systems 188
3 Central heating systems, planning and design 193
Types of central heating system and their layout requirements 194
Design techniques for central heating systems 216
Positioning central heating system components 250
Installation, connection and testing requirements of electrically operated central
heating components 254
Commissioning central heating systems and components 262
Diagnosing and rectifying faults in central heating systems and components 275
4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems 290
The legislation relating to the installation and maintenance of sanitation and
rainwater systems 290
System layouts of sanitation systems 293
Design techniques for sanitation and rainwater systems 317
Commissioning sanitation systems and components 328
Servicing and maintenance of sanitation and rainwater systems 331
Diagnosing and rectifying faults in sanitary systems and components 332
iii
9781398361621_FM-ch1.indd 3 19/04/22 8:57 PM
5 Electrical principles 337
The principles of electricity 337
The legislation relating to electrical work and the control of plumbing and
domestic heating systems 342
The types of electrical system and layouts 348
Performing pre-installation activity prior to undertaking electrical work on
plumbing and domestic heating 358
Safe isolation procedures 362
Safe installation and testing of electrical equipment 366
Diagnosing faults and safe repair of electrical work 396
6 Advanced environmental technology systems 428
The legislation relating to micro-renewable energy and water conservation technologies 428
Heat-producing micro-renewable energy 430
Water conservation technologies 446
Electricity-producing micro-renewable energy technologies 455
7 Domestic fuel systems 474
Factors affecting fuel selection 474
Combustion processes of fuel supply systems 488
Principles of chimneys and flue systems 502
8 Additional topics 524
Plan work schedules for a system installation 524
Plan for careers in building services engineering 530
The requirements to become a qualified operative in building services engineering 534
Practice synoptic assessments 537
Glossary 539
Index 543
iv
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About your qualification
About your qualification
INTRODUCTION TO THE The 8202 Advanced Technical Diploma and 6035 Level
3 Diploma provide the knowledge and practical skills to
PLUMBING QUALIFICATIONS prepare you for an apprenticeship.
You are completing one of the following qualifications: The apprenticeship and 9189 Level 3 Diploma will give
● Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma in Plumbing
you an understanding of suitable on-site skills and
(8202-35) further knowledge required to work in the plumbing
● Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing Studies (6035-03)
industry. Once qualified, there are many specialist
● Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing and Domestic Heating
qualifications available, such as environmental
(9189). technology systems and designing and planning
● T Level Technical Qualification in Building Services
complex water systems.
Engineering for Construction (8710).
The Level 3 Advanced Technical Diploma and Level 3 How to achieve your
Diploma in Plumbing Studies are for learners who
are interested in developing the specific technical qualification
and professional skills that can support development The requirements for successfully obtaining your
towards becoming a plumber, progressing from Level 2 qualification depend on which programme you are
qualifications. enrolled on.
The Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing and Domestic Heating
is the on-programme qualification for the Plumbing
6035
and Heating Technician Apprenticeship and is designed The 6035 diploma is assessed by a range of multiple
to provide the apprentice with the opportunity to choice exams, assignments and practical tests. You will
develop the knowledge, skills and core behaviours that be assessed, by one of these methods, at the end of
are expected of a competent Plumbing and Domestic each unit.
Heating Technician operating in a number of regulated For details on which assessments will follow which
areas. units, you should consult the City & Guilds qualification
T Levels are new Level 3 vocational qualifications handbook. For details on when you will complete your
available to learners following the completion of assessments, consult your tutor.
GCSEs; they are the same size as three A Levels
and you will sit them across two years. They offer 8202
a mixture of classroom, workshop and on-the-job The 8202 qualification is assessed using one multiple
work experience through industrial placements. The choice examination and one practical synoptic
Plumbing Engineering (356) and Heating Engineering assignment.
(355) occupational specialisms will offer the knowledge
For the synoptic assignment, a typical brief might
and experience needed to open the door to skilled
be to install a cold water supply and hot water
employment or further study.
distribution pipework connected to all sanitary
appliances. You will need to draw on skills and
HOW TO BECOME A understanding developed across the qualification
PLUMBING AND HEATING content in order to consider the specific requirements
of the particular system and related plumbing
TECHNICIAN principles, and carry out the brief. This includes
To become a fully recognised plumber, you must the ability to plan tasks, such as plant, materials
complete the following: and equipment for an installation, and apply the
● Plumbing and Heating Technician Apprenticeship appropriate practical and hand skills to carry them out
(9189). using appropriate tools and equipment.
v
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
You will also demonstrate that you are following health ● practical installation test
and safety regulations at all times by drawing upon ● practical application test
your knowledge of legislation and regulations. ● professional discussion.
The exam draws from across the content of the T Level (8710)
qualification, using multiple choice questions to:
This Level 3 course, which runs alongside the
● confirm breadth of knowledge and understanding
apprenticeship programme, offers the opportunity to
● test applied knowledge and understanding – giving
gain essential skills that will enable you to enter full-
the opportunity to demonstrate higher-level
time employment within the plumbing and heating
integrated understanding through application,
sector.
analysis and evaluation.
The course is a two-year programme. All learners
9189 studying a Building Services Engineering for
Level 3 is assessed using multiple choice tests and Construction T Level will complete the core component
practical assignments. These will happen at the end of (350), which introduces the foundational industry
each phase of learning, with there being four phases in principles. This is assessed by two written exams
total. Learners will also be expected to keep a work log and an employer-set project. This core component
for the duration of the programme. is covered in another Hodder Education textbook:
Building Services Engineering for Construction T Level:
The apprenticeship is assessed separately to the Core.
on-programme qualification and is assessed by an
end-point assessment (EPA). In order to progress You will also choose one or two occupational
through the end-test gateway to end-point assessment, specialisms. These include:
you must complete the following: ● 355 Heating engineering
● Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing and Domestic Heating ● 356 Plumbing engineering.
qualification (9189) Although these specialisms involve practical work
● Level 2 Maths (which you will cover with your tutor in the workshop,
● Level 2 English. and which will be assessed by observation of practical
The graded EPA will be comprised of the following tasks), the key underpinning plumbing and heating
assessment methods: content needed for these specialisms is covered across
● multiple choice test this book and The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing
● design project Book 1 (also published by Hodder Education).
vi
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How to use this book
How to use this book
Throughout this book you will see the following features:
Industry tips and Key points are particularly useful
pieces of advice that can assist you in your workplace INDUSTRY TIP
or help you remember something important. Sedimentation tanks require cleaning when their
performance begins to deteriorate, and a 12-month period
between cleaning operations would normally be sufficient.
KEY POINT
It is vital that fuels are kept dry and that they
are delivered in good condition for optimum
combustion efficiency to occur.
Key terms in bold purple in the text are explained in
KEY TERM
the margin to aid your understanding. (They are also
explained in the Glossary at the back of the book.) Thermal shock: the rapid cooling or heating of a
substance that can lead to failure of the material.
Health and safety boxes flag important points to keep
yourself, colleagues and clients safe in the workplace.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
It is dangerous to use a disposable knife blade when
They also link to sections in the health and safety
stripping cables as the blade can break, creating
chapter for you to recap learning. sharp shards.
Activities help to test your understanding and learn
from your colleagues’ experiences.
ACTIVITY
Research reed bed filtration systems to assess the
range of systems available in the UK.
Values and behaviours boxes provide hints and tips on
good workplace practice, particularly when liaising with VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
customers.
Do not forget to keep the householder/responsible
person informed of the areas that are going to be
isolated during maintenance tasks and operations.
Improve your maths items provide opportunities to
practise or improve your maths skills.
Improve your English items provide opportunities to
practise or improve your English skills.
At the end of each chapter there are some Test your
knowledge questions. These are designed to identify any
areas where you might need further training or revision.
Answers are provided at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/
construction.
vii
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Acknowledgements
This book draws on several earlier books that were Taylor; Jocelynne Rowan, Steve Owen, Mick Gibbons,
published by City & Guilds, and we acknowledge and Diane Whinney and Dave Driver/Baxi Training Centre;
thank the writers of those books: Paul Morgan/Cotherm; Jamie Purser, Graham Fleming,
● Michael Maskrey John Pierce and Sabir Ahmed/Hackney Community
● Neville Atkinson College; David Simoes/Honeywell; Jonathan Madden,
● Eamon Wilson Andrew Patterson and Carl Spalding/Heatrae Sadia; Rob
● Andrew Hay-Ellis Wellman/National Skills Academy, and models Anup
● Trevor Pickard. Chudasama, Michaela Opara and Sami Simela; Mykal
Trim and Sam, CHS Gas Assessment Centre Norwich.
We would also like to thank everyone who has
contributed to City & Guilds photoshoots. In particular, Contains public sector information licensed under the
thanks to: Jules Selmes and Adam Giles (photographer Open Government Licence v3.0.
and assistant); Martin Biron and the staff at the College
Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards
of North West London and the following models:
is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). No other
Vivian Chioma, Jennifer Close, Peko Gayle-Reveault,
use of this material is permitted. British Standards can
Adam Giles, Michael Maskrey, Nahom Sirane, Zhaojie
be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI
Yu; Michael Maskrey and the staff at Stockport College
online shop: https://shop.bsigroup.com/
and the following models: Michael Maskrey, Jordan
viii
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Picture credits
Picture credits
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge Fig.2.44 © Upperplumbers Ltd; Fig.2.51 © Fefufoto/
ownership of copyright. The publishers will be glad to stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.60 City & Guilds; Fig.2.61 ©
make suitable arrangements with any copyright holders Ddukang/stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.62 Michael Maskrey;
whom it has not been possible to contact. Fig.3.3 © Danfoss; Fig.3.10 © Bosch Thermotechnology
Ltd; Figs.3.16 & 3.17 © Grundfos Pumps Ltd; Fig.3.20 ©
Fig.1.1 © WRAS; Fig.1.2 © Kiwa; Fig.1.7 Aquatech
Borders Underfloor Heating Ltd; Fig.3.21 © Rigamondis/
Pressmain product image courtesy of Aquatronic
Shutterstock.com; Fig.3.22 © Beggs & Partners; Fig.3.31
Group Management Plc, www.agm-plc.co.uk; Fig.1.9
© M H Mear & Co. Huddersfield, England (www.
© Brimar Plastics Limited; Fig.1.10 © Dewey Waters
mhmear.co.uk); Fig.3.41 © Anton_antonov/stock.
Ltd; Fig.1.17 Image reproduced with permission from
adobe.com; Fig.3.42 © Toolstation; Fig.3.51 © Megger;
Keraflo Ltd; Fig.1.18 © Danfoss; Fig.1.24 © BD|SENSORS
Figs.3.52–3.54 & 3.56 © Fernox; p.286 © Grundfos
GmbH; Fig.1.25 Aquatech Pressmain product images
Pumps Ltd; Fig.4.1 © kurhan/Shutterstock.com; Fig.4.2
courtesy of Aquatronic Group Management Plc, www.
Neville Atkinson; Fig.4.3 © CIPHE - Chartered Institute
agm-plc.co.uk; Fig.1.26 © KSB SE & Co. KGaA; Fig.1.29
of Plumbing and Heating Engineering; Fig.4.4 ©
Image provided courtesy of Dales Water Services
Artazum/Shutterstock.com; Figs.4.17–4.19 & 4.21 ©
Ltd – Water Well Drillers and Private Water Supply
Kingspan Group; Fig.4.22 © Saniflo Ltd; Figs.4.32, 4.33
Engineers; Fig.1.42 © Silverline; Fig.1.47 © KSB SE
& 4.35, 4.36 © Grundfos Pumps Ltd; Fig.4.37 Neville
& Co. KGaA; Fig.1.48 © Whisper Pumps Ltd, www.
Atkinson; Fig.4.38 © Contactum Limited; Fig.4.39 ©
whisperpumps.com; Fig.1.51 © Audrius Merfeldas/
zstock/Shutterstock.com; Fig.4.48 © Astroflame (Fire
stock.adobe.com; Figs.1.52 & 1.53 © Ultra Finishing;
Seals) Ltd; Figs.5.3, 5.4 & 5.10 City & Guilds; Fig.5.11
Fig.1.54 © Methven Limited; Fig.1.55 © hiv360/Adobe
Neville Atkinson; Figs.5.16 & 5.17 © Contactum
Stock; Fig.1.57 Image reproduced with permission
Limited; Fig.5.18 © Toolstation; Fig.5.23 City & Guilds;
from Cistermiser Ltd; Fig.1.59 Monsoon pump image
Fig.5.25 top left © Martindale Electric Co. Ltd, top
courtesy of Stuart Turner Limited © 2019; Fig.1.60 ©
right & bottom City & Guilds; Fig.5.26 City & Guilds;
Toolstation; Fig.1.61 © Ultra Finishing; Fig.1.63 Monsoon
Fig.5.27 © Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig.5.28 City
pump image courtesy of Stuart Turner Limited © 2019;
& Guilds; Fig.5.29 © Axminster Tool Centre Ltd;
Fig.1.64 Image courtesy of Stuart Turner Limited ©
Figs.5.33–5.48 City & Guilds; p.380 City & Guilds;
2019; Fig.1.77 © Paxton Agricultural; Figs.1.80 & 1.88
Fig.5.49 Andrew Hay-Ellis; Figs.5.50–5.54 City & Guilds;
© Arrow Valves; Fig.1.91 © Hans Sasserath GmbH &
p.384 @ City & Guilds; Figs.5.55–5.73 City & Guilds;
Co. KG; Fig.1.94 © Arrow Valves; Fig.1.96 top image
Figs.5.74–5.76 Andrew Hay-Ellis; Figs.5.77–5.95 City &
© & courtesy of Valves Online – valvesonline.co.uk,
Guilds; Fig.5.96 © Health and Safety Executive (HSE);
bottom © Screwfix Direct Ltd; Fig.1.103 © GARDENA
Figs.5.97 & 5.98 Neville Atkinson; Figs.5.101–5.103 ©
Multi-Purpose Spray Gun, www.gardena.com/UK;
Megger; Figs.5.104 & 5.105 City & Guilds; Fig.5.107
Fig.1.107 © HOLLANDGREEN; Fig.1.108 © Thaifairs/
© Megger; Fig.5.108 City & Guilds; Figs.5.109 & 5.110
stock.adobe.com; Fig.1.121 Image kindly provided by
© Megger; Figs.5.113 & 5.114 City & Guilds; p.405
Monument Tools Ltd, Hackbridge, Surrey, UK; Fig.1.124
City & Guilds; Figs.5.122 & 5.123 City & Guilds; p.408
Photograph by kind permission of ROTHENBERGER UK;
City & Guilds; Fig.5.124 City & Guilds; p.410 City &
Fig.1.126 © SUKU - Druck- und Temperaturmesstechnik
Guilds; Figs 5.129–5.131 City & Guilds; Figs.5.132 &
GmbH; Fig.2.10 © Crown Water Heaters Ltd; Fig.2.15
5.133 Neville Atkinson; Fig.5.134 © Megger; Figs.5.135,
© GDC Group Limited; Fig.2.18 © Sebastian Kaulitzki/
5.138, 5.141–5.144, 5.147 & 5.148 City & Guilds;
Shutterstock.com; Fig.2.19 © Horne Engineering Ltd;
Fig.5.149 Neville Atkinson; pp.420–21 City & Guilds;
Fig.2.23 © Grundfos Pumps Ltd; Fig.2.26 © Toolstation;
Figs.5.150–5.151 City & Guilds; Figs.5.152–5.154 ©
Fig.2.32 © RZ/stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.39 © Zilmet UK
Contactum Limited; Figs.5.155–5.159 Neville Atkinson;
Limited; Fig.2.41 Courtesy of Flamco Group, part of
Fig.5.160 City & Guilds; Figs.5.161 & 5.162 Neville
Aalberts; Fig.2.43 © Anton_antonov/stock.adobe.com;
ix
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Atkinson; Fig.6.8 © Kingan/stock.adobe.com; Fig.6.9 © stock.adobe.com; Fig.7.8 © OFTEC; Fig.7.9 © HETAS;
Bosch Thermotechnology Ltd; Fig.6.10 © Inhabitant/ Fig.7.13 © Lenscap/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig.7.15 © Tarm
Shutterstock.com; Fig.6.15 Copyright of Kensa Heat Biomass; Fig.7.16 © Calor Gas, 2019; Figs.7.45–7.47
Pumps; Fig.6.17 © Peter Gudella/Shutterstock.com; Images courtesy of Schiedel Chimney Systems -
Fig.6.34 © Benjamin Haas/Shutterstock.com; Fig.6.35 © www.schiedel.com/uk; Fig.7.48 © Regin Products Ltd;
Tomislav Pinter/Shutterstock.com; Fig.6.37 © Rudmer Fig.7.49 © Toolstation; Fig.7.50 © Kane International
Zwerver/Shutterstock.com; Fig.6.47 © Peter Kunasz/ Limited; Fig.8.2 © Monkey Business Images/
Shutterstock.com; Fig.7.2 © Jimj0will/Shutterstock.com; Shutterstock.com
Fig.7.3 © Andrii/stock.adobe.com; Fig.7.5 © Jiri Hera/
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CHAPTER 1
COLD WATER SYSTEMS, PLANNING AND DESIGN
This chapter provides learning in the application of design techniques, installation, maintenance, diagnostics
and rectification of faults and commissioning procedures, along with the backflow protection in plumbing
systems to comply with current legislation and regulations. The chapter also covers systems in multi-storey
dwellings with water supplied from the water undertaker and private water supplies.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● the legislation relating to the installation and maintenance of cold water systems
● cold water system layouts
● backflow protection in plumbing systems
● design techniques for cold water systems
● diagnosing and rectifying faults in cold water systems and components
● commissioning cold water systems and components
● servicing and maintenance of cold water systems.
Return to Book 1, Chapter 5, Cold water systems, which l the water service pipework to dwellings
covered the following topics: l selecting cold water systems
l the sources and properties of water l backflow protection
l the types of water supply to dwellings l installing cold water systems and components
l the treatment and distribution of water l replacing or repairing defective components
l the sources of information relating to cold water l decommissioning cold water systems.
systems
1 THE LEGISLATION RELATING TO THE
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF COLD
WATER SYSTEMS
In this, the first section of this chapter, we will look at
some of the many pieces of legislation that govern the HEALTH AND SAFETY
installation and maintenance of cold water systems. Return to Book 1, Chapter 1, Health and safety
practices and systems.
Cold water system
and the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
legislation 1999. These three documents have specific roles to
The water industry in England and Wales is regulated play within the plumbing industry. We will look at the
by the Water Industry Act 1991 (the Act), as amended impact of each of these documents separately.
by the Water Act 2003 (Commencement No. 11) Order
2012, the Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
● charging powers of water companies and suppliers
and the control of those charges by OFWAT
● protection of customers and consumers by OFWAT
and the Consumer Council for Water.
Under the provisions laid down by the Water Act
2003, the UK Government introduced two documents
that regulate how plumbers install, commission and
maintain water supplies within domestic buildings.
These are:
● The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
● The Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016.
The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulations 1999
Before 1999, each water authority had its own set of
water by-laws that were based upon the 101 model
water by-laws issued by the UK Government in 1986.
The problem was that each water undertaker had local
variations, which caused much confusion, as there was
no ‘common’ standard throughout the UK.
KEY TERM
Water undertaker: a water authority or company
that supplies clean, cold wholesome water under
Section 67 of the Water Act 1991.
p Figure 1.1 Water Regulations Guide
The Water Act 2003 (Water Industry On 1 July 1999, the Office of the Deputy Prime
Act 1991) Minister issued the first ever water regulations to be
enforced in the UK. They are known as ‘The Water
The Water Act 2003 amalgamates and amends two
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999’ and they
previous pieces of legislation; the Water Industry Act
offer a common practice throughout the United
1991 and the Water Resources Act 1991. The Water Act
Kingdom. BS 8558 is the lead British Standard on the
2003 introduced changes to the regulation of the water
design, installation, testing and maintenance of services
industry in England and Wales originally made under
supplying water for domestic use within buildings and
the Water Industry Act 1991. They are enforced by the
their curtilages. BS EN 806 contains specifications
Environment Agency and deal with such matters as:
for installations inside buildings conveying water for
● the appointment and regulation of water and
human consumption.
sewerage companies and licensed water suppliers by
the Water Services Regulation Authority (OFWAT) BS EN 806 is a relatively new British Standard that
● water supply and sewage disposal powers and duties came into force in 2011. It is divided into five parts:
of the water companies and suppliers ● general recommendations
● the obligations of the water companies and licensed ● design
water suppliers to supply water that is fit for ● pipe sizing
human consumption and the enforcement of those ● installation
obligations by the Department of the Environment, ● operation and maintenance.
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Drinking Both BS 8558 and BS EN 806 replace the old British
Water Inspectorate Standard, BS 6700, Design, installation, testing and
2
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
maintenance of services supplying water for domestic in rural areas where connection to the water mains is
use within buildings and their curtilages. However, difficult. A private supply may serve one property or
parts of BS 6700 that are not covered in either many properties on a private network. The water may
BS EN 806 or BS 8558 will be retained. be supplied from a borehole, spring, well, river, stream
or pond.
INDUSTRY TIP Under the Water Act 2003, the local authority in
the area where the private water supply is located is
For more information go to the Water Regulations Advisory responsible for the inspection and testing of the water
Scheme (WRAS) website at: www.wras.co.uk
supply to ensure that it is maintained to a quality that
is fit for human consumption. These inspections and
Simply put, the Water Supply (Water Fittings) tests are made in accordance with the Private Water
Regulations were made under Section 74 of the Water Supplies Regulations 2016. Generally speaking, the
Industry Act 1991 and have been put in place to ensure more people that use the supply, the more detailed
that the plumbing systems we install and maintain the tests and the more regular the inspections have to
prevent: be. Supplies for commercial properties and activities
● contamination of water or food production and preparation have to be tested
● wastage of water more frequently and meet more stringent requirements
● misuse of water than domestic supplies.
● undue consumption of water
The Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016 stipulate
● erroneous metering of water.
that a risk assessment must be made of ALL private
An important factor here is that these regulations water supplies including the source, storage tanks, any
ONLY cover installations where the water is supplied treatment systems and the premises using the water
from a water undertaker’s water main and are enforced supply.
by the water undertaker in your area. They are NOT,
however, enforceable where the water is supplied from INDUSTRY TIP
a private water source.
A free copy of the Private Water Supplies Regulations
KEY TERM 2016 can be downloaded from: www.legislation.gov.uk/
uksi/2016/618/contents
Erroneous: wrong or incorrect.
Installer and user responsibilities
INDUSTRY TIP under the Water Supply (Water
Fittings) Regulations 1999
A free copy of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999 can be downloaded from: www.legislation.gov.uk/ Plumbers who install plumbing systems and fittings,
uksi/1999/1148/contents/made users, owners and occupiers have legal responsibilities
under the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999 to ensure that any installation and the materials
The Private Water Supplies and fittings used comply with the regulations. In most
cases, as we have seen, advanced notification of the
Regulations 2016
proposed installation must be given and so architects,
A private water supply is defined as any water supply, building developers and plumbers have to abide by the
which is NOT provided by a water undertaker. It is not regulations on behalf of their client. These regulations
connected to any part of the water mains network are not retrospective, so systems installed BEFORE the
and, as such, water rates are not charged, although regulations came into force can still be used without
the owner of any such supply may make a charge for the need to update to current standards, even if that
any water used. Private supplies are commonly used
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
installation would not meet current requirements. any plumbing work complies with the regulations.
However, any alteration or extension completed on an They must ensure that any fittings and materials
existing installation must comply with the regulations are of a sufficient quality and that any installation
in force at the time of the installation date. Regulation is installed in a workmanlike manner to an approved
3 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations installation standard requirement. Membership of a
1999 makes this very clear. competent person scheme is advisable.
● Users, owners and occupiers must ensure that
KEY TERM the person employed to undertake the proposed
Retrospective: looking back, in this case, at work is aware of the regulations and that any
previous installations. work completed is done so in accordance with
the regulations. A certificate of compliance MUST
be obtained for the work and retained for future
Regulation 3 states:
reference by the user, owner or occupier. Regulation
1 No person shall: 3 also makes it clear that the user, owner or
a Install a water fitting to convey or receive occupier is responsible for ensuring that waste,
water supplied by a water undertaker, or alter, misuse, undue consumption, contamination or
disconnect or use such a water fitting; or erroneous metering of the water supply does not
b Cause or permit such a water fitting to be occur during usage.
installed, altered, disconnected or used, in ● The Government requires the water undertakers
contravention of the following provisions of enforce the regulations within their area of supply.
this Part. They will undertake inspections of new and existing
2 No water fitting shall be installed, connected, installations to check that the regulations are being
arranged or used in such a manner that it causes complied with. Where breaches of the regulations
or is likely to cause: are found, they must be remedied as soon as
a Waste, misuse, undue consumption or practicable. Where breaches present a significant
contamination of water supplied by a water health risk, the water supply to the premises
undertaker; or may be isolated or, in severe cases, disconnected
immediately to protect the health of occupants
b The erroneous measurement of water
and/or others fed from the same public supply.
supplied by a water undertaker.
The Government has deemed that it is a criminal
3 No water fitting shall be installed, connected, offence to breach the regulations, and offenders,
arranged or used which by reason of being including users, owners and occupiers in cases
damaged, worn or otherwise faulty, causes or is where the original installer cannot be traced, may
likely to cause: face prosecution.
a Waste, misuse, undue consumption or
contamination of water supplied by a water
undertaker; or
Notification requirements
Now we will investigate the requirements of
b The erroneous measurement of water
notification and consent with regard to cold water
supplied by a water undertaker.
installations. We need to consider:
The following points are worth remembering: ● Who needs to notify?
● Plumbers should obtain a copy of the regulations, ● Which types of installations require notification and
any amendments and guidance notes from Her consent?
Majesty’s Stationery Office (HMSO) or a copy ● Why do we need to notify?
of the Water Regulations Guide from the Water ● Who do we notify?
Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) to ensure that
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) ● construction of an automatically-replenished pond
Regulations requirements or swimming pool of more than 10,000 litres.
Regulation 5 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) When notifying the water undertaker, the following
Regulations requires that the water undertaker must information must be sent:
be notified before work is commenced on most types ● the name and address of the person giving notice
of plumbing installations and anyone installing or using and, if different, of the person to whom the consent
the installation without the water undertaker’s written should be sent
consent could be committing a criminal offence. ● a description of the proposed work and any related
change of use of premises
● the location of the premises and their use or
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS intended use
Being aware of the regulations that may apply ● the plumbing contractor’s name and address, if an
to any job you commence will ensure you are approved plumber is to do the work.
working within the law. Consent cannot be withheld unless there are
reasonable grounds to do so, and may be granted
subject to conditions, which must be followed. If
Notification and consent are also legally required where
written approval is not given within ten working days
water fittings are to be installed on any water or waste
it can be assumed that consent has been granted but
water plants. This requirement applies irrespective
this does not alter the obligation upon the installer and
of whether the plant is owned/operated by the same
the owner or occupier to ensure that the regulations
organisation as the enforcing water undertaker.
have been complied with.
Consent is necessary for the installation of fittings in
new buildings and dwellings, extensions and alterations Notification and consent
of water systems in existing non-domestic premises, requirements: the Building
where there is a material change of use of a building Regulations Approved Document G
and for the installation of certain specified items. These
requirements
include:
● a bidet with an ascending spray or flexible hose
From 6 April 2010 an updated and extended version
● a bath larger than 230 litres (measured to the centre
of Part G was implemented, bringing in a number of
of the overflow) new areas under Building Regulations control. As such,
● a shower unit of a type specified by the regulator
under these new areas of control, the installation of
● a pump or booster drawing more than 12 litres per
the systems mentioned in Regulation 5 of the Water
minute Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations are notifiable
● a reverse osmosis unit
to the local authority building control. In general
● a water treatment unit producing a waste water
terms, notification must take place prior to the work
discharge or requiring water for regeneration or starting and within five working days of the work being
cleaning completed.
● a reduced pressure zone (RPZ) valve or other
mechanical device for protection against backflow INDUSTRY TIP
in fluid category 4 or 5
● a garden watering system unless designed to be a
A free copy of the Building Regulations Approved Document
hand-operated one G can be downloaded from: www.gov.uk/government/
publications/sanitation-hot-water-safety-and-water-
● any water system laid outside a building and either
efficiency-approved-document-g
less than 750 mm or more than 1350 mm below
ground level
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
The new regulation Approved Document G is broken
down into six parts:
● G1 Cold water supply – new requirements on
supply of wholesome water for purposes of
drinking, washing or food preparation. Also for the
provision of water of a suitable quality to sanitary
conveniences fitted with a flushing device.
● G2 Water efficiency – G2 and Regulation 17K of the
Building Regulations 2000 set out new requirements
on water efficiency in dwellings.
● G3 Hot water supply and systems – sets out
enhanced and amended provisions on hot water
supply and safety, applying safety provisions to all
types of hot water systems and a new provision on
scalding prevention.
● G4 Sanitary conveniences and washing facilities –
sets out requirements for sanitary conveniences and
hand washing facilities.
● G5 Bathrooms – sets out requirements for
bathrooms, which apply to dwellings and to
buildings containing one or more rooms for
residential purposes.
● G6 Kitchens and food preparation areas – contains a
new provision requiring sinks to be provided in areas
where food is prepared.
p Figure 1.2 An example of a certificate produced by KIWA, which
Certification of plumbing proves quality, credibility and compliance
installations
As a direct result of the introduction of the Water KEY TERM
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations in 1999, the water Approved plumber: a plumber that has undertaken
undertakers began to recognise competent persons specific Water Regulations training and is
schemes, approved plumber schemes and self- recognised as competent by the water undertaker.
certification of certain plumbing installations. These
are administered and regulated by the local water
undertaker. What are competent persons schemes
and approved plumber schemes?
Under Water Supply Regulation 5, if a person proposes
A plumber who can prove, via an assessment, a
to carry out plumbing work on any building other than
substantial knowledge of the Water Supply (Water
a house or dwelling, they can either:
Fittings) Regulations, can join a competent persons
● notify their local water undertaker, or
scheme (CPS). The main benefit for members of these
● use an approved plumber/contractor who will
schemes is that they can self-certify plumbing supply
issue a Water Regulation Compliance Certificate.
work (domestic commercial and industrial) that would
This certificate confirms that the work has been
otherwise have to wait for water company approval
carried out in accordance with the regulations and
before work could commence.
that the fittings and materials used meet the strict
requirements of the regulations. The first of these schemes to emerge was the water
industry approved plumber scheme (WIAPS), set up by
most of the water undertakers in England and Wales.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
2 COLD WATER SYSTEM LAYOUTS
In this section, we will take a look at the component However, where insufficient water pressure exists and
layout features and functions for cold water systems the demand is below 0.2 litres/second, then drinking
and the methods of providing water supplies. water may be boosted directly from the supply pipe
provided that the water undertaker agrees. With
Layout features for indirect systems, a series of float switches in the break
cistern starts and stops the pumps depending upon the
multi-storey dwellings water levels in the cistern.
In plumbing systems, the phrase ‘multi-storey’ applies
Boosting pumps can create excessive aeration of the
to buildings that are simply too tall to be supplied
water, which, although causing no deterioration of
totally using just the pressure of the water main.
water quality, can cause concern to the consumer
Because of their design, these buildings have particular
because of the opaque, milky appearance of the water.
cold water system requirements that can only be
There are several common examples of these systems:
satisfied by pumping or ‘boosting’ the cold water
● direct boosting systems
supply either in part or in total.
● direct boosting to a drinking water header and
duplicate storage cisterns
KEY TERM
● indirect boosting to a storage cistern
Multi-storey building: a building having more than ● indirect boosting with a pressure vessel.
three floors.
Direct boosting systems
Most cold water supplies that are delivered from the Where permission from the water undertaker has been
mains cold water supply arrive at a building at a three granted, pumps can be directly fitted to the incoming
to seven bars pressure (30–70 metres head). A 30 m supply pipe to enable the head of pressure to be
head is equivalent to around eight storeys in height. increased.
When taking into account a two-storey margin to allow
for frictional losses, it becomes obvious that the height Pump stop
of the building will often outstrip the head of pressure Pump start
available. In some parts of the UK, it is not unusual to
find premises with pressures lower than two bars and
flow rates of below 15 litres/minute. In these cases,
the water undertaker should be consulted as to where
supply pressures can be relied upon to ensure the
correct operation of the cold water system.
If the public supply is inadequate or the building too
high, then the water supply within the building must
be boosted. There are several ways that this can be
achieved and these can be divided into:
● direct boosting systems, direct from the cold water
mains supply
Incoming supply
● indirect boosting systems, from a break cistern.
NOTE : This drawing does not show
Indirect systems are the most common, as direct any additional backflow prevention
devices that may be required under
boosting systems are often forbidden by the water the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
undertakers because they can often reduce the mains Stop valve Duplicate pump Regulations 1999.
pressure available to other consumers in the locality
p Figure 1.3 Direct boosting system
and can increase the risk of contamination by backflow.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
A float switch, or some other no less effective device, A pipeline switch on the header by-pass starts the
situated inside the high-level cistern controls the pumps. pumps when the water level falls to a predetermined
The pumps either switch on or off depending upon the level. The pumps can be time controlled or activated
water level in the cistern. The pumps are activated when to shut down by a pressure switch. When filling the
the water drops to a depth normally equal to about half cisterns, the pumps should shut down when the water
cistern capacity and switch off again when the water levels in the cisterns are approximately 50 mm below
level reaches a depth approximately 50 mm below the the shut off level of the float operated valve.
shut off level of the float operated valve.
Secondary backflow devices may be required at the
If the cistern is to be used for drinking water, then it drinking water outlets on each floor.
must be of the protected type.
Indirect boosting to a storage cistern
Direct boosting to a drinking water This system incorporates a break cistern to store the
header and duplicate storage cisterns water before it is pumped via a boosting pump (known
This system is mainly used for large and multi-storey as a booster set) to a storage cistern at high level.
installations. With this system, the cisterns at high level The pumps should be fitted to the outlet of the break
are for supplying non-drinking water only, a drinking cistern. The capacity of the break cistern needs careful
water header sited on the boosted supply pipe provides consideration and will depend upon the total water
limited storage of 5–7 litres drinking water to sinks in storage requirements and the cistern’s location within
each dwelling when the pump is not running. Excessive the building, but it should not be less than 15 minutes
pressure should be avoided as this can lead to an of the pumps maximum output. However, the cistern
increase in the wastage of water at the sink taps along must not be oversized as this may result in water
with the nuisance of excessive splashing. stagnation within the cistern.
Automatic air inlet valve
Upstand Pump
Pump live stop
Pump shut off
Pump stop Pump
start
Pump start
CWSC
NOTE: This drawing does not show any
additional backflow prevention devices that
Pipeline level switch may be required under the Water Supply
Drinking water (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.
header
Secondary protection
Filtered air vent
Incoming supply
Overflow and filter
Pump
stop
Pump start
Duplicate pump
Incoming supply
SV NRV p Figure 1.5 Indirect boosting to a storage cistern
Drinking water supplies sinks in flats
NRV taken from the boosted supply pipe
The water level in the storage cistern (or cisterns) is
usually controlled by means of water level switches
Stop valve Duplicate pump which control the pumps. When the water drops to a
predetermined level the pumps start filling the storage
p Figure 1.4 Direct boosting to drinking header
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
cisterns. The pumps are then switched off when the
water level reaches a point about 50 mm from the
shut off level of the float operated valve. A water-level
switch should also be positioned in the break cistern
to automatically shut off the pumps if the water level
drops to within 225 mm of the suction connection near
the bottom of the break cistern. This is simply to ensure
the pumps do not run dry.
Indirect boosting with a pressure
vessel
This rather complicated system is mainly used in
p Figure 1.7 A typical booster set with pressure vessel and
buildings where a number of storage cisterns are fed control boards
at various floor levels making it impractical to control
pumps by water level switches. It utilises a pneumatic
pressure vessel to maintain the pressure boost to the Normally, the controls including the pressure vessel,
higher levels of the building. pumps, air compressor and control equipment are
purchased as a package, although self-assembled
The pneumatic pressure vessel comprises of a small booster sets are available.
water reservoir with a cushion of compressed air.
The water pumps and the compressed air operate As can be seen in Figure 1.8, some of the floors below
intermittently. The pumps replenish the water level the limit of the mains cold water supply pressure are
and the pressure vessel maintains the system pressure. supplied un-boosted directly from the cold water
Since the system may be supplying drinking water, main with the floors above the mains pressure limit
the vessel capacity is kept purposely low to ensure a being supplied via the break cistern and booster set.
rapid and regular turnover of water. The compressed Drinking water supplies must be from a protected
air must be filtered to ensure that dust and insects are cistern.
eliminated.
Pressure switches
Gauge
Supply to high level
Compressor
Pressure
relief valve
Compressed air
Sight
Water
gauge
Supply from
break cistern
Duplicate pump set
p Figure 1.6 Auto pneumatic pressure vessel
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Automatic air inlet valve Secondary protection
NOTE: This drawing does not show any additional
backflow prevention devices that may be required under
the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.
Boosted
mains supply
Limit of mains pressure
To pressure switches
Compressed air line Pressure gauge
Pneumatic
pressure
vessel
Drain tap Pressure
relief
Break cistern Filtered air vent valve
Incoming supply
Overflow and filter
Pump Un-boosted
stop mains supply
Duplicate
Pump pumps
start
NRV
p Figure 1.8 Indirect boosting with pressure vessel
Layout features for large-scale Sectional cisterns are constructed, usually on site,
storage cisterns used in multi-storey from 1 m2 sections, which are bolted together and
can be made to suit literally any capacity and tailored
cold water systems
to fit any space. Sectional cisterns can be internally
The installation of large-scale cisterns differs somewhat or externally flanged and are bolted together with
from the cisterns that were introduced in Chapter 5 stainless steel bolts.
of Book 1. Large cisterns must be installed in
accordance with the Water Supply (Water Fittings) The main materials used for:
Regulations 1999 (and the Scottish Water Byelaws ● One-piece cisterns:
2014). Regulation 5 states that the water undertaker ● glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) BS EN
must be notified before the installation of large cisterns 13280:2001
begins and it is important to remember that the correct ● plastic BS 4213:2004 and BS EN 12573.1:2000:
backflow protection must be present in relation to the ● polyproylene (PP)
fluid category of the contents of the cistern. ● polyethylene (PE)
● polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
In this section of the chapter, we will look at the ● Sectional cisterns:
general requirements of large-scale cisterns. ● glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) BS EN 13280:2001
● steel with protection against corrosion and
Materials for large-scale cisterns subsequent water contamination in the form of:
Large cisterns can be made from several materials and ● paint protected with a paint that is listed in
can be either one piece or sectional. the Water Materials and Fittings Directory
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9781398361621.indb 10 18/04/22 10:35 PM
Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
● glass-coated
● galvanised
● rubber-lined.
● aluminium – rubber-lined.
p Figure 1.10 A sectional cistern
Overflow and warning pipe
requirements of large-scale cisterns
Overflows for large cisterns are quite different
from those fitted to cisterns for domestic purposes.
The objective is the same – to warn that the float
operated valve is malfunctioning and to remove water
that may otherwise damage the premises. But with
larger cisterns, the potential for water wastage and
water damage is far greater. Therefore, the layout is
different.
The overflow/warning pipe on large-scale cisterns must:
● contain a vermin screen to prevent the ingress of
insects and vermin
● be capable of draining the maximum inlet flow
without compromising the inlet air gap
● contain an air break before connection to a drain
● not be of such a length that it will restrict the flow
of water, causing the air gap to be compromised
● discharge in a visible, conspicuous position.
The warning pipe invert needs to be located a
minimum of 25 mm above the maximum water level
of the cistern and the air gap not less than 20 mm
or TWICE the internal diameter of the inlet pipe,
whichever is the greater.
The general features of larger cisterns are:
● Cisterns with an actual capacity of 1000 litres to
5000 litres:
● The discharge level of the inlet device must be
positioned at least twice the diameter of the
p Figure 1.9 One-piece GRP cisterns inlet pipe above the top of the overflow pipe.
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● The overflow pipe invert must be located at ● Alternatively, the warning pipe may be discarded
least 25 mm above the invert of the warning provided a water level indicator with an audible
pipe (or warning level if an alternative warning or visual alarm is installed that operates when
device is fitted). the water level reaches 25 mm below the invert
● The warning pipe invert must be located at least of the overflow pipe.
25 mm above the water level in the cistern and
must be at least 25 mm diameter.
● Cisterns with an actual capacity greater than
INDUSTRY TIP
5000 litres: References to the ‘actual capacity’ of a cistern simply
● The discharge level of the inlet device must be means the maximum volume which it could hold when
positioned at least twice the diameter of the filled to its overflowing level. ‘Nominal capacity’ is the total
inlet pipe above the top of the overflow pipe. volume it could hold when filled to the top of the cistern.
● The overflow pipe invert must be located at
least 25 mm above the invert of the warning
In both cases, the size of the overflow pipe will depend
pipe (or warning level if an alternative warning
upon the type of air gap incorporated into the cistern
device is fitted).
(we will look at air gaps and backflow protection a
● The warning pipe invert must be located at least
little later in this chapter) and this will depend upon
25 mm above the water level in the cistern and
the fluid category of the cistern contents. It must be
must be at least 25 mm diameter.
remembered that:
Air gap 2 × inlet diameter Not less than 25 mm ● if a type AG air gap (fluid category 3) is fitted, the
Not less than 25 mm overflow diameter shall be a minimum of twice the
Service inlet diameter
valve Overflow pipe
● if a type AF air gap (fluid category 4) is fitted, the
minimum cross-sectional area of the overflow pipe
Shut off must be, throughout its entire length, four times the
level
Warning
cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe.
pipe
Cistern capacity 1000 l to 5000 l
Type AG and AF air gaps
p Figure 1.11 Cisterns 1000–5000 litres
Air gap 2 × inlet diameter Not less than 25 mm
Not less than 25 mm
Service
valve
Shut off
level
Warning alarm
Alarm sounds when the water is
25 mm from the invert of the
overflow pipe
Cistern capacity greater than 5000 l
Type AG and AF air gaps
p Figure 1.12 Cisterns greater than 5000 litres
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Inlet pipe
Float operated valve
Air gap 2 × inlet diameter
Overflow pipe
Critical water level
25 mm minimum
25 mm minimum
Warning pipe
p Figure 1.13 Relative positions of inlet, warning pipe and overflow for type AG and AF air gaps
For all cisterns greater than 1000 litres, the invert of BS 1212 Parts 1 and 2
the overflow must not be less than 50 mm above the These are the most common types of FOV. The main
working level of the cistern. problem with this type of FOV is that they are very
restrictive to water flow and incur a much greater
Methods of filling large-scale pressure (head) loss than other types of FOVs, making
cisterns cistern filling a long process. Wear on the washer and
Section 7, Schedule 2, Paragraph 16 of the Water orifice can also be problematic when the valve is in
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations states: constant use. They are, however, satisfactory when
Every pipe supplying water connected to a intermittent use is anticipated. These were looked at in
storage cistern shall be fitted with an effective detail in Book 1.
adjustable valve capable of shutting off the
Equilibrium float operated valves
inflow of water at a suitable level below the
overflowing level of the cistern. The equilibrium FOV offers a greater flow rate and
lower pressure loss than the BS 1212 type and are
In domestic cistern installations up to 1000 litres, this is especially beneficial for large cisterns with a high-
usually a float operated valve to BS 1212. In large-scale pressure inlet cold water supply.
cisterns, however, other means of filling the cistern are
available: KEY TERM
● float operated valves
● solenoid valves.
Equilibrium: in perfect balance. In this case, the
pressure is balanced both sides of the valve.
Float operated valves BS 1212
There are basically four types of float operated valve Unlike other FOVs, the equilibrium type does not rely
(FOV) that can be installed on large-scale cisterns. solely on the float to successfully close the valve.
These are: Instead, the closing operation is aided by the water
● BS 1212 Parts 1 and 2 float operated valves pressure of the incoming mains cold water supply
● equilibrium float operated valves allowing a smaller float to be used.
● pressure operated float valves
As can be seen in Figure 1.14, the piston has a hole
● Keraflo delayed action float valves.
running through its length. This allows water to pass
We will look at the merits of each valve in turn. through to the back of the piston, which has the effect
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
of pushing the piston towards valve shut off whilst How do pressure operated valves work?
the water at the front of piston tends to push it away, At zero pressure, the valve is closed. As water enters
equalising the pressure both sides of the barrel. The float the valve inlet and the pressure increases, the valve
now only has to lift the arm to close the valve greatly opens to allow water to flow to the cistern. When
reducing the effort required to stop the flow of water. the water has reached its shut off level, the pilot
Piston valve, operated by the float and lever, closes. This
Copper float
causes the pressure within the diaphragm chamber to
Water
inlet
increase, thereby closing the water inlet and stopping
the flow of water. As the water level drops, the float
operated pilot valve opens, releasing the pressure of
Water outlet Flange bolts
the diaphragm chamber. Water pressure then re-opens
Float arm
the inlet valve and the cistern fills again to its shut off
level.
p Figure 1.14 An equilibrium float operated valve
Equilibrium valves are an advantage where the water
pressure is high and water hammer may be a concern. Pilot valve
Almost all FOVs above 54 mm are of this type. Linkage Float and lever
Pressure operated valves
The pressure operated FOV uses the pressure of the Diaphragm chamber
cold water main to assist the valve closure by the use
Diaphragm
of a pilot valve controlled by the lever and the float. Valve shown in
Often called the pilot operated valve, the advantage here open position
is that the variations in water tank levels between fully Inlet Outlet
open and fully closed are greatly reduced. Although the
head loss is greater than with the equilibrium type, the
pressure operated valve is particularly suited to large Water flow direction
cisterns with a high-pressure supply. p Figure 1.15 The pressure operated valve
Cistern with raised chamber Type AB air gap
Pilot valve float
and lever Water level
Pressure operated valve
p Figure 1.16 The pressure operated valve cistern layout
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Keraflo delayed action float valve Although very rarely used with modern systems, a
An alternative approach to cistern filling is the Keraflo solenoid valve discharging through an open-ended
delayed action float valve. This type of valve only opens pipe when used in conjunction with a float switch to
when the water falls to a pre-set level in the cistern, activate the solenoid valve is an acceptable alternative
opening fully to achieve a fast cistern fill. The benefits method of filling large-scale cisterns (we will look at
here are that not only does the cistern fill quickly but float switches a little later in the chapter). They are
also that the velocity of the water entering the cistern generally associated with boosted cold water systems.
means that the water will mix with the cistern contents
preventing stratification.
The valve opens at a predetermined water level,
opening and closing fully eliminating water hammer
and unwanted system noise. An adjustable water level
enables the levels to be set based upon water usage or, in
the case of large domestic installations, occupancy levels.
The design of the valve means that boosting pumps are
used less frequently. With a conventional FOV, pumps
activating every few minutes wastes energy and increases
pump wear. A delayed action float valve eliminates this
by allowing the pumps to be activated only once every
few hours when the water level has fallen sufficiently.
KEY TERM
Stratification: describes how the temperature of
the water varies with its depth. The nearer the
water is to the top of the cistern, the warmer it
will be. The deeper the water, the colder it will p Figure 1.17 The Keraflo ‘Aylesbury’ type delayed action float
be. This tends to occur in layers, whereby there is valve
a marked temperature difference from one layer
to the next. The result is that water quality can
vary, the warmer water near the top being more
susceptible to biological growth such as Legionella
pneumophila (Legionnaires’ disease).
Solenoid valves
A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve that
controls the flow of water into the cistern. The solenoid
is an electromagnet that operates when an electrical
current runs through the coil. When the coil is not
energised, a spring keeps the valve shut.
Most solenoid valves used on large cisterns are of the
servo-type (also called the pilot type solenoid valve).
With this type, the electromagnet operates a plunger,
which opens and closes a pilot orifice. The incoming
water pressure, which is fed through the pilot orifice,
opens the valve seal allowing water to flow through
the valve. As the pilot valve closes, the pressure on the
valve seal decreases and a spring closes the valve. p Figure 1.18 A servo-type solenoid valve
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Multiple cistern installations the flow of water through each cistern. This can be
Where large quantities of water are required but space achieved by:
● keeping the cistern volumes to a minimum to ensure
is limited, then cisterns can be interlinked, provided the
cisterns are the same size and capacity. Problems can rapid turnover of water to prevent stagnation
● connecting the cisterns in parallel wherever
occur if the cisterns are not linked correctly, especially
where the cisterns are to supply drinking water. possible
● connecting the inlets and the outlets at opposite
Stagnation of the water in some parts of the cistern
may cause the quality of the water to deteriorate. It ends of the cistern
● using delayed action float operated valves to limit
should be remembered that the number of cisterns to
be linked should be kept to a minimum. stratification.
Stagnation can be avoided by following some basic Where it is not possible to connect cisterns in parallel,
rules. Connection must be arranged to encourage cisterns may be connected in series.
Service valve
Independent screened
Cold water supply overflow pipes for each
cistern. Cisterns over 1000
litres require an overflow and a
warning pipe
Service valve
Access cover for cistern
cleaning and float operated valve
maintenance/replacement
Screened vent
Large diameter header pipe
Gate valves
Large cold water cisterns interlinked in parallel
Cold water feed and distribution pipes
p Figure 1.19 Cisterns in parallel
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Internal water flow Internal water flow
Secondary Primary
outlet outlet
p Figure 1.20 Cisterns in series
In practice, cisterns in series should be interconnected is regular and even across all cisterns. In this situation,
to allow free movement of water from one cistern to it is a good idea to install FOVs on ALL cisterns with
the other. They should be connected at the bottom appropriate service valves as detailed in the Water
AND the middle so that water passes evenly through Regulations:
them. The primary outlet connection should be made Every float operated valve must have a service
on the opposite cistern to the FOV to encourage water valve fitted as close as is reasonably practicable.
movement with the secondary connection made on the
Wherever an FOV is fitted, then an overflow/warning
cistern with the FOV installed. The overflow/warning
pipe must accompany it. These should terminate in a
pipe should be fitted on to the same cistern as the FOV.
conspicuous, visible position outside the building. On
Both cisterns must be of the same size and capacity.
no account should they be coupled together.
KEY TERM There should be service/gate valves positioned to allow
Interconnected: connected together to form one for isolation and maintenance of the cisterns without
cistern. interrupting the supply. In Figure 1.21, you will see that
any two of the four cisterns can be decommissioned,
leaving two in operation. This ensures continuation of
When connecting two or more cisterns together, care supply.
should be taken to ensure that the water movement
Every cylinder has a float operated valve to allow movement of water in every cylinder
Each FOV is fitted with a service valve as detailed in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
All FOVs to shut
off at the same
water level
Gate valves to be positioned so that any Every cylinder to have its own
two cisterns can be decommissioned for independent overflow/warning pipe.
cleaning and maintenance, leaving These should evacuate the building
two in commission for supply separately and NOT be joined together
p Figure 1.21 Installing three or more cisterns
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Break cisterns Components of systems in
Break cisterns (often called break tanks) are used in
large cold water installations in order to supply the
multi-storey dwellings
system with water via a set of boosting pumps when
the mains supply is insufficient. They provide a ‘break’
Float switches, transducers
in the supply between the mains supply and the and temperature sensors
installation. This has several advantages over pumping Float switches, transducers and temperature sensors
direct from the mains supply: play a vital part in modern boosted large-scale cold
● Using break cisterns ensures that there is no surge water systems. The problems encountered are not
on the mains supply when the boosting pumps just those of how to install them but also where to
either start or stop. install them. Installations of large cisterns are often
● Break cisterns ensure that contamination of undertaken in tight and restricted spaces. Difficulties
the mains cold water supply from multi-storey arise in positioning these components whilst providing
installations does not occur. access for maintenance and inspection.
● Break cisterns ensure that there is sufficient supply
We will look at these important components.
for the installation requirements at peak demand.
● Break cisterns safeguard the water supply to other Float switches
users by not drawing large amounts of water from Float switches, often called level switches, provide
the mains supply through the boosting pumps. detection of water levels within the cistern to activate
Break cisterns are often used in very tall buildings as various other pieces of remote equipment such as
intermediate cisterns on nominated service floors, start/stop functions on boosting pumps, open/close
thus dividing the system into a number of manageable functions on solenoid valves, water level alarms, and
pressure zones. The break cisterns provide water to water level indicators.
both user outlets and other break cisterns higher up There are many different types of float switches
where the water is then boosted to other pressure available and these can vary in design from simple
zones further up the building. magnetic toggle switches to ultrasonic and electronic
As with all cistern installations, break cisterns must types.
be fitted with an appropriate air gap that ensures zero
backflow into any part of the system.
Type AB air gap 2× the inlet pipe diameter Head over weir Not less than 25 mm
Not less than 25 mm
Incoming mains Screened overflow pipe
cold water supply S
Screened warning
pipe
Solenoid valve shown
but this could be a float
operated valve, equilibrium
float valve or delayed action
float valve
Float switch
Weir overflow to be sized in closing the
accordance with the diameter solenoid
of the incoming water supply valve
Float switch to shut down the
boosting pumps so they do not Float switch opening Cold supply to the
run dry in the event of lack of water the solenoid valve boosting pumps
p Figure 1.22 The layout of a break cistern with a raised chamber
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Micro-switch deactivated Raised water level Float raised
Magnets with opposing poles repel each other
Micro-switch activated opening and closing the micro-switch to operate
either a booster pump set or solenoid valve
Float lowered
Lowered water level
p Figure 1.23 Magnetic toggle float switch – how it works
Popular types include:
● magnetic toggle – a simple float switch that
uses the opposing forces of magnets to activate
a micro-switch
● sealed float
● pressure activated diaphragm
● electronic
● ultrasonic.
Transducers
A transducer is an electronic sensor that converts
a signal from one form to another. In large-scale,
multi-storey water systems it senses system pressure
variations and converts a pre-set low pressure into
voltage to activate either the boosting pumps or the
compressor feeding the pressure vessel to boost the
pressure to normal operating pressure. They may also
be used to sense over-pressurisation. p Figure 1.24 Water pressure transducer with pressure gauge
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Temperature sensors Boosting pumps
Temperature sensors are often used to monitor the These are usually sited in the plant room and can either
temperature of large volumes of stored wholesome, be horizontal single-stage or vertically mounted multi-
potable water where the installation is of major stage centrifugal type pumps. Multi-stage pumps are
importance, such as in a hospital, prison or any place often accompanied by pressure vessels to aid boosting.
where there is a duty of care.
There are two common types of boosting pump:
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations advise ● horizontal single-stage types
that stored wholesome water should not exceed 20 °C ● vertical multi-stage types.
in order to minimise the risk of micro-bacterial growth.
Boosting pumps are available either as single
components or as packaged units containing all the
necessary equipment pre-fitted. The latter are the
easiest to install and only require the final plumbing
and electrical connections.
A typical pump package would normally consist of the
following components:
● the pump
● a transducer to sense pressure and flow
● a control box to monitor pressure differentials and
flow rate
● an accumulator to assist in providing sufficient
p Figure 1.25 Water temperature sensor
system pressure for the installation
● a float switch to prevent the pumps running dry.
KEY TERMS
Potable: pronounced poe-table, from the French
word ‘potable’ meaning drinkable.
Duty of care: in British law, this is a moral and
legal obligation imposed on an organisation or an
individual, which necessitates that a standard of
reasonable care is adhered to. If an action does
not meet the standard of care, the actions are
considered to be negligent and damages may be
claimed for in a court of law.
Control box to monitor
pressure and flow rate
and to vary the pump
Water feed to property speed if necessary
Pressure and flow rate
LCD read out
Water supply in
Single-stage pump
p Figure 1.26 Components of a horizontal pump
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Electrical connection
Water for single occupancy
and isolation panel Accumulator dwellings
Pressure transducer Multi-stage A private water supply (PWS) can be described as
centrifugal
Pressure gauge pump motor any water supply that is not provided by a water
Control panel undertaker. The responsibility for the maintenance and
Supply manifold
repair of the supply lies solely with the person that
owns or uses it. Private water supplies are regulated by
the Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016.
Water intake
manifold
INDUSTRY TIP
p Figure 1.27 Components of a vertical multi-stage pump set Access the Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016 at:
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/618/contents/made
The accumulator
The accumulator is a pressurised vessel that holds A private water supply can serve a single occupancy
a small amount of water for distribution within the dwelling providing less than 1000 litres (1 m3) per
installation. They are designed to maintain mains day or it may supply many properties or commercial/
operating pressure when the pump is not working and industrial buildings where the extraction rate may be in
to reduce pump usage. Small accumulators can also be excess of 1,000,000 litres (1000 m3) per day.
used to suppress water hammer.
Sources of water vary from boreholes, wells, springs
Small domestic installations use bladder type and streams to rivers and lakes, and each one needs
accumulators. These consist of a synthetic rubber to be assessed for its water quality and suitability.
bladder or bag within a coated steel cylinder or vessel. The monitoring requirements of the Drinking Water
Directive will vary according to the source and the size
Shrader valve under protective cap of the supply. In addition to this, the volume of water
produced and the population it is serving should also be
Compressed air
classified by the nature of the supply and whether the
supply is:
● serving a single occupancy dwelling
● for domestic use for the persons living in the
Synthetic dwelling
rubber
bladder ● supplying water for commercial food production.
The issue of private water supply is an especially
Water
important part of a plumber’s work as the Water Supply
(Water Fittings) Regulations do not apply in this instance.
The special regulations mentioned previously need to be
followed with respect of cleansing, sterilising and testing
the water to ensure that it is fit for human consumption.
The methods of providing
Connection to the system
private water supplies to
p Figure 1.28 A bladder type accumulator
single occupancy dwellings
There are several methods of water extraction that can
be used to supply single occupancy dwellings. In this,
the first of the assessment criteria for this section, we
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
will investigate these methods and the equipment that
is used. We will look at:
● water that is pumped from wells and boreholes
● water that is collected from surface water sources
such as streams and springs
● the use of externally sited break cisterns.
Water that is pumped from wells
and boreholes
Many small private drinking water supplies are
extracted from boreholes and wells. Wells are usually
large and circular, and not less than 1 m diameter,
often dug by hand and occasionally by mechanical p Figure 1.29 Water pumped from boreholes
excavators. Boreholes, however, are smaller in
diameter and are drilled by specialist companies KEY TERM
using a variety of methods, including percussion
Aquifer: a type of rock that holds water like a
and rotary drilling. sponge. There are three basic types:
● confined aquifers – these are aquifers that
The quantity of available water will largely depend
have a confining layer between the water level
upon the type of aquifer that the borehole is to
and ground level. A confining layer is a layer of
access. Obviously, the bigger the aquifer, the more material that is impermeable with little or no
water will be available for extraction. Estimated porosity
amounts can be calculated by test pumping after ● unconfined aquifers – these are aquifers that
the borehole has been sunk. Perched aquifers are the have no confining layers between the water
most unreliable as these may well dry up after long level and ground level
● perched aquifers – these are aquifers that have
periods without rain.
a confining impermeable layer below the water
bearing strata. They sit above the main water
table.
Unconfined aquifer outcrop
recharge area Confined aquifer
Well with cone of depression
due to pumping Well with cone of in
Spring Unsaturated zone potentiometric surface
due to pumping Potentiometric
surface
Artesian well
Water
table
Saturated
zone
Aquifer
Largely
impermeable
cover
Largely
impermeable
base
p Figure 1.30 Aquifers
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Normally, a well-sunk and properly constructed borehole
will comfortably be able to supply a single occupation
domestic dwelling with water pumped directly from the Electrical connection
and isolation panel
aquifer, after appropriate treatment, by either: Accumulator
● a submersible pump – this is a centrifugal Pressure
pump that has a hermetically sealed motor and transducer
Multi-stage
is, therefore, waterproof. The whole assembly centrifugal
pump motor
is submerged in the water. The main advantage Pressure
with this type of pump is that it prevents water gauge
cavitation. Submersible pumps are specifically
designed to push the water from the well or Supply
manifold Control
borehole rather than pull water from it. They are panel
more efficient than surface pumps, which have to
pull the water upwards from the borehole.
● a surface mounted pump – usually sited in a pump
house, these can either be horizontal single-stage
or vertically mounted multi-stage centrifugal-type Water intake
pumps. Multi-stage pumps are often accompanied manifold
by pressure vessels to aid boosting, especially where
the water supplies are unreliable or inefficient. p Figure 1.32 A typical surface pumping set using multi-stage
centrifugal pumps and pressure vessels
Water taken from deep wells and boreholes may have
GRP well
chamber
travelled from catchments several kilometres away. If
the water supply is extracted from a sand and gravel
Stop valve
type aquifer, then the water will be very clean having
gone through a thorough many stages of filtration
through the sand/gravel geology. If the aquifer is
Well cladding
predominantly limestone, the water will have travelled
through fissures in the rock itself and will generally not
Grout seal
be as clean as sand/gravel aquifers. Although ground
waters such as aquifers are usually of good quality,
Impermeable some may contain high levels of iron and manganese
strata Inert silica and others may be contaminated with nitrates
gravel/sand
pack
and other chemicals from farming and agricultural
activities.
Rising main
Boreholes extract the water from far deeper than any
other source of private water supply. Boreholes, often
Water
100 mm to 150 mm in diameter can be drilled as deep
Submersible
bearing
pump
as 50 m.
strata
Impermeable
strata
p Figure 1.31 A typical borehole installation
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Water that is collected from surface the water is raw, especially after snow-melt and heavy
water sources rainfall. Installing a small tank or reservoir will help the
settlement process and will do much to reduce the
There are several water sources that can be classified as
variations in water quality. The tank will require regular
surface water sources.
inspections and cleaning because of the solid matter
Rivers within the water.
Rivers offer greater, more reliable yields than boreholes,
Streams
but can be susceptible to pollution and often show a
variable quality of water. Pollution often depends on Small streams often show a variable quality to the
the catchment area and the activities in the general water because of animal and human activity within the
vicinity. Water that is derived from ground where there streams’ catchment area and may show varying colour
is little peat and agricultural activities is usually of changes due to the levels of humic and fulvic acids that
good quality. Peaty ground tends to yield acidic water are used in agriculture as soil supplements.
because of the concentration of CO2, and this can lead Pollution and natural variations in the quality of the
to high concentrations of dissolved metals such as water are the most common problems that can occur
lead. with both stream and river water sources and these
Lowland water is most likely of poor quality and may need to be considered carefully when siting the water
show seasonal variations in terms of quality and supply intake point. Water can be pumped directly
colour at different times of the year, with late autumn from the stream or collected from the ground in the
being the peak of colour changes. Microbiological immediate vicinity of the stream or riverbank. This
contamination may also be high during periods of is desirable in certain situations where the geology
heavy rainfall. allows a natural filtration process, the water therefore
being cleaner than directly from the river itself. The
Coarse filter intake should not be positioned in an area where water
or screen Permeable river bank
River turbulence may be created, especially during periods
of heavy rainfall (for example, on the bend of a river or
at sudden changes in water level). Water intakes must
Inverted tank be protected by a strainer to prevent the ingress of
Graded media
fish, vermin and debris and the inlet pipe must feed a
settlement tank that allows particulate matter within
the water to settle.
p Figure 1.33 River and stream water collection
The outlet of the tank should be situated above the
Because of the potential problems associated floor of the tank and be fitted with a strainer to prevent
with rivers, a surface water source should only be sediment contamination.
considered as a potential drinking water supply where
The tank must be constructed of a material that will
no ground water source exists. The water will require
not contaminate or impair the quality of the water
a minimum of filtration and disinfection treatments.
and must be designed in such a way as to prevent the
This must be designed for a worst-case scenario when
ingress of vermin and debris.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Inlet pipe outlet pipe
Stock proof fencing Overflow and washout
Vermin proof outlet
Inspection access cover
Ventilation pipe
Reinforced
concrete slab
Distance between
inlet and level of
overflow
min. 150 mm
Waterproof cement rendering
150 mm thick reinforced concrete
slab laid on 50 mm site concrete
Washout pipe
p Figure 1.34 Concrete reservoirs and tanks
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Springs Fence
Lockable access cover
Where the water table and the surface coincide, then a Cut off ditch
Overflow
spring is formed. The presence of fissures in the Earth’s
surface usually dictates where natural springs occur. The Valve
most reliable of these are from deep aquifers, whereas
To supply
those aquifers nearer the surface are susceptible to
Aquifer
drying up after a short period without rain, especially if
the water is flowing from fissured limestone or granite. Stream
Permeable wall Coarse filter
KEY TERM or screen
Water table: the point where the earth below p Figure 1.35 Spring water collection
ground becomes saturated with water causing
water to pool.
KEY POINT
Remember that all water sources should be
Spring water is usually of good microbiological and
protected from the ingress of vermin and surface-
chemical quality although, again, shallow aquifers water contamination.
may suffer from variations in water quality due to
surface contamination. The probability of agricultural
contamination must be carefully considered especially
Storing treated water
when the aquifer evacuates the surface. It must also be
Plumbing systems in domestic dwellings that use water
remembered that some shallow ‘springs’ may actually
from private water supplies need to include a method
be land surface drains. Here, the water quality is likely
of storing the treated water to provide a water reserve
to be unacceptable.
in the event of planned or emergency maintenance,
The treatment of spring water is usually much simpler or problems with the water source or the water
than river or stream water because there is much less treatment. Storage will also cater for fluctuations in
suspended solid matter. water demand.
Spring water must be protected from surface Storage may take several forms:
contamination once it reaches ground level. It is ● a small covered reservoir, providing sufficient head
necessary to consider leakage from septic tanks to serve the property
and agricultural activity. A small chamber built ● an externally sited break cistern, the water being
over the spring will protect the source from surface pumped into the property by a booster set
contamination and also serve as a collection source ● a suitably positioned storage tank or cistern in the
and header tank. It should be constructed so the water roof space of a property from which water flows
enters from the base or the side. The chamber top must under gravity to the taps and outlets.
be above ground level and be fitted with a lockable,
The tank, reservoir or cistern should have sufficient
watertight access cover. An overflow must be provided
volume to accommodate the maximum demand and
and sized to accommodate the maximum flow of the
any period where the water supply may be interrupted.
spring. The outlet should be fitted with a strainer and
The storage cistern/tank/reservoir may possibly be
positioned above the floor of the chamber.
contaminated during construction and must, therefore
The chamber must be constructed of a material that be disinfected before use. This is usually achieved by
will not contaminate or impair the quality of the water filling the system with a solution of water/chlorine at
and must be designed in such a way as to prevent the 20 mg/l of chlorine and leaving to stand for several
ingress of vermin and debris. hours, preferably overnight, after which the chlorine
The land in the immediate vicinity of the chamber should be drained and the system thoroughly flushed
must also be fenced off and small ditch dug upslope to using treated water.
intercept and divert surface water run-off.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
External break cisterns and cisterns in the roof space ● the chemical and microbiological content of the
must be protected against contamination and insulated water must be established and tests performed
against freezing in cold weather and undue warming to determine the effectiveness of any treatment
in warm weather. Cisterns and tanks should also be process and the chemical dosing requirements.
fitted with a lockable, well-fitting but not airtight lid to For small supplies, to a single dwelling, for
prevent the ingress of insects and vermin, and overflows instance, the treatment is often precautionary
and warning pipes must be protected by a mesh screen. and should include disinfection. The disinfection
Storage tanks must be inspected every six months and stage should only be discarded if it can be shown
cleaned, if necessary, to prevent the build-up of silt and without reasonable doubt by risk assessment and
debris. This should be followed by disinfection. frequent testing that the water supply is likely to be
consistently pathogen-free.
Water treatment processes for
private water supplies KEY TERM
Larger water supplies served from a private water Pathogen: a germ or bacteria.
source (for example, those that serve many properties
or commercial/industrial establishments) are often In this section of the chapter we will look at the
treated by ‘point of entry’ treatment methods. These different methods of water treatment that are often
are very similar to those that are used by the local water used with private water supplies. Table 1.1 shows
undertaker, and were discussed in detail in Book 1. It the methods of water treatment available and their
should be remembered that: effectiveness. We will look at the findings of this table
● the design of the treatment process should be based
method by method.
on a full investigation of site conditions
Table 1.1 Water treatment methods
manganese
Pesticides
Aluminium
Taste and
Ammonia
particles
Turbidity
Solvents
Bacteria
Iron and
Arsenic
Viruses
Coarse
Nitrate
Colour
colour
Algae
Coagulation and
+ + + ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++
flocculation1
Sedimentation ++ + + +
Gravel filter/screen + ++ + + +
Rapid sand filtration + + + ++ + + +
Slow sand filtration ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + +
Chlorination ++ ++ + + ++
Ozonation ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++
Ultraviolet (UV) ++ ++ +
Activated carbon + + + ++
Activated alumina ++
Ceramic filter ++ ++ ++ ++
Ion exchange + + ++
Membranes ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++
+ partly effective
++ preferred technique/effective
1 pre-oxidation may be required for effective removal of aluminium, arsenic, iron and manganese
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Without exception, all sources of water will need Table 1.2 The Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016 – water
treatment before it is acceptable for human quality parameters
consumption. The health risks presented by poor Parameter Unit of Concentration or
quality water can be due to microbiological or chemical measurement value (maximum
contaminants. Microbiological contamination is the unless otherwise
most important issue as this can lead to infectious stated)
diseases such as Legionnaires’ disease and cholera. Colour mg/1 Pt/Co 20
Chemical contamination often leads to more long-term Turbidity FTU 4
health risks. Substances that affect the appearance, Odour (including Dilution no. 3 at 25 °C
odour or taste often make the water unpalatable to the hydrogen sulphide)
consumers. Particulates in the water may also present Taste Dilution no. 3 at 25 °C
a health risk as these could also be contaminated with Temperature °C 25
microbiological organisms. In these circumstances, Hydrogen ion pH value 9.5 (min. 5.5)
disinfection becomes more difficult. Final disinfection Sulphate mg SO4/1 250
must always be included in any treatment system to Magnesium mg Mg/1 50
effectively kill off any remaining micro-organisms. Sodium mg Na/1 150
Disinfection solutions containing chloride provide
Potassium mg K/1 12
a residual that will act to preserve the quality of
Nitrite mg NO2 /1 0.1
the water during storage and distribution (in larger
Nitrate mg NO3/1 50
systems).
Ammonia mg NH4/1 0.5
Treatment of the water is based upon the physical Silver μg Ag/1 10
removal of contaminants through: Fluoride μg F/1 1500
● filtration
Aluminium μg Al/1 200
● settling, often assisted by the addition of chemicals,
Iron μg Fe/1 200
or
Copper μg Cu/1 3000
● the biological removal of micro-organisms.
Manganese μg Mn/1 50
This usually consists of a number of key stages: Zinc μg Zn/1 500
● initial pre-treatment by settling
Phosphorus μg P/1 2200
● pre-filtration through a coarse medium
Arsenic μg As/1 50
● sand filtration
Cadmium μg Cd/1 5
● disinfection or chlorination.
Cyanide μg CN/1 50
This process is known more commonly as the Chromium μg Cr/1 50
‘multiple barrier principle’ and is designed to provide Mercury μg Hg/1 1
an effective water treatment by not relying on a
Nickel μg Ni/1 50
single, less effective process or the failure of one stage
Lead μg Pb/1 50
in the process. For example, if a system consists of
Pesticides μg/1 0.1
coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, sand filtration
Conductivity μS/cm 1500 at 20 °C
and finally chlorination, failure of say, the rapid sand
filter does not mean that untreated water will be Chloride mg Cl/1 400
supplied to the property. Other processes will remove Calcium mg Ca/1 250
the majority of the suspended particles and, therefore, Total hardness mg Ca/1 min. 60
many of the microbiological contaminants. Disinfection Alkalinity mg HCO3/1 min. 30
will remove those remaining. Provided the sand filter Total coliforms number/100 ml 0
is repaired quickly, there will be little by the way of Faecal coliforms number/100 ml 0
deterioration in water quality. Faecal streptococci number/100 ml 0
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Coagulation and flocculation Sludge blanket level
Inlet valve
These processes are used to remove colour, turbidity, Settled
water channel Decanting trough
algae and other micro-organisms from surface water.
It involves the addition of a chemical coagulant, which
encourages the formation of a ‘precipitate’ or floc. This
entraps the impurities. In certain conditions, iron and
aluminium can also be removed in this way. The floc
is then removed from the water by sedimentation and
filtration.
Sludge
concentrator
KEY TERM cone
Turbidity: refers to how clear or cloudy the water
is, due to the amount of total suspended solids
it contains. The greater the amount of total Automatic sludge
suspended solids (TSS) in the water, the cloudier bleed valve
it will appear. Cloudy water can therefore be said
to be turbid. Inlet pipe
Bottom sludge
extractor pipe
Sedimentation p Figure 1.36 Sedimentation tank
Sedimentation tanks are designed to slow down the
water velocity to allow the solids that the water Filtration
contains to sink to the bottom and settle under gravity. Filtration is an important process that removes
Simple sedimentation may also be used to reduce turbidity and algae from the raw, untreated water.
turbidity. There are many different types, including screens,
Sedimentation tanks are usually rectangular in shape gravel filters, slow sand filters, rapid sand filters and
with a length-to-width ratio of 2:1 and are usually 1.5 pressure filters. We will concentrate on five of these:
to 2 m deep. The inlet and outlets must be on opposite ● slow sand filters
sides of the tank and the inlet designed to distribute the ● rapid sand filters
incoming flow as evenly across the tank as possible. The ● pressure filters
outlet should be designed to collect the cleared water ● absorption filters
across the entire width of the tank. The tank will also ● reverse osmosis.
require covering to prevent external contamination. Note that the difference between slow sand filters and
rapid sand filters is not just a matter of the speed of the
INDUSTRY TIP filtration process, but the underlying principle of the
method. Slow sand filtration is a biological process and
Sedimentation tanks require cleaning when their rapid sand filtration is a physical treatment process.
performance begins to deteriorate, and a 12-month period
between cleaning operations would normally be sufficient. Slow sand filters
Slow sand filters are often preceded by micro-straining
or coarse filtration; these filters are used primarily to
remove micro-organisms, algae and turbidity. It is a
slow but very reliable method of water treatment often
suited to small supplies, provided that there is sufficient
area to properly construct the filtration tanks.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Slow sand filters consist of tanks containing sand and water turbidity from raw water. Activated carbon
with a size range of 0.15 to 0.30 mm and to a depth in granular form is used to remove any organic
of around 0.5 to 1.5 m. For single dwellings, circular compounds. Some filters also incorporate an alkaline
modular units, usually used in tandem, are available. medium to increase the pH value of acidic water.
These have a diameter of around 1.25 m. As the
Rapid sand filters are usually constructed from
raw water flows downwards through the sand,
rectangular tanks containing coarse silica sand with a
micro-organisms and turbidity are removed by a
size range of 0.5 to 1 mm, laid to a depth of between
simple filtration process in the top few centimetres
0.6 and 1 m. As the water flows downwards through
of sand. Eventually, a biological layer of sludge
the filter, the solids remain in the upper part of the
develops, which is extremely effective at removing
sand bed where they become concentrated. The
micro-organisms in the water. This layer of sludge
treated water collects at the bottom of the filter and
is known as the schmutzdecke. The treated water
flows through nozzles in the floor. The accumulated
is then collected in underdrains and pipework at the
solids are removed either manually every 24 hours
bottom of the tank. The schmutzdecke will require
or automatically when the headloss reaches a
removing at periods of between two to ten weeks
predetermined level. This is achieved by backwashing.
as the filtration process slows. The use of tandem
filters means that one filter can remain in service A variety of proprietary units are available containing
whilst the other is cleaned and time allowed for the filtering media of different types and sizes. In some
schmutzdecke to re-establish. filters, the water flows upwards, improving the
efficiency.
Slow sand filters should be sized to deliver between 0.1
and 0.3 m3 of water for every 1 m2 of filter per hour.
Inlet
KEY TERM
Schmutzdecke: a layer of mud that is saturated
with friendly, water-cleansing bacteria. Filter media
Backwash
waste
Bellmouth
Float operated valve Filtered
water
Gravel
Wash water
and air supply
Inlet
Schmutzdecke p Figure 1.38 Rapid (gravity) sand filter
Fine sand
Pressure filters
Outlet
Pressure filters are sometimes used where it is
important to maintain a head of pressure to remove
Perforated support Gravel
tiles or underdrains the need to pump the water into the supply. The filter
bed is enclosed in a cylindrical pressure vessel. Some
p Figure 1.37 Slow sand filter small pressure filters are capable of delivering as much
as 15 m3/h. The cylinder is typically made of specially
Rapid (gravity) sand filters coated steel, and smaller units can be manufactured
Rapid sand filters are predominantly used to remove from glass-reinforced plastic. They operate in a similar
the floc from coagulated water, but they can be way to the rapid sand filter.
successfully used to remove algae, iron, manganese
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Air release valve
Inlet
Sand
Air and
Washout wash water
Gravel
inlet
Outlet
Drain
p Figure 1.39 Pressure filter
Absorption filters ● Activated alumina – these filters can be used
Absorption filters fall into two distinct categories: where the water contains contaminants, such as
● Activated carbon – these filters remove arsenic, and other chemicals, such as fluoride. They
contaminants by the process of physical absorption. are manufactured using aluminium hydroxide.
Granular activated carbon (GAC) is the most
commonly used medium, although block carbon
Reverse osmosis
and powdered carbon can also be used. Most Large reverse osmosis (RO) units have been used
filters use replaceable cartridges that can easily be for many years for producing good drinking (potable)
changed when the old one is exhausted. water from low-quality water. They can also be used
Activated carbon filters will remove suspended to produce drinking water from saline (salt) water
solids, chlorine and some organic contaminants, where the supplies of fresh water are inadequate. RO
including pesticides. They will also remove some will successfully remove a wide range of organic and
humic acids, which are responsible for giving chemical contaminants, such as sodium, calcium,
water derived from peat its brown appearance. nitrates, fluoride, pesticides and solvents.
Unfortunately, activated carbon provides a
good medium for the development of micro- KEY TERM
organisms and there is some concern that this Reverse osmosis: a method of purifying water.
can cause health problems should the bacteria be
reintroduced into the water. Water inhaled in the
form of an aerosol during activities such washing Reverse osmosis units work by forcing the water under
is also a concern. Because activated carbon pressure through a semi-permeable membrane. The
removes chlorine, bacterial growth has also been membrane is usually manufactured from polyamide.
found on filters treating chlorinated water. Some This material is preferred, as some membranes, such as
manufacturers state that activated carbon should cellulose, actively support the growth of bacteria. The
not be used if the water is of unknown quality or filters do not need replacing, but the membrane may
contains microbiological organisms. require periodic chemical cleaning and de-scaling.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Water containing impurities
Reverse osmosis water Chlorination
to the storage tank
There are several methods of chlorination that can
be used, depending on the size of the supply being
Water is forced against the semi-permeable
membrane under pressure disinfected. Chlorination is commonly achieved by
the use of liquefied chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite
solution or calcium hypochlorite granules. Chlorine gas
is supplied in pressurised cylinders and is extremely
dangerous, and so great care must be taken of how it is
stored and handled. The gas is taken from the cylinder
by a chlorinator, which measures and controls the flow
of gas.
Concentrated impurities
Sodium hypochlorite solution is delivered in drums, and
only a one-month supply should be stored at any one
Impurities are rejected in time. Exposure to sunlight can result in a decrease in
the waste water steam
the disinfection capabilities and results in the loss of
p Figure 1.40 The principle of reverse osmosis available chlorine and an increase in the concentration
of chlorate relative to chlorine. There are many
The flow rate through the units tends to be low in
different methods of dosing the water with sodium
domestic RO units, with the treated water being collected
hypochlorite. A simple gravity-fed system where the
in a storage tank to cushion supply and demand. A level
solution is drip-fed at a constant rate has proven very
sensor within the storage tank itself usually controls
successful, provided that the rate of flow needed and
the RO unit. One disadvantage with reverse osmosis is
the water quality and composition remain constant.
that it produces a lot of wasted water. For every litre
of fresh drinking water, three litres of wasted water are Calcium hypochlorite can be supplied in a powder form,
produced. An alternative would be to use the wasted tablets or granules. Calcium hypochlorite is very stable
water for non-potable supplies such as WC flushing. provided it is kept dry, and several months’ supply may
be stored.
The water treated by reverse osmosis tends to be soft.
For this reason, some units contain a re-hardener to Dosing via a calcium hypochlorite doser is very simple
increase both hardness and alkalinity, thus making it and involves dissolving a measured amount of calcium
less aggressive on metals such as lead. hypochlorite in a measured volume of water, which
is then introduced into the supply. Tablet form is
Disinfection preferred, as the rate of dissolve is very predictable.
The greatest danger to water for human consumption With all systems, the resultant free residual chlorine
(potable water) is from contamination by human and after disinfection should remain within the range of
animal faeces. These contain the organisms of many 0.2 to 0.5 mg/l, and a contact time of 30 minutes is
communicable diseases, and so the use of disinfection recommended. The design of the disinfection system is
to kill or inactivate their pathogenic organisms is vital. most important and must evenly distribute the chlorine
There are several disinfection methods available for within the water supply. It must not allow chlorine
treating water from a private source. Disinfection by concentrations to build up in dead zones.
the use of chlorine is the most widely used for large
water users, but is much less common for smaller, HEALTH AND SAFETY
single-dwelling supplies. Smaller water supplies Care should be taken to avoid contact between
commonly use ultraviolet irradiation and ozonation. calcium hypochlorite and moisture, as this then
reacts to form chlorine gas.
Here, we will investigate these three very different
methods of disinfection.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Ozonation Ultraviolet irradiation
This system uses ozone gas to disinfect the water This is the preferred method of disinfection of private
supply. Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and oxidant water supplies for small single domestic dwellings.
that completely kills bacteria and viruses. It cannot, They use low-frequency UV light to change the cellular
however, be relied upon solely as the means of structure of microbiological organisms, effectively
disinfection where the water contains cryptosporidium. destroying them.
Ozone may also help to reduce the levels of taste,
UV disinfection is affected by the water quality, and its
colour and odour within the water.
flow rate and the water must be of good quality with
Ozone is a gas that is produced by discharging low turbidity and colour. Pre-filtration is necessary with
alternating current through dry air. Small proprietary this method.
units use a 230 V single-phase AC current, but larger
Special low mercury (Hg) lamps are used to generate
units run on 400 V three-phase supplies. The ozone
the ultraviolet radiation in an enclosed chamber, usually
containing air is then mixed with water in the contact
manufactured from stainless steel. The lamps look very
column. To be completely effective, the column
similar to fluorescent tubes, but are made from UV
should give at least four minutes contact time, giving
transparent quartz instead of phosphor-coated glass.
a residual ozone content of 0.4 mg/l. Unless the water
The lamps generate UV radiation at a wavelength of 254
is used quickly, the ozone will decompose rapidly and
nanometres (nm). The optimum germicidal wavelength
so it is recommended that the disinfectant process be
is between 250 and 265 nm. The temperature of the
reinforced by using a small amount of chlorine.
lamp is around 40°C. The lamp is separated from
the water by a sleeve to prevent it being cooled by the
KEY TERM water. The UV effects of the lamps deteriorate with
Cryptosporidium: a microscopic protozoan parasite age, and after 10 to 12 months the efficiency is down
that affects humans and cattle and presents itself to 70 per cent of that of a new lamp. Therefore, lamp
as severe diarrhoea. It usually affects children replacement is recommended every 12 months.
between the ages of 1 and 5, but it can affect
anyone and the symptoms can be very severe in As with all systems, disinfection will only be effective
people with low immune systems. provided a sufficient dose of UV is applied, and a dosage
of 16 to 40 mWs/cm2 (milliwatt seconds per cm2) is
recommended, but this depends on factors such as the
Small-scale ozone units are available for single-dwelling
ability of the micro-organisms to withstand UV light.
private water supplies, but they are not widely used.
This is generally because of the high power usage and
complexity of the equipment.
X-rays Ultraviolet Visible light Infrared
Vacuum- UV-C UV- UV-A
UV B
100 200 280 315 400 780
Hg-low pressure Spectral curve of
lamp 254 nm cell inactivation
Wavelength (nm)
p Figure 1.41 The UV spectrum
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
There are no hard and fast rules as to which method
is the best to use in any given situation. If the water
is being delivered from a borehole then, obviously, a
pumped method of supply is the one that will be used
because of the location of the supply. A gravity supply
may be used where the water source is higher than
the property, the water flowing by gravity from the
catchment tank in the water source (for example, a
spring) to either an external storage/break cistern or
tank before being pumped into the property or direct to
a storage cistern located within the property, with the
water being distributed to all outlets from the storage
cistern by gravity supply.
p Figure 1.42 Domestic UV sterilisation unit
Water out
Pumped supplies
There are two methods of pumped supply from a well
or a borehole:
● pumped supply with pressure control
Jacketed UV
lamp UV light rays ● pumped supply with level control.
We will look at each of these methods separately.
Pumped supply with pressure control
This type of system provides directly drawn water at the
Stainless steel disinfection chamber point of use. Pressure is maintained within the system by
the use of an accumulator (often called a pressure vessel)
and a pump. The accumulator is a vessel that contains
air under pressure and water. The water is contained
Water in
within a neoprene rubber bag inside the accumulator,
p Figure 1.43 Domestic UV chamber which expands when water is pumped into it under
pressure. The air is then compressed and the pressure
The system layout features rises. As the water within the accumulator is used, the
pressure will drop. At a predetermined pressure, the
of cold water systems fed pump will start and the accumulator is refilled, raising
from private water supplies the pressure to its operating pressure. These systems
generally operate at 1.5 to 3 bar. This system is preferred
The United Kingdom has over 50,000 people whose
when water treatment is being considered.
only source of potable drinking water is from a private
supply. These, as we have already seen, fall into four Control of the system is automatic. The system
main categories of wells, springs, streams and boreholes. contains a submersible or surface mounted pump to
bring the water to the surface, filtration and sterilisation
Occasionally, properties may have access to more than
equipment (usually UV), a pressure transducer to
one supply and in some cases a licence may be required
sense pressure drop across the installation, a pressure
to extract the water from a given source.
gauge and an accumulator. The kitchen sink is usually
The delivery of feed waters into a domestic property installed with water under pressure directly from the
can be one of two methods. These are: accumulator. All other outlets are supplied from a low-
● pumped supply direct from the borehole or well, or pressure supply from a storage cistern situated in the
● gravity supply from a catchment tank in a spring or roof space. A non-return or check valve must be fitted
stream. upstream of the accumulator.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Storage cistern
to use water directly from a catchment tank without
Pressure vessel/accumulator the use of a pump provided that the source of water
Impervious strata Pressure switch is higher than the dwelling. It must be remembered,
/flow controller
Sandstone aquifer however, that some form of filtration and sterilisation
Pressure Gravity
Gate/isolator Non-return
gauge feed of the water is necessary. A non-return or check valve
valve valve
Pressurised
distribution must be fitted upstream of the pump.
usually to
kitchen sink
Aquifer Catchment tank at the head of a spring
Spring
Submersible pump
Protective external
break/storage cistern
Impervious
strata Surface
pump
p Figure 1.44 A typical borehole installation with pressure control
p Figure 1.46 A typical spring catchment tank installation with
Pumped supply with level control level control
This system uses a float switch to monitor the level
of the water in a storage cistern. The storage cistern is
normally situated in the roof space of a dwelling. The
The components used in
float switch operates a surface mounted pump, which boosted (pumped) cold
fills the tank until the level of the float switch is reached.
All water for the dwelling passes through the storage
water supply systems from
cistern and this supplies all outlets with a low-pressure private sources for single
supply. Water fed directly from the borehole to a kitchen occupancy dwellings
sink under pressure is not possible with this installation.
In this, the final part of the chapter dealing with private
Storage cistern water supplies, we will investigate the components
Float switch controlling
pump used with private water supplies to single domestic
Impervious strata
dwellings:
Sandstone aquifer ● small booster pump sets which incorporate all
controls and components
Surface mounted
Gate/isolator ● boosted system with separate controls and
pump Gravity feed
valve
distribution components
to all outlets
● use of accumulators in increasing system flow rate.
Filter
Vertical, horizontal and submersible
pumps
As we have already seen earlier in the chapter, there
are two different types of pump that can be used with
private water supplies and, more specifically, boreholes
p Figure 1.45 A typical borehole installation with level control and springs:
● submersible pumps
Because all of the water for the dwelling is supplied at
● surface pumps:
low pressure, this system can also be used with supplies
● horizontal single-stage types
that are fed via a catchment tank in a stream or spring
● vertical multi-stage types.
via an external break/storage cistern. It is also possible
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Control box to monitor
pressure and flow rate
and to vary the pump
Water feed to property speed if necessary
Pressure and flow rate
LCD read out
Water supply in
Single-stage pump
p Figure 1.47 Components of a horizontal pump
Surface pumps for private water supplies are available ● an accumulator to assist in providing sufficient
either as single components or as packaged units system pressure for the installation
containing all the necessary equipment pre-fitted. ● a float switch to prevent the pumps running dry.
The latter are the easiest to install and only require the
final plumbing and electrical connections. Electrical connection
and isolation panel Accumulator
Submersible pumps may be purchased as separate
Pressure transducer
components or in ‘pack form’ whereby all the Multi-stage
centrifugal
separately matched equipment is supplied ready to Pressure gauge pump motor
assemble. Control panel
Supply manifold
Water intake
manifold
p Figure 1.49 Components of a vertical multi-stage pump set
The accumulator
The operation of an accumulator can be broken down
into three stages:
1 When the pump operates it forces water into
the accumulator bladder compressing the air
surrounding it to a pressure greater than the vessel’s
p Figure 1.48 A typical submersible pump kit
pre-charge pressure. This is the source of the stored
A typical pump package would normally consist of the energy.
following components: 2 When the bladder expands due to water being
● the pump forced in by the pump, it deforms in shape and the
● a transducer to sense pressure and flow pressure within the accumulator increases. Bladder
● a control box to monitor pressure differentials and deformation stops when the water and the now-
flow rate compressed air charge become balanced.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
3 When a tap is opened, the pressure within the we may be asked to install specialist components that
system drops and the compressed air forces the we may only come into contact with on a limited
water out of the accumulator. When all of the water number of occasions. Even so, it is important that we
inside the accumulator is used and the pressure become familiar with these ‘specialist’ components to
falls to a predetermined level, the pump energises ensure that we position and install them correctly and
to recharge the accumulator water storage and according to the manufacturer’s instructions and in line
pressure and the cycle begins again. with any regulations or recommendations.
Probably the most important consideration when In this part of the chapter, we will look at a selection
applying an accumulator is calculating the correct of components that may be unfamiliar to you. We
pre-charge pressure. There are three points to be will investigate how they operate and the best
considered: ways of installing them in accordance with the
● the type of accumulator being used recommendations in place.
● the work to be done, and
● the system operating limits. Infrared operated taps
The pre-charge pressure is usually 80–90 per cent of Low voltage (6 V DC current) infrared operated outlets
the minimum system cut-in pressure (the pressure at are becoming popular for use in public conveniences,
which the pump energises) to allow a small amount of hotels and public buildings. They use infrared sensors
water to remain in the vessel at all times. This prevents to operate solenoid valves. The solenoid valves open
the bladder from collapsing totally. for a defined length of time to allow a certain quantity
of water to flow through them. They are frequently
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS used to flush WCs and urinals, and to operate taps and
shower fitments. The use of infrared operated outlets
To calculate the pre-charge pressure, follow this
simple procedure. has several advantages over standard taps and outlets:
● They are easy to operate.
If the minimum working pressure of a cold water
system is 2 bar, then: ● They stop the spread of germs and bacteria.
● They can help with water conservation.
2 × 0.9 (90%) = 1.8 bar
● They can prevent scalding injury.
Pre-charge pressure = 1.8 bar
The accumulator air charge must be lower than the How do they work?
mains pressure for water to enter the vessel, and on
The method of operation of infrared operated outlets is
average, a pressure differential of around 1.5 bar
lower than the supply pressure would be acceptable quite simple:
(but no more than 2 bar and no less than 0.8 bar). 1 The infrared sensor eye emits an infrared beam
This means that if the supply pressure is 3.5 bar, that is approximately 200 to 260 mm wide.
then the air charge within the accumulator must be When an object, such as a hand, is within range
around 2 bar, a supply pressure of 4.5 bar would of the infrared sensing zone, the infrared beam is
require a 3 bar air charge, and so on. Air pressure
interrupted and a signal wire transfers an electronic
can be checked and topped up as necessary
at the Schrader valve situated at the top of the signal to a solenoid valve.
accumulator. 2 The solenoid valve acts as a latching mechanism
that allows a restricted flow of water to flow
through it. As soon as the valve receives the
Specialist components for electronic signal, it snaps open, allowing the water
to flow to the outlet.
cold water systems 3 When the object leaves the sensing zone, the
Our work as plumbers covers a multitude of various infrared beam returns to normal, the electronic
installations, systems and components. Occasionally, signal ceases and the valve closes.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Infrared sensor eye
Sensor signal wire
Cold water
connection
Tap outlet
Thermostatic
blending
Solenoid valve
valve
Alternative sensor
eye position
Hot water
connection
Flexible cold water connection 230 V supply
230 volt AC to 6 volt DC transformer
p Figure 1.50 The operation of an infrared tap
Non-concussive (self-closing) taps Non-concussive taps are available as single taps or as
Non-concussive taps are self-closing taps that are thermostatic mono-bloc mixer taps.
usually used in public washrooms, hotels and places of
work where there is a risk that the tap may either be
left open or there is a high risk of vandalism. They are
operated by pressing the tap head downwards, which
operates a spring-loaded plunger to open the tap. After
a period of time, the spring then lifts the plunger to
close the tap. The time the tap is open can be adjusted
up to a maximum of about 20 seconds of water flow.
Most non-concussive taps use an internal cartridge
system so repairs and maintenance are fairly simple.
When the tap requires maintenance, the cartridge
can be replaced easily by removing the tap head and
withdrawing the cartridge. p Figure 1.51 Non-concussive type thermostatic mixer tap
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Table 1.3 The advantages and disadvantages of non-concussive taps
Advantages Disadvantages
They are self-closing so water is not wasted due to the tap being The rapid closing of the tap can cause water hammer and
left open. pipework reverberation.
Most models are vandal-proof. They require regular maintenance.
They can help in saving money on water costs if a water meter They should not be used where there is a risk of fouling by
is fitted. grease or dirt.
The tap may block with scale deposits in hard water areas.
Because of the restricted amount of water released when the
tap is used, waste pipes may not reach a self-cleansing velocity
and may block with residue.
Combination bath tap and shower
head
This type of tap is more commonly known as a bath/
shower mixer tap. There are many different styles
including:
● pillar type – a traditional style predominantly used
in period bathrooms
● deck mixer type – there are many types to suit all
types of modern bathroom styles
● thermostatic type – has the benefit of thermostatic
control by the inclusion of a temperature sensitive
wax cartridge
● wall mounted – specifically designed for baths p Figure 1.53 Deck type bath/shower mixer tap
without tap holes.
p Figure 1.54 Thermostatic type bath/shower mixer tap
p Figure 1.52 Pillar type bath/shower mixer tap
p Figure 1.55 Wall mounted bath/shower mixer tap
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Bath/shower mixer taps are designed for use where the same valve body to be used for differing flow rates
pressures of the hot and cold water are equal. They depending on the appliance that it is serving. The flow
should not be fitted where the cold water is direct rate can be changed by using a different cartridge
from the mains supply and the hot water is fed from insert. They can be used on both hot and cold water
a vented, low-pressure hot water storage cylinder. supplies and are ideal for limiting the flow to:
This type of installation creates an imbalance of water ● washbasins
supply and correct mixing of both hot and cold water ● baths and sinks
cannot take place. It can also cause the hot water to be ● bidets
pushed back into the cylinder by the high pressure of ● WCs (when used with a strainer cartridge as
the cold water supply. required by Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulation R25.6).
Where there is a risk that the bath water can be
siphoned back into the water undertaker’s mains cold The flow limiting cartridges are capable of delivering
water supply through the shower hose of the mixer tap, a flow rate of between 0.07 and 0.43 l/s. By limiting
the hot and cold water connections to the bath/shower the maximum flow rate, the guess-work is removed
mixer should be fitted with double check valves or, as from designing the system, such as pipe sizing, cistern
an alternative, the shower hose should be fixed by a capacities and pump size. The use of flow limiting
retaining ring so that the head cannot be placed below valves also helps to:
the overspill level of the bath. ● balance the flow rates between hot and cold supplies
● assist with balancing thereby preventing some
Shower hose retained by appliances (for example, a shower) from consuming
a retaining ring to keep
the shower head above all available water while other appliances at higher
the rim of the bath level or further downstream are starved of water
Shower head ● save money on water and energy costs.
Bath/shower
Double check valves mixing valve
protecting the water Spray taps
undertaker's main
supply from back Spray taps are designed to reduce the flow of water
siphonage
from the outlet of the tap to a fine spray. This helps to
conserve water, often reducing the water consumption
of the tap by as much as 20 per cent. There are many
Bath shown from the back
different types of spray taps for use in both bathrooms
p Figure 1.56 Bath/shower mixer tap installation and kitchens. Some taps use a special insert to make
the water appear bubbly. This is known as an aerator,
Most modern bath/shower mixer taps have a type HC and simply introduces air into the water flow as the
diverter with automatic return backflow protection tap is running. Kitchen spray taps often have a pull-out
device built into them as part of the design of the tap nozzle for rinsing plates and dishes.
(see page 63).
Urinal – water conservation controls
Flow limiting valves
Many urinal installations do not have any form of water
Flow limiting valves are designed to limit the flow control and so they flush continuously even during
of water to appliances irrespective of the pressure those periods when the building is unoccupied. Quite
upstream. Most are designed with an integral service often, the flow rate is higher than that specified by the
valve and interchangeable cartridges that allow the
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. Under the
regulations, a urinal should use no more than 7.5 litres
KEY POINT
Whichever system of water control is used, it must
per bowl/hour and 10 litres/hour for a single bowl. The
be correctly set up to both the manufacturer’s
urinal should also have some form of limiting device to instructions and the requirements of the
prevent unnecessary flushing during periods when the regulations.
building is not used. In practice, flow rates from urinals
are not measured and often deliberately increased in an
attempt to control unwanted odours. Shower pumps – single and twin
There are many designs of flush controller available. impeller
These can use: Shower booster pumps are used to give a high flow rate
● a timer to match the hours of occupancy
shower and are used in conjunction with shower mixing
● infrared detectors to detect the presence of people
valves. There are two types of shower booster pump:
to open a solenoid valve for a short period of time ● Twin impeller pump on the inlet to the mixer
● a mechanical means to detect reduced hydraulic
valve. The pump increases the pressure of the
water pressure caused by taps being opened to open hot and cold water supplies to the mixer valve
a valve controlling water to a urinal cistern independently. The water is then mixed to the
● some controls even allow a cistern to fill only very
correct temperature in the valve before flowing to
slowly if no movement is detected for a pre-set the shower head.
period of time. Care must be exercised when making the hot
Where a large number of urinals are installed, separate connection to the cylinder. There are two ways in
controllers may be necessary to prevent all of the which this can be done. The first method involves
urinals flushing simultaneously when only one person installing the hot water draw-off from the cylinder
enters the room. at an angle of between 30 and 60°, with the hot
shower pump connection being made at an angle
of 90° with a tee piece (see Figure 1.58). This allows
any air in the system to filter up to the vent and
away from the hot shower pump inlet.
The second method involves making a direct
connection to the cylinder using a special fitting
called an Essex flange. With this method, the hot
water is taken directly from the hot water storage
vessel avoiding any air problems which may occur.
● Single impeller pump off the outlet from the
mixer valve. These boost the water AFTER it has
left the mixer valve. They are usually used with
concealed shower valves and fixed ‘deluge’ type,
large water volume shower heads.
p Figure 1.57 Mechanical urinal flushing system
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
When water is heated, the air in the
water starts to form around the walls
of the pipe and the cylinder as little
bubbles. By making the connection
at 30– 60º the air is allowed to pass
through the open vent pipe where it
30– 60º dissipates over the cistern. If the air
was allowed to get into the shower
pump, it would get trapped around
Connection of cold water the impeller, eventually leading to
feed to the cylinder is higher pump failure
than the cold for the shower
so that the hot water runs Hot connection for
out first the shower taken at
90º to the angled
cylinder connection
An alternative connection
direct to the cylinder
using an Essex flange
22 mm pipe taken as far as possible
before reducing to 15 mm
p Figure 1.58 Pump-assisted shower installation with twin impeller, inlet shower booster pump
p Figure 1.59 Twin impeller, inlet shower booster pump
p Figure 1.60 An Essex flange
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Using shower pumps in negative head
situations
With some installations it is possible to install the
pump where a negative head exists. A negative head
is where the cistern is lower than the pump. In this
instance a means of starting the pump must be in
p Figure 1.61 A large water volume ‘deluge’ shower head place.
Connection of cold water
feed to the cylinder is
higher than the cold for
the shower so that the
hot water runs out first
A connection
direct to the
cylinder using
an Essex
flange
p Figure 1.62 Pump-assisted shower installation with single
impeller, outlet shower booster pump
p Figure 1.64 A negative head shower installation
Negative head shower pumps have the inclusion of a
small accumulator or pressure vessel that sits on top
of the pump. They work by sensing a sudden drop
in pressure. When the shower valve is opened, the
pressure within the system, caused by the pumping
power of the shower pump, suddenly drops. The
accumulator then immediately forces a small amount
of water out via a small plastic tube, to activate the
flow switch located inside the pump casing. Once
the flow switch is activated the shower pump will
p Figure 1.63 Single impeller shower booster pump run at negative head. When the shower is turned
off, the system remains charged at the shower pump
In both of these installations, the pump increases the
pressure until the shower valve is opened again and
pressure of the water, which means that the minimum
the sudden pressure drop occurs, starting the pump
1 m head is not necessary. However, a minimum head
once more.
of 150 mm is required to lift the flow switches as these
switch the pump on. Some shower pumps also use a small pressure
transducer (pressure switch), which activates the
shower pump directly, rather than using a flow switch.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
230 litre cold water storage cistern
Shower in
negative head
Full way gate valve Full way gate valve
Cold feed pipe
Hot water storage cylinder
Hot water to shower pump
connection to the cylinder
using an Essex flange Isolation
valves
Hot water
to draw-offs Negative head shower pump
p Figure 1.65 A negative head shower booster pump
Pressure reducing valves INDUSTRY TIP
The water pressure in England and Wales varies
considerably. Older properties that have not had their The average water pressure in the UK tends to be in
mains cold water service updated for many years the region of 3 bar during the day (although most water
could have less than 1 bar pressure. This is insufficient undertakers will only guarantee at least 1 bar at all times,
to run even the most basic of modern appliances including times of peak usage), increasing to around 4.5 to
5 bar during the night as the pressure rises due to lack of
such as combination boilers and even some electric
usage.
showers. At the extreme, some areas where a new
water main has been laid could receive up to 10 bar
pressure. High water pressures (anything above 4 bar Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) are used to reduce
pressure) although very good for firefighting, can be a high upstream pressure to a lower downstream
damaging to domestic plumbing systems. It can cause pressure. They act as a buffer between the supply
erosion corrosion where the flow of the water wears pressure and the systems or appliances they are fitted
away pipes and fittings, especially where changes of to during both flow and non-flow conditions. They
direction occur. It can also cause leaks to water heaters, perform two functions:
increased noise within the system, dripping taps and ● They reduce high supply pressures upstream to a
water hammer. Therefore, any pressures above those lower, more functional pressure for distribution.
needed to provide sufficient flow to water fittings and ● They maintain a set pressure ensuring that the
appliances becomes damaging, wasteful and reduces pipework and appliances are not subjected to
considerably the life expectancy of the system as a excessive stress and operate at a more moderate,
whole. This adds to the cost of water due to water acceptable pressure.
wastage and increases energy usage.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
How do PRVs work? Water hammer
A pressure reducing valve takes high pressure water and Water hammer (or fluid hammer) is a pressure surge
reduces it to a lower pressure under flow and no-flow or wave caused when the fluid (both liquid and
conditions, which means that the valve effectively stops gas) is suddenly forced to stop or change direction.
the water pressure from creeping up when there is no This can occur in plumbing systems when a valve is
water flow. This type of control is known as ‘drop tight’. closed very quickly at the end of a pipeline. When
Most PRVs use a balanced spring and a diaphragm to the valve is closed, a pressure wave propagates within
control downstream water pressure. They work by the pipework. This is known as hydraulic shock. The
sensing water pressures either side of the diaphragm. shock wave travels in the opposite direction to the
water flow, often with disastrous consequences. The
shock wave can cause major problems with repeated
water hammer, vibration and noise, which can lead
to joint failure and pipework damage. To put this into
Indicator perspective, a system that is normally operating at
Spring 3 bar, can suffer shock waves equalling twice this
pressure. If the pipework is installed poorly or has not
been clipped correctly, the noise and vibration, and
subsequent damage can often be much worse. A shock
Diaphragm
arrestor can help prevent water hammer by cushioning
Strainer the effects of the shock wave.
Inlet Outlet 1
0.8
Valve shown open 0.6
Comb
Normalised measuring pressure
0.4
p Figure 1.66 A pressure reducing valve cut-away
0.2
The diaphragm separates all of the parts in contact
with the water from the control spring and the valve’s 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
mechanism. The valve body is internally protected from −0.2
Time since closing (seconds)
debris by a stainless steel mesh strainer.
−0.4
● Under no-flow conditions, the downstream pressure
applies back pressure on the valve seat and the −0.6
diaphragm. This overcomes the pressure of the −0.8
spring and forces the seat against the diaphragm to
−1
prevent the downstream pressure from increasing.
● Under flow conditions, the back pressure is reduced
and the spring forces the valve open to allow water p Figure 1.67 The hydraulic shock wave
flow.
Shock arrestors
Shock arrestors/mini Shock arrestors are often manufactured from corrosion
expansion vessels resistant brass, copper or stainless steel. They contain
a piston or a diaphragm, which is cushioned by a
Before we look at shock arrestors (or water hammer
calculated amount of inert gas or air. When the shock
arrestors as they are more commonly known), it may
wave hits the arrestor, the piston (or diaphragm) moves
help to understand why some systems may need to
with the shock wave (or hydraulic impulse) to dampen
include them.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
its effects by absorbing the kinetic energy. This allows expansion vessel/shock arrestor allows the expansion to
the shock wave to dissipate safely without damaging take place within the vessel, thereby protecting systems
the pipework and fittings. and equipment from internal damage. They are a
requirement of most major shower manufacturers.
Calculated volume
of inert gas Instantaneous hot water heater
Piston absorbs the
Shock wave begins shock wave Mini expansion vessel fitted
with the quick on the cold to the shower to
closure of a valve allow for any expansion
causing water
hammer upstream
Direction of
shock wave Shock wave dissipates
Shower valve
Mains cold Hot
water water
Direction of water flow supply supply
p Figure 1.68 How the shock arrestor works p Figure 1.69 The use of a mini expansion vessel
Using the shock arrestor as a mini Mini expansion vessels can also be fitted on cold
expansion vessel water installations to counteract the problems of
increased system pressure due to water expansion.
Some types of shock arrestors can be used successfully
This occurs when the mains cold water, usually at a
as mini expansion vessels. These are usually required
temperature of around 4°C in the winter and 16 °C
where there is a small amount of water expansion
in the summer, is left to stand in the pipework for a
associated with hot water pipework on mains-fed hot
period of time. The ambient air temperature in the
water supplies (unvented hot water storage systems,
building can be considerably higher, which causes the
combination boilers or multi-point instantaneous hot
water to expand slightly. This expansion can damage
water heaters). The expanded water increases the
backflow protection devices such as single check valves,
internal pressure within the pipework and this can
and terminal fittings such as ceramic disc type taps,
cause damage to terminal fittings such as shower
especially where the run of pipework is extensive.
mixing valves and backflow protection devices. A mini
3 BACKFLOW PROTECTION IN PLUMBING
SYSTEMS
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 ● undue consumption of water
were implemented to harmonise the working practices ● erroneous metering of water.
of plumbers in England and Wales.
Of these, by far the biggest issues surround
Simply put, the Water Supply (Water Fittings) contamination.
Regulations have been put in place to ensure that the
Up until 1999, there were three classes of fluid. At that
plumbing systems we install and maintain prevent:
time, water was either considered wholesome, suspicious
● contamination of water
or dangerous. With the implementation of the 1999
● wastage of water
Water Regulations, these three fluid categories became
● misuse of water
five to bring the UK into line with the rest of Europe.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Fluid category 1
INDUSTRY TIP
Fluid category 1 is wholesome water supplied by a
Scotland adheres to its own Scottish Water Bylaws 2004 water undertaker, complying with the Water Quality
which are virtually identical to the UK’s The Water Supply Regulations made under Section 67 of the Water
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999. Industry Act 1991. It must be wholesome, clean, cold
Before the regulations became law, each local water and potable. All water undertakers have a duty to
undertaker had its own set of water bylaws, which were supply water that conforms to these regulations which
written around the 101 Model Water Bylaws issued in 1986 ensures wholesome water suitable for domestic use
by the UK Government. These gave some commonality to or food production purposes. Whenever practicable,
working practices but failed to address regional variations water for drinking water purposes should be supplied
that often led to confusion regarding what could and could direct from the water undertaker’s mains without any
not be done within a particular area or region. On 1 July intervening storage.
1999, the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister issued the first
ever water regulations to be enforced in the UK, effectively
Fluid category 2
eliminating these variations to provide a common practice.
These were linked to a British Standard, BS 6700, Design, Fluid category 2 is water that would normally be
installation, testing and maintenance of services supplying classified as fluid category 1 but whose aesthetic
water for domestic use within buildings and their curtilages, quality has been impaired because of:
to provide the definitive guide to hot and cold water systems ● a change in temperature
and installations in England and Wales. ● a change in appearance, taste or odour owing to the
BS 6700 has since been superseded by British Standard presence of substances or organisms.
BS EN 806:2012, Specifications for installations inside These changes are aesthetic only and do not constitute
buildings conveying water for human consumption. This
a health risk. Typical situations where this may occur in
extensive document is divided into five parts with each part
domestic properties are:
dealing with a specific subject:
● water heated in a hot water secondary system
● Part 1 General
● mixed fluid categories 1 and 2 water discharged
● Part 2 Design
● Part 3 Pipe sizing – simplified method from combination taps or showers.
● Part 4 Installation
● Part 5 Operation and maintenance. Fluid category 3
This document should be read in conjunction with BS Fluid category 3 is water that constitutes a slight health
8558:2015, Guide to the design, installation, testing and hazard because of the concentration of low toxicity
maintenance of services supplying water for domestic substances. Fluids in this category are not suitable for
use within buildings and their curtilages (complementary drinking or any other domestic purpose or application.
guidance to BS EN 806). This includes:
● ethylene glycol (anti-freeze), copper sulphate or
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate the similar chemical additives such as heating inhibitors,
different fluid categories as defined by the Water cleansers and de-scalers used in domestic properties
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 and the ● sodium hypochlorite and other common
methods, both physical and mechanical, we can employ disinfectants.
to prevent contamination of domestic cold water Typical fluid category 3 situations are:
installations by back pressure and back siphonage. ● in houses, apartments and other domestic dwellings:
● water in the primary circuits of heating systems
The fluid categories whether chemicals have been administered or
Any water that is not cold wholesome drinking water not
supplied by a water undertaker can be classed as a ● water in washbasins, baths and shower trays
potential hazard. The Water Supply (Water Fittings) ● clothes and dishwashing machines
Regulations 1999 lists five fluid categories. ● home dialysis machines
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
● hand-held garden hoses with a flow-controlled ● water treatment plant or softeners that use
spray or shut off valve other methods than salt
● hand-held fertilisers ● pressurised fire-fighting systems.
● in premises other than single occupancy domestic
dwellings: Fluid category 5
● domestic fittings and appliances such as Fluid category 5 represents a serious health risk
washbasins, baths, or showers installed in because of the concentration of pathogenic organisms,
commercial, industrial or other premises may be radioactive material or very toxic substances. These
regarded as fluid category 3. However, if there is include water that contains:
a potential for a higher risk, such as a hospital, ● faecal material or any other human waste
medical centre or other similar establishment, ● butchery or any other animal waste
then a higher fluid category risk should be ● pathogens from any source.
applied in accordance with the regulations
Typical fluid category 5 situations are:
● house garden or commercial irrigation systems
● general:
without insecticides.
● industrial cisterns and tanks
● hose union bib taps in a non-domestic installation
Fluid category 4
● sink, WC pans, urinals and bidets
Fluid category 4 is water that constitutes a significant
● permeable pipes in any non-domestic garden
health hazard because of the concentration of toxic
whether laid at or below ground level
substances, which can include:
● grey water recycling systems
● chemical, carcinogenic substances or pesticides
● medical:
(including insecticides and herbicides)
● laboratories
● environmental organisms of potential health
● any medical or dental equipment with
significance.
submerged inlets
Typical fluid category 4 situations are: ● bedpan washers and slophoppers
● general: ● mortuary and embalming equipment
● primary circuits of heating systems in properties ● hospital dialysis machines
other than a single occupancy dwelling ● commercial clothes washing equipment in care
(commercial systems) homes and similar premises
● fire sprinkler systems using anti-freeze chemicals ● baths, washbasins, kitchen sinks and other
● house gardens: appliances that are in non-domestic installations
● mini irrigation systems without fertiliser or ● food processing:
insecticides, including pop-up sprinkler systems ● butchery and meat trade establishments
and permeable hoses ● slaughterhouse equipment
● food processing: ● vegetable washing
● food preparation ● catering:
● dairies ● dishwashing machines in healthcare premises
● bottle washing plants and similar establishments
● catering: ● vegetable washing
● commercial dishwashers ● industrial/commercial:
● refrigerating equipment ● industrial and chemical plants
● industrial and commercial installations: ● laboratories
● dyeing equipment ● any mobile tanker or gulley cleaning vehicles
● industrial disinfection equipment ● sewerage treatment works and sewer cleaning:
● photographic and printing applications ● drain cleaning plant
● car washing and degreasing plant ● water storage for agricultural applications
● brewery and distilling processes ● water storage for firefighting systems
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
● commercial agricultural: a brief overview of how and where fluid categories
● commercial irrigation outlets below or at ground occur in the home and should not be viewed upon as
level and/or permeable pipes, with or without exhaustive.
chemical additives
As you can see from the table, there are many
● insecticide or fertiliser applications
potential contamination risks in every dwelling and
● commercial hydroponic systems.
the bigger the building then the more risks there are
likely to be.
INDUSTRY TIP
KEY POINT
The list of examples of applications shown for each fluid
The distinction between fluid category 4 and fluid
category is not exhaustive.
category 5 is often difficult to interpret. In general
we can assume that fluid category 4 is such that
the risk to health, because of the level of toxicity
Backflow and back or the concentration of substances, is such that
harm will occur over a prolonged period of days
siphonage risks in the to weeks to months whereas the risk from fluid
category 5, because of the high concentration
home of substances or the level of toxicity, is such
There are many instances in the home where backflow that serious harm could occur after a very short
and back siphonage could present contamination risks. exposure of minutes to hours to days or even a
These will need to be considered during any planning, single exposure.
design and installation of hot and cold water supplies We must remember that fluid category 1 is clean,
cold, wholesome water direct from the water
and central heating systems. Let us look first at some
undertaker’s main and no other fluid category must
of the appliances and systems we use and consider come into contact with it or contamination may
the risks. This will give you some idea of how the occur.
fluid categories occur. Table 1.4 is designed to give
Table 1.4 Appliances and fluid category risk
Appliance or system Content of the water Risk
Kitchen sink May contain animal remains from food preparation Fluid cat. 5
WC Contains human waste
Bidet (over rim type) May contain human waste
Grey water and rainwater harvesting systems May contain bacteria and disinfectants
Washing machines and dish washers Contains soap and other detergents and chemicals from dish Fluid cat. 3
washing and clothes cleaning
Bath May contain soap and other detergents from personal hygiene
Wash hand basin
Shower valves and instantaneous showers At risk from soap and other detergents from personal hygiene
Hose union bib taps (outside tap) At risk from gardening and other activities such as watering,
weed killing, car washing, irrigation etc.
Combination boilers The water in the heating system is often contaminated with Fluid cat. 3 or 4
dissolved metals, flux and some form of chemical inhibitor (depending on
boiler size)
Hot water system Contains hot water Fluid cat. 2
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Whole site, zone and point premises or complex, these have their own backflow
protection devices to protect any part of the system
of use protection that is fluid category 1. Zoned protection is also
There are many commercial and industrial processes required where any water supply pipe is supplying more
where the whole or part of a plumbing system can than one separately occupied premises.
present a high risk of backflow to other parts of the
installation or even the water undertaker’s mains
supply despite the fact that the installation is installed Stop Industrial
valve process
to the required standards. In these circumstances whole Gate with a fluid
category
site or zone protection must be installed on those parts valve
4 risk
that are deemed to be high risk.
Whole site protection
Stop Reduced pressure
The term ‘whole site protection’ simply means that the Point of use valve zone (RPZ) valve giving
protection fluid category 4 risk
water undertaker’s main is protected at all times from protection to the water
backflow or back siphonage from any fluid category undertaker's main
Stop valve
that is not fluid category 1 by a suitable backflow
Water undertaker’s
device. Protection should be at the point of entry of the cold water mains
supply
cold water supply.
If whole site protection is required, it is important that p Figure 1.71 Zoned protection
the water undertaker is informed at the application/ Stop
notification for water supply stage. They will assess valve
the application for a water supply and advise on what RPZ valve protection
fluid category of backflow protection device must be on each floor (zone)
Stop
installed to comply with the Water Supply (Water valve
Fittings) Regulations. The backflow protection device
RPZ valve protection
MUST be installed before the system is commissioned. on each floor (zone)
Stop
valve
Industrial
process RPZ valve Cold water supplies to
with a protection individual apartments
fluid on each floor from a common supply
Stop pipe
category valve (zone)
4 risk
RPZ valve protection
on each floor (zone)
Reduced pressure zone (RPZ) Stop valve
valve giving fluid category 4
risk protection to the water Water undertaker’s cold water supply
undertaker's main
p Figure 1.72 Zoned protection for domestic premises
Stop valve
Point of use protection
Water undertaker’s This is the simplest form of backflow protection. Point
cold water mains
supply of use backflow protection devices are used to protect
an individual fitting or outlet against backflow and are
p Figure 1.70 Whole site protection
usually located close to the fitting which they protect,
such as a single check valve on a mixer tap to protect
Zoned protection against fluid category 2 or a double check valve on a
Zoned backflow protection simply means that where domestic hose union bib-tap as protection against fluid
different fluid categories exist within the same building, category 3.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
course of action based upon the risk. The manufacturers
too, help in this regard by designing and manufacturing
their appliances, taps and valves to conform to the
Water Regulations. For example, most kitchen and bidet
Non-verifiable taps are designed and made with fluid category 5 risk in
double check mind and most bath and wash basin taps are designed
valve
and made with fluid category 3 in mind.
Hose union In most cases, where baths, washbasins, bidets and
bib tap
kitchen sinks are concerned, a simple air gap will
Pipe sleeved protect the mains cold water supply. The size of the
through wall
air gap, however, is dependent on the size of the tap,
Isolation
valve appliance type and its likely contents.
Air gaps used as a method
of backflow prevention
An air gap is simply a physical unrestricted open
space between the wholesome water and the possible
p Figure 1.73 Point of use protection
contamination, the greater the air gap, the greater the
level of protection that is offered. It does not require
Eliminating the risk of contamination of the use of a mechanical backflow prevention device.
wholesome water Here, we will consider the most important air gaps and
The Water Regulations and, more specifically, the Water how we can apply them (see Table 1.5).
Regulations Guide, can help us to choose the right
Table 1.5 Schedule of non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangements and their respective fluid category protection
Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices Suitable for protection against
fluid category
Back pressure Back siphonage
a AA Air gap with unrestricted discharge above spillover level 5 5
b AB Air gap with weir overflow 5 5
c AD Air gap with injector 5 5
d AG Air gap with minimum size circular overflow determined by measure or 3 3
vacuum test
e AUK1 Air gap with interposed cistern (e.g. a WC suite) 3 5
f AUK2 Air gaps for taps and combination fittings (tap gaps) discharging over X 3
domestic sanitary appliances, such as a washbasin, bidet, bath or
shower tray shall not be less than the following:
Vertical distance of bottom
Size of tap or combination of tap outlet above spillover
fitting level of receiving appliance
Not exceeding G ½ 20 mm
Exceeding G ½ but not 25 mm
exceeding G ¾
Exceeding G ¾ 70 mm
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Table 1.5 Schedule of non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangements and their respective fluid category protection (continued)
Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices Suitable for protection against
fluid category
Back pressure Back siphonage
g AUK3 Air gaps for taps or combination fittings (tap gaps) discharging over any X 5
higher risk domestic sanitary appliances where a fluid category 4 or 5 is
present, such as:
● any domestic or non-domestic sink or other appliance, or
● any appliances in premises where a higher level of protection is
required, such as some appliances in hospitals or other health care
premises shall be not less than 20 mm or twice the diameter of the
inlet pipe to the fitting, whichever is the greater.
h DC Pipe interrupter with permanent atmospheric vent X 5
X indicates that the backflow prevention arrangement or device is not applicable or not acceptable for protection against back pressure for any fluid
category within water installations in the UK.
Arrangements incorporating type DC devices shall have no control valves on the outlet of the device; they shall be fitted not less than 300 mm
above the spillover level of a WC pan, or 150 mm above the sparge pipe outlet of a urinal, and discharge vertically downwards.
Overflows and warning pipes shall discharge through, or terminate with, an air gap, the dimension of which should satisfy a type AA air gap.
Each of the air gaps here will have two fluid categories
KEY TERMS
attached to it, one for back pressure and one for back
siphonage. The difference between the two is simple to Downstream: in water systems, downstream means
explain: travelling away from the point of supply.
● Back pressure – caused when a downstream
Upstream: in water systems, upstream means
travelling toward the point of supply.
pressure is greater than the upstream or supply
pressure in the water undertakers main or the
consumer’s potable water supply. Back pressure can Because the pressure in the main is zero,
gravity forces water in the system back
be caused by: towards the water main
● a sudden loss of upstream pressure, such as a
burst pipe on a water undertaker’s mains supply
● an increase in downstream pressure caused by
pumps or expansion of hot water
● a combination of both of the above.
● Back siphonage – backflow caused by a negative
pressure creating a vacuum or partial vacuum in
the water undertaker’s mains cold water supply. It is
similar to drinking through a straw. If a sudden loss
of pressure on the mains supply was to occur whilst
a submerged outlet was flowing, then water would
backflow upwards through the submerged outlet
and down into the water undertaker’s main. Upstream Downstream
Sudden loss of pressure due to a
burst on the undertaker’s main
p Figure 1.74 Back pressure
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Table 1.6 Air gaps at taps, valves, fittings and cisterns
Electric shower
Because the pressure in the Situation Nominal Vertical distance
main is zero, gravity forces size of between tap or valve
water in the system back
towards the water main inlet, tap, outlet and the spillover
valve or level of the receiving
fitting appliance or cistern
Domestic situation Up to and 20 mm
with fluid categories including
Water from the
bath being sucked 2 and 3 (AUK2) G½
out by back siphonage
towards the water main Over G ½ 25 mm
and up to
G¾
Over G ¾ 70 mm
Upstream Downstream
Non-domestic Any size of Minimum diameter of
situation with fluid inlet pipe 20 mm or twice the
categories 4 and 5 diameter of the inlet
Sudden loss of pressure due to (AUK3) pipe, whichever is the
a burst on the undertaker’s main greater of the two
p Figure 1.75 Back siphonage
A good example for the use of a type AA air gap is
in the form of animal drinking troughs where the
Type AA – air gap with unrestricted discharge of water into the trough is in a raised housing
discharge above spillover level on the edge of the trough. The housing is covered to
This gives protection against fluid category 5 and is prevent the animals from having access to the water
a non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangement supply.
of water fittings where water is discharged through
an air gap into a cistern, which has, at all times, an
unrestricted spillover to the atmosphere. The air gap is
measured vertically downwards from the lowest point
of the inlet discharge orifice to the spillover level. It
should be remembered that:
● the type AA air gap is suitable for all fluid categories
● the size of the air gap is subject to the size of the
inlet (see Table 1.6)
● the flow from the inlet into the cistern must not be
more than 15° from the vertical.
Air gap p Figure 1.77 Animal trough
Spillover level Water level controlled
Rigidly fixed float Removable cover to be not less than
operated valve locked in position 25 mm below spill-
over level
Type AA air gap
Suitable for protection against
fluid category: Outlet
Back Back Separation plate prevents damage by animals
5 pressure 5 siphonage
p Figure 1.76 Type AA air gap with unrestricted discharge above
spillover level
p Figure 1.78 Animal trough schematic
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Type AB – air gap with weir overflow vermin and dust. A good example of this is feed and
This gives protection against fluid category 5. It is a expansion cisterns in industrial/commercial installations
non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangement of or where high-quality water is required, such as in
water fittings complying with type AA, except that dental surgeries.
the air gap is the vertical distance from the lowest The size of the weir needs to be calculated based upon
point of the discharge orifice which discharges into the the inlet size. This is usually completed using a weir
receptacle, to the critical level of the rectangular weir overflow calculator.
overflow.
The type AB air gap is suitable for high risk fluid IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
category 5 situations and is particularly suited to An example of a weir calculator can be found at:
installations where the contents of the cistern need www.airgapcalculator.co.uk/inletcalc/index.html
to be protected from contaminants such as insects,
Head over weir
Air gap 2 × inlet diameter
Weir spill slot Overflow pipe
screened
Shut off level Warning pipe
Not less than 25 mm
Outlet
Suitable for protection against fluid category:
Back Back
5 pressure 5 siphonage
p Figure 1.79 Type AB air gap with weir overflow
p Figure 1.80 Type AB air gap with weir overflow on a cistern
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Type AD – air gap with injector Air gap Critical water level
This is defined as a non-mechanical backflow
Warning/overflow
prevention arrangement of water fittings with a pipe
horizontal injector and a physical air gap of 20 mm
or twice the inlet diameter, whichever is the greater.
It gives protection against back pressure and back
siphonage up to fluid category 5. This device is
commonly known as a ‘jump jet’.
Outlet
The principal uses of this type of air gap arrangement Suitable for protection
are in commercial clothes washing and dish washing against fluid category:
Back Back
machines. It also has the potential to be used in 3 pressure 3 siphonage
catering equipment such as steaming ovens.
p Figure 1.82 Type AG gap with minimum size circular overflow
Air gap determined by measure
The following points about type AG air gaps should be
noted:
● The air gap is related to the size of the inlet supply
and is minimum vertical distance between the
critical water level and the lowest part of the
discharge outlet of the float operated valve (FOV) as
Suitable for protection
against fluid category: specified in Table 1.6.
Outlet ● The critical water level is the level that is reached when
Back Back
5 pressure 5 siphonage the FOV has failed completely and the water is running
p Figure 1.81 Type AD air gap with injector freely at maximum full-bore flow rate and pressure.
● Type A unrestricted air gaps must comply with the
requirements of BS EN 13076:2003.
Type AG – air gap with minimum
size circular overflow determined by Where storage cisterns are installed, it is likely that
measure or vacuum test the critical water level would differ from installation to
installation because of varying flow rates and pressures
This means a non-mechanical backflow prevention
of the incoming supply and the differing lengths and
arrangement of water fittings with an air gap; together
gradients of the overflow pipe. With this type of
with an overflow, the size of which is determined by
installation, the type AG air gap is not practical because
measure or a vacuum test. This arrangement gives
the critical water level cannot be accurately calculated.
protection against fluid category 3.
It is the critical water level that would determine the
The type B air gap fulfils the requirements of BS EN position on the cistern of the float operated valve and
14623:2005, Devices without moving parts for the the distance between the FOV and the overflow.
prevention of contamination of water by backflow;
Specification for type B air gaps. In a cistern that Type AUK1 – air gap with interposed
is open to the atmosphere, the vertical distance cistern
between the lowest point of discharge and the critical This is a non-mechanical backflow prevention
water level should comply with one of the following arrangement consisting of a cistern incorporating a
requirements: type AG overflow and an air gap. The spillover level of
● It should be sufficient to prevent back siphonage.
the receiving vessel is located not less than 300 mm
● It should not be less than the distances specified in
below the overflow pipe and not less than 15 mm
Table 1.6, depending on cistern type. below the lowest level of the interposed cistern. It is
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
suitable for protection against fluid categories 5 for Type AUK2 – air gaps for taps and
back siphonage and 3 for back pressure. combination fittings (tap gaps)
This arrangement is most commonly found on WC discharging over domestic sanitary
installations with the WC pan being the receiving appliances
vessel containing fluid category 5 water. A conventional This means the height of air gap between the lowest
domestic WC suite consists of a 6 litre/4 litre dual part of the outlet of a tap, combination fitting, shower
flushing cistern, a Part 2, 3 or 4 FOV with an AG air head or other fitting discharging over a domestic
gap and overflow arrangement. This creates an AUK1 sanitary appliance or other receptacle, and the spillover
interposed cistern or, in other words, a cistern that can level of that appliance, where a fluid category 2 or 3 risk
be supplied from a mains supply or another protected is present downstream. An AUK2 air gap is only suitable
cistern without the need for additional backflow for back siphonage up to fluid category 3 and must
protection. comply with the distances stated in Table 1.6.
Type AG air gap Warning pipe
Washbasin cold water pillar tap
connected to fluid category 1
AUK2 air gap
15 mm Washbasin –
Contaminated minimum
water fluid category 3
Interposed cistern
Suitable for protection against or receptacle such Suitable for protection against fluid category:
fluid category: as a WC pan
Back Back
3 Back
pressure 5 Back Outlet X pressure 3 siphonage
siphonage
p Figure 1.83 AUK1 air gap with interposed cistern p Figure 1.85 AUK2 air gap (tap gaps)
Type AG air gap
Type AUK3 – air gaps for taps or
combination fittings (tap gaps)
Overflow discharging over any higher risk
domestic sanitary appliances where
300 mm
a fluid category 4 or 5 is present
AUK1 air gap This means the height of an air gap between the lowest
part of the outlet of a tap, combination fitting, shower
Spillover level head or other fitting discharging over any appliance
or other receptacle, and the spillover level of that
appliance, where a fluid category 4 or 5 risk is present
downstream.
In a domestic dwelling, AUK3 air gaps are most
common at the kitchen sink in the form of high-
necked pillar taps, sink mixer taps or sink monobloc
taps. Sink mixers and monoblocs have a swivel spout.
If a cleaner’s sink, Belfast sink or London sink is being
installed, it is important that any bib taps installed are
positioned so as to maintain an AUK3 air gap.
p Figure 1.84 AUK1 air gap on WC cisterns
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Taps and combination fittings discharging on non-
domestic appliances and any appliances in premises
where a higher level of protection is required, such as
appliances in hospitals or other healthcare premises
require a type AUK3 tap gap.
Lowest point of outlet of tap
Tap gap for sinks or appliances where a
higher degree of protection is required,
should be type AUK3
Spillover level
Sink or higher risk appliance
p Figure 1.88 A typical DC pipe interrupter
Normal direction
Type DC pipe interrupter must of flow
Suitable for protection against fluid category: Cold water supply be fitted with the lowest point of
Hot water supply the air aperture not less than
Back Back
X pressure 5 siphonage 150 mm above the free discharge
or spillover level of an appliance Shroud
and have no valve, flow restrictor dust cover
p Figure 1.86 AUK3 air gap (higher risk tap gaps) or tap on its outlet
Type DC – pipe interrupter with a
permanent atmospheric vent
AUK2 air gap Air inlet
This means a non-mechanical backflow prevention Suitable for protection apertures
against fluid category:
device with a permanent unrestricted air inlet, the
Back Back Outlet
device being installed so that the flow of water is in a X pressure 5 siphonage
vertical downward direction. They are used where there
is a threat of back siphonage from a fluid category 5. p Figure 1.89 A schematic drawing of a DC pipe interrupter
The DC pipe interrupter is a non-mechanical fitting. It
Control valve does not contain any moving parts. It is manufactured
from corrosion-resistant brass. Typical uses include WCs
Pipe interrupter and urinal installations. The following points should be
Not less than 150 mm minimum
noted:
● The valve should be fitted in the vertical position,
discharging downwards.
● It must be installed at least 300 mm above the
overflowing level or 150 mm if fitted above a urinal.
● No tap or valve should be installed downstream of
Suitable for protection
against fluid category: the interrupter.
Back Back
X pressure 5 siphonage Outlet ● Pipe size reductions downstream of the interrupter
are not allowed.
p Figure 1.87 A DC pipe interrupter ● The length of the pipe downstream after the
interrupter should be as short as possible.
The idea behind the DC pipe interrupter is to create
● The interrupter should be accessible for replacement
an air inlet should a back siphonage situation occur.
and repair.
When water begins to backflow upwards due to back
● DC pipe interrupters must comply with BS EN
siphonage, the DC pipe interrupter allows air into the
14453:2005.
system to break the siphonic action, thus preventing
contamination.
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Mechanical backflow category 4. Verifiable simply means that the valve
can be checked via test points to see if it is working
prevention devices correctly (verified).
An air gap is the most effective method of preventing
contamination of the water supply and most installers KEY TERM
will try to achieve this within their installations and Verifiable: able to be checked.
designs but there are many cases where air gaps are
not practical as a method of protection. In these
instances, installers may opt to install a mechanical Most RPZ valves consist of three separate elements:
backflow prevention device. These provide a physical ● two check valves
barrier to backflow. However, it must be remembered ● a differential relief valve
that mechanical backflow prevention devices have ● three test points.
limitations and can be subject to failure. The first check valve is spring loaded to generate a
In this section of the chapter, we will look at some of specific pressure drop across this part of the valve. This
the more common mechanical backflow prevention creates a reduced pressure zone downstream in the
devices and where we can install them (see Table 1.7). middle chamber of the valve and on the downstream
side of the differential relief valve. The incoming mains
Type BA – verifiable backflow supply maintains supply pressure on the upstream
preventer with reduced pressure side of the differential valve and, as long as the mains
pressure is higher, the differential relief valve will
zone (a reduced pressure zone valve)
remain closed.
Better known as an RPZ valve, this is a mechanical,
verifiable, backflow prevention device, offering
protection to water supplies up to and including fluid
Table 1.7 Schedule of mechanical backflow prevention arrangements and fittings and their respective fluid category protection
Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices Suitable for protection against
fluid category
Back pressure Back siphonage
a BA Verifiable backflow preventer with reduced pressure zone 4 4
b CA Non-verifiable disconnector with difference between pressure zones not 3 3
greater than 10%
c DB Pipe interrupter with atmospheric vent and moving element X 3
d EA/EB Verifiable and non-verifiable single check valves 2 2
e EC/ED Verifiable and non-verifiable double check valves 3 3
f HA Hose union backflow preventer. Only permitted for use on existing hose 2 3
union bib tap in house installations
g HUK1 Hose union bib tap incorporating a double check valve arrangement. Only 3 3
permitted as a replacement for existing bib taps in house installations
h HC Diverter with automatic return (normally integral with some domestic X 3
appliance applications only)
X indicates that the backflow prevention device is not acceptable for protection against back pressure for ANY fluid category.
Arrangements incorporating a type DB device shall have no control valves on the outlet of the device. The device shall not be fitted less than
300 mm above the spillover level of an appliance and must discharge vertically downwards.
Relief ports from BA and CA devices should terminate with an air gap, the dimension of which should satisfy a type AA air gap.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
The following applies:
● If, under static conditions, the mains pressure
INDUSTRY TIP
reduces where it is just 0.14 bar above the pressure
Testing, commissioning, maintenance and annual inspection
in the reduced pressure zone, the differential relief
can ONLY be carried out by a trained and approved
valve will open and release the contents of the installer. Anyone who tests RPZ valves must be certificated.
middle chamber to drain. Specialist training is available from various test centres
● Should backflow occur past the first check across the UK. Further recommended reading is the Water
valve element, the pressure on both sides of the Regulations Advisory Scheme Information and Guidance
differential valve will equalise and the differential Note No. 9-03-02.
relief valve will open to discharge the water.
● If complete mains failure occurs, the contents of the
middle chamber are discharged to drain, providing Type CA – non-verifiable
that both check valve elements are functioning disconnector with difference
correctly. However, should the upstream check valve between pressure zones not greater
become faulty, the pressure in the middle chamber
than 10%
will equalise to that of mains pressure and the
differential relief valve will open and continuously These are very similar to BA devices (RPZ valves) in
discharge water at a steady rate. that they provide a positive disconnection chamber
● If the downstream check valve fails under zero
between the downstream water and the upstream
mains pressure conditions, the differential relief water. The disconnection area between the two main
valve will open and water will discharge from the check valves is open to the atmosphere under fault
downstream side of the system until the pressure conditions thereby maintaining an air gap should a loss
here also becomes zero. of upstream pressure occur. Like the RPZ valve, any
water discharged would run to drain via a tundish. They
are suitable for fluid category 3.
Check valve Check valve
1 open 2 open
Normal A typical use of a type CA disconnector is a permanent
direction
of flow
Normal direction of flow connection between a sealed central heating system
and the water undertaker’s cold water supply.
Differential
Relief port relief valve
Check valve 1 open Check valve
2 open
Normal direction of flow
Direction
of
backflow
Type BA or reduced pressure zone valve
(RPZ valve). Differential
relief valve
Suitable for protection against fluid category: Relief port
4
Back
pressure 4
Back
siphonage
p Figure 1.91 A type CA backflow preventer
p Figure 1.90 Use of a type CA backflow preventer
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Direction of flow
System boiler
The outer
The vents open to
membrane atmosphere
closes off the when a
outer vent sudden loss of
holes during pressure
normal water occurs. This
flow prevents back
Type CA siphonage
disconnector
p Figure 1.93 Type DB pipe interrupter schematic
Water undertaker’s
Flow Return cold water supply
p Figure 1.92 Use of a type CA backflow preventer
Type DB – pipe interrupter with
atmospheric vent and moving
element
The type DB pipe interrupter is a backflow prevention
device specifically designed for fluid category 4
applications. The concept of the DB interrupter is very
simple. Water enters a tube which has one end blanked p Figure 1.94 Type DB pipe interrupter
off. Around the tube are a series of small holes over
which a flexible rubber membrane is stretched. As the
water flows into the tube, it is forced through the holes
Type EA and Type EB – verifiable
and this flexes the rubber membrane to allow water and non-verifiable single check
to flow. If the supply pressure suddenly stops, then the valves
membrane contracts against the holes to effectively These two valves are the most simple of all mechanical
prevent backflow. Any backflowing water is then released backflow prevention devices and can be used to protect
to atmosphere through another series of holes in the against fluid category 2 for both back pressure and
outer casing of the device. They are approved for use as back siphonage. Generally regarded as point of use
protection against back siphonage but not back pressure. protection, they consist of a spring-loaded one-way
DB pipe interrupters are generally used externally as valve that will allow water to flow from upstream to
attachments to hose union bib taps and must not be downstream only. If back siphonage or back pressure
used on appliances that have a control valve restriction, occurs, the valve will shut to prevent a reverse water
such as a clothes washing machine. They are resistant flow. When no water is flowing, the valve remains in
to frost damage. They must be fitted vertically and the closed position. Both types are almost identical in
have no valves fitted downstream of the device. appearance. The difference between them is:
● Type EA device – has a test nipple situated on the
Some DB interrupters are manufactured with bayonet upstream side of the valve so that it can be tested
type attachments for domestic garden perforated hose whilst in position to verify that it is working correctly
irrigation systems.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
● Type EB non-verifiable single check valve – does not the water can cause excessive pressure on the check
have a test point but can be used in the same way valve causing it to fail. Other uses include the cold
as the type EA single check valve. water connections to drinks machines.
Spring loaded valve
Direction
of flow
Valve guide End on
Test point Stainless steel spring view
Spring loaded valve
Direction
of flow
Valve guide End on
Stainless steel spring view
Suitable for protection against fluid category:
Back Back
2 pressure 2 siphonage
p Figure 1.95 Type EA verifiable single check valve and type EB
non-verifiable single check valve
Both valves are manufactured from de-zincification p Figure 1.96 Verifiable and non-verifiable single check valves
resistant (DZR) resistant brass and have either type
A compression fittings or female BSP threads for Type EC and Type ED – verifiable and
connection to the pipework. The valves should conform non-verifiable double check valves
to BS EN 13959:2004 for use in hot or cold water These are mechanical backflow prevention devices
systems up to 90 °C. consisting of two single check valves in series,
which will permit water to flow from upstream to
KEY TERM downstream but not in the reverse direction. They are
De-zincification resistant (DZR): a type of brass used primarily to protect against fluid category 3 for
that resists electrolytic corrosion. both back pressure and back siphonage.
The type EC verifiable double check valve has two test
In domestic premises the risk from fluid category 2 nipples, one on the upstream side of the first check
generally occurs where the hot and cold supplies are valve and another in the chamber between the first and
taken to a single terminal fitting such as mixer taps or second check valve. These are used to verify that the
shower valves. This is known as a cross connection. valve is working correctly. The type ED non-verifiable
However, care must be taken when installing single double check valve does not have a test point but can be
check valves to hot water supplies as the expansion of used in the same way as the type EA single check valve.
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Suitable for protection against fluid category: Normal direction of flow
Back Back
3 pressure 3 siphonage
Connection to hose
union bib tap
Direction Spring loaded valve
of flow
Rubber membrane
Connection
End on
view to hose
Test point Test point Valve guide
Stainless steel spring
Direction Spring loaded valve
Normal direction of flow
of flow
End on
Stainless steel spring Valve guide view
Air entering the
p Figure 1.97 Type EC verifiable double check valve and type ED hose pipe when
non-verifiable double check valve Stainless steel
the water pressure
spring
drops
Typical uses in domestic installations include garden
Suitable for protection against
hose union bib-taps and sealed heating systems fluid category:
fitted in conjunction with a temporary filling loop. Back Back
When used with sealed heating systems, the double 2 pressure 3 siphonage
check valve MUST be fitted to the cold water supply
p Figure 1.98 Type HA hose union backflow preventer
connection to the filling loop and NOT to the sealed
heating connection.
Type HUK1 – hose union bib tap
Type HA – hose union backflow incorporating a double check valve
preventer (only permitted for use on arrangement
existing hose union bib tap in house This hose union bib tap incorporates two single check
installations) valves, one situated at the inlet to the tap and one at
the outlet. A screw-type test point is also included
As the name suggests, this mechanical backflow
on the tap body. They are fitted in the same way as a
prevention device screws on to the outlet thread of a
normal HU bib tap. However, they are not suitable for
hose union bib tap. It is specifically for use with existing
new installations and can only be used as replacements
hose union bib taps that do not have any form of
where a hose union bib tap already exists. This is
backflow protection. It is used to protect against back
simply because the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
pressure at fluid category 2 and back siphonage at fluid
Regulations state that any mechanical backflow
category 3.
prevention device should be fitted INSIDE the building
to prevent damage by freezing. They are suitable
as protection against fluid category 3 for both back
pressure and back siphonage.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Food & Rural Affairs) Section 6.4 Guidance clauses
Rising spindle relating to Paragraph 15 of Schedule 2 Backflow
Packing gland prevention.
Single check valve
Head workings General
Fixed jumper
G15.1 Except where expanded water from hot water
Washer systems or instantaneous water heaters is permitted to
Single check valve flow back into a supply or distributing pipe, every water
fitting through which water is supplied for domestic
purposes should be installed in such a manner that no
Test point
backflow of fluid from any appliance, fitting or process
can take place.
Suitable for protection against fluid category:
G15.2 Avoidance of backflow should be achieved
Back Back
3 pressure 3 siphonage by good system design and the provision of suitable
backflow prevention arrangements and devices, the
p Figure 1.99 Type HUK1 hose union bib tap with double check type of which depends on the fluid category to which
valve arrangement
the wholesome water is discharged. A description
of fluid risk categories is shown in Schedule 1 of the
Type HC – diverter with automatic Regulations and some suggested examples relating to
return the fluid categories are shown in Tables 1.5 and 1.7.
This is a mechanical backflow prevention device G15.3 The type of backflow protection for a given
used in bath/shower combination tap assemblies situation is related to the fluid risk categories
which automatically returns the bath outlet open to downstream of the backflow prevention device.
atmosphere if a vacuum occurs at the inlet to the
device. G15.4 Schedules of backflow prevention arrangements
and backflow prevention devices, and the maximum
The type HC diverter with automatic return is permissible fluid risk category for which they are
usually incorporated into the design of an appliance acceptable, are shown in Tables 1.5 and 1.7.
or fitting. It is not a ‘standalone’ fitting that can be
added to the installation. A good example of a type G15.5 Wherever practicable, systems should be
HC diverter would be a bath/shower mixing valve protected against backflow without the necessity to
with a diverter valve to operate the shower. Whilst rely on mechanical backflow protection devices; this
pressure is maintained, the diverter valve remains can often be achieved by point of use protection such
open and the water is fed to the shower hose. Should as a ‘tap gap’ above the spillover level of an appliance.
loss of pressure occur, the diverter valve closes and Minimum air gaps for different sizes of taps and
any excess water in the shower hose returns to the applications are shown in Table 1.5.
bath through the open tap, thus preventing the water G15.6 In cistern-fed systems secondary backflow
from backflowing down the cold supply pipe. They are prevention can often be achieved for appliances by the
suitable for fluid category 3 to prevent back siphonage use of permanently vented distributing pipes.
only.
G15.7 Mechanical backflow protection devices which,
Regulations and guidance for depending on the type of device, may be suitable for
protection against back pressure or back siphonage, or
backflow prevention
both, should be installed so that:
The following clauses are taken from the Water Supply ● They are readily accessible for inspection,
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 Guidance Document operational maintenance and renewal; and,
(published by Defra – Department for Environment
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● Except for types HA and HUK1, backflow G15.10 Bidets of this type may:
prevention devices for protection against fluid ● Be supplied with cold and/or hot water through type
categories 2 and 3, they should not be located AA, AB, or AD backflow prevention arrangements
outside premises; and, serving the bidet only; or,
● They are not buried in the ground; and, ● Be supplied with cold water from an independent
● Vented or verifiable devices, or devices with relief distributing pipe serving the bidet only or a
outlets, are not installed in chambers below ground common distributing pipe serving the bidet and
level or where liable to flooding; and, which may also serve a WC or urinal flushing
● Line strainers are provided immediately upstream cistern only; or,
of all backflow prevention devices required for fluid ● Be supplied with hot water from a water
category 4. Where strainers are provided, servicing heater, which is supplied from an independent
valves are to be fitted upstream of the line strainer distributing pipe, that serves the bidet only, see
and downstream of the backflow prevention device; Figure 1.100; or,
and, ● Where the bidet is at a lower elevation than any
● The lowest point of the relief outlet from any reduced other outlets or appliances, be supplied with water
pressure zone valve assembly or similar device should from a common cold and/or hot water vented
terminate with a type AA air gap located not less distributing pipe providing that:
than 300 mm above the ground or floor level. ● The elevation of the spillover level of the bidet, if
there is no flexible hose; or,
● The elevation of the spray outlet, with the hose
KEY POINT
For information on the installation and extended vertically above the spillover level of
maintenance of reduced pressure zone devices the bidet,
(RPZ valve assemblies) see Installation and ● Whichever is the highest, is not less than 300 mm
Guidance Note No. 9-03-02 published by the below the point of connection of the branch pipe
Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS). serving the bidet to the main distributing pipe
serving other appliances.
Appliances incorporating or supplied with Open
safety Separate vent for backflow prevention
water through pumps vent
CWSC
G15.8 Where pumped showers, or other appliances
supplied through or incorporating pumps, are installed,
Cold
care should be taken in positioning branches from feed 300 mm
pipe minimum
distributing pipes.
HWSC
Ascending
Bidets (including WCs adapted as bidets) spray bidet Bath Washbasin
with flexible hose and spray handset
fittings and with submerged water inlets
G15.9 Bidets with flexible hose and spray handset Hot
fittings and/or water inlets below the spillover level of Cold
the appliance, are a fluid category 5 risk and should
not be supplied with water directly from a supply Water undertaker’s Distribution pipes serving other appliances
main supply
pipe.
p Figure 1.100 Connections to an ascending spray bidet
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Bidets with water inlets above spillover
level only
G15.11 Bidets in domestic locations with taps
or mixers located above the spillover level of the
appliance, and not incorporating an ascending
spray inlet below spillover level or spray and flexible
hose, may be served from either a supply pipe or
a distributing pipe provided that the water outlets
discharge with a type AUK2 air gap above the spillover Flushing valve
level of the appliance. See Table 1.5.
Open safety vent
Type DC pipe
CWSC interrupter
150 mm
minimum
Cold distribution pipe
Cold Spreader
feed
pipe Type AUK2 air gap at the
HWSC taps on over-rim bidet
Bidet Bath Washbasin
Hot
p Figure 1.102 Use of flushing valves and DC pipe interrupters
Cold
Water undertaker’s Distribution pipes serving other appliances Shower heads or tap inlets to baths,
main supply
washbasins, sinks and bidets
p Figure 1.101 Connections to an over-rim bidet G15.13 Except where suitable additional backflow
protection is provided, all single tap outlets, combination
WCs and urinals tap assembly outlets, or fixed shower heads terminating
G15.12 The water supply to a manually operated over washbasins, baths or bidets in domestic situations
WC or urinal flushing valve may be derived either should discharge above the spillover level of the
from a supply pipe or a distributing pipe. The flushing appliance with a tap gap (type AUK2) as scheduled in
valve should be located above the WC pan or urinal Table 1.5. For a sink in a domestic or non-domestic
and must incorporate, or discharge through, a pipe location, and for any appliances in premises where a
interrupter with a permanent atmospheric vent; see higher level of protection is required, such as some
type DC in Tables 1.5 and 1.7. The lowest part of the appliances in hospitals or other health care premises, a
vent opening of the pipe interrupter should be located tap gap (type AUK3) is required, see Table 1.5.
not less than 300 mm above the spillover level of the
WC pan or not less than 150 mm above the sparge Submerged inlets to baths and
outlet of a urinal. washbasins
G15.14 Submerged inlets to baths or washbasins in any
house or domestic situation are considered to be a fluid
KEY POINT category 3 risk and should be supplied with water from
Flushing valves cannot be used in domestic WCs a supply or distributing pipe through a double check
or urinals.
valve. Submerged inlets to baths or washbasins in other
than a house or domestic situation, and sinks in any
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location, are considered to be a fluid category 5 risk watered surface is less than 150 mm below the
and appropriate backflow protection will be required. water outlet discharge point), for example irrigation
systems and permeable hoses, are considered to be a
Drinking water fountains fluid category 5 risk and should only be supplied with
G15.15 Drinking water fountains should be designed water through a type AA, AB, AD or AUK1 air gap
so that the outlet of the water delivery jet nozzle is at arrangement.
least 25 mm above the spillover level of the bowl. The
nozzle should be provided with a screen or hood to House garden installations
protect it from contamination. G15.20 Taps to which hoses are, or may be connected
and located in house garden locations are to be
Washing machines, washer-dryers and protected against backflow by means of a double check
dishwashers valve. The double check valve should be located inside a
G15.16 Household washing machines, washer-dryers building and protected from freezing.
and dishwashers are manufactured to satisfy a fluid
category 3 risk. Where they are likely to be used in a Hose union
non-domestic situation, appropriate backflow protection bib tap
for a higher fluid risk category should be provided.
Non-verifiable
Hose pipes for house garden and other double check
applications valve
G15.17 Handheld hoses should be fitted with a self-
closing mechanism at the outlet of the hose.
Pipe sleeved
through wall
Isolation
valve
p Figure 1.104 Domestic hose union bib tap installation
G15.21 Where, in existing house installations, a hose
pipe is to be used from an existing hose union tap
located outside a house and which is not provided with
p Figure 1.103 Typical self-closing handheld garden spray backflow protection, either:
● The existing hose union tap should be provided with
Commercial and other installations a double check valve located inside the building; or,
excluding house gardens ● The tap should be replaced with a hose union tap
G15.18 Any taps and fittings used for supplying water that incorporates a double check valve (type HUK1);
for non-domestic applications, such as commercial, or,
horticultural, agricultural or industrial purposes should ● A hose union backflow preventer (type HA) or a
be provided with: double check valve should be continuously fitted to
● Backflow protection devices appropriate to the the outlet of the tap.
downstream fluid category; and,
G15.22 Where fixed or handheld devices are used
● Where appropriate, a zone protection system.
with hose pipes for the application of fertilisers or
G15.19 Soil watering systems installed in close domestic detergents the minimum backflow protection
proximity to the soil surface (that is, where the provided should be suitable for protection against a
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
fluid category 3 risk. Backflow protection against a fluid Whole-site and zone protection
category 5 risk should be provided where these devices G15.24 A whole-site or zone backflow prevention
are used for the application of insecticides. device should be provided on the supply or distributing
G15.23 Where mini-irrigation systems, such as porous pipe, such as a single check valve or double check valve,
hoses, are installed in house garden situations only, a or other no less effective backflow prevention device,
hose union tap with backflow protection in accordance according to the level of risk as judged by the water
with clauses G15.20 or G15.21 combined with a pipe undertaker where:
interrupter with atmospheric vent and moving element ● A supply or distributing pipe conveys water to two
device (type DB) at the connection of the hose to the or more separately occupied premises (whether or
hose union tap, or not less than 300 mm above the not they are separately chargeable by the water
highest point of the delivery point of the spray outlet supplier for a supply of water); or,
or the perforated surface of the porous hose, whichever ● A supply pipe conveys water to premises, which
is the highest, is acceptable. under any enactment are required to provide a
storage cistern capable of holding sufficient water
for not less than 24 hours ordinary use.
Hose union bib tap G15.25 The provision of zone or whole-site backflow
Type DB interrupter with moving element protection should be in addition to individual
requirements at points of use and within the system.
G15.26 Zone protection may be required in other than
Not less than 300 mm above
highest outlet from porous hose domestic premises where particular industrial, chemical
Porous or medical processes are undertaken.
irrigation
hose
Fire protection systems
G15.27 Wet sprinkler systems (without additives),
first-aid fire hose reels and hydrant landing valves
are considered a fluid category 2 backflow risk. Wet
sprinkler systems with additives to prevent freezing are
considered a fluid category 4 risk.
p Figure 1.105 Porous hose installation G15.28 Fluids contained within large cylindrical hydro-
pneumatic pressurised vessels are considered to be fluid
category 4 risk.
Hose union bib tap
G15.29 Where fire protection systems and drinking
Type DB interrupter with moving element water systems are served from a common domestic
supply pipe, the connection to the fire systems should
Not less than 300 mm above
highest outlet from porous hose be taken from the supply pipe immediately on entry
to the building and appropriate backflow protection
Porous
irrigation devices should be installed.
hose
Methods of preventing cross
connection in systems that
contain non-wholesome
water sources
A cross connection is a direct, physical connection
p Figure 1.106 Porous hose installation on rising ground
between wholesome, potable water and water that
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is considered non-potable, such as recycled water or be completed by the plumbing company who may
harvested rainwater. In extreme circumstances, this employ their own designer/estimator
can result in serious illness and even death. Cross ● existing dwellings – here, the design of systems is
connections occur during correct plumbing design usually completed by an experienced operative who
and installation, such as the hot and cold connections has knowledge of the procedures for completing
to a shower valve or a mixer tap (cross connection simple flow rate and pipe sizing calculations.
between fluid category 1 and fluid category 2) and
The design of a system is the first important step
these, for the most part, are protected by the correct
towards a successful installation as the calculations
use of mechanical backflow prevention devices.
completed must allow the finished installation to
However, some modern plumbing systems require
deliver the specified flow rates and component
much more thought and planning, rather than simply
performances based upon the manufacturer’s literature.
the installation of a check valve. The Water Supply
It is at this stage that the type of materials to be used
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 demand that cross
for the installation will be chosen. This will be based
connections from a water undertaker’s mains to
upon the type of building, its uses, the type of system
recycled and rainwater harvesting systems, and even
being installed and cost.
connections to private water supplies are eliminated
completely in order to safeguard the wholesome water
supply. There are several ways in which we can do this: Information sources
● correct design of systems taking into account the The installation of cold water systems needs to comply
requirements of the regulations in place with the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations and
● careful planning and routing of pipework and fittings we must always consider the recommendations of BS
● careful use of mechanical backflow prevention EN 806 and BS 8558. Manufacturer’s instructions have
devices and air gaps to be followed with regard to the appliances installed
● using the correct methods of marking and colour and materials used. Manufacturer’s design flow rates
coding pipework and systems. and operating pressures will need to be considered at
the system design stage for any installation to operate
Of these, identification of pipework is most important,
effectively.
especially when additions to the system are required or
during routine and emergency maintenance operations.
Statutory regulations
Plumbing is one of the most regulated trades within
4 DESIGN TECHNIQUES the building services engineering banner. We are
governed by sets of regulations, which tell us what we
FOR COLD WATER can and what we cannot do and what we must and
what we must not do; failure to comply often results
SYSTEMS in prosecution. Regulations for cold water include:
● Water Act 2003
The design of cold water installations involves the
● Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
calculation of flow rates, capacities of stored water
● Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016
required and pipe sizes. On large contracts it may also
● Building Regulations.
involve the planning of pipe routes based upon the
architect’s drawings. Design processes can be divided Aspects of these regulations were discussed at the
into three distinct groups: beginning of this chapter.
● large industrial/commercial contracts – on large To give us a better understanding of the Water Supply
contracts a building services engineer (BSE) will (Water Fittings) Regulations, the Water Regulations
design the cold water installation Advisory Scheme (WRAS) have written the definitive
● new build domestic installations – with these guide to the water regulations.
types of installations, the cold water design will
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
● the terms of the warranty will be void
INDUSTRY TIP ● the installation may be dangerous
● we may inadvertently be breaking the regulations.
Find out more about the Advisory Scheme’s (WRAS) guide to
the Water Regulations at www.waterregsuk.co.uk/guidance/
KEY POINT
publications/water-regulations-guide/
In some instances, it may seem that the instructions
contradict the regulations or the British Standards.
This is because regulations are only reviewed
British Standards and Approved periodically, whereas manufacturers are moving
Codes of Practice (ACoPs) forward all the time with new, more efficient products,
so their information may be more up to date. In these
The British Standards provide guidance on interpreting and cases, follow a simple but effective rule:
following the regulations. They are not enforceable, but set The manufacturer’s literature MUST be followed at
out as a series of recommendations so that the minimum all times, even if it contradicts the regulations and
standard to comply with the regulations can be achieved. British Standards.
By adhering to the recommendations within the British
Standards, the regulations will be seen to be satisfied. Verbal and written communication
with the customer
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
There are a number of ways that companies
The language used in the British Standards can be
difficult to interpret; the Advisory Scheme’s (WRAS) communicate with customers, such as:
guidance notes are available to help you ensure ● written communication:
you can follow and satisfy the regulations correctly. ● letters
● e-mails
● faxes
INDUSTRY TIP ● text messages
● verbal communication:
Often the regulations and the British Standards will make ● face-to-face
reference to one another, and it may even be the case that the ● via the telephone.
regulations make reference to more than one British Standard.
KEY TERM
Verbal: the spoken word. Any verbal
KEY POINT communication should always be backed up with
However important the regulations and the British written confirmation to verify any agreements and
Standards are, they are not our primary source clarify any details to prevent confusion.
of information when installing equipment and
appliances. It must not be forgotten that the
manufacturer’s literature overrides both of these Written communication
where a conflict arises. ● Letters are an official method of communication
and are usually easier to understand than verbal
Manufacturer’s instructions communication. Good written communication
can help towards the success of any company by
Manufacturer’s installation, servicing/maintenance
portraying and building a professional reputation.
and user instructions are the most important of all
Official company business should always:
documents you will have access to when installing,
● be in written form
servicing and maintaining equipment and appliances.
● be on company headed paper
They tell us in installation (technical) language what we ● have a clear layout (for example, divided into
can and must do for correct and safe operation of their logical paragraphs)
equipment and they must be followed, otherwise:
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● communicate content clearly using standard the estimate/quotation should be accompanied
English. by detailed scale drawings to help the customer
● Emails have emerged as a hugely popular form understand the work that is to be completed.
of communication because of the speed that the ● Invoices/statements – documents that are issued
information they contain is transferred to the at the end of any contract as a demand for final
recipient. As with letters, they should be well payment for services rendered. Usually a period of
written and laid out, using correct grammar and time is allowed for the payment to be made.
spelling to convey professionalism, whether the ● Statutory cancellation rights – a number of laws
recipient is a client, customer or colleague. give the customer the legal right to cancel contracts
● Faxes are used mainly for conveying documents after signing, providing work has not already
such as orders, invoices, statements and contracts started. There is usually no penalty for cancellation,
where the recipient may wish to see an authorising providing the cancellation is confirmed in writing
signature. Again, the basic rules apply with regard to within a specific timeframe. Most cancellation
layout, standard English and content. Remember to periods start when the customer receives
always use a cover page that is appropriate for your notification of their right to cancel, which should be
company. This is an external communication that at least seven days before work commences.
reflects the business and company image. ● Handover information – at the end of any contract,
● Messaging is used a lot these days as an easy, the customer must be given certain information.
convenient and cheap way to pass on information. For large contracts, this includes the health and
This is an informal method of communication that safety file. For small domestic contracts, a file
may use simple text messaging or a smartphone app should be made which contains any manufacturer’s
such as WhatsApp. This method of communication information, installation, servicing and user
can be used to update a customer about your instructions, the appliance warranty information,
potential arrival time if you are delayed, for example, contact numbers of key personnel within the
but should not be used for any formal information. company and a letter of thanks for their custom.
KEY TERM Verbal communication
Standard English: use of English following correct The spoken word is, more often than not, our main
spelling and grammar. method of communication, especially in a work
context. In order to present a professional image and
communicate effectively, you must:
INDUSTRY TIP ● consider what you are saying before saying it
● evaluate the response of your listener
Examples of business letters are sales letters, information ● maintain an appropriate tone of voice
letters, general enquiry or problem-solving letters, etc. ● use body language effectively.
Communication between the company and the customer KEY TERMS
takes place at every stage of the contract from the initial
Tone of voice: a way of sounding to express meaning
contact to customer care at the contract completion. or emotion. For example, your tone of voice can
Written communication can take the form of: communicate confidence and conviction, assuring
● Quotations and estimates – both of these are customers that you are knowledgeable and capable.
written prices as to how much the work will cost to Body language: movements and postures which
complete. A quotation is a fixed price and cannot communicate attitudes and feelings.
vary. An estimate, by comparison, is not a fixed
price but can go up or down if the estimate was
not accurate or the work was completed ahead IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
of schedule. Most contractors opt for estimates Good verbal communication involves listening
carefully as well as speaking clearly.
because of this flexibility. Wherever possible,
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Verbal communication between the company and the ● direct from the architect’s scale drawings
customer is usually: ● by visiting the site and taking measurements in situ.
● during the handover process – explain and show
the customer where all control valves are and how Architect’s scale drawings
to use any appliances and controls that have been Architect’s working drawings are drawn to scale.
installed The scale is necessary because it would be totally
● verbal feedback – most often, discussions with a impractical to draw at full size (1:1) for the entire
customer help us to understand the following points: building. The scale resembles a ruler with one exception;
● details of ways in which the service to the the markings represent proportionally smaller or larger
customer could be improved distances with the millimetre as its base measurement.
● details of any faults that have developed in
Typically, architect’s scale drawings use a variety of
relation to the work completed; discussions scales. The scale can be determined by looking at the
with the customer can help us to diagnose and drawing legend, which is usually situated to the right
identify these faults and, therefore, complete any of the drawing. The legend is the information that the
rectification work quickly and efficiently. drawing contains (such as the architect who drew it,
the scale, the name of the drawing, what the drawing
Taking measurements shows and any notes that should be considered by the
Before design calculations can be made of an person using the drawing).
installation, measurements from the building must first
be taken. This can be done in two ways:
p Figure 1.107 Architect’s drawing showing the legend on the right of the drawing
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Typical drawing scales are: measurements directly from the building. This can be
● 1:1000 for site plans (10 mm = 10 m) done in several ways:
● 1:500 for site plans (10 mm = 5 m) ● Using an architect’s tape measure, which is an extra-
● 1:100 for plans and elevations (10 mm = 1 m) long tape measure often used by site engineers to
● 1:50 for plans, sections and elevations plot out a building. Requires two people for accurate
(10 mm = 500 mm) measuring of buildings and can be inaccurate if care is
● 1:20 for part plans, sections and internal elevations not taken to prevent the tape bending and distorting.
(10 mm = 200 mm) ● Using a standard tape measure, which requires two
● 1:10 for details and joinery (10 mm = 100 mm) people for accurate measuring of buildings and can
● 1:5 for details (10 mm = 50 mm). be inaccurate if care is not taken to prevent the tape
bending and distorting.
● Using a laser measure, which is by far the most
accurate method as this will not bend like a flexible
tape or be affected by obstacles in the way. It uses
a pulse of laser light to measure the distance and
is accurate to ± 3mm. A single person can operate
a laser measure quickly and effectively without
distortion.
● Using an ultrasonic measure, which uses an
ultrasonic wave to judge the distance, but can
be affected by obstacles and obstructions that
interrupt the wave.
p Figure 1.108 Architect’s scale rules
Calculating component size
Taking measurements using a scale rule, When designing cold water systems, there are certain
step-by-step factors that need to be taken into account before
1 Ensure that the drawing is lying flat so that there is progressing to the calculation stage:
no distortion of the drawing. Mistakes in measuring ● assessment of likely demand; this will include:
are easy to make when the drawing is not on a flat ● the number and position of the appliances
surface. ● flow rates required by individual appliances
2 Identify the scale of the drawing from the legend. ● the number of people living in the dwelling
3 Identify the part of the drawing that you wish to ● frequency of use
measure. This may be a wall, room or a pipe run. ● the available incoming pressure
4 Identify the correct scale on the rule that ● the length and routes of the pipework
corresponds with the scale on the drawing. ● the type of pipework material to be used
5 Place the zero mark of the rule against the start of ● the requirements of any Regulations and British
the line you wish to measure and read the length. Standards
Care must be taken here as it is very easy to ● the requirements of the manufacturer’s installation
misinterpret the length by reading along the wrong and performance data.
scale. Most scale rules have two scales along each Once these areas have been assessed, then the size
edge and it is important that the correct scale is of the components that the system will contain can
used. be calculated. The components that are likely to be
6 Note the length you have measured. required for domestic dwellings are:
● the capacity of any cisterns that may be included in
Taking measurements on site the design
Quite often, especially when dealing with existing ● the pipe size
properties, it may be necessary to visit the site and take
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
● the pump duty, if the system is a boosted cold Table 1.8 Draw-off flow rates (Qa), minimum flow rates at
water installation draw-off points (Qmin) and loading units for draw-off points –
● the size and charge of the pressure vessel, if the BS EN 806
system is a boosted cold water installation. Draw-off point Qa (l/s) Qmin (l/s) Loading
units
Calculation of pipe size Washbasin, handbasin, 0.1 0.1 1
bidet, WC cistern
When considering pipe size, there are a number of
Domestic kitchen sink, 0.2 0.15 2
factors that must be taken into account if the volume
washing machine*, dish
flow rate required is to be delivered to the outlets washing machine, sink,
without over sizing the pipework. The factors that need shower head
to be considered are: Urinal flush valve 0.3 0.15 3
● the volume flow rate required Bath domestic 0.4 0.3 4
● the pressure of the incoming supply Taps (garden/garage) 0.5 0.4 5
● the length of the pipework run
Non-domestic kitchen 0.8 0.8 8
● the number of changes of direction and valves to be sink DN20, bath non-
included in the design. domestic
Flush valve DN20 1.5 1.0 15
KEY POINT *For non-domestic appliances, check with manufacturer.
Pipework sizing is the most important part of any
good plumbing design. Calculating the correct pipe size will ensure that the
flow rate at the appliances is adequate and meets the
design specification.
The flow rate
The flow velocity is the speed at which the water is Assessing the likely demand
moving through the pipework. This needs to be kept The more outlets and appliances there are on an
to a minimum to prohibit excessive noise within the installation, the number that will be used at any one
system. time generally reduces. The system in use to estimate
BS EN 806 Part 3 recommends flow velocities the likely demand and, therefore, pipe size is based on
between 0.5 and 2 m/s, with a maximum of 3.5 m/s loading units.
only in exceptional circumstances. (BS EN 806
superseded BS EN 6700, which recommended higher KEY TERM
flow velocities. However, you may still come across
Loading unit: a number or a factor, which is
designs that reference BS EN 6700.) allocated to an appliance. It relates to the flow rate
at the terminal fitting, the length of time in use
KEY POINT and the frequency of use.
Remember – excessive velocity + excessive
pressure = excessive noise!
Table 1.8 shows the anticipated flow rates and the
loading units for the common appliances that are fitted
The pipework of any plumbing system must be to domestic installations. Let’s see how this is used.
designed so that the flow rates of the individual
appliances and draw-offs are at least equal to those
shown in the British Standards or the manufacturer’s
literature.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Anticipated flow rates and the loading units for cistern is supplying both cold water outlets via a
the common appliance cold distribution pipe and cold water to a hot water
storage vessel (not including a gravity or pumped
Use BS EN 806 Part 3 and read the tables shower). In the past, it has always been the case
correctly to add up the loading units and give the that where the cistern is supplying cold water to a
required flow rates for a cold water pipework system. hot water storage vessel only, that the capacity of
Let’s assume that an installation is fed via the main cold any cistern should be at least equal to the hot water
water supply and contains the following appliances: vessel/cylinder it is supplying.
● 1 × sink The average hot water cylinder contains around
● 2 × basins 140 litres of hot water. We will assume therefore that the
● 1 × WC
cold water storage cistern will have the same capacity.
The flow rate for the float-operated valve serving the
● 1 × bath
cold water storage cistern can be calculated by dividing
● 1 × washing machine the cistern capacity by the required filling time in
Use Table 2 from BS EN 806 Part 3 (Table 1.9). seconds. (The filling time should not exceed one hour.)
Once we have listed the appliances, we can apply the Assuming a filling time of 15 minutes:
loading units by looking at Table 1.9 and multiplying 140 litres ÷ 900 seconds (15 mins) = 0.15 l/s flow
by the number of appliances. This is easier in a simple rate
table. Remember – this is just the cold water supply.
Now work out the flow rate for a 230 litre cistern that
Table 1.9 Loading units (BS EN 806 Part 3) for a simple needs to fill in 30 minutes.
domestic cold water system
230 ÷ 1800 seconds (30 mins) = 0.127 or 0.13 l/s
Appliance Number Loading units Total flow rate
Domestic kitchen sink 1 2 2
8000 30
Washbasin 1 1 1
25
WC 1 1 1 5000
20
Bath 1 4 4
15
Washing machine 1 2 2
2000
Total loading units 10 10
8
Design flow rate (litres per second)
Before we can begin pipe-sizing activities, the need 1000
6
for hot water should also be considered: 5
● If the system is to be a mains-fed, unvented hot
Loading units
500 4
water system, then the manufacturer’s data should 400
3
be consulted with regards to flow rate required. 300
● If the system is to be a combination boiler or an 200 2
instantaneous multipoint hot water heater, then the 1.5
loading units can be added to the table shown 100
because the cold water supply would also have to 1.0
serve these outlets.
50 0.8
● If, however, the hot water is to be supplied via a
vented hot water cylinder, then the capacity of the 0.6
cistern feeding it will have to be taken into account. 0.5
20
0.4
From this, we can calculate the required flow for the
cistern. 10 0.3
For this example, we should consider that British
p Figure 1.109 Conversion of loading units to design flow rate
Standard BS EN 806 no longer states a minimum
taken from BS6700 (Annex D). This is updated in BS EN
capacity for cisterns. However, it is accepted that
806 Part 3.
there is a minimum of 230 litres storage where the
➜
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Because the flow rate is small, no loading unit exists From the chart we can see that the flow rate for 10
for it so once we have worked out the flow rate of loading units is 0.3 l/s. Add to this the 0.15 l/s for
the loading units, the flow rate for the cistern can be the storage cistern gives a total flow rate of 0.45 l/s.
added on. Now compare the total flow rate by using BS EN
The loading unit total is 10. By looking at Figure 1.109 806 Figure B1 which gives a QD flow rate of 0.4 l/s
we can determine the flow rate. for 10 loading units.
The available pressure (head) KEY TERM
Systems that use the water undertaker’s mains
Head: the pressure exerted by a column of water
pressure must be checked to ascertain the minimum under gravity.
available pressure during peak demand. This can be
done on site using a pressure gauge and the property’s
outside tap or kitchen sink cold supply. The incoming INDUSTRY TIP
mains pressure to a property is governed by OFWAT
(Guaranteed Standards Scheme) and the Water Supply You can read the OFWAT standards at www.ofwat.gov.uk/
and Sewerage Services (Customer Services Standard) wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-guaranteed-standards-
Regulations 2008. They both state that a minimum of scheme-GSS-summary-of-standards-and-conditions.pdf
0.7 bar (7 m head) should be supplied to a property,
so normally water authorities try to achieve 1 bar
With cistern-fed supplies, the head pressure is
pressure (10 m head). This will allow most modern
determined by measuring the distance from the base
appliances, like combination boilers, to work. This
of the cistern to the outlet. The base of the cistern is
minimum standard is backed up by the individual water
used because it is a constant (it never moves), whereas
authority’s code of practice.
the head pressure will be slightly higher than that
OFWAT Guaranteed Standards Scheme Section 5 says: measurement as the water level in the cistern will give
‘Low pressure: A company must maintain a a little more head pressure, but will vary due to water
minimum pressure in the communication pipe usage. Low pressure supplies generally require an increase
of seven metres static head (0.7 bar).’ in pipe size to compensate for the lack of pressure. This is
why the rule of thumb says the minimum size for rising
The same sentence is found in the Water Supply and
main (the incoming main rising through the building)
Sewerage Services (Customer Services Standard)
is 15 mm, but the minimum size for cold distribution is
Regulations 2008.
22 mm (the cold water pipe from the cold water cistern
in the loft to the appliances in the property).
INDUSTRY TIP
Flow can be expressed in two ways: moves at it fastest in the centre of the pipe because there
● Laminar flow – this is where a fluid, such as water, is little or no resistance to flow.
travels in regular paths. Often called streamline flow, ● Turbulent flow – this is flow which undergoes irregular
the velocity and pressures at each point remain fairly fluctuations. The fluid continuously changes direction and
constant. Laminar flow over a parallel surface such as velocity. The water swirls and creates eddies while the
the internal bore of a pipe consists of layers that are all bulk of the water generally flows in one direction. In a pipe,
parallel to each other. The fluid that is in contact with turbulent flow can be caused by many factors including
the pipe surface moves only very slowly because of the the internal roughness of the pipe bore or sudden changes
resistance offered by the pipe material and all other layers in direction, such as an elbow or a tee piece.
slide over it with varying degrees of velocity. The pipe
➜
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Fluid moves in parallel layers of differing velocity and resistance
Fluid has greatest resistance Fluid undergoes irregular
and moves with the least fluctuations causing a
velocity reduction in velocity
Fluid has least resistance
and moves with the The internal bore of
greatest velocity the pipe is not smooth
p Figure 1.111 Turbulent flow
p Figure 1.110 Laminar flow
Pipe sizing Tabulated pipe sizing method
The tabulated method of pipe sizing used to be Firstly, you will need a blank table to fill out with all
commonly used when BS 6700 was active. The the figures. The layout of the table should be similar to
tabulated method is now only used for complex Table 1.10 below.
domestic and commercial installation, but you still are The number of lines may vary according to the number
required to have a working knowledge of the tabulated of pipework sections, and the mains head will vary with
method. BS 6700 has now been replaced with BS EN the location supply.
806 and BS 8558, which offer a simplified method for
pipe sizing. This method is found in BS EN 806 Part 3 Stage 1 – Make a simple sketch of the system
and is now the recognised method for pipe sizing on Make a sketch of the system installation numbering
standard domestic installations. each section of pipework, starting with the incoming
We will work through a domestic installation using mains and then going up through the system. Put
both methods, the first method being the tabulated any dimensions on the sketch and label the appliance
method. outlets with their LOADING UNITS and MINIMUM
FLOW RATES. The loading units and flow rates can be
found in BS EN 806 Part 3 Table 2. Transfer the data
to a simple table.
Table 1.10 Blank table for tabulated method
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
(m) (column 13 −
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
RESIDUAL HEAD
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
3.5 m
Section Appliance Loading Flow
units LU rate l/s
3 Cistern – 0.15
140 litre cistern 0.15 l/s
5 Basin 1 0.1
Washbasin WC WC 1 0.1
4m 3 0.1 l/s 0.1 l/s Bath 4 0.3
Bath
0.3 l/s 6 0.5
5 0.5 m
2 Appliances – 0.15
from 6 0.5
2m 1m 1m
sections 3
3m 2 Sink 0.15 l/s and 5
W/machine
0.15 l/s 6 0.65
4 0.5 m 4 Sink 2 0.15
1.5 m 2m 1m
Washing 2 0.15
1
m/c
4 0.3
Water main
1 Appliances 4 0.3
6m from 6 0.65
sections 2,
p Figure 1.112 System drawing with flow rates and loading units taken 3, 4 and 5
from BS 6700 (old) 10 0.95
Now add the loading units and flow rates to the
calculation table in column 2 and 3.
Table 1.11 The tabular method (stage 1)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95
2 6 0.65
3 – 0.15
4 4 0.3
5 6 0.5
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Stage 2 – Assumed pipe diameter the flow rates can be identified. Now add your pipe
Using your experience and skill, you must assume a diameters to column 4. At this stage it is only an
pipe size that will cope with the required demand. The assumption and the rest of the table will prove whether
basis of your assumption is that the larger the diameter the choice is correct.
of pipe, the greater the flow rate. Looking at column 3,
Table 1.12 The tabular method (stage 2)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28
2 6 0.65 22
3 – 0.15 22
4 4 0.3 15
5 6 0.5 15
Stage 3 – Actual and effective pipe lengths Table 1.14 Calculations for column 8
Looking at the sketch made at Stage 1, add up the Section Fitting Number Size Equivalent Total
actual pipe lengths identified and add those lengths (mm) length (m) (m)
to column 7. Using Table 1.13, work out the equivalent 1 Elbow 2 28 1.0 2.0
pipe lengths which identify the impact that fittings Tee 1 28 1.5 1.5
have on the installation, then add those lengths to Stop valve 1 28 10.0 10.0
column 8.
13.5
Table 1.13 Equivalent lengths of pipe for fittings (copper, 2 Tee 1 22 1.0 1.0
stainless steel and plastics only) 1.0
Pipe size Elbow Tee (m) Stop Check 3 Elbow 1 15 0.5 0.5
(mm) (m) valve (m) valve (m) Service 1 15 0 0.0
15 0.5 0.6 4.0 2.5 valve
(fullway)
22 0.8 1.0 7.0 4.3
0.5
28 1.0 1.5 10.0 5.6
4 Elbow 1 15 0.5 0.5
35 1.4 2.0 13.0 6.0
Tee 1 15 0.6 0.6
42 1.7 2.5 16.0 7.9
1.1
54 2.3 3.5 22.0 11.5
5 Elbow 1 22 0.8 0.8
For tees, consider the branch only.
Gate valve resistance is insignificant and will not affect flow rate. Tee 2 22 1.0 2.0
For fittings not shown, consult manufacturer’s literature. 2.8
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Once you have put the figures into columns 7 and 8, add
them up and put the effective pipe length in column 9.
Table 1.15 The tabular method (stage 3)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 7.5 13.5 21.0
2 6 0.65 22 3.0 1.0 4.0
3 – 0.15 22 7.5 0.5 8.0
4 4 0.3 15 3.5 1.1 4.6
5 6 0.5 15 4.5 2.8 7.3
Stage 4 – Head loss and velocity across until you reach the pipe size being used. Then
The graph shown in Figures 1.113 and 1.114 allows you move vertically down to read the head loss figure. Put
to determine the head loss for a given flow rate. Using this into column 5. These figures need to be read as
the flow rates on the left-hand side of the graph, move accurately as possible.
200 200
150 s 150 s
m/ m/
4.0 4.0
100 s 100 s
m/ m/
80 3.0 80 3.0
/ s / s
60 0m 60 0m
2. 2.
s s
m/ m/
40 1.5 40 1.5
s s
30 m/ 8000 30 m/ 8000
1.0 1.0
m /s OD m/s OD
20 .75 mm 5000 20 .75 m m
5000
0
159 0
159
s OD s OD
15 m/ m m 3000 15 m/ m m 3000
0.5 1 33 0.5 1 33
OD OD
10
8 mm 1500
10
8 mm 1500
8 10 8 10
1000 1000
6 800 6 800
OD OD
mm mm
Flow rate l/s
Flow rate l/s
4 76 OD 4 76 OD
mm 400 mm 400
3 67 3 67
OD OD
m m
2 54m 200 2 54m 200
1.5 OD 1.5 OD
mm 100 mm 100
42 42
1.0 OD 1.0 OD
m m 70 m m 70
0.8 35 50 0.8 35 50
OD 40 OD 40
0.6 mm 30 0.6 mm 30
28 28
20 20
0.4 OD 0.4 OD
mm mm
0.3 22 10 0.3 22 10
0.2 5 0.2 5
OD OD
0.15 mm 3 0.15 mm 3
15 15
0.10 1½ 0.10 1½
0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06
0.05 0.05
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50
Head loss m/m Head loss m/m
p Figure 1.113 Head loss graph p Figure 1.114 Head loss graph with reading
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 1.16 The tabular method (stage 4 after determining head loss)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 0.14 7.5 13.5 21.0
2 6 0.65 22 0.26 3.0 1.0 4.0
3 – 0.15 22 0.14 7.5 0.5 8.0
4 4 0.3 15 0.45 3.5 1.1 4.6
5 6 0.5 15 0.16 4.5 2.8 7.3
Using Table D2 from BS 6700 (Figure 1.115), add the Use the assumed pipe diameter column 4 on the table
velocity of flow to column 6. This table is read using to line 5 on Table D2 from BS 6700 (see Figures 1.115
the edge of a ruler. Place the ruler edge on the outside and 1.116).
diameter of the chosen pipe (right-hand line on
Use a ruler edge to line up pipe diameter (line 5) to flow
Figure 1.115). Use that point as a hinge point. Keeping
rate (column 3) to line 4 on Table D2.
the edge of the ruler on the diameter, align the same
edge of the ruler with the flow rate for that section of For example:
the pipe (inside right line on Figure 1.115). Keeping the Section 1 = 28 mm pipe with flow rate of 0.95 l/s
ruler at this point, read off the velocity from the inside
left line. You can now add this figure to column 6. Read off line 1 for velocity.
Now do the same for sections 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Table 1.17 The tabular method (stage 4 after determining head loss and velocity of flow)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 0.14 1.80 7.5 13.5 21.0
2 6 0.65 22 0.26 0.26 3.0 1.0 4.0
3 – 0.15 22 0.14 0.14 7.5 0.5 8.0
4 4 0.3 15 0.45 0.45 3.5 1.1 4.6
5 6 0.5 15 0.16 0.16 4.5 2.8 7.3
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
10 50 80 10 50 80
8 40 75 8 40 75
30 76.1
70
1.8 m/s 30 76.1
70
6 6
5 6 20 67 65 5 6 20 67 65
4 5 60 4 5 60
3 4 10 3 4 10
8 55 8 55
6 54 6 54
2 3 5 50 2 3 5 0.95 l/s 50
2.5 4 2.5 4
45 45
3 4 5 3 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 2 42 40 1 1 2
2 42 40 28 mm
0.8 1.5 2 0.8 1.5 2
0.6 1.0 35 0.6 1.0 35
0.5 1.0 0.8 35 0.5 1.0 0.8 35
0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6
0.5 30 0.5 30
0.3 0.75 0.4 28 0.3 0.75 0.4 28
0.3 25 0.3 25
0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.2
22 20 22 20
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.08 6 0.1 0.08 6
0.08 0.25 0.06 0.08 0.25 0.06
0.07 0.05 0.07 0.05
0.06 18 0.06 18
0.05 15 0.05 15
0.04 0.04
15 15
0.03 0.03
0.1 0.1
0.02 0.02
12 12
10 10
0.01 0.01
0.008 10 0.008 10
0.006 0.006
0.005 0.005
0.004 0.004
8 8
0.003 0.003
0.002 0.002
5 5
0.001 6 0.001 6
Key Key
1 Wall friction gradient (head loss) in kPa per metre 4 Flow in litres per second 1 Wall friction gradient (head loss) in kPa per metre 4 Flow in litres per second
2 Velocity in metres per second 5 Outside diameter of copper tube 2 Velocity in metres per second 5 Outside diameter of copper tube
3 Formula applicable between these limits only in millimetres 3 Formula applicable between these limits only in millimetres
Lamont’s smooth pipe formula S3 is: 6 Actual bore of pipe in millimetres Lamont’s smooth pipe formula S3 is: 6 Actual bore of pipe in millimetres
0.6935 0.5645 1.7715 0.6935 0.5645 1.7715
v = 0.5545d i v v = 0.5545d i v
R = 10 R = 10
where 0.6935 where 0.6935
0.5545d 0.5545d
v is the velocity (m/s); v is the velocity (m/s);
d is the diameter (mm); where d is the diameter (mm); where
i is the hydraulic gradient; and R is the wall friction gradient (kPa). i is the hydraulic gradient; and R is the wall friction gradient (kPa).
p Figure 1.115 Determination of velocity of flow – water at 10 °C: p Figure 1.116 Table D2 from BS 6700 with reading
Table D2 from BS 6700
Stage 5 – Head used
We can now calculate the head used in metres. This is
calculated by multiplying column 5 by column 9 and
adding the figure to column 11.
Table 1.18 The tabular method (stage 5)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
PIPE LENGTH (m)
column 9 − head
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
EQUIVALENT
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
FLOW RATE
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(m/s)
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 0.14 1.80 7.5 13.5 21.0 2.94
2 6 0.65 22 0.26 0.26 3.0 1.0 4.0 1.04
3 – 0.15 22 0.14 0.14 7.5 0.5 8.0 1.12
4 4 0.3 15 0.45 0.45 3.5 1.1 4.6 2.57
5 6 0.5 15 0.16 0.16 4.5 2.8 7.3 2.47
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Stage 6 – Available head pressure the pipework rising vertically. Looking at the sketch,
The head (or pressure) at the outlet can be measured section 1 pipework rises 1.5 m (column 10), so the
vertically in metre head. The table states that there is available head is 30 m − 1.5m = 28.5 m (column 13).
30 m (3 bar) head pressure available. As the water rises Now put all the figures in columns 10 and 13.
through the system, some head pressure is lost due to
Table 1.19 The tabular method (stage 6)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
column 9 − head
FLOW RATE (m/s)
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
RESIDUAL HEAD
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
VERTICAL RISE
loss of outlets)
(column 13 −
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 0.14 1.80 7.5 13.5 21.0 −1.5 2.94 25.56 28.5
2 6 0.65 22 0.26 0.26 3.0 1.0 4.0 −4.5 1.04 24.46 25.5
3 – 0.15 22 0.14 0.14 7.5 0.5 8.0 −8.5 1.12 20.38 21.5
4 4 0.3 15 0.45 0.45 3.5 1.1 4.6 −2.0 2.57 25.43 28.0
5 6 0.5 15 0.16 0.16 4.5 2.8 7.3 −5.0 2.47 22.53 25.0
Stage 7 – Final pipe size If the velocity is below 3.0 m/s and the residual head
To check to see if the assumed pipe diameters are is above 10 m, the pipe choice is good and can be
correct, we need to inspect the table for two figures. installed.
Firstly, the velocity in any of the pipework must not be This tabulated method of pipe sizing is now only
above 3.0 m/s, otherwise there will be system noise used for more complex or commercial pipework
(column 6). installations. Today, BS EN 806 Part 3 allows us to use
the simplified pipe sizing method for basic domestic
Secondly, the available head pressure should be above
installation.
10 m (1 bar) at each section of pipework (column 12).
Table 1.20 The tabular method (stage 7)
Initial mains head = 30 m (3 bar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
EQUIVALENT PIPE
FLOW RATE (m/s)
column 9 − head
(m) (column 13 −
HEAD AVAILABLE
PIPE REFERENCE
FINAL PIPE SIZE
MINIMUM FLOW
EFFECTIVE PIPE
LOADING UNITS
HEAD USED (m)
ASSUMED PIPE
loss of outlets)
VERTICAL RISE
RESIDUAL HEAD
(column 12 ±
ACTUAL PIPE
VELOCITY OF
(column 7 +
(column 5 ×
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
LENGTH (m)
HEAD LOSS
column 10)
column 11)
(m/m RUN)
SIZE (mm)
column 8)
RATE (l/s)
OR DROP
(mm)
(m)
1 10 0.95 28 0.14 1.80 7.5 13.5 21.0 −1.5 2.94 25.56 28.5 28
2 6 0.65 22 0.26 0.26 3.0 1.0 4.0 −4.5 1.04 24.46 25.5 22
3 – 0.15 22 0.14 0.14 7.5 0.5 8.0 −8.5 1.12 20.38 21.5 22
4 4 0.3 15 0.45 0.45 3.5 1.1 4.6 −2.0 2.57 25.43 28.0 15
5 6 0.5 15 0.16 0.16 4.5 2.8 7.3 −5.0 2.47 22.53 25.0 15
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
The table indicates that 28 mm pipe is suitable for outlets with their loading units and minimum flow
section 1. rates. The loading units (LU) and the flow rates can
be found on BS EN 806 Part 3 Section 5 page 6 in
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Table 2. For this exercise we use the minimum flow
Do the same exercise to see if 22 mm pipe could be rates (Qmin) in litres per second.
used in that section.
Add up both the loading units and flow rate for each
section of pipe.
Simplified pipe sizing method You will notice from BS EN 806 that the table does not
The simplified pipe sizing method is based on BS EN list a cold water storage cistern.
806 Part 3 Section 5 (pages 6–13). The flow rate is calculated by dividing the capacity by
the required filling time (in seconds), which should not
Stage 1 – Make a simple sketch of the system exceed 1 hour.
Make a sketch of the system installation, numbering
For example:
each section of pipework starting from the incoming
mains and going up through the system. Put any 140 litres ÷ 900 seconds (15 mins) = 0.15 l/s flow
dimensions on the sketch and label the appliance rate
3.5 m
Section
Pipe LoadingAppliance
Litres per Loading Flow
units second units (LU) rate (l/s)
3 1 Sink 0.15 2 0.2
140 litre cistern 0.4 l/s 1.5 Washing
0.10 2 0.2
2 machine
0.05
4m 3 Washbasin WC
0.15 l/s 0.13 l/s 10 Basin0.20 1 0.1
Bath
3.0 l/s 5 13.5 WC 0.35 1 0.1
5 ---- Bath 0.15 4 0.4
1.5 m
2 13.5 Cistern
0.50 1 0.15
2m 1m 1m Actual
11 1.15
3m 2 Sink 2.0 l/s 3 0.10
W/machine 2 Basin 1 0.1
0.20 l/s 3 0.15
4 WC 1 0.1
1.5 m 4 6 0.25
BathActual 4 0.4
1.5 m 2m 1m 13.5 Cistern
0.50 1 0.1
1
1 19.5 0.45 7 0.7
From
Water main 3 Cistern
Figure 1.109 1 1.15
6m
1 4 19.5 Sink 0.6
2 0.2
including
Washing 2 0.2
p Figure 1.117 System drawing cistern
machine
flow rate
4 0.4
5 Basin 1 0.1
WC 1 0.1
6 0.6
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Stage 2 – Pipework material BS EN 806 Part 3 page 7 Table 3 has a choice of
Now you have the total loading units for each section eight different pipework materials including galvanised
to the system. steel, copper, stainless and various plastics. You need
to identify what material(s) is being used for the
BS EN 806 contains formulated tables that use the installation.
total loading units to give the recommended pipe size.
We will assume that the system is using copper
pipework, which means we will be using Table 3.2.
Table 1.21 Recommended pipe sizes for copper (BS EN 806 Part 3 Table 3.2)
Max load LU 1 2 3 3 4 6 10 20 50 165 430 1050 2100
Highest value LU 2 4 5 8
da × s mm 12 × 1,0 15 × 1,0 18 × 1,0 22 × 1,0 28 × 1,5 35 × 1,5 42 × 1,5 54 × 2 76,1 × 2
di mm 10,0 13,0 16,0 20,0 25 32 39 50 72,1
Max length of pipe m 20 7 5 15 9 7
Stage 3 – Pipe size Using these loading units, read the table correctly to
Using the table of loading units completed in stage 1, identify the required pipe size for that section of pipe.
identify the total LU for each section: Taking section 1, which has 11 LU, read the top line of
the table (Max load) until you reach the figure that is
Section 1: 11 LU
either equal to or greater than 11 (≥11). This means you
Section 2: 7 LU must go to 20 loading units on the table.
Section 3: 1 LU
Section 4: 4 LU
Section 5: 6 LU
Table 1.22 Finding recommended pipe sizes using BS EN 806 Part 3 Table 3.2
Max load LU 1 2 3 3 4 6 10 20 50 165 430 1050 2100
Highest value LU 2 4 5 8
da × s mm 12 × 1,0 15 × 1,0 18 × 1,0 22 × 1,0 28 × 1,5 35 × 1,5 42 × 1,5 54 × 2 76,1 × 2
di mm 10,0 13,0 16,0 20,0 25 32 39 50 72,1
Max length of pipe m 20 7 5 15 9 7
Now find the recommended pipe size for the other Section 3: LU 1 Pipe size = 15 mm
sections of the installation.
Section 4: LU 4 Pipe size = 15 mm
Section 1: LU 9 Pipe size = 22 mm
Section 5: LU 6 Pipe size = 15 mm
Section 2: LU 7 Pipe size = 22 mm
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Stage 4 – Design flow rate identified is in section 1, which is supplying the whole
In BS EN 806 Part 3, Table 2 gives the draw off flow house. The LU for section 1 is 11 LU: this is read on the
rate (Qa) and the minimum draw off rate (Qmin), bottom x-axis on the graph.
but there are times where you may be asked about Next, identify the appliance on the system with the
the design flow rate (Qd). If the design flow rate is largest LU, which in this installation is the bath with
required, you need to be able to read the graph in 4 LU. This identifies the line on the graph that you
BS EN 806 Part 3 B1 (shown in Figures 1.118 need to read from. When you look at the graph, you
and 1.119). can see different lines are identified with 2, 3, 4, 5, 8
If we relate this graph to the system we have been and 15. As the bath has an LU of 4, you are going to
using in the above pipe sizing exercise, the highest LU read off the ‘4’ line.
Qd l /s
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
• 5.0
3
4.0
Qd l /s
3.0
2.0 2.0
15
1.5 1.5
Design flow rate
1.0 8 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 5 0.6
0.5 4 0.5
Qd
0.4 3 0.4
0.3 0.3
2
0.2 0.2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91000 2000 3000 5000
Total flow rate
Qt in LU
p Figure 1.118 Design flow rate Qd in l/s for standard installations in relation to LUs
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Qd l /s
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
• 5.0
3
4.0
Qd l /s
3.0
2.0 2.0
15
1.5 1.5
Design flow rate
1.0 8 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 5 0.6
0.5 0.5
Qd
4
0.4 3 0.4
0.3 0.3
2
0.2 0.2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91000 2000 3000 5000
Total flow rate
Qt in LU
p Figure 1.119 Reading the design flow rate
From this you can see that Qd is 0.55 l/s.
Calculation of cistern capacity ● the type and use of the building
● the number of occupants
Modern plumbing systems have seen an increase in the
● the type and number of the appliances
use of direct cold water systems whereby all the outlets
● the frequency of use
within the building are supplied with water direct from
● the likelihood of a breakdown of the supply.
a water undertaker’s cold water supply. However, there
are situations where the use of cold water storage Most capacities are calculated to provide a 24-hour
cisterns is unavoidable, especially in areas where the supply should mains failure occur. Table 1.23 provides
mains pressure is low. Storing cold water also has the a reference for cistern capacities based on the type
advantage of a reserve supply of water being available of building and number of occupants. The table can
should the mains be isolated for any period of time. be found in BS EN 806 Part 2 Clause 19.1.4 Table 6.
The standard also states: 'For most dwellings where
British Standard BS 6700 no longer gives storage
a constant supply at adequate pressure is a statutory
capacities for domestic dwellings but, in clause 5.3.9.4,
requirement, a maximum capacity of 80 litres per
recommends a minimum of 230 litres in systems that are
person normally resident should prove satisfactory' –
supplying cold water to both cold and hot water systems.
this includes hot water supply storage requirements
For larger buildings, the capacity of any cistern (see Chapter 2, Hot water systems, planning and
supplying cold water depends upon: design).
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Table 1.23 Recommended minimum storage of cold water for domestic installations (BS EN 806 Part 2 Clause 19.1.4 Table 6)
Type of building Minimum cold water storage (litres)
Hostel 90 per bed space
Hotel 200 per bed space
Office premises with canteen facilities 45 per employee
Office premises without canteen facilities 40 per employee
Restaurant 7 per meal
Nursery/primary day school 15 per pupil
Secondary/technical day school 20 per pupil
Boarding school 90 per pupil
Children’s home/residential nursery 135 per bed space
Nurses' accommodation 120 per bed space
Nursing/convalescent home 135 per bed space
This table can be used in the calculation of cistern IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
capacity.
Cistern sizing
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS A small primary school is to be built accommodating
350 pupils.
Calculation of cistern capacities: example Calculate the cold water storage required and the
Calculating cistern capacity is quite straightforward design flow rate to fill the cistern within a 4-hour fill time.
provided the correct information is to hand.
To determine cistern capacities, the following
calculation should be used:
Calculation of pump power
Calculation of pump power is usually performed to
Litres of storage required (from Table 1.23)
× number of people/guests
ascertain the power of the pump needed to lift a
certain quantity of water at a certain pressure. It is
Consider the following example. based on the physics of ‘work done’ relative to ‘time’.
A hotel has 25 beds and 50 restaurant guests. ‘Work done’ is the applied force through distance
Calculate the amount of cold water storage
moved and the unit of measurement is the joule. It
required.
is thus explained as the work done when a 1-newton
200 × 25 = 5000 litres for hotel guests force acts through a 1-metre distance or:
7 × 50 = 350 litres for restaurant guests 1 joule = 1 N × 1 m
5000 + 350 = 5350 litres total cold water storage ‘Time’ must be expressed as a period of seconds, which
can be combined with work done to become work done
Assuming the cistern will have a 6-hour fill time, the
over a period of time. It is expressed in the following way:
design flow rate required to fill the cistern will be as
follows: Power = work done ÷ time
= (force × distance) ÷ seconds
Design flow rate = litres required ÷ time in seconds
= (newtons × metres) ÷ seconds (J/s)
= 5350 ÷ (6 × 3600) = 0.247 litres/second (l/s)
where: 1 J/s = 1 watt
This shows that it will require a flow rate of 0.25 l/s
Force in newtons = kg mass × acceleration due to
(answer rounded up) to fill a cistern with a capacity
gravity (9.81 m/s2)
of 5350 litres in 6 hours.
Power (watts) = mass × 9.81 × distance ÷ time
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculation of pump power: example
Delivery at 4 kg/s
1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg
Length of pipe = 45 m
(actual length + allowance
for fittings, bends and valves)
Break cistern
Centrifugal pump
at 75% efficiency
p Figure 1.120 System drawing
As can be seen from the drawing, a delivery rate Allowance for pump efficiency:
of 4 kg/s is required to fill the cistern. 1 kg = 1 litre,
= 1765.8 × (100 ÷ 75)
therefore 4 kg/s = 4 l/s. The total length of pipework
with all bends, valves and fittings is 45 m. = 2354.4 watts
Power = (mass × 9.81 × distance) ÷ time Therefore:
= (4 × 9.81 × 45) ÷ 1 Pump rating (including 75% efficiency allowance)
= 2500 watts or 2.5 kW (rating rounded up to the
= 1765.8 watts
nearest ½ kW)
Pump laws ● Power (W) required will vary with the cube of
A pump is manufactured with an impeller of constant the rotational speed of the impeller (N). This is
diameter. This will have the following characteristics: expressed as:
● Quantity of water delivered (Q) will vary according (W2 ÷ W1) = (N2)3 ÷ (N1)3
to the rotational speed of the impeller (N). This is
Where:
expressed as:
Q2 and Q1 = discharge of water delivered (l/s)
(Q2 ÷ Q1) = (N2 ÷ N1)
● Pressure produced (P) will vary with the square N2 and N1 = rotational speed of the impeller (rpm
of the rotational speed of the impeller (N). This is or rps)
expressed as: P2 and P1 = pressure produced (kPa or kN/m2)
(P2 ÷ P1) = (N2)2 ÷ (N1)2 W2 and W1 = power required (watts)
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Assessment of accumulator capacity
Most accumulators are installed in domestic situations
Pump laws: example
because the water supply entering the property
A 25 kW pump discharges 4 kg/s when the pump suffers from either low pressure, poor flow rate or
impeller rotational speed is 1000 rpm. If the impeller a combination of both. Accumulators, when fitted
speed is increased to 1200 rpm, what effect will this
have on the power required, pressure produced and
correctly, will boost flow rate and pressure to an
water delivered? acceptable level. It must be remembered, however,
To calculate these changes, a transposition of the that to avoid problems with over-pressurisation during
known formula is required. off-peak periods, a pressure reducing valve should be
fitted on the mains supply. This will ensure a constant
Quantity of water delivered = (Q2 ÷ Q1) = (N2 ÷ N1)
pressure entering the accumulator and prevent bursting
When transposed, this becomes: of the internal bladder.
Q2 = (N2 × Q1) ÷ N1
Although calculations exist to determine the size
Q2 = (1200 × 4) ÷ 1000 of accumulator required, most manufacturers of
accumulators work on a fairly accurate rule of thumb.
Q2 = 4.8 kg/s = 4.8 l/s
The calculation is based around the incoming pressure
Power required = (W2 ÷ W1) = (N2)3 ÷ (N1)3 and flow rate of the water main. There are several
When transposed, this becomes: factors, which will need to be taken into account:
● the pressure of the water supply
W2 = (N2)3 × W1 ÷ (N1)3
● the flow rate into the property
W2 = (1200)3 × 2500 ÷ (1000)3 ● the number of occupants and their water usage
W2 = 4320 watts or 4.32 kW
requirements
● the location where the accumulator is to be fitted.
Pressure produced = (P2 ÷ P1) = (N2)2 ÷ (N1)2
Accumulators work on the principle of Boyle’s law
When transposed, this becomes: (see Book 1, Chapter 3, Scientific principles), which
P2 = (N2)2 × P1 ÷ (N1)2 states that the absolute pressure and volume of a given
45 kPa pressure is produced by 1000 rpm. When mass of confined gas (in this case air) are inversely
increased to 1200 rpm, this will produce: proportional, if the temperature remains unchanged
P2 = (1200)2 × 45 ÷ (1000)2 within a closed system. If the space inside the closed
system reduces, then the pressure within the system
P2 = 64.8 kPa will rise accordingly.
If the water pump will accept component change or A balloon when inflated contains 4 litres of air at
upgrade and the impeller can be changed with an
impeller of a different diameter, then the following
0.5 bar pressure. If the balloon is squeezed to half its
formulae will apply. original size, the pressure inside will double to 1 bar
At a constant rotation speed (N), the quantity of pressure because the same amount of air is being
water delivered (Q) will vary according to the cube forced to occupy only 50 per cent of the space. In other
of impeller diameter (D). This is expressed as: words, it is being compressed.
(Q2 ÷ Q1) = (D2)3 ÷ (D1)3
KEY TERMS
Pressure produced (P) will vary with the square of the
diameter (D) of the impeller (N). This is expressed as: Transpose: to rearrange the information to
determine a different part of the formula.
(P2 ÷ P1) = (D2)2 ÷ (D1)2
Boyle's law: one of two gas laws that determine
Power (W) required will vary as the fifth of the the characteristics of a gas.
diameter of the impeller (D). This is expressed as:
(W2 ÷ W1) = (D2)5 ÷ (D1)5
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Assessment of accumulator capacity: example and an incoming supply pressure of 2 bar, then the
accumulator would store 150 litres of water, half of
With this theory in mind, look at the following
the actual capacity.
example.
If the shower flow rate is 15 litres per minute, then:
A property, occupied by two people, has an incoming
mains supply pressure of 2 bar. The flow rate of the Litres ÷ flow rate of the shower = length of time of
incoming supply is low at 10 litres per minute (0.1666 storage usage
litres per second). The property also has a shower
fitted delivering a flow rate of approximately 15 litres 150 ÷ 15 = 10 minutes
per minute. Calculate: The accumulator has a storage capacity that will
● the amount of storage for a given accumulator size allow 10 minutes of shower use.
● the air charge required If the incoming supply flow rate is 10 litres per minute,
● the length of time of storage usage
then:
● the length of time required to replenish the 10 ÷ 60 (seconds in 1 minute) = 0.1666 litres/
accumulator. second.
The pressure charge in the accumulator needs to be 150 litres ÷ 0.1666 (l/s) ÷ 60 (seconds in 1 minute)
half that of the incoming water supply if it is to fill = 15 minutes accumulator replenishing time
sufficiently. In this case, if a 2 bar charge was used
inside the accumulator, then, because the incoming Accumulators can be situated anywhere within a
supply is also 2 bar, the accumulator would not property but it must be remembered that the higher
fill at all. Therefore, a lower accumulator charge the accumulator is positioned above the incoming
of 1 bar is required to allow it to fill satisfactorily. supply, the pressure will drop by 0.1 bar for every
This means that if the accumulator has a capacity metre the accumulator is raised. Delivery pressure to
of 300 litres with a charge of 1 bar pressure of air the outlets, however, will increase by 0.1 bar.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Presentation of the design
Accumulator sizing The calculation process for cold water supply takes
time to complete and unless the calculations are
A house with a low flow rate of 7 litres per minute
set out correctly, mistakes are often made. The use
and an incoming water supply pressure of 2 bar is
occupied by three people. There are two showers of spreadsheets and tables when completing design
in the property, each with a maximum flow rate of calculations, especially for pipe sizing, is commonplace
10 litres per minute each. The accumulator size is to amongst most professional building services engineers.
be 400 litres. Calculate: These are excellent for including with any quotation
1 the charge in bar pressure required at the or design specification that the company wishes to
accumulator present to the customer.
2 the storage capacity of the accumulator
Scale drawings and schematic drawings help to show
3 the amount of showering time available when
both showers are running the customer what you are proposing to install to fulfil
their requirement. This is especially important when
4 the time needed to replenish the accumulator to
full capacity. a large installation is to be completed as it helps the
customer to keep a track of what is being installed
and where. Many companies now also provide three-
dimensional drawings and artistic impressions of what
the installation will look like when completed.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
5 DIAGNOSING AND RECTIFYING FAULTS IN
COLD WATER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Whenever mechanical or electrical components are
installed on a cold water system, the risk of breakdown and
Identifying system faults
failure is ever present. Periodic preventative maintenance through consultation
can alleviate some of these problems, but occasionally with the manufacturer’s
components simply wear out and must be replaced.
instructions and the British
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate some of
the methods that help us identify system faults. Standards
When attempting to identify faults with cold water
Identifying system faults systems, the most important document to consult is
the manufacturer’s instructions. In most cases, these
through consultation with will contain a section on fault finding that will prove
the customer an invaluable source of information. Fault finding
When identifying faults that have occurred on cold using manufacturer’s instructions usually takes three
water systems, the customer can prove an invaluable forms:
source of information as they can often describe ● known problems that can occur and the symptoms
when and how the fault first manifested itself and associated with them
any characteristics that the fault has shown. Verbal ● methods by which to identify the problem in the
discussion with the customer often results in a form of a flow chart. These usually follow a logical,
successful repair without the need for extensive step-by-step approach, especially if the equipment
diagnostic tests. The customer should be asked: has many parts that could malfunction, such as a
● The immediate history of the fault: cold water boosting set
● When did it first occur? ● the techniques required to replace the
● How did they notice it? malfunctioning component.
● What characteristics did it show? A replacement parts list will also be present for those
● Did they notice any unusual noises? This may well
components that can be replaced. When ordering
indicate the type of component failure that has parts, it is advisable to use the model number of the
taken place. equipment and the parts number from the replacement
● Did they attempt any repairs themselves? If so,
parts list. This will ensure that the correct part is
what did they do? This is important because if purchased.
repairs have been attempted, they may well have to
be undone to successfully diagnose the problem.
● What was the result of the fault? Again, this is an
INDUSTRY TIP
important aspect because it can often indicate Consult the replacement parts list of the manufacturer’s
where the fault lies. For instance, if the customer instructions when selecting new parts.
has noticed a drop in flow rate or pressure, this
might indicate a blockage, a blocked filter, scale
growth or a mechanical fault, such as a loss of British Standard BS EN 806 may also be consulted as
charge from an accumulator or a pump fault. it contains important information regarding minimum
flow rates required by certain appliances. Again, this
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH should be used in conjunction with the manufacturer’s
Remember, communicate with your customer first; instructions. Remember – manufacturer’s instructions
you can obtain useful information to help you always take precedence over the British Standards and
identify systems faults. Regulations.
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Methods of repairing faults operated by hand, by moving the float arm,
to ensure that the pump starts when the float
Routine checks on components and systems can
switch is moved to the ‘on’ position.
help to identify any potential problems that may be
● Accumulators (pressure vessels) –
developing within the system as well as keeping the
accumulators are checked at the Schrader valve
system operating to its maximum performance and
with a pressure gauge to ensure that the vessel
within the system design specification.
contains the correct pressure.
Checks performed can include: ● Gauges and controls – gauges should
● Checking components for correct operating correspond to the known pressures within the
pressures and flow rates – this can be performed system. Any deficiency could indicate that the
using a pressure and flow rate meter or a weir jug. gauge is faulty.
However, caution must be exercised when using ● Checking for correct operation of water
a weir jug as the flow rate of some systems can treatment devices – this must be done
exceed the flow rate capacity of the weir jug making by following the recommendations of the
an accurate reading impossible. manufacturer’s servicing and maintenance
● Cleaning system components (including instructions.
dismantling and reassembly) – again, a very ● Water filters – these must be regularly cleaned
important part of the diagnostic process, especially and cleared of all scale and sediment build-up
with certain components such as filters and to ensure that flow rates within the system are
valves. Sediment and scale can quickly build up in maintained.
certain water areas and it is important that these ● Water softeners – again, these should be
components are cleaned on a regular basis to checked using the manufacturer’s set of specific
prevent loss of flow rate and pressure. The use of maintenance instructions, especially where the
manufacturer’s literature is recommended, especially softener uses external additives. Water softeners
with complex components such as pumps. can be checked for correct operation by the use
● Checking for correct component operation: of a pH indicator.
● Pumps – these should be checked using the ● Cold water storage cisterns (CWSC)
manufacturer’s commissioning procedures to and break cisterns – when used to supply
ascertain whether the pump is performing as the wholesome water supply, they should be checked
data dictates. A slight fall in performance is to be and cleaned at regular intervals, and at least
expected with age. Check to ensure: every six months for large cisterns supplying
● there are no signs of damage or wear and tear wholesome water to many properties.
on the pump
● there are no signs of leakage from the pump
● that the pump switches on and off at the
correct pressure
● that there are no unusual noises or vibrations
when the pump is operating.
● Pressure switches (transducers) – transducers
are often checked using a calibrated pressure
gauge on the system pipework to ensure that the
system is operating within acceptable limits. A
transducer that is malfunctioning will often read
over 12 bar pressure when tested irrespective of
the actual pressure within the system.
● Float switches – when fitted to a cold water p Figure 1.121 A pressure gauge
storage cistern (CWSC), these can usually be
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Why a water treatment ● decommissioning procedures (permanent and
temporary)
device may not be operating ● commissioning new pipework and systems
as required ● an emergency (burst pipes or failed components).
Base exchange (ion exchange) water softeners operate For this reason, it is important that stop valves, isolation
by passing water containing calcium and magnesium valves and gate valves are kept in full working order.
(hard water) through a sealed vessel that contains
resin beads. The beads attract and absorb the calcium KEY POINT
and magnesium, replacing the hardness with sodium, Always put a notice by the stop valve/isolation
effectively softening the water. After time, the beads valve informing that the system is isolated and
become saturated with the hardness salts, reducing the must not be turned on.
effectiveness of the water softener. When this happens,
the beads need to be regenerated using a brine or salt
solution. Backwashing removes the hardness from the
beads before the sodium is replenished by the salt in VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
the brine solution. Most modern softeners complete Do not forget to keep the householder/responsible
this procedure automatically either by a timed person informed of the areas that are going to
backwashing programme or when the beads become be isolated during repair and maintenance tasks
saturated with the hardness salts. and operations, and always ask the customer if
they need to ‘draw off’ a temporary supply of
Base exchange water softeners often begin to lose their
water (kettle, saucepans, bucket, etc.) for the short
effectiveness when:
period of system isolation.
● limescale builds up within the softener
● the salt crystals require replenishment
● the water softener fails to backwash.
Carrying out diagnostic
It is therefore important that water softeners are
maintained at regular intervals to ensure that the checks and repairs
softening process remains effective. In this part of the chapter, we will investigate diagnostic
checks that we can perform on boosting pumps and
Isolating cold water systems backflow prevention devices.
Isolating cold water systems or sections of a cold water
system is required during: Booster pumps
● maintaining and servicing components and Diagnostic tests on booster pumps are fairly
equipment straightforward to undertake. Table 1.24 illustrates
● repairing and replacing pipework and components some of the problems associated with boosting pumps
and their diagnostic approaches.
Table 1.24 Booster pump troubleshooting
Fault Diagnostic test
No power at the motor Check for voltage at the motor terminal box. Check the feeder panel for tripped circuit breakers
and reset as necessary. If the circuit breakers continue to trip out, then initiate tests on the wiring
and the pump motor as detailed below.
Defective capacitor (single- Isolate the power supply and discharge the capacitor by touching the leads together. Check the
phase pumps only) capacitor with an analogue ohmmeter as detailed on the next page. If the capacitor is working
correctly, the needle should jump to almost zero (0) ohms and slowly return to infinity (∞). If this
does not happen, replace the capacitor.
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Table 1.24 Booster pump troubleshooting (continued)
Fault Diagnostic test
Loose electrical connections Checked using an ammeter
Motor winding has shorted out These defects will cause the amp draw of the pump to exceed that stated in the manufacturer’s
Damage to the pump, causing data. They can be diagnosed using an ammeter, which is used to check the current of electricity
overload as it flows through the wiring:
1 Make sure the pump is set to run.
Burned contacts on the starter
2 Set the scale on the front of the ammeter to 100 amps.
motor
3 Place the tongs of the ammeter around the cable.
Motor winding defect (this must 4 Slowly rotate the scale on the ammeter back towards 0 (zero) until an exact reading is shown.
be verified by conducting a 5 Record the measurement.
motor winding resistance test) 6 Check against the manufacturer’s data.
Motor winding defect Checked using an ohmmeter
This is to check the condition of the motor winding and is known as a motor winding resistance
test. It is conducted using an ohmmeter:
1 Turn OFF the POWER and check for safe isolation.
2 Disconnect the electrical leads to the motor.
3 Set the ohmmeter scale selector to R × 1 (if you anticipate ohm values under 10) or R × 10
(for ohm values over 10).
4 Touch the leads of the ohmmeter to two motor leads. Touching the leads of the ohmmeter to
the live and neutral motor lead will measure the main winding’s resistance.
5 Watch the ohmmeter scale and compare the figure with the appropriate chart in the pump
installation and maintenance instructions.
If all ohm values are normal, the motor windings are neither shorted nor open.
If any one ohm value is less than normal, the motor winding may be starting to short out.
If any one ohm value is higher than normal, the winding may be starting to open.
If some ohm values are lower than normal (25% and above) and some are less than normal
(25% and below), the leads may be crossed.
The pump runs too often There are several possibilities:
● The pressure switch is not properly adjusted or is defective. Check the pressure setting on the
switch and the voltage across the closed contacts. If it is defective, then it must be replaced.
● The accumulator is too small. It must be replaced with a larger accumulator. As a rule of thumb,
the accumulator should have at least 45 litres for every litre per minute flow rate of the pump.
● The air charge in the accumulator is insufficient. Check the air charge in the accumulator and
repair or replace as necessary as detailed earlier in this chapter.
Pump runs but does not Again, there are a number of possibilities:
produce enough flow (l/m) ● The shaft is rotating the wrong way. The pump usually rotates anti-clockwise when viewed
from the top. Check the wiring against the manufacturer’s instructions. Re-wire as necessary.
● The pump is airlocked. Close the isolation valves, open the priming plug and prime the pump
by slowly opening the isolation valves. The suction lines from the water source should be
opened first.
● The strainers and check valves are clogged. Remove and inspect the filters and valves. Clean
as necessary.
Verifying the boosting pump When any faults have been repaired, then the pump must be checked to ensure that it is working
performance correctly. This can be achieved installing pressure gauges on both upstream and downstream
pipework, close to the pump. Correct operation shows a drop in pressure on the upstream pipework
as the suction of the pump acts on the upstream gauge and an increase in pressure to that shown
on the manufacturer’s instructions or the pump data plate. The flow rate should also be checked.
Backflow prevention devices contamination from back siphonage and back pressure
Most backflow prevention devices contain spring- becomes greater. Therefore, periodic testing is vital to
loaded valves and diaphragms internally and these, maintain the protection offered by these components
occasionally, can fail. When this happens, the risk of and in the case of RPZ valves, it is a mandatory
requirement.
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In this part of the chapter, we will investigate common
KEY TERM
types of corrosion, their causes and ways in which we
Mandatory: required by law or regulation. can prevent it to ensure the long life of the systems we
install.
If a fault in a backflow prevention device is suspected,
the best way to test them is to simulate a reduced Electrolytic corrosion
pressure upstream of the suspect device. This can be Where cold water systems are concerned, the
quite a precarious operation. The idea is just to test electrolytic environment is the presence of the water
the valve and not to create a potential contamination itself. Water is classified as an electrolyte simply
situation during the course of the diagnostic process because it allows the passage of an electric current.
and so any such simulation must be approached When the two metals are placed together in the
with extreme care. For those devices that have a test presence of water, a minute electric current passes
point on the valve body, such as a verifiable single between them due to the reaction between the two
check valve or a verifiable double check valve, testing metals as one metal destroys the other. The most noble
becomes easier as the valve can be tested by simulating of the metals is classed as the cathode and suffers no
an upstream pressure loss and removing the test plug. If adverse effects. The least noble metal is known as the
water is seen at the test plug, this may be an indication anode and will suffer a complete molecular degradation
that the valve has failed and the valve should be with the passage of time. A by-product of this is the
replaced as a precaution. formation of hydrogen gas.
The amount of electrolytic corrosion that takes place
HEALTH AND SAFETY will depend upon where the metals appear on the
Extreme care must be taken not to create a potential electrochemical series of metals, which is shown in
contamination situation during the course of the Table 1.25. The closer they are on the table then the
diagnostic process of potential faults in backflow corrosion is slow and controllable. The further they are
prevention devices.
apart the corrosion becomes rapid and eventually a
failure will occur. An example of this is where ordinary
RPZ valves are quite complex in their design. These duplex brass fittings are used within plumbing systems.
too contain test points and can be tested in a similar Brass is a mixture of copper (cathodic) and zinc
manner to verifiable check valves. However, if water (anodic). Eventually, the zinc will be eaten away by the
is seen to be dripping from the relief port, then this copper, leaving the fitting brittle and susceptible to
could indicate that the internal diaphragm has ruptured sudden fracture. A tell-tale sign that corrosion is taking
and is allowing water past the seal. In this case, only a place is the presence of a white powdery substance
registered operative can undertake repairs. (zinc oxide) on the fitting body.
Diagnosing and preventing KEY TERM
corrosion within cold water Electrolytic corrosion: a process of accelerated
corrosion between two or more differing metals
system pipework when placed in an electrolytic environment.
Corrosion within plumbing systems occurs constantly. It
is almost impossible to prevent. In many circumstances,
it is the result of poor choice when mixing different
metals in the same installation.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 1.25 The electrochemical series of metals Blue water corrosion
Material Potential (volts) Blue water corrosion occurs in copper plumbing
Gold (Au) Cathodic +1.50 systems and is identified by a blue-green colouration to
Platinum (Pt) +1.20 the water when water is first drawn from the tap. It is
Silver (Ag) +0.80
often (but not always) associated with pitting corrosion.
The colour of the water is the result of very fine copper
Copper (Cu) +0.15
corrosion products suspended in the water and is more
Lead (Pb) −0.13
common in copper pipes that are used infrequently.
Tin (Sn) −0.14
Occasionally, the signs of blue water corrosion are
Nickel (Ni) −0.23
apparent even after a very short period of stagnation.
Cobalt (Co) −0.28
Thallium (Tl) −0.34 KEY TERM
Cadmium (Cd) −0.40
Blue water corrosion: occurs in copper plumbing
Iron (Fe) −0.41 to 0.44 systems causing a blue-green colouration to the
Chromium (Cr) −0.74 water.
Zinc (Zn) −0.76
Manganese (Mn) −1.18 to 1.19
The colour of the water can vary greatly from pale blue
Aluminium (Al) −1.68
to dark blue/green. The particles become very visible
Magnesium (Mg) Anodic −2.36 to 2.37 if the water is left to stand in a container overnight as
the particles will sink to the bottom of the container
Preventing electrolytic corrosion leaving a blue/green copper corrosion residue. This
Electrolytic corrosion is notoriously difficult to prevent can sometimes be evident as blue/green staining on
because many of the brass fittings available have a sanitary ware.
very high zinc content, which assists in corrosion taking Blue water corrosion is more likely to occur in soft
place. The Water Regulations are very specific here as water areas where the pH value of the water is high
they stipulate that fittings used for hot and cold water or areas where the residual chlorine content of the
supply that are to be used above and below ground water is low. However, such is the nature of blue water
must be made from a material that will not corrode corrosion, that copper pipe can develop the symptoms
in normal use. The solution is to use fittings that are even in other, low pH water areas.
made from gunmetal (a mixture of copper, zinc and
tin) as this is highly resistant to electrolytic corrosion. Treating and minimising blue water
The fittings are known as DZR fittings (de-zincification corrosion
resistant) and are marked with CR to show that they There is some evidence to show that blue water corrosion
are corrosion resistant. could be linked to microbial activity interacting with
Many plumbing systems use sacrificial anodes to the copper pipe and that, because the signs of corrosion
assist in preventing electrolytic corrosion. By using appear in a non-uniform manner, the internal surface of
a metal with high anodic properties, the corrosion is the pipe may also play a part in its formation. It has been
prevented from attacking the pipework and fittings shown, that in nearly all cases of blue water corrosion,
as any electrolytic reaction will corrode the anode flushing the system with water in excess of 70 °C
instead. Although usually used in hot water systems, followed by disinfection with water containing a chlorine
sacrificial anode rods manufactured from magnesium based solution will prevent its appearance. However, if
significantly reduce the effects of electrolytic the residual chlorine content is not maintained, then it is
corrosion. likely that the corrosion will re-appear.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
6 COMMISSIONING thoroughly flushed with drinking water prior
to being taken into service.
COLD WATER SYSTEMS Under certain circumstances, the whole system
should be disinfected before being put into use.
AND COMPONENTS This will be discussed later in this section.
Inadequate commissioning, system flushing and This schedule should be read in conjunction with the
maintenance operations can affect the quality of British Standards.
drinking water, irrespective of the materials that have The British Standards (BS EN 806.4
been used in the system installation. Building debris and
and BS 8558)
swarf (pipe filings) can easily block pipes and these can
The main British Standard for commissioning,
also promote bacteriological growth. In addition, excess
testing, flushing and disinfection of systems is BS EN
flux used during the installation can cause corrosion
806.4:2010 Specifications for installations inside
and may lead to the amount of copper that the water
buildings conveying water for human consumption.
contains exceeding the permitted amount for drinking
Installation (in conjunction with guidance document
water. This could have serious health implications and,
BS 8558:2011 Guide to the design, installation, testing
in severe cases, may cause blue water corrosion.
and maintenance of services supplying water for
It is obvious, then, that correct commissioning procedures domestic use within buildings and their curtilages).
must be adopted if the problems stated are to be avoided.
There are four documents that must be consulted: The Building Regulations
● The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 The Building Regulations make reference to cold
● British Standard BS 6700 and BS EN 806 (in water services and systems. These are mentioned
conjunction with BS 8558) briefly in Approved Document G1 Cold water supply
● The Building Regulations Approved Document G1 and Approved Document G2 Water efficiency.
and G2 Additional recommendations can be found in Annex
● the manufacturer’s instructions of any equipment 1 Wholesome water and Annex 2 Competent persons
and appliances. self-certification schemes.
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Manufacturer’s instructions
Regulations Where appliances and equipment are installed
on a system, the manufacturer’s instructions are
These are the national requirements for the design,
a key document when undertaking testing and
installation, testing and maintenance of cold and hot
commissioning procedures and it is important that
water systems in England and Wales. Scotland follows
these are used correctly at both installation and
the almost identical Scottish Water Byelaws 2014.
commissioning operations. Only the manufacturers
Their purpose is to prevent contamination, wastage,
will know the correct procedures that should be used
misuse, undue consumption and erroneous metering of
to safely put the equipment into operation so that it
the water supply used for domestic purposes. Schedule
performs to its maximum specification.
2 of the Regulations states that:
The whole installation should be appropriately
pressure tested, details of which can be found in
KEY POINT
Remember:
the Water Regulations Guide (Section 4: Guidance
● Always read the instructions before operations
clauses G12.1 to G12.3). This requires that a
begin.
pressure test of 1.5 times the maximum operating ● Always follow the procedures in the correct order.
pressure for the installation or any relevant part. ● Always hand the instructions over to the
Every new water service, cistern, distribution customer upon completion.
pipe, hot water cylinder or other appliance ● Failure to follow the instructions may invalidate
and any extension or modification shall be the manufacturer warranty.
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Visual inspections Only when the stage being filled is leak free should
the next stage be filled.
Before soundness testing a cold water system, visual
● Air locks from cistern-fed supplies are less likely to
inspections of the installation should take place. This
occur as each stage is filled slowly and methodically.
should include:
Any problems can be assessed and rectified as
● walking around the installation. Check that you are
the filling progresses without the need to isolate
happy that the installation is correct and meets
the whole system and initiate a full drain down.
installations standards
Allowing cisterns to fill to capacity and then
● checking that all open ends are capped off and all
opening any gate valves is the best way to avoid
valves are isolated
air locks. This ensures that the full pressure of the
● checking that all capillary joints are soldered and
water is available and the pipes are running at full
that all compression joints are fully tightened
bore. Trickle filling can encourage air locks to form
● checking that enough pipe clips, supports and
causing problems later during the fill stage.
brackets are installed and that all pipework is secure
● It is possible that less manpower will be used by staged
● checking that the equipment (such as boosting
filling procedures. On very large and multi-storey
pumps, float switches, accumulators, etc.) are
systems, the use of two-way radios greatly helps the
installed correctly and that all joints and unions on
operatives during the filling process and isolation of a
and around the equipment are tight
potential problem becomes quicker. Operatives should
● checking that cisterns and tanks are supported
be stationed at the main isolation points to initiate a
correctly and that float operated valves are
rapid turn off should a problem occur.
provisionally set to the correct water level
● checking that all appliances’ isolation valves and When the system has been filled with water, the system
taps are off. These can be turned on and tested should be allowed to stabilise and any float operated
when the system is filled with water valves should be allowed to shut off. The system will
● where underground services have been installed, then be deemed to be at normal operating pressure.
checking that any pipework is at the minimum Once the filling process is complete, another thorough
depth required by the Water Supply (Water Fittings) visual inspection should take place to check for any possible
Regulations. leakage. The system is then ready for pressure testing.
The water undertaker must be given the opportunity
to view and inspect the installation, preferably before Soundness testing
it is tested and commissioned to ensure that the Water Pressure testing can commence when the initial fill to
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations have been complied test the pipework integrity has been completed. Again,
with. Any remedial work pointed out by the water on large systems, this is best done in stages to avoid
inspector can then be completed without the need to any possible problems.
drain the system.
The requirements of the Water
Filling and venting systems Regulations
– the initial system fill Regulation 12 of the Water Regulations requires that:
The initial system fill is always conducted at the normal The water system shall be capable of
operating pressure of the system. The system must be withstanding an internal water pressure not less
filled with fluid category 1 water direct from the water than 1½ times the maximum pressure to which
undertaker’s mains cold water supply. It is usual to the installation or relevant part is designed to be
conduct the fill in stages so that the filling process can be subjected in operation.
managed comfortably. There are several reasons for this: In practice, this means that a system that has an
● Filling the system in a series of stages allows the
operating pressure of 2 bar:
operatives time to check for leaks stage by stage.
2 bar × 1.5 = 3 bar
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Regulation 12 also states that the regulation shall be 30 minutes and note the pressure after this time.
deemed satisfied in the case of water systems that do The test must continue with no further testing.
not contain elastomeric (plastic) pipe where the whole Check the pressure after a further 30 minutes. If
system is subjected to the test pressure by pumping, the pressure loss is less than 60 kPa (or 0.6 bar),
after which the test should continue for 1 hour without the system has no visible leakage.
further pumping and without any visible leakage and Visually check for leakage for a further 120 minutes.
any pressure loss. The test is successful if the pressure loss is less
than 20 kPa (0.2 bar). BS EN 806.4 states
Where the system does contain elastomeric (plastic)
Test B can be carried out at 1.1 times MDP over
pipework, there are two acceptable tests that can be
a period of 30 minutes, reducing the pressure in
conducted. These are classified as test type A and test
accordance with Figure 3 in BS EN 806.4.
type B.
1
Cold water systems testing is detailed in BS 6700 and
BS EN 806.4: Y
● Copper tubes and low carbon steel pipes –
2
systems installed in copper tube and low carbon
steel pipes should be tested to 1 1/2 times normal
operating pressure (1.5 times normal operating
pressure or 50 per cent above normal operating
pressure). It should be left for a period of 30 3
minutes to allow for temperature stabilisation
and then left for a period of 1 hour with no visible
X
pressure loss. BS EN 806.4 states a test pressure of
0
1.1 times the maximum design pressure (MDP) for a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
minimum period of 10 minutes. Key
● Elastomeric (plastic polybutylene) pressure
1 Pumping
2 Test pressure 1.5 times maximum working pressure
pipe systems – these are tested differently to rigid 3 0.5 times maximum working pressure
pipes. There are two tests that can be carried out. X Time (minutes)
Y Pressure
These are known as test type A and test type B and
are detailed in BS 6700. It is important that the p Figure 1.122 Test type A
correct tests are used for elastomeric pipes as these 1
can become stressed very easily at high pressures.
Y 2
● Test type A – Slowly fill the system with
3 4
water and raise the pressure to 1 bar (100 kPa).
Check and repump the pressure to 1 bar if the
pressure drops during this period provided there
are no leaks. Check for leaks. After 45 minutes,
increase the pressure to 1.5 times normal
operating pressure and let the system stand for
15 minutes. Now release the pressure in the
system to 1/3 of the previous pressure and let X
0
it stand for a further 45 minutes. The test is 0 10 20 30 60 120 180
successful if there are no leaks. BS EN 806.4
states that test type A can be carried out at 1.1
times the MDP for a period of 10 minutes. Key
X Time (minutes) 2 Pressure drop < 60 kPa (0.6 bar)
● Test type B – Slowly fill the system with water
Y Pressure 3 Test pressure
and pump the system up to the required pressure 1 Pumping 4 Pressure drop < 20 kPa (0.2 bar)
and maintain the pressure for a period of
p Figure 1.123 Test type B
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Planning the test ● Attach the test pump to the pipework and install
extra pressure gauges if necessary.
Before the test is conducted, a risk assessment should
● Check that a suitable hose is available for draining
be carried out.
down purposes.
Personal protective equipment should also be used.
The following factors should be carefully considered: KEY POINT
● Is the test being used appropriate for the service and IMPORTANT! Check that the test pump is working
the building environment? correctly and that the pressure gauge is calibrated
and functioning correctly.
● Will it be necessary to divide the vertical pipework
into sections to limit the pressures in multi-storey
buildings?
● Will the test leave pockets of water that might
cause frost damage or corrosion later?
● Can all valves and equipment withstand the test
pressure? If not, these will need to be removed and
temporary pipework installed.
● Are there enough operatives available to conduct
the test safely?
● Can different services be interconnected as a
temporary measure to enable simultaneous testing?
● How long will it take to fill the system using the
available water supply?
● When should the test be started when the size of p Figure 1.124 Hydraulic pressure test pump
the system is considered? Preparation should also
be taken into account. The hydraulic test procedure, step-by-step
1 Using the test pump, begin to fill the system. When
HEALTH AND SAFETY the pressure shows signs of rising, stop and walk
Pressure testing involves stored energy, the possibility the route of the section under test. Listen for any
of blast and the potential hazards of high velocity sounds of escaping air and visually check for any
missile formation due to pipe fracture and fitting signs of leakage.
failure. A safe system of work should be adopted and 2 Release air from the high points of the system or
a permit to work sought where necessary.
section and completely fill the system with water.
3 When the system is full and free of air, pump the
system up to the required test pressure.
Preparing for the test
4 If the pressure falls, check that any isolated valves
● Check that the high points of the system have an air are not passing water and visually check for leaks.
vent or a tap to help with the removal of air from 5 Once the test has been proven sound, the test
the system during the test. These should be closed should be witnessed and a signature obtained on
to prevent accidental leakage. the test certificate.
● Blank or plug any open ends and isolate any valves 6 When the pressure is released, open any air vents
at the limit of the test where the test is being and taps to atmosphere before draining down the
conducted in stages. system.
● Remove any vulnerable equipment and components 7 Refit any vulnerable pieces of equipment,
and install temporary piping. components and appliances.
● Open the valves within the section to be tested.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Disinfection of large cold KEY POINT
water systems The pipework MUST not be used during the period
of disinfection and notices MUST be posted
The British Standard requires that water piping systems stating ‘Disinfection in progress. Do not use!’ to
be disinfected in the following circumstances: indicate that the system is undergoing disinfection.
● in new installations (except private dwellings These should be posted AT ALL OUTLETS or any
occupied by a single family) point where water may be drawn off.
● where large extensions or alterations to systems
have been undertaken During the disinfection process, the use of household
● where it is suspected that the system has been chemicals, bleaches and toilet cleaners must be avoided
compromised by contamination (such as fouling by as these can react with the disinfectant to produce
drainage, sewage or animals or the physical entry by highly toxic fumes. All personnel and residents within
operatives during maintenance operations or repair) the building, including those that are not normally
● where the system has not been in regular use nor present during working hours, should be informed of
regularly flushed the disinfection operation before it commences.
● where underground pipework has been installed.
This does not include localised repairs or where a
junction has been installed after the fittings have HEALTH AND SAFETY
been disinfected by immersion in a solution of All operatives should reference the appropriate
COSHH data sheets for the disinfectant chemicals
sodium hypochlorite to dilution of 200 parts per
beforehand and take appropriate action by wearing
million (ppm). 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 mg/l. the correct PPE during the process (such as face
masks, goggles, plastic aprons and long arm
INDUSTRY TIP gauntlets) when handling and mixing the chemicals.
It is considered good practice to clean and disinfect
systems on a regular basis as part of routine maintenance The disinfectant types
operations. It is also a statutory requirement to disinfect The disinfectants used for water supplies must be
systems where large amounts of water are stored and approved for use by the Drinking Water Inspectorate
used in a way that could create the risk of Legionella (1990) and must conform to the following standards:
pneumophila (Legionnaires’ disease). ● EN 900 for calcium hypochlorite, or
● EN 901 for sodium hypochlorite.
Since most disinfection processes use sodium
The requirements of the disinfection
hypochlorite, we will concentrate on this disinfectant
process for the purpose of this chapter.
Disinfection requires that the system is first thoroughly
Sodium hypochlorite solution contains around 5 per
flushed with water and then refilled and a disinfection
cent available chlorine content, which is equivalent to
agent added as the system refills. The disinfection
50,000 ppm of chlorine. Obviously, for disinfection of
agent should have an initial concentration of 50 ppm,
water supply systems this is far too much. To create an
which should be calculated according to the total water
initial content of 50 ppm for the disinfection process:
capacity of the pipework and any storage vessels. The
chlorinated water should then be allowed to stand 50 ÷ 1,000,000 × 100 ÷ 5 = 0.001 part of sodium
hypochlorite solution to 1 part water
within the pipework for a contact period of no less
than 1 hour. The process will have been successfully This equates to a ratio of 1 litre of sodium hypochlorite
completed if, after one hour, the free residual chlorine containing 5 per cent chlorine to every 1000 litres of
content is at least 30 ppm at the furthest outlet on the system water capacity.
system.
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For commercial strength sodium hypochlorite solutions
that contain 10 per cent available chlorine, the ratio is
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
much less: Cistern capacity calculations
50 ÷ 1,000,000 × 100 ÷ 10 = 0.0005 part of sodium A cistern measures 2.5 m × 1.75 m × 1.5 m to the
hypochlorite solution to 1 part water water line. Calculate the cistern capacity in litres.
This equates to a ratio of 0.5 litres of sodium You will use this figure later in the chapter.
hypochlorite containing 10 per cent chlorine to every
1000 litres of system water capacity.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
INDUSTRY TIP Calculating the capacity: example
A cold water storage cistern measures 2 m × 1.5 m
For more information from the Drinking Water Inspectorate × 1 m to the water line. What is the capacity in litres
(1990), visit: www.dwi.gov.uk of the cistern?
2 × 1.5 × 1 = 3 m3
Calculating system capacity 3 × 1000 = 3000 litres
To administer the correct concentration of disinfectant, The capacity of the cistern is therefore 3000 litres.
the total system volume in litres must be calculated.
This is completed by:
● calculating the capacity in litres up to the water line Calculating the capacity of the system
of any storage cisterns, and pipework
● calculating the capacity in litres of the pipework. Calculating the capacity of the pipework involves
measuring the length of the pipework by pipe size. The
Calculating the capacity of a cistern
bigger the pipe, the more water it will hold. The calculation
Calculation of cistern capacity is a simple process: to determine the capacity of a pipe is as follows:
● measure the length of the cistern in metres (m)
π r2 × length × 1000
● measure the width of the cistern in metres (m)
● measure the height to the water line in metres (m).
Where:
π = 3.142
L × W × H (to water line) = volume (m3 )
r = radius of the pipe in metres (m)
volume × 1000 = capacity in litres (l)
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating the capacity of the system pipework: example 1
What is the capacity of 70 mm diameter pipe measuring 1 m in length? The radius of the pipe is half the
diameter, therefore:
70 ÷ 2 = 35 mm or 0.035 m
So, the calculation looks like this:
3.142 × 0.035² × 1 × 1000
= 3.142 × (0.035 × 0.035) × 1 × 1000
= 3.142 × 0.001225 × 1 × 1000
= 3.84 litres
Fortunately, the copper tube manufacturers provide the capacities of the common tube sizes per metre within their
data sheets and this is provided in Table 1.26.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Table 1.26 The capacity of copper tube per metre
Cold water storage cistern
Standard/spec Tube dimension Carrying NOTE: Drawing not to scale
(OD) capacity (l/m)
BS EN 1057 R250 6 0.018
half-hard straight 8 0.036 4.5 m Washbasin WC
Bath
lengths 1 4
10 0.061 0.5 m
12 0.092
2m 1m 1m
15 0.145 Washbasin WC
4m
22 0.320 5
Bath
0.5 m
28 0.539
2
35 0.835 2m 1m 1m
4m Washbasin WC
42 1.232
Bath
54 2.091 6
0.5 m
66.7 3.247
2m 1m 1m
76.1 4.197 Washbasin WC
4m
108 8.659 Bath
3
0.5 m
The calculation of the capacity of the pipework can
be carried out using a table. The section of pipe, its 2m 1m 1m
size and length must first be identified and numbered Pipework to the washbasin and WC have been
assumed at 1 m for each appliance per floor
and then added to the table. Consider the drawing in
Figure 1.125. Pipework sizes have not been calculated and are assumed
for the purpose of system capacity calculations
p Figure 1.125 System drawing
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating the capacity of the system pipework: Therefore, the capacity of the pipework shown in the
example 2 example drawing is:
A system of cold water is to be disinfected. The system 20.424 litres
contains the following sizes and lengths of pipe as If the capacity of the cistern from the previous
identified in Table 1.27 below. example is taken into account, the total system
Table 1.27 Determining the capacity of the system pipework capacity is:
3000 + 20.424 = 3020.424 litres
Pipe Size Length Capacity Capacity
(mm) (m) per of the If we assume that sodium hypochlorite solution with
metre (l) pipe (l) 5 per cent chlorine content is to be used, then to
1 42 4.5 1.232 5.544
calculate the amount of sodium hypochlorite solution
required:
2 35 8 0.835 6.68
3020.424 × 0.001 = 3.020424 litres
3 22 8.5 0.320 2.72
4 22 4.5 0.320 1.44 Therefore, to successfully disinfect the example system,
3.020 litres of sodium hypochlorite solution will need
5 22 4.5 0.320 1.44
to be added during the system fill.
6 22 4.5 0.320 1.44
Appliance legs 15 8 0.145 1.16
Total pipework capacity (l) 20.424
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Testing for residual chlorine
At the end of the 1-hour period, the free residual
System capacity calculations
chlorine content should be 30 ppm at the furthest
A system of cold water is to be disinfected. The draw-off point. If this is not achieved, then the system
system contains the following sizes and lengths of must be drained and the test started afresh.
pipe as identified in Table 1.28.
Table 1.28 Determining the capacity of the system pipework
To test for residual chlorine content, a special chemical
analysis test is used, which indicates the strength of
Pipe Size Length Capacity Capacity the chlorine by the colour it turns when the chemical is
(mm) (m) per of the added to the water.
metre (l) pipe (l)
1 54 10
The test consists of a clear plastic tube with a sample
of water from the chlorinated system in it. A tablet
2 42 22.5
is then added to the water and the tube is shaken. As
3 35 15.5 the tablet dissolves, the water will change colour, the
4 28 24.5 colour depends upon the chlorine strength. These are
5 22 14.5 indicated in Table 1.29.
6 15 10 Table 1.29 Determining the residual chlorine after disinfection
Appliance legs 15 12
Total pipework capacity (l)
Water colour Chlorine level (ppm or mg/l)
Clear None
Now add to the system capacity total and determine Faint pink/pink 0.2–1
the amount of sodium hypochlorite solution (5 per cent
Pink/red 1–5
chlorine content) that must be used to disinfect the system.
Red/purple 5–10
Purple/blue 10–20
The method of disinfection Blue/grey-green 20–30
The method of disinfection is as follows: Grey-green/yellow 30–50
1 Thoroughly flush the system with water from Muddy brown Over 50
the undertaker’s main to remove any swarf, flux Colour develops but then Excessive
residues or other contaminants. disappears
2 Calculate the cistern capacity and the amount of
disinfectant required to give the required 50 ppm. Flushing the system after disinfection
3 Add this to the cistern as it is filling to give a good
Heavily chlorinated water is dangerous to wildlife and
mix with the cistern water.
fish. Prolonged contact with copper pipe can also cause
4 Working away from the cistern, open each draw-off
cuprous chloride corrosion, which will continue to
until a smell of disinfectant is detected. This should
attack the tube, even after flushing.
be done at every draw-off to ensure that the system
is full of disinfectant.
5 As the water from the cistern is drawn off, it will VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
be necessary to add more disinfectant solution to
It is your duty as a plumber to ensure your
ensure that the required 50 ppm throughout the
work does not have a negative impact on the
installation is achieved.
environment. Disinfection of systems is one
6 Once the system is full and the float operated process where improper handling of dangerous
valves on the system have shut, the 1-hour test chemicals can cause pollution to water supplies
period can begin. and threaten wildlife.
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Before draining the system, the advice of the local remove potential contaminants, such as flux residues,
water undertaker should be sought. Alternatively, a PTFE, excess jointing compounds and swarf.
neutralising chemical (sodium thiosulphate) can be
Simply filling a system and draining down again does
administered to the system to clean the water before
not constitute a thorough flushing. In most cases,
draining takes place. The chemical should be added at
this will only move any debris from one point in the
the rate of:
system to another. In practice, the system should be
System volume × ppm of chlorine × 2 = grams of filled and the water run at every outlet until the water
chemical required runs completely clear and free of any discoloration. It
Once the system has been drained, it should be flushed is extremely important to ensure that all equipment
with clean water until the free residual chlorine content and appliances and every water fitting is flushed
is no more than that in the water undertaker’s mains completely. When flushing boosted cold water supplies,
cold water supply. water from the undertaker’s water main must first be
introduced into the break cistern and then boosted,
using the boosting pumps, to all points on the system.
KEY POINT
● Do take care to warn people before disinfection It is generally accepted that systems should not be
begins. The chemicals are dangerous. left charged with water once the flushing process
● Do handle chemicals with care and always use has been completed, especially if the system is not
PPE. going to be used immediately, as there is a very real
● Do calculate the capacity of the system. risk that the water within the system could become
Using too much chemical disinfectant will not
stagnant. In practice, it is almost impossible to effect
produce better results and may result in the
test having to be completed again. a complete drain down of a system, particularly large
● Do use chlorinated water when topping up systems, where long horizontal pipe runs may hold
cisterns and pipework during the test. This will water. This in itself is very detrimental as corrosion
help keep the correct disinfectant level. can often set in and this can also cause problems with
● Do check the chlorine level at the end of the water contamination. It is recommended, therefore,
test period.
that to minimise the risk of corrosion and water quality
● Do not leave the water in the system for more
than 1 hour and never overnight. problems to leave systems completely full and flush
● Do not discharge the test water direct into a through at regular intervals of no less than twice
water course or drain without first contacting weekly, by opening all terminal fittings until the system
the local water undertaker or the Environment has been taken permanently into operation. If this is the
Agency. case, then provision for frost protection must be made.
● Always complete the disinfection record
paperwork correctly.
Operational checks
Taking flow rate and pressure readings
The flushing procedure When the system has been commissioned and put
into operation, the flow rates and pressures should be
for cold water systems and checked against the specification and the manufacturer’s
components not requiring instructions. This can be completed in several ways:
● Flow rates can be checked using a weir gauge. This
disinfection is sometimes known as a weir cup or a weir jug.
The flushing of cold water systems is a requirement of The method of use is simple. The gauge has a slot
the British Standards. All systems, irrespective of their running vertically down the side of the vessel, which
size, must be thoroughly flushed with clean water direct is marked with various flow rates. When the gauge
from the water undertaker’s main supply before being is held under running water, the water escapes
taken into service. This should be completed as soon out of the slot. The height that the water achieves
as possible after the installation has been completed to before escaping from the slot determines the flow
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rate. Although the gauge is accurate, excessive flow If the system has been calculated correctly and
rates will cause a false reading because the water the correct equipment has been specified and
will evacuate out of the top of the gauge rather than installed to the manufacturer’s instructions,
the side slot. then problems of this nature should not occur.
● System pressures (static) can be checked using a However, if the pipe sizes are too small in any
Bourdon pressure gauge at each outlet or terminal part of the system, then flow rate and pressure
fitting. Bourdon pressure gauges can also be problems will develop almost immediately
permanently installed either side of a boosting downstream of where the mistake has been made.
pump to indicate both inlet and outlet pressures. In this instance, the drawings should be checked
● Both pressure (static and running) and flow rate can and confirmation with the design engineer that
be checked at outlets and terminal fittings using a the pipe sizes that have been used are correct
combined pressure and flow rate meter. before any action is taken. It may also be the case
that too many fittings or incorrect valves have
been used causing pipework restrictions.
● Another cause of flow rate and pressure
deficiency is the incorrect set-up of equipment
such as boosting pumps and accumulators. In
this instance, the manufacturer’s data should be
consulted and set-up procedures followed in the
installation instructions. It is here that mistakes
are often made. If problems still continue, then
the manufacturer’s technical support should be
contacted for advice. In a very few cases, the
equipment specified is at fault and will not meet
the design specification. If this is the case then
the equipment must be replaced.
● Poor installation techniques. Installation is the
point where the design is transferred from the
drawing to the building. Poor installation techniques
account for:
● Noise – incorrectly clipped pipework can often
be a source of frustration within systems running
p Figure 1.126 A Bourdon pressure gauge at high pressures because of the noise that it can
generate. Incorrect clipping distances and, often,
Dealing with defects with cold water lack of clips and supports can put strain on the
systems that are discovered during fittings and cause the pipework to reverberate
commissioning throughout the installation, even causing fitting
failure and leakage. To prevent these occurrences,
Commissioning is the part of the installation where the
the installation should be checked as it progresses
system is filled and run for the first time. It is now that
and any deficiencies brought to the attention
we see if it works as designed. Occasionally problems
of the installing engineer. Upon completion, the
will be discovered when the system is fully up and
system should be visually checked before flushing
running, such as:
and commissioning begins.
● Systems that do not meet correct installation
● Undue warming of cold water systems – this
requirements. This can take two forms:
generally occurs if the cold water pipework
● Systems that do not meet the design specification
has been installed too close to either hot
– problems such as incorrect flow rates and
water pipework or heating system pipework.
pressures are quite difficult to deal with.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
The Health and Safety Executive state that equipment is found to be defective, do not attempt
to prevent micro-bacterial growth due to a repair as this may invalidate any manufacturer’s
temperature the cold water must not exceed warranty. The manufacturer should first be
20 °C. To prevent this, the cold water pipework contacted as they may wish to send a representative
should be insulated across the entire system to inspect the component prior to replacement. The
including cisterns and storage vessels. supplier should also be contacted to inform them of
● Leakage – water causes a huge amount of the faulty component. In some instances where it is
damage to a building and can even compromise proven that the component is defective and was not
the building structure. Leakage from pipework a result of poor installation, the manufacturer may
if left undetected causes damp, mould growth reimburse the installation company for the time
and an unhealthy atmosphere. It is, therefore, taken to replace the component.
important that leakage is detected and cured at
a very early stage in the system’s life. Commissioning
● It is almost impossible to ensure that every
joint on every system installed is leak free.
Notification of work carried out
Manufacturing defects on fittings and equipment At all stages of the installation from design to
and damage sometimes cause leaks. Leakage commissioning, notification of the installation will need
due to badly jointed fittings and poor installation to be given so that the relevant authorities can check
practice are much more common, especially that the installation complies with the regulations and
on large systems where literally thousands to ensure that the installation does not constitute a
of joints have to be made until the system is danger to health. Notification must be given to:
complete. These can often be avoided by taking ● The water undertaker – the Water Supply (Water
care when jointing tubes and fittings, using Fittings) Regulations dictate that the local water
recognised jointing materials and compounds authority must be informed before work starts,
and using manufacturers’ recommended jointing at various stages during its installation and on
techniques. completion. It also states that where backflow
● Microbiological contamination within cold water prevention devices are installed, such as RPZ valves,
systems. Contamination of cold water systems can notification must be given and they must be
occur for a variety of reasons: inspected prior to being commissioned. A list
● the ingress of insects and vermin into stored of notifiable works is provided on page 5.
water Notification should be completed by the installing
● the ingress of debris during installation plumber and involves completing a water
● poor installation practice undertaker’s notification form.
● undue warming of the cold water. ● The local building control office – under
There are many forms of microbiological Building Regulations Approved Document G, cold
contamination, including Legionella pneumophila, water installations and water conservation are
E. coli and Pseudomonas, and most are centred on notifiable to the local authority building control
an increase in water temperature where the bacteria office. Building Regulations approval can be sought
can reproduce. In such instances, the system must from the local authority by submitting a building
be disinfected using the recognised techniques notice. Plans are not required with this process so
discussed previously. In all cases of microbiological it is quicker and less detailed than the full plan’s
contamination, advice should be sought from a application. It is designed to enable small building
recognised company dealing with such outbreaks works to get under way quickly. Once a ‘building
and consultation with the HSE. notice’ has been submitted and the local authority
● Defective components and equipment. Defective has been informed that work is about to start,
components cause frustration and cost valuable the work will be inspected as it progresses. The
installation time. If a component or piece of authority will notify if the work does not comply
with the Building Regulations.
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Notice should be given to building control not later
than 5 days after work completion and until this is INDUSTRY TIP
received no completion certificates can be issued.
Commissioning records should be kept in a file in a secure
A list of notifiable works is given in section 1 and
location.
includes:
● the installation of a new bathroom where
alterations have to be made to the drainage Handover procedures
system or soil stack or where no bathroom
When the system has been tested and commissioned,
existed before
it can then be handed over to the customer. The
● the installation of a new kitchen where alterations
customer will require all documentation regarding
have to be made to the drainage system or soil
the installation and this should be presented to the
stack or where no kitchen existed before
customer in a file, which should contain:
● the installation of sanitary appliances, such as
● all manufacturers’ installation, operation and
new washroom facilities
servicing manuals for the taps, sanitary ware and
● the installation of water conservation
any other equipment fitted to the installation such
components, such as rainwater harvesting or
as boosting pumps and accumulators
grey water recycling systems.
● the commissioning records and certificates
Building Regulations Compliance ● the water undertaker’s acceptance of the system
certificates ● the Building Regulations Compliance certificate
● an ‘as fitted’ drawing showing the position of all
From 1 April 2005 the Building Regulations demanded
that all installations must be issued with a Building isolation valves, backflow prevention devices, etc.
Regulations Compliance certificate. This is to ensure The customer must be shown around the system
that all Building Regulations relevant to the installation and shown the operating principles of any controls.
have been followed and complied with. Emergency isolation points on the system should
be pointed out and a demonstration of the correct
Commissioning records isolation procedure in the event of an emergency.
Commissioning records for large cold water systems Explain to the customer how the systems work and
should be kept for reference during maintenance and ask if they have any questions. Finally, point out the
repair and to ensure that the system meets the design need for regular servicing of the appliances and leave
specification. Typical information that should be emergency contact numbers.
included on the record is as follows:
● the date, time and the name(s) of the
commissioning engineer(s) 7 SERVICING AND
● the location of the installation
● the amount of cold water storage (if any)
MAINTENANCE OF
● the types and manufacturer of equipment and
components installed
COLD WATER SYSTEMS
● the type of pressure test carried out and its duration Maintenance tasks on cold water services, appliances
● disinfection processes, the disinfection chemicals and valves are essential to ensure the continuing
used and the disinfection readings correct operation of the system. The term used when
● the flow rates and pressures at the outlets isolating a water supply during maintenance operations
● the pressures on both the suction side and the is ‘temporary decommissioning’.
discharge side of any boosting pumps
● the accumulator pressure.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Before undertaking the repair or replacement of early stages. Planned preventative maintenance could
components, we must first ascertain what the problem include:
is. The customer will be able to tell you what is ● periodic system inspection – checking for leaks
happening with the component. ● re-washering of float operated valves
● re-washering and re-seating of terminal fittings and
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH taps
Remember, the customer may not know the technical ● inspection and cleaning of cisterns
language, but they will be able to explain the ● re-adjustment of water levels in cisterns
problem well enough for you to understand. ● re-washering of drain valves
● cleaning of filters and strainers
● maintenance of water softeners
If a component requires replacing, we must ensure
● check correct operation of stop valves
that we get as near to a like-for-like replacement as
● checking flow rates at all outlets.
possible, that we have the correct tools available and
that the customers’ property is either removed or When a maintenance task involves isolating the cold
protected with dust sheets and other coverings before water supply, a notice will need to placed at the point
we begin. of isolation stating ‘system off – do not turn on’ to
prevent accidental turn on of the system. In most
Manufacturer’s instructions systems, it will be possible to isolate specific parts of
When repairing or replacing components, the the installation without the need to have the whole
manufacturer’s instructions give step-by-step supply turned off. Where no such isolation exists, it
methods of how this should be done. These should be may be of benefit to use a pipe freezing kit so that total
followed wherever possible. In some instances where system isolation is not undertaken.
the component is old or the customer has lost the
Unplanned and emergency
original instructions, a copy may be available on the
manufacturer’s web site. maintenance
Unplanned maintenance and emergency maintenance
If the component being serviced develops a fault,
occurs when a fault suddenly develops, such as a burst
a fault-finding flow chart is often included in the
pipe, or a small problem suddenly becomes a larger
servicing and maintenance instructions. These are
issue, such as a dripping tap or sudden loss of water.
generally easy to follow and often include replacement
Unplanned and emergency maintenance can include:
parts and their catalogue numbers.
● burst pipes and leaks
● running overflows
Maintenance ● dripping taps
There are basically two types of maintenance: ● loss of low pressure, cistern-fed cold water supply
● planned preventative maintenance due to faulty FOVs
● unplanned/emergency maintenance. ● poor past installation practices, such as incorrectly
positioned overflow pipes
Planned preventative maintenance ● complete component breakdown necessitating the
Planned preventative maintenance is usually performed replacement of the component.
on larger systems and commercial/industrial Many of the maintenance practices we use involve the
installations. It is performed to a pre-arranged decommissioning of systems so that parts and pipes
maintenance schedule, which may mean out-of-hours can be replaced.
working if the supply of water cannot be disrupted
during normal working hours. It is designed to stop
problems from occurring by catching faults at their
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The risk of Legionella drained from hot water storage cylinders and a check
made for debris and signs of corrosion.
Legionella (or Legionella pneumophila to give it its
correct name), is a water-borne bacterium that develops Water samples should be analysed for Legionella
and multiplies in stagnant water at temperatures between periodically to demonstrate that bacteria counts
20 and 45 °C. The bacteria are dormant at temperatures are acceptable. The frequency of such tests will be
below 20 °C and will not survive temperatures above 60 determined by the level of risk, in accordance with the
°C. It can develop in any hot or cold water system where risk assessment. Water treatments and disinfection by
the water has been left to stand for a long period of time, the use of chlorine dioxide can also be undertaken by
in say, cold water cisterns or hot water storage cylinders. specialist companies.
It can even develop in unused branches (known as dead
legs) of hot and cold water systems. INDUSTRY TIP
Legionnaires’ disease develops from the Legionella The Health and Safety Executive produce a guide called
bacteria and this is potentially fatal if contracted. ‘Legionnaires’ Disease: The control of Legionella bacteria in
Legionnaires’ disease develops by breathing water into water systems’ and a free copy can be downloaded from:
the lungs that is contaminated with Legionella, either in www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/priced/l8.pdf
aerosol form (mist) or by minute water droplets from air
conditioning coolers and whirlpool/hydro-therapy baths.
Anyone can develop the disease. However, the elderly,
Keeping maintenance records
smokers, people with respiratory and kidney disease A record of all repairs and maintenance tasks
and the young are particularly at risk. completed will need to be recorded on the maintenance
schedule at the time of completion, including their
location, the date when they were carried out and the
HEALTH AND SAFETY
type of tests performed. This will ensure that a record
Any hot or cold water system left to stand for a long
period of time is at risk of containing Legionella of past problems is kept for future reference.
pneumophila. Where appliance servicing is carried out, the
manufacturer’s installation and servicing instructions
should be consulted. Any replacement parts may be
Dealing with Legionella obtained from the manufacturers.
Any system that is installed in healthcare, social care
or public buildings must be tested for the bacteria. A
full risk assessment should be undertaken of the hot SUMMARY
and cold water services and measures put in place to
control the risk. As we have seen as we have worked through this chapter,
there is so much more we need to learn about cold water
When testing for Legionella, temperature readings
systems other than the simple systems we became
must be made at the furthest and the closest outlets to
accustomed to in Book 1. Cold water systems and
the cisterns and hot water cylinders on a monthly basis.
their regulations are often complex in their design and
Hot water storage cylinders should be checked monthly
require great skill in their installation and commissioning.
and cold water cisterns on a six-monthly cycle.
Add to this the difficulties surrounding private water
To reduce the Legionella risk, remove all non-used supplies and it is obvious that the modern plumber must
outlets and corresponding pipework. Rarely used be competent in many different areas of work. This
outlets and shower heads should be flushed and chapter gives an excellent insight into the complexities
cleaned weekly, and clean and de-scale shower heads of modern cold water systems that will build on the
every three months. Cold water cisterns and tanks knowledge from Book 1 and enable you to make a
should be cleaned periodically, and the hot water worthwhile contribution within the work environment.
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
Test your knowledge
1 In which of the following situations are the 3 Which Building Regulations Approved Document
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations not deals with cold water supply?
enforceable? a G1
a Water distribution pipework within an b G2
agricultural building fed from the mains
c G3
b Domestic heating systems connected to the
d G4
water supply by a quick fill loop
4 To prevent pumps running dry within a boosted
c Water feeding terminal fittings fed via a
cold water system, the break cistern should be
private borehole
sized to allow the pumps to run at maximum
d Cold water service pipework under ground output for:
between properties fed at mains pressure
a Not less than 5 minutes
2 Which of the following works need to be notified
b Not less than 10 minutes
and consent given by the local water undertaker
c Not less than 15 minutes
before work commences?
d Not less than 20 minutes
a Installation of a pump or booster drawing
more than 12 litres per minute 5 The item below is suitable for protecting against
backflow up to which category?
b Replacement of a combination boiler above
30 kW heat input a Category 1
c The installation of an outside tap b Category 2
d The installation of a bath with a volume of c Category 3
200 litres d Category 4
Direction Spring loaded valve
of flow
End on
view
Test point Test point Valve guide
Stainless steel spring
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6 What is the purpose of the item labelled X in 9 Which type of non-mechanical backflow
the image below? prevention is most suitable to protect against
Filtered air vent contamination at a kitchen sink?
Incoming supply a AD
Overflow and filter b AG
c AUK2
d AUK3
Pump stop
10 A HUK1 type mechanical backflow prevention
Pump start
device is suitable for protection up to which
X fluid category?
Duplicate pump a 1
a To start the pump when the water level falls b 2
to within 225 mm of the cistern outlet c 3
b To stop the pump when the water level falls d 4
to within 225 mm of the cistern outlet 11 Which British Standard is used alongside BS
c To automatically isolate the cold water supply EN 806?
if a leak is detected downstream of the pump a BS 12058
d To automatically isolate the cold water supply b BS 8558
if a leak is detected upstream of the pump c BS EN 1212
7 Identify the correct meaning of the term ‘actual d BS 1984
capacity’ when referring to storage cisterns:
12 In a boosted cold water system, what item
a The maximum volume which it could hold activates the pump?
when filled to its overflowing level
a Float switch
b The total volume it could hold when filled to
b Solenoid
the top of the cistern
c Transducer
c The total volume it can hold when shut off
by the float operated valve d Pressure switch
d The total volume it contains including any 13 What must be avoided when cold water cisterns
expansion through heating are joined together in a customer’s loft area?
8 What type of water treatment plant is shown in a Back flow
the image below? b Cross flow
Float operated valve
Bellmouth c Stagnation
d Pressurisation
14 What does the infrared sensor eye operate to
Inlet release water out of the tap?
Schmutzdecke a Transformer
Fine sand b Transducer
c Flow switch
Outlet
d Solenoid
Perforated support Gravel
tiles or underdrains
a Rapid sand filter c Pressure filter
b Slow sand filter d Absorption filter
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Chapter 1 Cold water systems, planning and design
15 What is the purpose of the retaining ring on a 18 Which of the following appliances does NOT
shower hose connected to a combination bath have a risk of category 5 water being present?
tap and shower head? a Bath
a Prevent scalding when in use b WC
b Increase pressure on a low pressure system c Kitchen sink
c Keep the shower head above the bath rim d Bidet
d Restrict flow to the shower head 19 What backflow prevention device MUST be
16 What would this item be used to connect? installed on an outside tap?
a Single check valve
b RPZ valve
c Double check valve
d DC pipe interrupter
20 Which of the following is NOT a statutory
regulation?
a Water Act 2003
b Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999
c BS EN 806
d Building Regulations
21 According to BS EN 806, what is the loading
unit for a bath?
a 2
b 3
c 4
d 5
22 A cold water storage cistern in a loft area is
sized to provide cold water to the property over
what period?
a 24 hours
b 12 hours
a Shower hose to bath tap c 8 hours
b Hot feed from cylinder to shower pump d 48 hours
c Rising main to cold water storage cistern 23 What is a fitting marked with DZR resistant to?
d Expansion vessel to cold water mains a Electrolytic corrosion
17 Which of the following does NOT have category b De-zincification
2 water flowing through it?
c Blue water corrosion
a Hot water cylinder
d Contamination
b Rising main
c Mixer shower
d Combination tap and shower
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24 Which metal is used to prevent electrolytic 30 Which backflow prevention device is notifiable
corrosion taking place in plumbing systems? under the regulations?
a Copper 31 List the Regulative and Guidance
b Zinc documentation that will be required when
designing and installing a new domestic cold
c Magnesium
water system.
d Nickel
32 Plumbers who install systems and fitting have a
25 When disinfecting a system, how many parts per legal responsibility to ensure that the materials
million must the chlorine mixture be diluted to? and fitting comply with the regulations.
a 200 ppm What does the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
b 500 ppm Regulations state in Regulation 3 about waste
c 175 ppm and contamination of water?
d 50 ppm 33 Explain the function of a float switch in a
boosted cold water system.
26 For a single occupancy dwelling, what is the
water extraction rate of a private water supply? 34 List the documentation that the customer will
require at the handover stage after a system has
27 Which system of cold water uses a pneumatic
been tested and commissioned.
pressure vessel?
Answers can be found online at
28 Describe a break cistern.
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
29 Describe the purpose of a transducer within a
boosted cold water system.
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CHAPTER 2
HOT WATER SYSTEMS, PLANNING AND DESIGN
This chapter provides learning in application of l different fuels in domestic hot water systems
design techniques, installation and use of specialist l the types of hot water system and their layout
components, maintenance, diagnostics and requirements
rectification of faults and commissioning procedures, l specialist components in hot water systems
along with the backflow protection in plumbing l design techniques for hot water systems
systems to comply with current legislation and l the installation requirements of hot water systems
regulations. The chapter covers open vented and and components
unvented systems in multi-storey dwellings. l testing and commissioning requirements of hot
water systems and components
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge
l diagnosing and rectifying faults in hot water
and understanding of the following learning
systems and components
outcomes in this chapter:
l servicing and maintenance of hot water systems.
Return to Book 1 and remind yourself of the topics l system safety and efficiency
covered in Chapter 6, Hot water systems, which l prepare for the installation of systems and
included: components
l sources of information relating to work on hot l install and test systems and components
water systems l decommission systems and components
l hot water systems and components l replace defective components.
1 DIFFERENT FUELS some remote parts of the UK are not connected to the
natural gas network.
IN DOMESTIC HOT Gas (liquid petroleum gas, or LPG) – an alternative
WATER SYSTEMS gas source for properties not connected to the gas
network. It is supplied from a pressurised storage tank
positioned some distance from the building. Supplies
There are several different fuel sources available for
are replenished by tanker delivery. Liquid propane is
heating the supply of hot water in a dwelling. They
preferred to liquid butane, as it boils at a much lower
can be divided into two categories: fossil fuels and
temperature (−45 °C) than butane (−4 °C). LPG tends
renewable energy.
to be very expensive.
Fossil fuels Electricity – this fuel can be used to heat water in
a variety of ways, such as via immersion heaters,
Gas (natural gas) – probably the most popular way
instantaneous water heaters or showers from a 230 V
of heating the hot water supply in the UK. It is also
single-phase supply.
the cheapest and cleanest of all fossil fuel types, with
CO2 emissions much lower than with solid fuel, for Oil – this is another alternative gas source for
example. However, it is not available to all buildings, as properties not connected to the gas network. It is
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supplied from a storage tank positioned some distance Hot water system types
from the building. Supplies are replenished by tanker
Hot water systems can be divided into two categories.
delivery. There are many types of heating oil, with the
These are:
most common being C2 grade, 28-second viscosity
l centralised systems where hot water is delivered
oil or kerosene. They are very similar to diesel fuel.
from a central point to all hot water outlets in the
Appliances tend to be big and quite noisy and they
dwelling. The water may be heated by a boiler or an
require regular servicing.
immersion heater
Solid fuel – there are many types of solid fuel used l localised systems, often called single point or point
to produce energy and provide heating and hot of use systems. With these systems, the hot water is
water, although the use of some solid fuels (e.g. coal) delivered by a small water heater at the point where
is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas, due it is needed.
to unsafe levels of toxic emissions. In some areas,
smokeless coal and coke are the only solid fuels used. Centralised systems
Renewable energy Centralised systems are those where the source of
hot water supply is sited centrally in the property for
Solar thermal – solar thermal technology utilises heat
distribution to all of the hot water outlets. They are
from the Sun to generate domestic hot water supply to
usually installed in medium to large domestic dwellings,
offset the water heating demand from other sources,
such as a three-bedroomed house. These can be further
such as electricity or gas.
divided into:
Geothermal – geothermal energy is heat directly from l centralised hot water storage systems
the Earth. It is a clean, renewable resource. Geothermal l centralised instantaneous hot water systems.
heat can be used directly, without involving a power
Centralised hot water storage systems are divided into:
plant or heat pump, for a variety of applications such
l open vented systems – those hot water storage
as space heating and cooling, hot water supply and
systems that are fed from a cistern in the roof
industrial processes. Its uses for bathing can be traced
space and contain a vent pipe that is open to the
back to the ancient Romans.
atmosphere
Biomass – the term ‘biomass’ can be used to describe l unvented systems – those hot water storage
many different types of solid and liquid fuels. It is systems that are fed directly from the cold water
defined as any plant matter used directly as a fuel or main and utilise an expansion vessel or an internal
that has been converted into other fuel types before air bubble to allow for expansion.
combustion. Generally, solid biomass is used as heating
Centralised instantaneous hot water systems can be
fuel, including wood pellets, vegetable waste (such as
divided into:
wood waste and crops used for energy production),
l gas fired instantaneous multi-point hot water
animal materials/wastes and other solid biomass.
heaters – those heaters that heat the water
instantaneously
2 THE TYPES OF l gas or oil fired combination boilers – operate in a
HOT WATER SYSTEM similar fashion to instantaneous hot water heaters
but also have a central heating capability
AND THEIR LAYOUT l thermal stores – sometimes referred to as water
jacketed tube heaters
REQUIREMENTS l gas or oil fired combined primary storage units
– again these are very similar in operation to the
In this section, we will take a look at the component thermal store.
layout features and functions for hot water system and
the methods of providing water supplies.
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Open vented hot water storage l The cistern should be placed as high as possible to
systems ensure good supply pressure. The higher the cistern
then the greater the pressure at the taps. Poor
In an open vented storage hot water system, water is
pressure can be increased by raising the height of
heated, generally by a boiler or an immersion heater,
the cistern.
and stored in a hot water storage vessel sited in a
l All pipes should be laid with a slight fall (except the
central location in the property usually in the airing
hot water draw-off) to prevent air locks within the
cupboard. Open vented systems contain a vent pipe,
system.
which remains open to the atmosphere ensuring that
l The cold feed pipe from the storage cistern must
the hot water cannot exceed 100 °C. The vent pipe
only feed the hot water storage cylinder.
acts as a safety relief should the system become
l A drain off valve should be fitted at the lowest point
overheated. It must be sited over the cold feed cistern
of the cold feed pipe.
in the roof space.
As we discovered in Book 1, there are two types of
The cylinder is fed with water from the cold feed
open vented hot water storage systems. These are:
cistern. The capacity of the cistern will depend upon
l the direct system
the capacity of the hot water storage vessel. The
l the indirect system.
cistern feeding cold water to a hot water storage vessel
must be at least equal to that of the hot water storage Open vented direct hot water storage
vessel. Here are some important points to note about system
open vented hot water systems:
The direct open vented hot water storage system uses
l The open vent pipe must not be smaller than
a direct type hot water storage cylinder. The direct
22 mm pipe and must terminate over the cold
cylinder contains no form of heat exchanger and so
feed cistern.
is not suitable for use with central heating systems.
l The open vent pipe must not be taken directly from
The connections for the cold feed and draw-off are
the top of the hot water storage vessel.
usually male thread connections with the primary flow
l The hot water draw-off pipe should rise slowly from
and return connections are female thread. They are
the top of the cylinder to the open vent pipe and
usually heated by either one or two immersion heaters,
incorporate at least 450 mm of pipe between the
depending on the cylinder type or they may be heated
storage cylinder and its connection point to the
by a gas fired hot water circulator. Existing installations
open vent. This is to prevent parasitic circulation
may also use a back boiler placed behind a solid fuel
(also known as one pipe circulation) from occurring.
fire. Because the water in the boiler comes directly
l The cold feed pipe should be sized correctly. The
from the hot water storage cylinder, the boiler must be
cold feed is the main path for expansion of water
made of a material that does not rust. This is to prevent
to take place within the cylinder when the water is
rusty water being drawn off at the taps. Suitable boiler
heated. The heated water from the cylinder expands
materials are:
up the cold feed pipe raising the water level in the
l copper
cold feed cistern.
l stainless steel
l bronze.
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A typical direct system using immersion heaters is Open vented indirect (double feed type) hot
shown in Figure 2.1. water storage system
This is probably the most common of all hot water
delivery systems installed in domestic properties. It
uses a double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder,
which contains a heat exchanger, at the heart of the
system. The heat exchanger within the cylinder is
22 mm vent pipe discharging into the usually a copper coil but, in older type cylinders, it
CWSC and sealed with a grommet
can also take the form of a smaller cylinder called
an annular. It is called indirect simply because the
secondary water in the cylinder is heated indirectly by
the primary water via the heat exchanger.
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to
secondary hot water system
22 mm or 28 mm full way gate valve
In a double feed indirect system two cisterns are used –
or lever type spherical ball valve
a large cistern for the domestic hot water and a smaller
22 mm draw-off to the bath then reduced
to 15 mm to all other appliances
one for the heating. It is now general practice to install
indirect cylinders in preference to direct types, even if
the indirect flow and return are capped off.
The double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder
allows the use of boilers and central heating systems
that contain a variety of metals, such as steel and
Heat source. Top immersion heater for daytime top up.
aluminium because the water in the cylinder is totally
Bottom immersion heater heats up all the water in the
cylinder via a time controller for use with cheap rate separate from the water in the heat exchanger. This
overnight electricity
means that there is no risk of dirty or rusty water being
drawn off at the taps. The system is designed in such a
way that the water in the boiler and primary pipework
is hardly ever changed, the only loss of water being in
the feed and expansion cistern through evaporation.
The secondary water is that which is drawn from the
hot water storage cylinder to supply the hot taps. It is
heated by conduction as the water in the cylinder is in
contact with the heat exchanger.
A feed and expansion cistern feeds the primary
Figure 2.1 Direct open vented hot water storage system
part of the system, and this must be large enough
to accommodate the expansion of the water in the
The indirect system
system when it is heated. The vent pipe from the
An indirect system uses an indirect-type hot water primary system must terminate over the feed and
storage cylinder, which contains some form of heat expansion cistern. An alternative method would be to
exchanger to heat the secondary water. There are two use a sealed heating system, which is fed with water
distinct types: from the cold water main via a filling loop. Expansion of
l the double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder water is accommodated in an expansion vessel.
l the single feed, self-venting indirect hot water
storage cylinder. Hot water storage cylinders must conform to BS 1566,
which specifies the minimum heating surface area of
The heat exchanger contains primary water and so is the heat exchanger.
classified as part of the central heating system to the
dwelling.
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A typical open vented indirect (double feed type) hot
water storage system utilising fully pumped primary
circulation is shown in Figure 2.2.
22 mm vent from primary hot water system connected to the boiler,
the coil in the hot water cylinder and central heating system
22 mm vent from secondary hot water system. To determine the height
of the vent = 150 mm + 40 mm per metre of system height (m)
Feed and expansion cistern
fitted with BS1212 Part 2
150 litre storage cistern fitted with BS 1212 Part 2 float operated valve float operated valve
Spherical ball type
service valve
Spherical ball type
service valve
15 mm cold feed to
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to the primary system
secondary hot water system
22 mm or 28 mm full way
gate valve or lever type
spherical ball valve
22 mm draw-off to the bath then
reduced to 15 mm to all other services 450 mm
28 mm primary flow
and return pipes from
Central heating the boiler to the coil in
flow and return the cylinder
Heat source. Gas, oil
or solid fuel
Figure 2.2 An old indirect gravity open vented (double feed) hot water storage system
Open vented indirect (single feed, self- feed and expansion cistern. The heat exchanger
venting type) hot water storage system works in such a way that the primary and secondary
This system uses a single feed, self-venting indirect water are separated by a bubble of air that collects
cylinder, often referred to by its trade name – the in the heat exchanger, preventing the waters from
‘primatic’ cylinder. It contains a special heat exchanger, mixing. According to the Domestic Building Services
which uses air entrapment to separate the primary Compliance Guide, these cylinders are no longer
water from the secondary water. allowed for new or replacement cylinders. A ‘double
feed’ type cylinder must be used on all replacement
It is fitted in the same way as a direct system, with
installations.
only one cold feed cistern in the roof space but,
unlike the direct system, it allows a boiler and central A typical open vented indirect (single feed, self-venting
heating to be installed. It does not require a separate type) hot water storage system utilising gravity
circulation is shown in Figure 2.3.
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a booster pump and a cold water accumulator if the
mains pressure is low.
An unvented hot water system differs from
open vented types because there is no vent pipe.
22 mm vent pipe discharging into the Expansion of water due to the water being heated is
CWSC and sealed with a grommet
accommodated either in an external expansion vessel
or an expansion bubble within the storage cylinder. The
system also requires other mechanical safety devices
for the safe control of the expansion of water and
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to
secondary hot water system to ensure that the water within the storage cylinder
22 mm or 28 mm full way gate valve
or lever type spherical ball valve does not exceed 100 °C. There are two categories of
centralised unvented hot water storage systems:
Special heat exchanger uses air bubbles
to separate primary and secondary water l directly fired/heated storage systems
l indirectly fired/heated storage systems.
Unvented hot water storage systems and
pipework arrangements
28 mm primary circulation 22 mm draw-off to the bath
An unvented hot water storage system is not always
pipes connect the heat
source to the cylinder
then reduced to 15 mm to
all other appliances the best type of system for any domestic situation.
There are many factors that must be considered before
Heat source. this arrangement is installed into a property, such as:
Gas boiler/oil boiler
l available pressure and flow rate – this is probably
the most important factor simply because poor
pressure and flow rate will affect the operating
performance of the installation. Pressure and flow
rate readings should be taken at peak times to
ensure adequate water supply before recommending
this type of system
l the route of the discharge pipework, termination
Figure 2.3 Indirect open vented single feed self-venting hot and discharge pipework size
water storage system l the type of terminal fittings to be used – this is
especially important when retro-fitting unvented
installations on to existing hot water systems, as the
INDUSTRY TIP existing taps, etc. may not be suitable
l cost – unvented systems tend to be very expensive.
On no account must central heating inhibitors be used
in the primary water if a single feed cylinder is installed,
as this would cause contamination of the water if the air The types of unvented hot water storage
bubbles were to rupture. cylinders
There are two types of unvented hot water
storage cylinders, both are manufactured to BS EN
Unvented hot water storage systems 12897:2016+A1:2020 Specification for indirectly heated
An unvented hot water storage system is simply a unvented (closed) storage water heaters, and available as
sealed system of pipework and components that is direct fired/heated or indirectly heated vessels:
l unvented hot water storage cylinders using an
supplied with water above atmospheric pressure. The
system does not require the use of a feed cistern. external expansion vessel
l unvented hot water storage cylinders incorporating
Instead, it is fed with water directly from a water
undertaker’s mains supply or with water supplied by an internal expansion air gap.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Most unvented cylinders are manufactured from l Units are delivered with all the components already
high-grade duplex stainless steel for strength and factory fitted and require less installation time.
corrosion resistance. Some older cylinders may be l Packages are delivered with all components
manufactured from copper or steel with a polyethylene separately packaged (except those required for
or cementitious lining. safety, such as temperature relief valves). These
have to be fitted by the installer in line with the
Unvented hot water storage cylinders can be purchased manufacturer’s instructions.
as ‘units’ or ‘packages’:
Isolation valve
In-line strainer
Hot water draw-off Expansion vessel
Temperature Pressure reducing valve
relief valve
Balanced cold connection
Check valve
Expansion (pressure)
Immersion heaters relief valve
D1 discharge pipework
Tundish
D2 discharge pipework
Cold feed
Figure 2.4 A typical unvented cylinder with external expansion vessel
Balanced cold Isolation valve
Hot water draw-off water connection
In-line strainer
Pressure reducing valve
Internal expansion Check valve
pocket or air bubbles
Expansion (pressure)
relief valve
Flow Temperature relief valve
Heat exchanger D1 discharge pipework
Immersion heater Tundish
D2 discharge pipework
Return
Cold feed
Figure 2.5 A typical unvented cylinder with internal expansion
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The various types of unvented hot water secondary system. This can be done in one of two
system ways:
There are three basic types of unvented hot water l by the use of a gas fired condensing boiler
system. They are defined by how the water is heated. l by the use of an oil fired condensing boiler.
These are: Older, non-condensing boilers may be used if the boiler
l indirect storage systems is an existing appliance, providing the boiler contains
l direct storage systems: both a control thermostat and a high energy cut-out
l electrically heated (high limit) thermostat to limit the water temperature
l gas or oil fired at the coil should the control thermostat fail. On no
l small point of use (under sink). account must solid fuel appliances and boilers be used
to provide heat to the coil. The primary hot water
Indirect storage systems system may either be open vented or sealed system.
Indirect unvented hot water storage systems utilise
An immersion heater provides back-up hot water
an indirect unvented hot water storage cylinder at the
heating for use during the summer or for when the
heart of the system. As with open vented systems, the
boiler malfunctions.
cylinder contains a coiled heat exchanger to transfer
the heat indirectly from the primary system to the
Balanced cold Isolation valve
Hot water draw-off water connection
In-line strainer
Pressure reducing valve
Internal expansion Check valve
pocket or air bubbles
Expansion (pressure)
relief valve
Flow Temperature relief valve
Heat exchanger D1 discharge pipework
Immersion heater Tundish
D2 discharge pipework
Return
Cold feed
Figure 2.6 The indirect type unvented hot water storage cylinder
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Direct storage systems The immersion heaters are manufactured to BS EN
The direct system uses a direct type unvented hot 60335.2.73 and must contain a user thermostat,
water cylinder that does not contain any form of heat usually set to 60 °C, and a non-resetting thermal cut
exchanger. There are two very different types: out (high limit stat).
l Electrically heated – this type of cylinder does l Gas or oil fired – the design of these water heaters
not contain a heat exchanger. Instead, the water is originated in North America. They consist of a hot
heated directly by two immersion heaters controlled water storage vessel with a flue pipe that passes
by a time switch. One immersion heater is located through the centre. Expansion of the water is
close to the bottom of the cylinder to heat all of catered for by the use of an external expansion
the contents of the cylinder at night and another vessel. Below the storage vessel is a burner to heat
located in the top third to top up the hot water the water and this can be fuelled by either gas or oil
during the day if required via a one-hour boost depending on the type. The burner is controlled by
button on the time switch. Both immersion heaters a thermostat and a gas/oil valve. An energy cut-
are independently controlled and cannot be used out prevents the water exceeding the maximum
simultaneously. of 90 °C. The safety and functional controls and
components layout is almost identical to other
unvented hot water storage systems.
Isolation valve
In-line strainer
Hot water draw-off Expansion vessel
Temperature Pressure reducing valve
relief valve
Balanced cold connection
Check valve
Expansion (pressure)
Immersion heaters relief valve
D1 discharge pipework
Tundish
D2 discharge pipework
Cold feed
Figure 2.7 The electrically heated direct type unvented hot water storage cylinder
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Terminal
Isolation valve
In-line strainer
Flue pipe
Pressure
Balanced cold reducing valve Draught diverter
connection
Expansion
vessel
Single
check valve
Temperature
relief valve
Expansion
(pressure)
relief valve Tundish
Discharge
pipe
Wiring centre and cylinder thermostat
Gas burner
Gas pipe
Figure 2.8 The gas fired direct type unvented hot water storage cylinder
Direct unvented under sink storage heaters surround the installation of larger unvented hot water
Unvented under sink hot water storage heaters are storage units.
connected direct to the mains cold water supply and The expansion of water may be taken up within the
deliver hot water at near mains cold water pressure. pipework, provided the pipework is of sufficient size to
Because they have less than 15 litres of storage, cope with the water expansion. If not, then an external
they are not subject to the stringent regulations that expansion vessel will be required.
Expansion vessel Single check valve
Expansion relief valve Isolation valve
Pressure reducing
valve
15 litre point of use unvented Tundish Stop valve
hot water storage heater
Discharge pipe
Figure 2.9 The unvented type under sink storage water heater pipework layout
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Table 2.1 Comparisons between vented and unvented storage hot water systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Open vented systems
l Storage is available to meet the demands at peak times l Space needed for both the hot water storage vessel and
l Low noise levels the cold water storage
l Always open to the atmosphere l Risk of freezing
l Water temperature can never exceed 100 °C l Increased risk of contamination
l Reserve of water available if the mains supply is interrupted l Low pressure and often, poor flow rate
l Low maintenance l Outlet fittings can be limited because of the low
l Low installation costs pressure
Unvented systems
l Higher pressure and flow rates at all outlets giving a larger l No back up of water should the water supply be
choice of outlet fittings isolated
l Balanced pressures at both hot and cold taps l If the cold water supply suffers from low pressure or
l Low risk of contamination flow rate, the system will not operate satisfactorily
l The hot water storage vessel can be sited almost anywhere in l There is the need for discharge pipes that will be able
the property making it a suitable choice for houses and flats to accept very hot water and there will be restrictions
alike on their length
l The risk from frost damage is reduced l A high level of maintenance is required
l Less space required because cold water storage is not needed l Higher risk of noise in the system pipework
l Installation is quicker as less pipework is required l Initial cost of the unvented hot water storage vessel is
l Smaller diameter pipework may be used in some high
circumstances
exchanger as demand requires before being distributed
to the outlets. As long as the tap is running, hot water
will be delivered to the taps. There is no limit to the
amount of hot water that can be delivered. There is no
storage capacity.
Expansion of water due to being heated is
accommodated by back pressure within the cold water
main. However, if this is not adequate or the cold water
system contains pressure reducing valves or check
valves, then an expansion vessel must be fitted.
Figure 2.10 The unvented type under sink storage water heater
with expansion vessel The heater works on Bernoulli’s principle by using a
venturi tube to create a pressure differential across the
Comparisons between open vented gas valve when the cold water is flowing into the heater.
and unvented hot water storage
systems KEY TERM
There are important differences between these two Bernoulli’s principle: states that when a pipe
is suddenly reduced in size, the velocity of the
types of systems. Table 2.1 compares open vented and
water increases, but the pressure decreases.
unvented hot water storage systems. The principle can also work in reverse. If a pipe
suddenly increases in size, then the velocity will
Gas fired instantaneous multi-point hot decrease but the pressure will increase slightly.
water heaters
With this type of hot water heater, cold water is taken
from the water undertaker’s main and heated in a heat
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Heat within the same appliance. In normal working mode,
exchanger combination boilers are central heating appliances,
supplying a proportion of their available heat capacity
to heat the central heating water. When a hot tap
Combustion
chamber is opened, a diverter valve diverts the boiler water
around a second heat exchanger, which heats cold
Pilot flame water from the water undertaker’s cold water mains
to supply instantaneous hot water at the hot taps.
Burner In this mode, the entire heat output is used to heat
Thermocoupling
Push rod the water. Temperature control is electronic and this
Venturi tube
automatically adjusts the burner to suit the output
Diaphragm required. Typical flow rates are around 9 litres per
Pressure minute (35 °C temperature rise). Some combination
differential valve
Hot water outlet Gas inlet Cold water inlet boilers incorporate a small amount of storage and this
can double the flow rate to around 18 litres per minute.
Thermal stores
Figure 2.11 Gas instantaneous hot water heater
Sometimes called water jacketed tube heaters, thermal
stores work by passing mains cold water through two heat
Gas or oil fired combination boilers
exchangers which are encased in a large storage vessel of
Combi boilers are dual function appliances. They primary hot water fed from a boiler. They are very similar
provide instantaneous hot water and central heating to an indirect system but they work in reverse.
Combustion air in
Flue gas outlet
Combustion air in
Pressure
switch
Combustion air in
Automatic
air valve Primary heat exchanger
Spark igniter
Gas burner
Expansion Fully modulating
vessel multifunctional control
Pump
Water to water
heat exchanger
Diverter valve
System Pressure relief valve
by-pass
Central heating
flow and return
Cold Hot Gas
water water
inlet outlet
Figure 2.12 Combination boiler
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Inside the unit are two heat exchangers which the Gas or oil fired combined primary storage
mains cold water passes through and a small expansion units
chamber. The expansion chamber allows for the These are very similar in design to thermal stores and
small amount of expansion of the secondary water. work in exactly the same way, in that cold water from
The primary water can reach temperatures of up the mains supply is passed through a heat exchanger.
to 82 °C, which can, potentially, be transferred into The difference here is that the unit has its own heat
the secondary water. Because of this, an adjustable source, in the form of a gas burner, to heat the primary
thermostatic mixing valve blends the secondary hot water, eliminating the need for a separate boiler.
water with mains cold water so that the water does not
exceed 60 °C.
Optional F & E cistern Isolation valve
built into the unit
Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve
Boiler
Heat exchanger
Expansion
chamber
To hot taps
Pump on
primary return To cold taps
Central heating Heat exchanger
pump
Heating flow
Heating return
Mains cold water inlet
Figure 2.13 Thermal store
Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve
Central
heating flow Hot water oulet
Heat exchanger coiled
around the flue pipe
Central
heating return
Mains cold
water supply
Gas burner
Figure 2.14 Combined primary storage unit
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Localised systems INDUSTRY TIP
Localised systems are often called single point or point
of use systems. They are designed to serve one outlet Most localised gas instantaneous water heaters do not
at the position where it is needed and are usually contain a flue. The gases from the appliance simply
installed where the appliance is some distance away disperse in the room where they are installed. They are
from the centralised hot water supply. known as ‘flueless appliances’.
Again, these can be divided into two categories:
l instantaneous type heaters
Storage type localised water heaters
l storage type heaters.
This type of heater is often referred to as the
displacement type heater, as the hot water is displaced
Instantaneous type localised water
from the heater by cold water entering the unit. Typical
heaters storage capacities are between 7 and 10 litres (for over
These can either be fuelled by gas or electricity and sink type). They can be divided into:
are generally described as inlet controlled. This simply l Over sink heaters – as the name suggests, these are
means that the water supply is controlled at the inlet to fitted over an appliance such as a sink. The water
the heater. The water is heated as it flows through the is delivered from a spout on the heater. A common
heater and will continue to do so as long as the water complaint with this type of heater is that they
is flowing. When the control valve is closed, the water constantly drip water from the spout. This is normal
flow stops and the heat source shuts down. as the heater must be open to the atmosphere at
This type of heater is generally used to supply small all times to accommodate the expansion when the
quantities of hot water, such as washbasins and water is heated. The dripping water is the expansion
showers. Typical minimum water pressure is 1 bar. taking place and will stop once the heater has
reached its operating temperature. They are often
referred to as ‘inlet controlled’ water heaters.
l Under sink heaters – the under sink heater works in
exactly the same way as the over sink heater. The
main difference is that these heaters usually require
a special tap or mixer tap that allows the outlet to
be open to the atmosphere at all times to allow for
expansion. The inlet of water to the heater is still
controlled from the tap. Typical capacities are up to
15 litres.
Figure 2.15 An instantaneous localised water heater
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Insulation
Open vent to allow
for expansion
Heater element
Thermostat
Swivel spout Cold water feed
with spreader feed
Water inlet
control valve
Figure 2.16 A typical over sink storage water heater
l hot water temperatures that do not cause scalding
are ideal for the Legionella bacteria to multiply.
Spout of the tap
acts as an open
vent allowing These may seem, at first glance, to be contradictory,
expansion of but in fact they are equally as important. Let’s look at
water to take place
the facts.
Legionella pneumophila, better known as Legionnaires’
Mains cold Hot water supply disease, presents a very real risk, especially in any hot
water supply from the heater
to the tap to the tap water system that contains a storage vessel. Between
20 and 45 °C, Legionella bacteria multiply roughly
every two minutes. At 60 °C Legionella bacteria is dead
Cold water within 32 minutes. However, water at this temperature
supply from
the tap to the is likely to cause a partial thickness burn in about five
water heater seconds.
Under sink
water heater
Figure 2.17 A typical under sink storage water heater
Design temperatures for hot
water systems
There is some form of hot water delivery system in
almost all domestic properties in the UK, whether this
is from a centralised or localised hot water system. The
overriding concerns with hot water are:
l hot water temperatures that kill the Legionella
Figure 2.18 Legionella pneumophila bacteria
bacteria can also cause scalding
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These two contradictory subjects – Legionella and The control of discharge
scalding – are of major importance to designers as they temperatures
both present different restrictions on the temperatures
The objective of any hot water storage system is to
that can safely be used in the domestic hot water
store water at the relatively high temperature of 60 °C
systems we install. Because of this, temperature control
to ensure that it is free from any bacteria, to distribute
must be exercised both in the storage vessels/heaters
the water at 55 °C and yet to deliver the water at the
and at the point of use.
hot water outlets at the relatively low temperature
The recommended temperatures are: of 35 to 46 °C to ensure the safety of the end user.
l Hot water storage vessel – these should store water The most efficient way to do this is by the use of
at a temperature of 60–65 °C as this temperature thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs).
offers protection against the reproduction of
Legionella bacteria.
l Hot water outflow – the Water Supply (Water
Fittings) Regulations state that hot water should be
distributed at a temperature not less than 55 °C and
should reach the hot water outlets at 50 °C within
30 seconds of the tap being turned on. Whilst this
is possible with most hot water storage systems, it
is not, realistically, possible with instantaneous hot
water delivery types.
l Secondary return – the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE) publication ‘The control of Legionella bacteria
in water systems: Approved Code of Practice and
Guidance’ states that:
Figure 2.19 A typical thermostatic mixing valve
The circulation pump is sized to compensate
for the heat losses from the distribution Thermostatic mixing valves (sometimes known as
circuit such that the return temperature to the a thermostatic blending valve) are designed to mix
calorifier is not less than 50 °C. hot and cold water to a predetermined temperature
l At point of use: to ensure that the water is delivered to the outlet at
l Instantaneous heaters – most instantaneous hot a temperature that will not cause injury but is hot
water heaters have a varying temperature range enough to facilitate good personal hygiene. There are
between 35 and 55 °C, but this depends on the three methods of installing TMVs.
flow rate through the heater, the flow rate being
higher with the lower temperature. Typically Single valve installations
power outputs of between 3 and 12 kW are This is probably the most common of all TMV installations.
available. The maximum pipe length to a single appliance is 2 m
l Storage heaters – hot water temperatures from the TMV to the outlet. Back-to-back installations
typically range up to 75 °C for vented type are acceptable from a single valve, provided that the
storage water heaters with a 5–10 litre capacity use of one appliance does not affect the other and that
and up to 80 °C with an energy cut-out set at both appliances have a similar flow rate requirement
85 °C for unvented types up to 15 litres capacity. (such as two washbasins). Typical installations are:
l Thermostatic blending valve installations – the l Baths – it is now a requirement of Building
subject of thermostatic blending valves and Regulations Approved Document G3 that all bath
the control of discharge temperatures requires installations in new and refurbished properties
careful consideration and so will be discussed incorporate the use of a TMV. This would normally
separately. be set to a temperature of between 41 °C and
44 °C, depending on personal comfort levels.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Temperatures above this can only be used in and flow rate. The shower control and the water mixer
exceptional circumstances. have digital intelligence built in.
l Showers – these installations usually require a
Digital mixer showers take water from both the hot and
temperature of not more than 43 °C. In residential
cold water supplies and mix them in an electronically
care homes and other medical facilities, a
controlled mixing valve to accurately reach the desired
temperature of not more than 41 °C should be used
temperature. An electronic control panel mounted in
according to NHS guidelines.
the showering area provides separate control of the
l Washbasins – careful consideration must be made
water flow rate and the temperature. A processor box
with washbasin installations because this is probably
sited remotely adjusts the flow and temperature to
the only appliance used in domestic dwellings where
the settings selected by the user on the control panel.
the user puts their hands directly in the running
These are then controlled electronically to provide the
water without waiting for the water to get hot.
desired temperature and flow at the shower.
When the water reaches maximum temperature,
scalding can occur. Therefore, typical temperatures Accurate control is maintained by the adjustment
between 38 °C and 41 °C can be used depending of separate proportioning valves and pumps or by
upon the application. Again, NHS guidelines motorised control of a mixing valve.
recommend a temperature of no more than 41 °C.
l Bidets – a maximum of 38 °C should be used with Group mixing
bidet installations. Installations where a number of appliances of a similar
l Kitchen sinks – this is probably the area where type are fed from a single TMV are allowed in certain
the user is most at risk. The need to ensure that installations. However, installations of this type are not
bacteria and germs are killed and that grease recommended where the occupants are deemed to be
is thoroughly removed dictates that a water high risk, such as nursing homes. If a group installation
temperature of between 46 °C and 48 °C is used. is to be considered, then the following points should be
However, as the kitchen is an area with no published followed:
recommendations on hot water temperature, a safe l The operation of any one appliance should not
temperature similar to that of washbasins should affect others on the run.
be considered to lessen the risk of scalding unless l When one TMV is used with a number of similar
notices warning of very hot water are used. outlets, the length of the pipework from the valve to the
outlets should be kept as short as possible so that the
Thermostatic mixing valve mixed water reaches the furthest tap within 30 seconds.
Bath
l With group shower installations, it is not unusual
to see pipe runs in excess of 10 m. Pipework runs
of this length carry an unacceptable Legionella risk.
Isolation
valve These situations can be dealt with by:
l careful monitoring of the water at the showerheads and
appropriate treatment should Legionella be detected
l regular very hot water disinfection when the system
Isolation valve
is not in use.
Typical group installations are:
l Group showers – with the correct sized TMV a
number of shower outlets may be served at a
temperature of between 38 and 40 °C. For safety
Figure 2.20 A single thermostatic mixing valve installation reasons, the temperature must not exceed 43 °C.
l Washbasins – rows of washbasins may be served
Digital showers use state-of-the-art technology to give from a single TMV. Temperatures of between 38
very accurate control of the showering temperature and 40 °C are typical, but it should not exceed 43 °C
for safety reasons.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Wash basins TMV2 approval is for domestic thermostatic
installations and uses BS EN 1111 and BS EN 1287 as a
basis for the thermostatic valves performance testing.
l TMV3 – these valves are manufactured and tested for
healthcare and commercial thermostatic installations
and use the NHS specification D08 as a basis for the
Isolation thermostatic valves performance testing.
Thermostatic valve
mixing valve Table 2.2 is a guide for the selection of TMVs for a
given application.
Isolation valve
INDUSTRY TIP
Figure 2.21 A group thermostatic mixing valve installation Look up the products and become more familiar with the
styles and temperatures. For examples, see www.rwc.co.uk/
Centralised mixing product-category/temperature-control/
Centralised mixing is very similar to group mixing
but occurs when there are groups of different hot
Balanced and unbalanced supply
water appliances to be served from a single TMV. The
following recommendations should be followed: pressures in unvented hot water
l If the mixed water is recirculated within the storage systems
Legionella growth temperature range, then anti- Balanced pressure means that both the hot and the cold
Legionella precautions similar to those recommended water are supplied at the same pressure. Most modern
for group mixing will need to be implemented. mixer taps, shower mixer valves and thermostatic
l If the mixed water is to be recirculated at about blending valves require a balanced pressure to operate
Legionella growth temperature regimes, then the correctly and to ensure that the correct mixing of hot
recommendations for single TMV installations are and cold water takes place without causing backflow
appropriate. problems or presenting the danger of scalding.
l The operation of any one outlet should not affect
With unvented hot water systems, balancing the hot
other outlets. and cold water supplies is a relatively easy task to
perform. The balanced cold supply must be taken from
The types of thermostatic mixing valves
the cold supply to the unvented storage vessel. It must
Thermostatic mixing valves are certificated under be connected after the pressure reducing valve and
a third-party certification scheme set up and before the single check valve as shown in Figure 2.22.
administrated by NSF International. Under this The pressure reducing valve ensures that the same
scheme, thermostatic mixing valves are certificated pressure is supplied to both hot and cold outlets, and
and approved for use, depending on their application. the non-return valve ensures that the balanced cold
They are divided into two groups: water supply is not affected by backflow from the
l TMV2 – Approved Document G Sanitation, hot pressurised hot water storage vessel in the event of a
water safety and water efficiency of the Building sudden loss of pressure from the cold water supply.
Regulations in England and Wales requires that the
On systems that use a composite valve (a valve
hot water outlet to a bath should not exceed 48 °C.
which combines the strainer, PRV, non-return valve
It also states that valves conforming to BS EN 1111
and pressure relief/expansion valve), a balanced cold
or BS EN 1287 are suitable for this purpose. Similar
connection is usually designed into the valve in the
requirements exist in Scotland.
form of a compression fitting connection.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Table 2.2 TMV selector chart
Is a TMV: Is a TMV: Is a TMV:
required by legislation or recommended by legislation suggested
Environment Appliance authoritative guidance? or authoritative guidance? best practice? Valve type?
Bath Yes Yes TMV2
Basin Yes Yes
Private Shower
dwelling Bidet
Bath Yes Yes TMV2
Housing Basin Yes Yes
Association Shower
dwelling Bidet
Bath Yes TMV2
Housing
Association Basin Yes
dwelling for the Shower Yes
elderly Bidet Yes
Bath Yes TMV2
Basin Yes
Hotel Shower Yes
Bath Yes TMV3
NHS nursing Basin Yes
home Shower Yes
Bath Yes TMV3
Private nursing Basin Yes
home Shower Yes
Bath Yes TMV3
Young persons’ Basin Yes
care home Shower Yes
Schools, Bath Yes, but 43°C max Yes TMV2
including Basin Yes
nursery Shower
Schools for Bath Yes, but 43°C max Yes TMV3
the severely Basin Yes
disabled, Shower
including
nursery
Bath Yes TMV3
Basin Yes
NHS hospital Shower Yes
Bath Yes TMV3
Basin Yes
Private hospital Shower Yes
Source: Caretaking Support Services
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Balanced cold connection after the
PRV but before the non-return valve
Isolation In-line
valve strainer
Pressure reducing valve Non-return valve
Balanced cold supply to outlets
Figure 2.22 Balanced cold supply connection position
Secondary circulation is a method of returning the
INDUSTRY TIP
hot water draw-off back to the storage cylinder in a
Some installers take all of the cold water installation from continuous loop to eliminate cold water dead legs by
the balanced connection on the composite valve to ensure reducing the distance the hot water must travel before
an equal pressure across the whole hot and cold installation. it arrives at the taps.
KEY TERM
Secondary circulation in Dead leg: when a hot tap is opened, a certain
domestic dwellings amount of cold water is usually drawn off and
allowed to run to drain before hot water arrives
Secondary circulation is required where the length of at the tap. This wasted, cold water is known as
any draw-off pipework is excessive. British Standard a dead leg. Under the Water Regulations, dead
BS EN 806 and the Water Supply (Water Fittings) legs must be restricted to the lengths given in
Regulations give the maximum length a hot water Table 2.3. If this is not possible, then secondary
draw-off pipe may travel without a secondary circulation is required.
circulation system being installed. These lengths are
reproduced in Table 2.3 below.
Table 2.3 Maximum recommended lengths of uninsulated hot
INDUSTRY TIP
water pipes
A secondary circulation pump is very similar in design
Outside diameter of pipe (mm) Maximum length (m) to a central heating circulator. The difference is that the
12 20 secondary circulating pump has a body cast from bronze to
Over 12 up to and including 22 12 eliminate discoloured water and subsequent contamination.
Bronze, as we discovered at Level 2, is a non-ferrous metal
Over 22 up to and including 28 8
that does not rust. Central heating circulators have a cast
Over 28 3
iron or steel body that would rust if used on a secondary
It should be remembered that no DHWS dead leg should exceed a circulation system. Under no circumstances should a central
volume of 0.5 litres. The table is designed around this figure with heating circulator be used.
pipe volumes /m giving a maximum length per diameter.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
In all installations, secondary circulation must use not possible to install a connection of the vessel itself.
forced circulation via a bronze or stainless steel-bodied Where secondary circulation is required, this must
circulating pump to circulate the water to and from the be taken to the cold water feed connection using a
storage cylinder. The position of the pump will depend swept tee just before the cold feed enters the unit. To
upon the type of hot water system installed. safeguard against reverse circulation, a non-return valve
or single check valve must be fitted after the circulating
pump and just before the swept tee branch. The pump
should be fitted on the secondary return, close to the
hot water storage vessel.
Secondary circulation installations
on open vented hot water storage
systems
With secondary circulation on open vented systems,
the return pipe runs from the furthest hot tap back to
Figure 2.23 A bronze-bodied secondary circulation pump
the cylinder where it enters at about a quarter of the
way down. A circulating pump is placed on the return,
close to the hot water cylinder, pumping into the vessel.
Secondary circulation installations As with all secondary circulation systems, the pump
on unvented hot water storage must be made from bronze or stainless steel to ensure
systems that corrosion does not pose a problem. Isolation
In most cases, a secondary circulation connection is valves must be installed either side of the pump so that
not fitted on an unvented hot water storage vessel the pump may be replaced or repaired. The system is
and, unlike open vented hot water storage vessels, it is shown in Figure 2.25.
Isolation valve
In-line strainer
Pressure reducing valve
Balanced cold
connection
Single check
valve Pressure
relief valve
Expansion bubble
Temperature
relief valve
Tundish
Single check
valve
Swept
'tee'
Bronze pump
Secondary circulation
Figure 2.24 Secondary circulation on an unvented hot water storage installation
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Some open vented cylinders can be purchased with a cylinder would never reach the disinfecting temperature
secondary return connection already installed on the of 60 °C and so would always be at risk of a Legionella
cylinder. Alternatively, an Essex flange can be used on outbreak, however remote.
cylinders where no connection exists.
By installing a single check valve on the return and
positioning it between the pump and the cylinder,
Open vent pipe
reverse circulation is prevented.
Cold feed pipe
22 mm or 28 mm full way gate or Time clocks for secondary circulation
lever type spherical ball valve
If secondary circulation is used on hot water systems,
Secondary return it should be controlled by a time clock so that the
1/ of the way down
4
the cylinder circulating pump is not running 24 hours a day. The
time clock should be set to operate only during periods
Bronze
pump of demand and should be wired in conjunction with
pipe thermostats (also known as aquastats) to switch
off the pump when the system is up to the correct
temperature and circulation is not required and to
activate the pump when the water temperature drops.
Secondary return connection at the furthest appliance
Figure 2.25 Secondary circulation on an open vented hot water Insulating secondary circulation pipework
storage installation If secondary circulation systems are installed, they
should be insulated for the entire length of the system.
This is to prevent excessive heat loss through the
extended pipework due to the water being circulated
by a circulating pump. The insulation should be thick
enough so as to maintain the heat loss below the
values in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Insulation thickness for secondary circulation pipework
Tube/pipe size (mm) Maximum heat loss per metre (w/m)
15 7.89
22 9.12
28 10.07
Figure 2.26 An Essex flange
Secondary circulation on large open
vented hot water storage systems
Positioning secondary circulation Figure 2.27 shows a large domestic hot water system
components with secondary circulation. As can be seen, there are
The secondary flow (the hot water draw-off), as we some significant differences from other secondary
have already seen, should have a temperature of at circulation systems:
least 60 °C+. The secondary return of the secondary l The hot water vessel includes a shunt pump (see
circulation circuit should have a return temperature of Figure 2.27). This is to circulate the water within
50 °C when it reaches the cylinder at the end of the the cylinder to ensure that the varying temperature
circuit. In this way, the hottest part of the cylinder will (stratification) of the water inside is kept to a
always be the top where the hot water is drawn off. minimum and to ensure an even heat distribution
If reversed circulation were to occur, the water in the throughout, thereby preventing the growth of the
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Legionella bacteria. Stratification is desirable during Here are some points to remember regarding large
the day so that the draw-off water is maintained at centralised hot water systems:
its hottest for the longest period of time. Because l The pipework should be carefully designed to
of this, the shunt pump should only operate during prevent dead legs as this is a major concern with
periods of low demand (such as at night). regard to Legionella pneumophila.
l The secondary circulation pump (component 5 in l The hot water storage vessel should be capable of
Figure 2.27) is installed on the secondary flow and being heated to 70 °C, again, to kill any Legionella
not the secondary return as with other, smaller that may be present.
systems. l There should be easy access for draining, cleaning,
l A non-return valve (component 6 in Figure 2.27) inspection and maintenance.
is installed on the secondary flow to ensure that l If a shunt pump is installed, the storage vessel
reverse circulation does not occur. should be insulated on its underside to prevent
l A cylinder thermostat (component 3 in Figure 2.27) excessive heat loss.
is provided to maintain the temperature within the
cylinder at a maximum of 60 °C. The use of trace heating instead of
l A pipe stat (component 2 in Figure 2.27) installed secondary circulation
on the secondary flow maintains the temperature Electric trace heating uses an electric cable that forms
at a minimum of at least 50 °C. a heating element. It is positioned directly in contact
l A motorised valve (component 4 in Figure 2.27) is with the pipe along the whole length of the pipe
installed on the secondary return close to the hot length. The pipe is then covered in thermal insulation.
water storage vessel to prevent water being drawn The heat generated by the element keeps the pipe at a
from the secondary return when the pump is not specific temperature.
operating.
l Lockshield gate valves (components 7 and 8 in The operation of the trace heating element should
Figure 2.27) are provided to balance the system to be timed to a period when the hot water system is in
ensure even circulation throughout the secondary most use (such as early in the morning and evening). If
water system. the pipe is well insulated and installed with a timer, the
l The secondary circulation system, shunt pumps and amount of energy usage will be minimal.
thermostats are controlled through a control box By using trace heating, the additional cost of the extra
(component 1 in Figure 2.27). pipework for the secondary return and its associated
pump and running costs is removed.
2
6
4
5 8
3
7 Figure 2.28 Trace heating
INDUSTRY TIP
Figure 2.27 Secondary circulation on a large domestic open Trace heating can also be used as frost protection on cold
vented hot water storage installation
water systems.
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3 SPECIALIST Safety controls – control thermostat,
high limit thermostat and
COMPONENTS IN HOT temperature relief valve
WATER SYSTEMS With the water inside the storage vessel at a
pressure above atmospheric pressure, the control of
In this section, we will look at some of the specialised the water temperature becomes vitally important.
components that are used in unvented hot water storage This is because as the pressure of the water rises,
systems. These are important because of the operating so the boiling point of the water rises. In simple
characteristics of mains-fed hot water storage systems. terms, if total temperature control failure were to
occur, the water inside the vessel would eventually
The function and position exceed 100 °C, with disastrous consequences. The
line graph in Figure 2.30 demonstrates the pressure/
of components in unvented temperature relationship.
hot water systems controls On the graph it can be seen that at the relatively
The controls for unvented hot water storage systems small pressure of 1 bar, the boiling point of the water
(UHWSS) fall under two categories. These are: has risen to 120.2 °C! If a sudden loss of pressure
l safety at the hot water storage vessel were to occur due
l functional. to vessel fracture, at 120.2 °C the entire contents
of the cylinder would instantly flash to steam with
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the various
explosive results causing structural damage to the
controls and components for unvented hot water
property.
storage systems, their function and the position that
they occupy within the system.
Pressure
relief
valve Temperature
& pressure
relief
valve
In-line
strainer
Tundish
Pressure
reducing
valve
Isolation valve
Single check valve
Figure 2.29 The controls on a modern UHWSS
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
and the boiler high limit stat, designed to operate
5
at typically 90 °C).
l Overheat thermostat (thermal cut-out 90 °C
4 maximum but more usually factory set at between
85 and 89 °C) – again, this can take two forms:
3 l with direct heated systems, it is incorporated
Bar gauge
into the immersion heater thermostat
l with indirectly heated systems, it is a separate
2
component factory wired into the vessel and
designed to operate the motorised valve at the
1 primary hot water coil.
l Temperature/pressure relief valve (95 °C) – a
0 standard component used on most vessels that is
designed to discharge water when the temperature
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
exceeds 95 °C. Most types have a secondary
120.2 133.5 143.6 151.8 158.8
pressure relief function.
Degrees Celsius
Figure 2.30 Boiling point/pressure relationship
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating how much steam would be produced,
illustrates the point further:
1 cm3 of water creates 1600 cm3 of steam. If the
storage vessel contains 200 litres of water and each
litre of water contains 1000 cm3, then the amount of
steam produced would be:
200 × 1000 × 1600 = 320,000,000 cm3 of steam! Figure 2.31 A temperature/pressure relief valve
The Building Regulations Approved Document G3 Functional controls
states that unvented hot water storage systems The functional controls of an unvented hot water
must have a three-tier level of safety built into the storage system are designed to protect the water supply:
system. This takes the form of three components l To avoid contamination, the storage cylinder or vessel
that are fitted to the storage vessel. The aim of these must be of an approved material, such as copper or
components is to ensure that the water within the duplex stainless steel, or have an appropriate lining
system never exceeds 100 °C. These components are: that will not cause corrosion or contamination of the
l Control thermostat (set to 60 to 65 °C) – this can
water contained within it. Where necessary it must
take two forms depending on the type of storage be protected by a sacrificial anode.
vessel: l A single check valve (often referred to as a non-
l with direct heated vessels this is the immersion
return valve) must be fitted to the cold water inlet
heater user thermostat to prevent hot or warm water from entering the
l with indirectly heated vessels it is the cylinder
water undertaker’s mains supply.
thermostat wired to the central heating wiring l A means of accommodating and containing the
centre. increase in volume of water due to expansion must be
Indirectly fired systems are also controlled, in part, installed. This can either be by the use of an externally
by the boiler thermostat (82 °C maximum setting) fitted expansion vessel or via an integral air bubble.
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l An expansion valve (also known as the pressure
relief valve) must be installed and should be
designed to operate should a malfunction occur
with either the pressure reducing valve or the
means of accommodating the expanded water. The
expansion valve must be manufactured to BS EN
1491:2000, Building valves. Expansion valves. Tests
and requirements.
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations also
state that: Figure 2.34 A ‘type A’ drain off valve
Water supply systems shall be capable of being
The functional controls of an unvented hot water
drained down and fitted with an adequate
storage system are listed below. We will look at each
number of servicing valves and drain taps so as
one in turn and identify its position within the system
to minimise the discharge of water when water
fittings are maintained or replaced.
In-line strainer
To comply with this requirement, a servicing valve should The in-line strainer is basically a filter designed to
be fitted on the cold supply close to the storage vessel prevent any solid matter within the water from entering
but before any other control. The valve may be a full- and fouling the pressure reducing valve and any other
bore spherical plug, lever action type isolation valve or a mechanical components sited downstream. In modern
screw-down stop valve. Any drain valves fitted should be storage systems, this is incorporated into the composite
manufactured to BS 2879 and be ‘type A’ drain valves valve, which will be discussed later in this section.
with a locking nut and an ‘O’ ring seal on the spindle.
Figure 2.35 In-line strainer
Pressure reducing valve
Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) were looked at in detail
Figure 2.32 A BS 1010 screw-down stop valve in Chapter 1.
The pressure reducing valve of an unvented hot water
storage system reduces the pressure of the incoming
water supply to the operating pressure of the system. In
all cases this will be set by the manufacturer and sealed
at the factory. The outlet pressure will remain constant
even during periods of fluctuating pressures. Should
the pressure of the water supply drop below that of the
operating pressure of the PRV, it will remain fully open
Figure 2.33 A lever action spherical plug isolation valve to allow the available pressure to be used.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Replacement internal cartridges are available and Expansion device (vessel or integral
easily fitted without changing the valve body should a to cylinder)
malfunction occur.
Water expands when heated. Between 4 and 100 °C
Modern PRVs for unvented hot water storage systems are it will expand by approximately 4 per cent. Therefore
supplied with a balanced cold connection already fitted. 100 litres of water at 4 °C becomes 104 litres at
100 °C. It is this expansion of water that must be
accommodated in an unvented hot water storage
system. This can be achieved in one of two ways:
l by the use of an externally fitted expansion vessel
l by the use of a purpose designed internal expansion
space or ‘expansion bubble’.
Expansion vessels
An expansion vessel is a cylindrical shaped vessel that
is used to accommodate the thermal expansion of
water to protect the system from excessive pressures.
It is installed as close to the storage vessel as possible
Figure 2.36 Pressure reducing valve
and preferably higher. There are two basic types: the
Single check valve bladder (bag) type expansion vessel and the diaphragm
type expansion vessel.
The single check valve (also known as a non-return
valve) is fitted to prevent hot water from backflowing The bladder (bag) type expansion vessel
from the hot water storage vessel causing possible fluid Also known as the bag type expansion vessel, it is
category 2 contamination of the cold water supply. The usually made from steel and contains a neoprene rubber
single check valve also ensures that the expansion of bladder to accept the expanded water. At no time does
water when it is heated is taken up within the systems the water come into contact with the steel vessel as it
expansion components or expansion bubble. Single is contained at all times within the bladder.
check valves are classified as either type EA or EB
The inside of the steel vessel is filled with either air
backflow prevention devices.
or nitrogen to a predetermined pressure. The initial
pressure charge from the manufacturer is usually made
KEY POINT with nitrogen to negate the corrosive effects on the
Backflow prevention devices were discussed in steel vessel’s interior. A Schrader valve is fitted to allow
detail in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning
the pressures to be checked and to allow an air ‘top-
and design.
up’ if this becomes necessary. Figure 2.38 shows the
workings of a bladder type expansion vessel.
l Diagram A shows the bladder in its collapsed state.
This is because the only pressure is the air/nitrogen
charge compressing the empty bladder. There is no
water in the bladder.
l Diagram B shows that water under pressure has
entered the bladder during the initial cold fill of
Figure 2.37 Single check (non-return) valve the storage cylinder, causing the bladder to expand
In most cases, the check valve will be part of the pressurising the air in relation to the water pressure.
composite valve, to be discussed later in this section. The bladder has expanded because the water
pressure is greater than the pressure of the air.
l Diagram C shows the bladder fully expanded due to
the hot water expansion when the system is heated.
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Expanded water Expanded water
Air cushion Air cushion Air cushion
Bladder type membrane
A B C
Figure 2.38 Workings of a bladder (bag) type expansion vessel Figure 2.39 Bladder (bag)
type expansion vessel
With some bladder expansion vessels, the bladder is Again, like the bladder type expansion vessel, a
replaceable in the event of bladder failure. A flange at Schrader valve is fitted to allow top-up and testing of
the base of the vessel holds the bladder in place. By the air pressure. Figure 2.40 shows the workings of a
releasing the air and removing the bolts, the bladder diaphragm type expansion vessel.
can be withdrawn and replaced.
Internal expansion
The diaphragm type expansion vessel With internal expansion, an air pocket is formed as
Diaphragm expansion vessels are used where the water the hot water storage vessel is filled. A floating baffle
has been de-oxygenated by the use of inhibitors or plate provides a barrier between the air and the water
because the water has been repeatedly heated, such as so that there is minimum contact between the air and
in a sealed central heating system. They must not be the water in the cylinder. When the water is heated,
used with unvented hot water storage systems because the expansion pushes the baffle plate upwards in a
the water is always oxygenated and comes into direct similar manner to an expansion vessel.
contact with the steel of the vessel. Over a period of time, the air within the air bubble
They are made in two parts with a neoprene rubber will dissipate as it is leeched into the water. When this
diaphragm separating the water from the air charge. happens, expansion cannot take place and the pressure
relief valve will start to discharge water. However,
Expanded water Expanded water
Air charge Air charge Air charge
A Diaphragm B C
Figure 2.40 The workings of a diaphragm type expansion vessel Figure 2.41 Diaphragm type
expansion vessel
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
this will only occur as the water heats up. Once the In other words, if the volume is halved, the pressure is
cylinder is at its full temperature, the pressure relief doubled.
valve will close and will only begin to discharge water
Mathematically, Boyle’s law is expressed as:
again when expansion is taking place. Because of
P1V1 = P2V2
this, manufacturers of bubble top units and packages
recommend that the cylinder is drained down Where:
completely and refilled to recharge the air bubble. P1 = initial pressure = 1 bar
V1 = initial volume = 20 litres
INDUSTRY TIP P2 = final pressure = to be found
V2 = final volume = 20 litres – 10 litres of expanded
The cylinder should be drained on an annual basis, or as water
and when required.
So, to find the pressure in the vessel, the formula must
The scientific principles of expansion be transposed:
vessels P1 × V1
P2 =
The principle of an expansion vessel is that a gas is V2
compressible but liquids are not. That principle is based Therefore:
upon Boyle’s law. In this case the gas is air or nitrogen
and the liquid is water. P2 = 1 bar × 20 litres
10 litres
Boyle’s law states: = 2 bar final cold pressure
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional
to its absolute pressure provided that the
temperature remains constant.
Hot water dip pipe
Air
Floating baffle plate
Floating baffle plate moves
upwards as the water expands
Figure 2.42 Integral air bubble
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS The capacity left in the vessel after the initial fill is
15 litres with a cold fill pressure of 1 bar and that
If, on the initial cold fill of the system, the vessel
10 litres of water are to expand inside the vessel, the
required, say, 5 litres of water to be taken in, the air
final pressure of the system will be:
pressure to apply to the vessel can be calculated. We
can assume a water pressure of 1 bar. P × V1
P2 = 1
P1 = 1 bar V2
Therefore:
V1 = 20 litres
P2 = 1 × 15 = 15 = 3 bar
V2 = 20 litres – 5 litres = 15 litres 15 - 10 5
P2 = pressure to be calculated The initial pressure of the empty 20 litre vessel was
P1 × V1 1.33 bar. On initial cold fill 5 litres of water entered
P2 = the vessel reducing the capacity to 15 litres. As a
V2
result, the air was compressed even more when the
Therefore: expansion of water takes place and instead of 2 bar
final pressure, the pressure when the water is heated
1 bar × 20 litres
P2 = = 1.33 bar will be 3 bar.
15 litres
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS P2 = final pressure = to be found
Transposing the formula P1V1 = P2V2 as shown in the V2 = final volume = 18 litres − 9 litres of
example above, find the final hot operating pressure expanded water
of the storage cylinder.
Where: P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = initial pressure = 1.5 bar This equals:
1.5 bar × 18 litres = P2 × 9 litres of water
V1 = initial volume = 18 litres
Now transpose the equation to find P2.
Pressure relief valve
Often referred to as the expansion relief valve, the
pressure relief valve is designed to automatically
discharge water in the event of excessive mains
pressure or malfunction of the expansion device
(expansion vessel or air bubble). It is important that no
valve is positioned between the pressure relief valve
and the storage cylinder.
The pressure at which the pressure relief valve operates
is determined by the operating pressure of the storage Figure 2.43 Pressure relief valve
vessel and the working pressure of the pressure
reducing valve. The valve is pre-set by the manufacturer Tundish arrangements
and must not be altered.
The tundish is part of the discharge pipework and
The pressure relief valve will not prevent the storage is supplied with every unvented hot water storage
vessel from exploding should a temperature fault occur system. It is the link between the D1 and D2 pipework
and, as such, is not regarded as a safety control. arrangements. It has three main functions:
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l to provide a visual indication that either the manufacturers now prefer to supply composite valves
pressure relief or temperature relief valves are which incorporate many components into one ‘multi-
discharging water due to a malfunction valve’. A typical composite valve will contain:
l to provide a physical, type A air gap between l a strainer
the discharge pipework and the pressure relief/ l a pressure reducing or pressure limiting valve,
temperature relief valves followed immediately by
l to give a means of releasing water through the l a balanced cold take off, and finally
opening in the tundish in the event of a blockage in l a pressure relief valve.
the discharge pipework.
The tundish must always be fitted in the upright position Isolation valve
in a visible place close to the storage vessel. The tundish Composite valve
Expansion vessel Balanced cold water
will be looked at in more detail when discharge pipework
arrangements are discussed later in this section.
Figure 2.46 Position of a composite valve
Figure 2.44 Tundish
Some composite valves may also contain an isolation
valve. With all controls contained in a single valve,
Composite valves making the connection to an unvented hot water
These days, it is very rare to see individual controls storage vessel is a simple matter of just connecting
fitted on an unvented hot water storage system unless the cold supply, without the need to ensure that the
it is an early type manufactured in the 1990s. Most controls have been fitted in the correct order.
Pressure relief valve
Pressure reducing valve
Reduced pressure cold water Cold water inlet
outlet to the hot water storage
vessel
Strainer Single check valve
Balanced cold connection
Figure 2.45 A typical composite valve
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The discharge pipework l The discharge pipe should not connect to a
soil discharge pipe unless the pipe material can
withstand the high temperatures of discharge water,
The layout features for temperature in which case it should:
and expansion relief (discharge) l contain a mechanical seal (such as a Hepworth
pipework HepvO valve), not incorporating a water trap to
With unvented hot water systems, there is always the prevent foul air from venting through the tundish
possibility, however undesirable, that the pressure relief in the event of trap evaporation
and temperature relief valves may discharge water. The l be a separate branch pipe with no sanitary
discharge pipework is designed specifically to remove appliances connected to it
the discharged water away from the building safely. It l where branch pipes are to be installed in plastic
is, therefore, very important that it is installed correctly pipe they should be either polybutalene (PB)
with correct size of pipe and that the pipework is made to class S of BS 7291.2:2010 or cross linked
from the correct material, especially since the water polyethylene (PE-X) to Class S of BS 7291.
discharged may be at near boiling point. There are 3:2010
three sections to the discharge pipework: l be marked along the entire length with a
l D1 pipework arrangement warning that no sanitary appliances can be
l the tundish connected to the pipe.
l D2 pipework arrangement. l The D1 pipework must not be smaller than the
outlet of the temperature relief valve.
As we have already established the role of the
l The D1 discharge from both the pressure relief and
tundish earlier in the chapter, we will concentrate
temperature relief valves may be joined by a tee
specifically on the D1 and D2 sections of the
piece provided that all of the points above have
discharge pipework.
been complied with.
To ensure that there is no damage to the property, the l There must be at least 300 mm of vertical pipe
discharge pipework should be positioned in a safe but from the tundish to any bend in the D2 pipework.
visible position and should conform to the following:
l The discharge must be via an air break (tundish)
KEY POINT
positioned within 600 mm of the temperature relief Paragraph 3.9 of Approved Document G3
valve. Guidance notes specifies metal pipe for the
l The tundish must be located within the same space discharge pipework. However, G3 itself states only
as the hot water storage vessel. that hot water discharged from a safety device
l It should be made of metal or other material should be safely conveyed to where it is visible
capable of withstanding the temperature of the but will not cause a danger to persons in or about
the building. Since many types of plastic pipe are
discharged water. The pipe should be clearly now able to withstand the heat of the discharge
and permanently marked to identify the type of water, the responsibility for the choice of material
product and its performance standards (see Key rests with the installer, the commissioning
point). engineer and the local building control officer
l The discharge pipe must not exceed the hydraulic to ensure that G3 is complied with. It is also
resistance of a 9 m straight length of pipe without important that if plastic pipes are used, the type
of plastic is clearly indicated for future reference
increasing the pipe size. when inspections and servicing are carried out.
l It must fall continuously throughout its entire
length with a minimum fall of 1 in 200.
l The D2 pipework from the tundish must be at least Figure 2.47 illustrates some of the requirements
one pipe size larger than the D1 pipework. mentioned above.
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D1 discharge pipe from the
temperature relief valve
600 mm max.
Tundish
300 mm
min.
D2 discharge pipework must Fixed
have continuous fall grating
Trapped
gulley
Figure 2.47 The layout of the discharge pipework
The pipe size and positioning length of pipe without increasing the pipe size. Where
methods for safety relief (discharge) the discharge pipework exceeds 9 m, the size of the
discharge pipe will require calculating including the
pipework connected to unvented
resistance of any bends and elbows. You can use Table
hot water cylinder safety valves 2.5 to do this.
As we have already seen, the discharge pipework must
not exceed the hydraulic resistance of a 9 m straight
Table 2.5 Sizing discharge pipework
Valve outlet Maximum size Maximum size of Maximum resistance allowed, Resistance
size of discharge to discharge pipe from expressed as a length of straight created by each
tundish (D1) (mm) tundish (D2) (mm) pipe without bends or elbow (m) bend or elbow (m)
22 Up to 9 0.8
G½ 15 28 Up to 18 1.0
35 Up to 27 1.4
28 Up to 9 1.0
G¾ 22 35 Up to 18 1.4
42 Up to 27 1.7
35 Up to 9 1.4
G1 28 42 Up to 18 1.7
54 Up to 27 2.3
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Let’s look at how Table 2.5 works. The length of 22 mm discharge pipe, as we have
The temperature and pressure relief valves both have already seen, is 9 m so, at 10.8 m, 22 mm pipe is
½“ BSP outlets. Therefore, the D1 pipework, as can not large enough for the discharge pipe run. Another
be seen from the table, can be installed in 15 mm pipe size will have to be chosen.
tube. The discharge pipe run is 6 m long to the final Looking at 28 mm, we see that the maximum run
termination and there are 6 elbows installed in the run of pipe is 18 m, but the 28 mm elbows now have
of pipe. a resistance of 1 m and there are six of them.
Using the first row in the table, the first option has Therefore:
to be 22 mm because the D2 pipework must be at 6 × 1 = 6m
least one pipe size larger than the D1 pipework. The
maximum length of 22 mm pipe is 9 m, but there Add this to the original length of 6 m:
are six elbows in the run and each of these has a 6 + 6 = 12 m
resistance of 0.8 m.
In this case the discharge pipework is well within the
6 × 0.8 = 4.8 m 18 m limit and so 28 mm discharge pipework can be
If we add the original length of 6 m, we get: installed.
4.8 + 6 = 10.8 m
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS The Building Regulations Approved Document G3
A customer wishes to have an unvented hot water
states that the discharge pipe (D2) from the tundish
storage system installed. You have been asked by must terminate in a safe place with no risk to persons
the site supervisor to size the discharge pipework. in the discharge vicinity. Acceptable discharge
The temperature and pressure relief valves both have arrangements are:
½“ BSP outlets. Therefore, the D1 pipework can be l To trapped gully with pipe below gully grate but
installed in 15 mm tube. The discharge pipe run is above the water seal.
9 m long to the final termination and there are five
l Downward discharges at low level up to a maximum
elbows installed in the run of pipe.
100 mm above external surfaces, such as car parks,
What size of discharge pipework should be
installed? hard standings and grassed areas, are acceptable,
provided a wire cage or similar guard is provided to
prevent contact, whilst maintaining visibility.
Correct termination of the discharge l Discharges at high level, onto a flat metal roof
pipework or other material capable of withstanding the
temperature of the water may be used provided
A risk assessment is likely to be needed where any
that any plastic guttering system is at least 3 m
termination point for the discharge pipework is to be
away from the point of discharge to prevent
considered. This will determine whether any special
damage to the guttering.
requirements are needed in relation to the termination
l Discharges at high level, into a metal hopper and
point and its access. Points to be considered here are:
metal downpipe may be used provided that the end
l areas where the public may be close by or have
of the discharge pipe is clearly visible. The number
access to
of discharge pipes terminating in a single metal
l areas where children are likely to play or have
hopper should be limited to six to ensure that the
access to
faulty system is traceable.
l areas where the discharge may cause a nuisance or
l Discharge pipes that turn back on themselves and
a danger
terminate against a wall or other vertical surface
l termination at height
should have a gap of at least one pipe diameter
l the provision for warning notices in vulnerable areas.
between the discharge pipe and the wall surface.
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D1 discharge pipe from the
temperature relief valve
600 mm max.
Tundish
D2 discharge pipework must have 300 mm
continuous fall of 1 in 200 minimum min.
100 mm max.
Figure 2.48 The low-level termination of discharge pipework 1
D1 discharge pipe from the
temperature relief valve
600 mm max.
Tundish
The gap between
300 mm the discharge pipe and
D2 discharge pipework must have the wall must be 1 pipe
continuous fall of 1 in 200 minimum min.
diameter minimum
Figure 2.49 The low-level termination of discharge pipework 2
KEY POINT
The discharge may consist of high temperature
water and steam. Asphalt, roofing felt and other
non-metallic rainwater goods may be damaged by
very high temperature hot water discharges.
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Termination of the discharge pipework Choosing the right hot water
where the storage vessel is sited below
ground level system
When storage vessels are sited below ground, such The type of system we choose will depend on the
as in a cellar, the removal of the discharge becomes following points:
l The size of the property and the distance from
a problem because it cannot be discharged safely
away from the building. However, with the approval the outlets – the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
of the local authority and the vessel manufacturer it Regulation stipulates the maximum distance that a
may be possible to pump the discharge to a suitable hot water supply pipe may run without constituting
external point. A constant temperature of 95 °C should wastage of water. This is because of the amount
be allowed for when designing a suitable pumping of cold water that is drawn off before hot water
arrangement. The pump should include a suitable arrives at the taps. This ‘dead’, cold water must be
switching arrangement installed in conjunction with limited. Large properties may exceed the maximum
a discharge collection vessel made from a material distances for hot water dead legs, which excludes
resistant to high temperature water. The vessel should some hot water systems. In these cases, only
be carefully sized in line with the predicted discharge systems that can incorporate secondary circulation
rate and should include an audible alarm to indicate should be considered.
l The number of occupants and the amount
discharge from either of the pressure or temperature
relief valves is taking place. of hot water required – larger households
will, obviously, require more hot water, which
can be supplied in a number of ways (such as
Specialist components an instantaneous water heater giving unlimited
Our work as plumbers covers a multitude of various hot water amounts or a large hot water storage
installations, systems and components. Occasionally, cylinder) but other factors must also be considered
we may be asked to install specialist components that before a decision is made.
we may only come into contact with on a limited l The number of hot water outlets – again, an
number of occasions. Even so, it is important that we important point because this may automatically
become familiar with these ‘specialist’ components to exclude such appliances as combi boilers and
ensure that we position and install them correctly and instantaneous heaters because, although classed as
according to the manufacturer’s instructions and in line multipoint heaters, only one outlet at a time may
with any regulations or recommendations. be opened satisfactorily whereas other types of hot
Specialist components used on hot water systems are water system may allow multiple open taps with
much the same as those used on cold water systems, good flow rate.
and these were covered in much detail in Chapter 1, l The type(s) of fuel to be used – with most storage
Cold water systems, planning and design. hot water systems, multiple fuels may be used in
one system, such as utilising gas, oil or solid fuel as
the main fuel source with an electrical alternative
4 DESIGN TECHNIQUES (immersion heater) as back-up or for summer use.
FOR HOT WATER Multipoint heaters do not have this capability and
so fuel type usage is very limited.
SYSTEMS l Installation and maintenance costs – again, a
very important point because of the size of the
This section will cover the design techniques used system, initial cost of the appliance and materials.
for hot water systems, including calculating system Add to this the installation costs and any
requirements and installation requirements. maintenance costs over the lifetime of the system.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
l Running costs and energy efficiency – new,
more efficient methods of heating water are being
Statutory regulations and
developed constantly. Perhaps the most important sources of information
recent development is that of solar hot water
heating, which can, theoretically, offer a 60 per cent Statutory regulations
saving on domestic hot water heating costs, despite The installation of hot water systems is governed
its initial costly installation. The development of strictly by various regulations:
fuel-efficient condensing oil and gas boilers and l Building Regulations Approved Document G3 2010
storage cylinders with fast heat recovery times have l Building Regulations Approved Document L1A/B 2013
also helped in terms of energy efficiency. (with 2016 amendments)
l Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
When these points are considered, the choice of
l Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
hot water system should be quite a straightforward
l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations.
affair. Certain dwellings almost dictate the system
that should be fitted. For example, it would be unwise
The Building Regulations Approved
to install a combi boiler in a dwelling with three
Document G3 2010
bathrooms, a kitchen, utility room and downstairs
washroom: the hot water demand would be more than In the past, Building Regulations Approved Document G3
the boiler could cope with. only related to unvented hot water supply systems. In
2010 it was updated to encompass all hot water delivery
KEY POINT systems in domestic dwellings. It is divided into four parts:
l Part 1 of G3 is a new requirement. It states that
By far, the main considerations that must be
considered when selecting the right hot water heated wholesome water must be supplied to any
system are the type and number of appliances washbasin or bidet that is situated in or adjacent to
and their pattern and frequency of use. Knowing a room containing a sanitary convenience, to any
this will indicate the correct choice of system washbasins, bidets, fixed baths or showers installed
to install and the customer can then be advised in a bathroom and any sink in an area where food
accordingly.
is prepared.
Hot water
supply
Localised or
Centralised system single point system
Instantaneous Storage Instantaneous Storage
Combination Open Unvented Open vented
Thermal Gas storage
vented 'Fortic' vented/cistern- mains- Gas fired hot water
store water system
systems fed system fed system heater
Combi boiler or Unvented
instantaneous Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Indirect Electric hot water
water heater heater
Combined Small hot Small hot
primary water only water only Direct
storage units boiler boiler
Immersion Immersion
heater heater
Figure 2.50 Choosing the right hot water system
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l Part 2 is an expanded requirement. It states must be designed and installed to actively reduce the
that any hot water system, including associated amount of CO2 produced. The building fabric must
storage (including any cold water storage cistern) contain insulation to limit heat loss, and heating
or expansion vessel must resist the effects of any appliances, associated controls and equipment and
temperature or pressure that may occur during lighting systems must all reduce the energy wasted.
normal use as a consequence of any reasonably Pipes and storage vessels must also be insulated to
anticipated fault or malfunction. This amendment reduce the waste of energy.
was enforced after the failure of an immersion
heater thermostat that caused the collapse of a This document should be read in conjunction with the
storage cistern containing water almost at boiling Domestic Building Compliance Guide.
point.
l Part 3, again, is an amended requirement. It INDUSTRY TIP
states that any part of a hot water system that
incorporates a hot water storage vessel must Copies of the Building Regulations Approved Documents G3
include precautions to ensure that the temperature 2010 and L 2013 can be downloaded free from these links:
of the stored water does not exceed 100 °C and www.gov.uk/government/publications/sanitation-hot-water-
that any discharge from such safety devices is safety-and-water-efficiency-approved-document-g
safely conveyed to a point where it is visible www.gov.uk/government/publications/conservation-of-fuel-
without constituting a danger to persons in or and-power-approved-document-l
about the building.
l Part 4 states that any hot water supply to a
fixed bath must include provision to limit the The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
temperature of the discharged water from any Regulations 1999
bath tap so that it cannot exceed 48 °C. This In many respects, the Water Regulations mirror
requirement applies to any new-build or property the Building Regulations and these two documents
conversions. It is a new requirement that is should be consulted before undertaking any design or
intended to prevent scalding. installation of hot water systems.
It is interesting to note that Regulation G3 applies to Hot water supply is covered in Section 8 of Schedule
all domestic dwellings, including greenhouses, small 2 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. It
detached buildings, extensions and conservatories, but is reproduced here complete with the guidance notes
only if they are served with hot water supplied from a attached to the regulations (published by Defra –
dwelling. Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs).
It should be noted that the local building control
officer should be informed before commencing any KEY POINT
installation of a hot water system. Remember! It is an offence to contaminate,
misuse, waste, unduly consume or erroneously
The Building Regulations Approved meter water from a water undertaker’s water main.
Document L1A/B 2010 The Water Supply Regulations are enforceable in a
court of law.
This document promotes the conservation of fuel
and power. The basic outline to this document is that
the building and services contained within a dwelling
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SECTION 8 Guidance
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and
24: Hot water services
17 (1) Every unvented water heater, not being an Unvented hot water systems
instantaneous water heater with a capacity not greater than G17.1 Every unvented water heater or storage vessel, and
15 litres, and every secondary coil contained in a primary every secondary coil contained in a heater and not being an
system shall: instantaneous water heater or a thermal storage unit of 15
a Be fitted with a temperature control device and either litres or less capacity, should be fitted with:
a temperature relief valve or a combined pressure and a A temperature control device; and either a temperature
temperature relief valve; or relief valve or combined temperature and pressure relief
b Be capable of accommodating expansion within the valve; and
secondary hot water system. b An expansion valve; and
(2) An expansion valve shall be fitted with provision to ensure c Unless the expanded water is returned to the supply pipe
that water is discharged in a correct manner in the event of a in accordance with Regulation 15(2)(a), either;
malfunction of the expansion vessel or system. i An expansion vessel; or
18 Appropriate vent pipes, temperature control devices and ii Contain an integral expansion system, such that the
combined temperature pressure and relief valves shall be expansion water is contained within the secondary
provided to prevent the temperature of the water within a system to prevent waste of water.
secondary hot water system from exceeding 100 °C. G17.2 An expansion valve should be fitted to all unvented hot
water storage systems, with a capacity in excess of 15 litres,
to ensure that expansion water is discharged in a correct
manner in the event of a malfunction of the expansion vessel
or system.
G17.3 Where expansion water is accommodated separately the
expansion vessel should preferably be of an approved ‘flow
through type’ and should comply with the requirements of BS
6144 and BS 6920.
Temperature of hot water within a storage system
G18.1 Irrespective of the type of fuel used for heating, the
temperature of the water at any point within a hot water
storage system should not exceed 100 °C and appropriate
Figure 2.51 Pipe insulation vent pipes, temperature control devices and other safety
19 Discharges from temperature relief valves, combined devices should be provided to prevent this occurring.
temperature pressure and relief valves and expansion valves Hot water distribution temperatures
shall be made in a safe and conspicuous manner. G18.2 Hot water should be stored at a temperature of not
20 (1) No vent pipe from a primary circuit shall terminate over less than 60 °C and distributed at a temperature of not less
a storage cistern containing wholesome water for domestic than 55 °C. This water distribution temperature may not be
supply or for supplying water to a secondary system. achievable where hot water is provided by instantaneous or
(2) No vent pipe from a secondary circuit shall terminate over combination boilers.
any combined feed and expansion cistern connected to a G18.3 The maintenance of acceptable water temperatures
primary circuit. may be achieved by efficient routing of pipes, reducing
21 Every expansion cistern or expansion vessel, and every the lengths of pipes serving individual appliances and the
cold water combined feed and expansion cistern connected application of good insulation practices to minimise freezing
to a primary circuit, shall be such as to accommodate any of cold water pipes and to promote energy conservation
expansion water from that circuit during normal operation. for hot water pipes. For references, see Comments and
22 (1) Every expansion valve, temperature relief valve or Recommendations of Clause 4.3.32.2 of BS 8558.
combined temperature and pressure relief valve connected Temperature of hot water supplies at terminal fittings and on
to any fitting or appliance shall close automatically after a surfaces of hot water pipes
discharge of water. G18.4 Where practicable the hot water distribution system
(2) Every expansion valve shall: should be designed and installed to provide the required flow
a Be fitted on the supply pipe close to the hot water vessel of water at terminal fittings to sanitary and other appliances
and without any intervening valves; and at a water temperature of not less than 50 °C and within
b Only discharge water when subjected to a water pressure 30 seconds after fully opening the tap. This criteria may not
of not less than 0.5 bar (50 kPa) above the pressure to be achievable where hot water is provided by instantaneous
which the hot water vessel is, or is likely to be, subjected or combination boilers.
in normal operation.
➜
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SECTION 8 Guidance
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and
24: Hot water services
23 (1) A temperature relief valve or combined temperature G18.5 Terminal fittings or communal showers in schools or
and pressure relief valve shall be provided on every unvented public buildings, and in other facilities used by the public,
hot water storage vessel with a capacity greater than 15 litres. should be supplied with water through thermostatic mixing
(2) The valve shall: valves so that the temperature of the water discharged at the
a Be located directly on the vessel in an appropriate outlets does not exceed 43 °C.
location, and have a sufficient discharge capacity, to G18.6 The temperature of water discharged from terminal
ensure that the temperature of the stored water does not fittings and the surface temperature of any fittings in
exceed 100 °C; and health care premises should not exceed the temperatures
b Only discharge water at below its operating temperature recommended in HS(G)104 – Safe hot water and surface
when subjected to a pressure of not less than 0.5 bar temperatures.
(50 kPa) in excess of the greater of the following: Energy conservation
i The maximum working pressure in the vessel in which it
G18.7 All water fittings forming part of a primary or secondary
is fitted, or
hot water circulation system and all pipes carrying hot water
ii The operating pressure of the expansion valve.
to a tap that are longer than the maximum length given in the
(3) In this paragraph “unvented hot water storage vessel” below table should be thermally insulated in accordance with
means a hot water storage vessel that does not have a vent BS 5422.
pipe to the atmosphere.
24 No supply pipe or secondary circuit shall be permanently Maximum recommended lengths of uninsulated hot water pipes
connected to a closed circuit for filling a heating system
unless it incorporates a backflow prevention device in Outside diameter (mm) Maximum length (m)
accordance with a specification approved by the regulator for 12 20
the purposes of this Schedule.
Over 12 and up to 22 12
Over 22 and up to 28 8
Over 28 3
G19.1 Discharge pipes from expansion valves, l have a vertical drop of 300 mm below the tundish
temperature relief valves and combined temperature outlet, and thereafter be laid to a self-draining gradient
and pressure relief valves should be installed in l be at least one size larger than the nominal outlet
accordance with the guidance given in this document size of the valve, unless its total equivalent hydraulic
and should also comply with the requirements of resistance exceeds that of a straight pipe 9 metres
Building Regulation G3. long. Where the total length of the pipe exceeds
9 metres equivalent resistance, the pipe shall be
Discharge pipes from safety devices increased in size by one nominal diameter for
G19.2 Where discharge pipes pass through environments each additional, or part of, equivalent 9 metres
outside the thermal envelope of the building they should resistance length. The flow resistance of bends in
be thermally insulated against the effects of frost. the pipe should be taken into consideration when
determining the equivalent length of pipe
G19.3 The discharge pipe from a temperature relief valve
l terminate in a safe place where there is no risk to
or combined temperature and pressure relief valve should:
persons in the vicinity of the point of discharge. See
l be through a readily visible air gap discharging over
Building Regulation G3.
a tundish located in the same room or internal space
and vertically as near as possible, and in any case
within 600 mm, of the point of outlet of the valve KEY POINT
l be of non-ferrous material, such as copper or stainless
Alternatively, the size of the discharge pipe may
be determined in accordance with Annex D of
steel, capable of withstanding any temperatures
BS EN 806.3 (which refers back to BS 6700:1997
arising from a malfunction of the system Annex C).
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Discharge pipes from expansion valves l be so arranged that expansion water can pass back
G19.4 The discharge pipe from an expansion valve may through a feed pipe to the cold water storage cistern
discharge into the tundish used for the discharge from a from which the apparatus or cylinder is supplied
temperature relief valve or from a combined temperature with water.
and pressure relief valve as described in G19.1, or: G20.5 Where the cold water storage cistern supplying
l discharge through a readily visible air gap over a water to the hot water storage vessel is also used
tundish located in the same room or internal space to supply wholesome water to sanitary or other
and vertically as near as possible and in any case appliances, any expansion water entering the cistern
within 600 mm of the point of outlet of the valve; through the feed pipe should preferably not raise the
and, temperature of the wholesome water in the cistern to
l be of non-ferrous material, such as copper or more than 20 °C.
stainless steel; and,
l discharge from the tundish through a vertical drop Vented systems requiring dedicated storage
outlet and thereafter be laid to a self-draining cisterns or mechanical safety devices
gradient; and, G20.6 Every vented and directly heated hot water
l not be less than the nominal outlet size of the storage vessel, single feed indirectly heated hot water
expansion valve and discharge external to the storage vessel, or any directly or indirectly heated
building at a safe and visible location. storage vessel where an electrical immersion heater
is installed, should be supplied with water from a
Vent pipes
dedicated storage cistern unless:
G20.1 Vent pipes from primary water systems should l where the energy source is gas, oil or electricity, a
be of adequate size but not less than 19 mm internal non-self-setting thermal energy cut-out device is
diameter. They may terminate over their respective cold provided in addition to the normal temperature-
water feed and expansion cisterns, or elsewhere providing operated automatic-reset cut-out; or,
there is a physical air gap, at least equivalent to the size l where the energy source is solid fuel, a temperature
of the vent pipe, above the top of the warning pipe, or relief valve complying with BS EN 1490:2000, or
overflow if there is one, at the point of termination. a combined temperature and pressure relief valve
G20.2 Vent pipes from hot water secondary storage complying with BS EN 1490:2000, is provided
systems should be of adequate size but not less than complete with a readily visible air-break to drain
19 mm internal diameter and be insulated against freezing. device and discharge pipe as described in G19.3.
G20.3 Where vent pipes, from either a primary or G20.7 Every double feed indirectly heated hot water
secondary system, terminate over their respective cold storage system which is heated by a sealed (unvented)
water feed cisterns, they should rise to a height above primary circuit, or the primary circuit heating medium
the top water level in the cistern sufficient to prevent is steam or high temperature hot water, or where an
any discharge occurring under normal operating electric immersion heater is installed, should:
conditions. l be supplied with water for the secondary circuit
from a dedicated cold water storage cistern; or,
Hot water systems supplied with water from l be provided with a non-self-setting thermal energy
storage cisterns cut-out device to control the primary circuit, and
G20.4 In any cistern-fed vented or unvented hot water any electric immersion heaters, in addition to any
storage system the storage vessel should: temperature-operated automatic-reset cut-out.
l be capable of accommodating any expansion G20.8 No water in the primary circuit of a double
water; or feed indirect hot water storage vessel should connect
l be connected to a separate expansion cistern or hydraulically to any part of a hot water secondary
vessel; or storage system.
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G20.9 Vent pipes from primary circuits should not BS EN 1490:2000, should be provided on every
terminate over cold water storage cisterns containing unvented hot water storage vessel. The valve should:
wholesome water for supply to sanitary appliances or l be located directly on the storage vessel, such
secondary hot water systems. that the temperature of the stored water does not
exceed 100 °C; and,
G20.10 Vent pipes from secondary hot water systems
l only discharge water at below its operating
should not terminate over feed and expansion cisterns
temperature when subjected to a pressure not less
supplying water to primary circuits.
than 0.5 bar (50 kPa) greater than the maximum
G20.11 No water in the primary circuit of a single working pressure in the vessel to which it is fitted, or
feed indirect hot water storage vessel, under normal 0.5 bar (50 kPa) greater than the operating pressure
operating conditions, should mix with water in the of the expansion valve, whichever is the greater.
secondary circuit. Single feed indirect hot water storage
vessels should be installed with a permanent vent to Non-mechanical safety devices
the atmosphere. G23.2 If a non-mechanical safety device such as a
fusible plug is fitted to any hot water storage vessel,
Primary feed and expansion cisterns that vessel requires a temperature relief valve or
G21.1 Every expansion cistern, and every cold water combined temperature and pressure relief valve
combined feed and expansion cistern connected to designed to operate at a temperature not less than
a primary or heating circuit should be capable of 5 °C below that at which the non-mechanical device
accommodating any expansion water from the circuit operates or is designed to operate.
and installed so that the water level is not less than
25 mm below the overflowing level of the warning pipe Filling of closed circuits
when the primary or heating circuit is in use. G24.1 No primary or other closed circuit should be
directly and permanently connected to a supply pipe
Expansion and safety devices unless it incorporates an approved backflow prevention
G22.1 Expansion valves, temperature relief valves arrangement.
or combined temperature and pressure relief valves
G24.2 A connection may be made to a supply pipe
connected to any fitting or appliance should close
for filling or replenishing a closed circuit by providing a
automatically after an operational discharge of water
servicing valve and an appropriate backflow prevention
and be watertight when closed.
device, the type of which will depend on the degree
G22.2 Expansion valves should comply with BS EN of risk arising from the category of fluid contained
1490:2000. They should be fitted on the supply pipe within the closed circuit, providing that the connection
close to the hot water vessel and without any intervening between the backflow prevention device and the closed
valves, and only discharge water when subjected to a circuit is made by:
water pressure of not less than 0.5 bar (50 kPa) above the l a temporary connecting pipe which must be
pressure to which the hot water vessel is, or is likely to completely disconnected from the outlet of the
be, subjected to in normal operation. backflow prevention device and the connection to
the primary circuit after completion of the filling or
Temperature and combined temperature replenishing procedure; or
relief valves l a device which in addition to the backflow
G23.1 Except for unvented hot water storage vessels of prevention device incorporates an air gap or break in
a capacity of 15 litres or less, a temperature relief valve the pipeline which cannot be physically closed while
complying with BS EN 1490:2000, or a combined the primary circuit is functioning; or
temperature and pressure relief valve complying with l an approved backflow prevention arrangement.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
standards from other countries. Guidance is given in
INDUSTRY TIP installations manuals such as the IET on-site guide and
IET Guidance notes 1 to 7.
A copy of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations can
be downloaded free from this link: www.legislation.gov.uk/ Installations in industrial and commercial premises
uksi/1999/1148/contents/made must also satisfy various other legislative documents
such as the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. Again,
the recognised standards and practices contained in
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) BS 7671 will help meet these requirements.
Regulations 1998
Many hot water supply appliances utilise gas as their INDUSTRY TIP
main fuel source for both direct and indirect domestic
hot water heating. This, obviously, means that the Gas A copy of the Building Regulations Approved Document
Regulations play an important part in any hot water P 2010 can be downloaded free from this link: www.gov.
installation. uk/government/publications/electrical-safety-approved-
document-p
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
deal with the safe installation, maintenance and use
of these appliances and any gas pipework and fittings
Industry standards
connected to them in both domestic and industrial/
commercial premises. The main requirement of the There are a number of industry standards that we can
regulations is that only a competent person, deemed reference to ensure that we conform to the regulations
by the Health and Safety Executive to be any person when installing hot water systems.
l British Standard BS EN 806 Parts 1 to 5 – this
that is a member of an approved body, must carry out
work on any gas fitting. In this case, installers of gas standard contains extensive information regarding
appliances, pipework and fittings must by registered the design and installation hot water supply
with Gas Safe. systems.
l British Standard BS 8558:2011 – this provides
complementary guidance to BS EN 806. It is a
INDUSTRY TIP guide to the design, installation, testing, operation
and maintenance of services supplying water for
A copy of the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
1998 can be downloaded free from this link: www. domestic use.
l The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1998/2451/contents/made
– this guide provides guidance to the Building
Regulations Approved Documents L1 and L2 when
BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations installing fixed building services within new and
As with the Gas Regulations, heating hot water often existing dwellings to help them comply with the
uses electricity either as a direct or indirect fuel Building Regulations. The guide specifically targets
source. space heating, domestic hot water services,
mechanical ventilation, comfort cooling and
All domestic and industrial electrical installations must interior lighting. New technologies, such as heat
conform to the IET Wiring Regulations. In England and pumps, solar thermal panels and micro-combined
Wales, the Building Regulations Approved Document heat and power systems are also discussed.
P 2010 requires that domestic installations are The guide also refers to other publications that
designed and installed according to British Standard refer to techniques to assist in the design and
BS 7671, Chapter 13. This document was written installation of systems that are over and above
to standardise electrical installations in line with the standard that is required by the Building
international document IEC60364-1 and equivalent Regulations.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
INDUSTRY TIP Design and calculations for
hot water systems
British Standards BS EN 806 Parts 1 to 5 and BS 8558
Designing hot water systems follows the same basic
should be read in conjunction with each other. Although
BS 6700 has been superseded, there are still parts of the principles of designing cold water systems. The main
document that are relevant and it should still be consulted difference being if the system requires storage, then this
when either designing or installing hot water systems. will have to be calculated using the information contained
in BS EN 806 for the amount of water required for hot
water purposes. Calculating the size of the pipework follows
Manufacturer technical installation the same calculation techniques that were discussed in
Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning and design.
and maintenance instructions
Unvented hot water storage systems must be fitted, Taking measurements of building
commissioned and maintained strictly in accordance features in order to carry out design
with the manufacturer’s instructions. These contain
calculations
vital information for the correct and safe installation,
operation and maintenance of the system and its The subject of taking measurements from site and from
components, such as: plans and drawings was discussed in detail in Chapter 1,
l the minimum required pressure and flow rate of the
Cold water systems, planning and design.
incoming supply for satisfactory operation of the
system Calculating the size of hot
l the minimum size of the incoming cold water supply
water system components
l the minimum size of any hot water distribution
Here we will look at the methods of calculating the
pipework
size of the components used in hot water systems. The
l the required heat input and heat recovery time
components are:
l any electrical installation requirements
l cistern – only required for open vented hot water
l the operation of any controls
storage systems
l the calculation required to ascertain the correct size
l hot water storage vessel
of the discharge pipework
l pipework
l fault-finding techniques.
l secondary circulation pump
l booster pump (shower and full system).
INDUSTRY TIP
Cistern
If the manufacturer’s instructions are not available or have
The subject of cold water storage has been covered in
been misplaced, most manufacturers now have the facility
detail elsewhere in this book. However, elements of this
to download the instructions from the company website.
are worth re-iterating here.
Manufacturer’s installation and maintenance instructions
were covered in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning The storage capacities for dwellings should be calculated
and design. based upon usage and the number of occupants.
Storage for supplying cold water to a hot water storage
vessel − the amount of cold water storage should equal
the storage capacity of the hot water storage vessel.
INDUSTRY TIP
For the purposes of this chapter, 230 litres should be
Verbal and written feedback from the customer was covered in the figure to remember.
depth in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning and design.
When calculating the amount of cold water storage
for hot water supply, the figures in Table 2.6 should be
considered.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Table 2.6 Recommended minimum storage of hot water for service depends on the rate of heat input to the stored
domestic installations (BS EN 806 Table 6) water as well as the pattern of use.’
Minimum hot water Table 2.7 shows typical heat inputs.
Type of building storage (litres)
Table 2.7 Typical heat inputs
Hostel 90 per bed space
Hotel 200 per bed space Appliance Heat input (kW)
Office premises with canteen facilities 45 per employee Electric immersion heater 3
Office premises without canteen 40 per employee Gas fired circulator 3
facilities Small boiler with direct cylinder 6
Restaurant 7 per meal Medium boiler and indirect cylinder 10
Nursery/primary day school 15 per pupil Large domestic boiler with indirect cylinder 15
Secondary/technical day school 20 per pupil Directly fired gas hot water storage heater 10
Boarding school 90 per pupil
Children’s home/residential nursery 135 per bed space
KEY POINT
Nurses' accommodation 120 per bed space
Nursing/convalescent home 135 per bed space A brief overview of stratification
Stratification was covered in Book 1, but here is a
The calculation for determining the size of a cistern was reminder.
covered in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning and Stratification is where the hot water ‘floats’ on the
design. layer of colder water entering the storage vessel.
The hot water sits in temperature layers with the
Hot water storage vessels hottest water at the top of the storage cylinder,
gradually cooling towards the bottom.
The minimum storage requirements of a hot water
storage vessel are given as:
65 ºC
l 35 litres to 45 litres per occupant, unless the hot
water storage vessel provides a quick reheat of 60 ºC
stored water
l 100 litres for systems that use solid fuel as heat source
55 ºC
l 200 litres for systems that use off-peak electricity 50 ºC
as the main heat source.
45 ºC
There are two methods for calculating the capacity of
a hot water storage vessel. The first method is based, 40 ºC
in part, on information contained within the Chartered
In a hot water storage cylinder, water forms
Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineers (CIPHE) in layers of temperature from the top of the
cylinder, where the water is at its hottest, to
design guide. The second method takes a slightly the base where it is at its coolest
different approach and is shown in detail in BS 8558. Figure 2.52 Stratification of hot water storage vessels
This is the method we will look at here.
Stratification is necessary if the cylinder is
The BS 8558 method of hot water storage capacity to perform to its maximum efficiency, and
calculation considers the following factors: manufacturers will purposely design storage
vessels and cylinders with stratification in mind.
l the pattern of use
Designers will generally design:
l the rate of heat input to the stored water
l a vessel that is cylindrical in shape
l the recovery period for the hot water storage vessel
l a vessel that is designed to be installed upright
l the stratification (if any) of the vessel. rather than horizontal
l with the cold feed entering the cylinder horizontally.
Annex B of BS 8558 gives guidance on the calculation
of hot water storage capacity. It states ‘The storage It is generally accepted that stratification occurs more
readily in vertical rather than horizontal cylinders.
capacity required to achieve an acceptable quality of
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Calculation of heat input Where:
In Table 2.7, we saw some of the more common heat SHC = specific heat capacity of water. This is taken
inputs. However, heat input can be calculated based as being 4.19 kJ/kg/°C
upon the efficiency of the heat source. If a boiler is the Litres = the storage of water in the hot water
main source of heat for the generation of hot water, storage vessel
then the efficiency of the boiler is required. This is one
of the most important factors for improving energy Temperature difference = the difference in
temperature between the incoming cold supply and
efficiency for the selection of a hot water storage the required temperature of the stored hot water
vessel. The formula for calculating heat input is as
follows: Boiler efficiency = usually taken as 93% for a
condensing boiler
SHC × litres × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
Time in seconds × 100 Time in seconds = the time limit for the water to get
= kW hot in seconds
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculation of heat input: example
A hot water storage cylinder has a capacity of 210 litres. The cylinder is required to be at 65 °C within two
hours. The temperature of the incoming water is 4 °C. What is the kW required?
SHC × litres × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
= kW
Time in seconds × 100
SHC = 4.19
Litres of water = 210 litres
∆t = 61 °C
Time in seconds = 7200 seconds (2 hours)
SHC × litres × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
= kW
Time in seconds × 100
4.19 × 210 × 61 × 93 = 4991672.7 = 6.93 kW
7200 × 100 720000
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS the time M (in minutes) taken to heat a specific
quantity of water through a specific temperature rise.
Calculation of heat input The formula is as follows:
A hot water storage cylinder has a capacity of
M = VT ÷ (14.3P)
140 litres. The cylinder is required to be at 60 °C
in two hours. The temperature of the incoming water
is 4 °C. What is the kW required? Where:
V = volume of water heated (l)
T = temperature of water (°C)
Calculating capacity based on recovery
P = rate of heat input into the water (kW)
time
The capacity of the hot water storage vessel depends The above formula ignores any heat loss from the
upon the rate of heat input to the stored water and the cylinder as this is likely to be negligible over a short
pattern of use. The calculation used for this considers period of time and the formula can be applied to any
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
hot water storage situation whether stratification One bath using 60 litres of hot water @ 60 °C + 40 litres
occurs or not. of cold water + 10 litres of hot water @ 60 °C for kitchen
use followed by a second bath fill 25 minutes later.
So, how does the formula work?
Totals are 70 litres of hot water @ 60 °C followed
The following examples, taken from BS 8558 Annex C,
25 minutes later by 100 litres for a second bath fill,
assume that a small domestic dwelling has one bath
which may be achieved by mixing hot water @ 60 °C
installed, and assumptions on pattern of usage have
with cold water @ 10 °C.
been made. The maximum requirements are as follows.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating capacity based on recovery time: The volume of water heated in 25 minutes is, then, as
example 1 – assuming good stratification follows:
If the water in the cylinder is heated via a top entry V = M(14.3P) ÷ T
3 kW immersion heater, then good stratification is likely V = (25 × 14.3 × 3) ÷ 50
to occur. The time needed to heat 60 litres of water
from 10 °C to 60 °C for the second bath is, therefore: V = 21.45 rounded to 21 litres
M = VT ÷ (14.3P) Total minimum storage requirement is calculated as:
60 × 50 ÷ (14.3 × 3) = 3000 ÷ 42.9 70 litres + 60 litres – 21 litres = 109 litres
= 69.93 minutes (rounded up to 70 minutes)
The total of 109 litres is shown in the Table 2.8, from
However, the second bath is required within 25 minutes BS 8558, as the minimum storage capacity of a hot
of the first, and so this water must come from the water storage vessel with stratification for a small
storage cylinder. To calculate this, the original formula domestic dwelling.
must be transposed to:
V = M(14.3P) ÷ T
Table 2.8 Minimum hot water storage capacity
Heat input Small dwelling with one bath Large dwelling with two baths
to the water With stratification With mixing (indirect With stratification With mixing (indirect
(litres) type) (litres) (litres) type) (litres)
3 109 122 165 250
6 88 88 140 200
10 70 70 130 130
15 70 70 120 130
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating capacity assuming good stratification Totals are 65 litres of hot water @ 65 °C followed
30 minutes later by 100 litres for a second bath fill,
A small dwelling has the following hot water
which may be achieved by mixing hot water @ 65 °C
requirements.
with cold water @ 10 °C.
One bath using 55 litres of hot water @ 65 °C +
Calculate the minimum hot water capacity required
45 litres of cold water + 10 litres of hot water @
assuming good stratification using a 3 kW top entry
65 °C for kitchen use followed by a second bath
immersion heater.
fill 30 minutes later.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating capacity based on recovery time: Therefore:
example 2 – assuming good mixing T = (60V – 4200 + 700) ÷ V
Good water mixing occurs when the hot water
T = (60V – 3500) ÷ V
storage vessel is heated by a primary heat exchanger
coil of the type found in a double feed indirect open T = 60 – 3500 ÷ V
vented hot water storage cylinder (or the equivalent
unvented type storage cylinder). From the original requirement, a second bath is
required after 25 minutes. Therefore, with a heat input
Because mixing is occurring, as soon as hot water of 3 kW:
is drawn off, to be replaced by colder water, mixing
takes place and the whole of the cylinder becomes 25 = VT ÷ (14.3 × 3)
cooler. If 70 litres of hot water is used (60 litres for T = (25 × 14.3 × 3) ÷ V
the first bath and 10 litres for kitchen use), then the
remaining hot water in the cylinder and the 70 litres T = 1072.5 ÷ V
of cold water @ 10 °C replacing the used hot water The temperature required for the second bath is
will equal the heat energy of the entire contents simply 40 °C. Therefore, after the first draw-off of 70 litres
because mixing has taken place. and its subsequent replenishment with 70 litres of
The heat energy in the cylinder is the product of water @ 10 °C, the temperature must be at least
the volume of the hot water storage vessel and its 40 °C (or above) after 25 minutes. To achieve this, the
resultant temperature. minimum storage capacity must be:
A further transposition of the original formula is (60 – 3500 ÷ V) + (1072.5 ÷ V)
necessary.
60 – 2427.5 ÷ V = 40 °C
Therefore, if V is the storage vessel volume and T is its
temperature after being refilled with 70 litres of water When the calculation is transposed:
@ 10 °C: 2427.5 ÷ (60 – 40) = 121.375 rounded up to 122 litres
(Storage vessel volume – 70 litres)
× 60 °C + (70 litres replacement × 10 °C) = VT
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Hot water pipework sizing
Calculating capacity assuming good mixing The calculation for determining the size of the pipework
for hot water systems is identical to that used for cold
If 65 litres of hot water at 65 °C is used (55 litres for
water systems. This was discussed in Chapter 1, Cold
the first bath and 10 litres for kitchen use), then the
remaining hot water in the cylinder and the 65 litres water systems, planning and design.
of cold water @ 10 °C replacing the used hot water
will equal the heat energy of the entire contents Sizing a secondary circulation
simply because mixing has taken place. circulating pump
From the original requirement, a second bath is
Sizing a hot water secondary circulation circulating
required after 25 minutes with a heat input of 3 kW.
pump involves the calculation of the mass flow rate
The temperature required for the second bath is
40 °C. Therefore, after the first draw-off of 65 litres
of the circuit based upon the heat loss from the circuit
and its subsequent replenishment with 65 litres of and the temperature difference between the flow and
water @ 10 °C, the temperature must be at least the return. Look at Figure 2.53.
40 °C (or above) after 25 minutes.
Using the above example as a guide, calculate the KEY TERM
capacity of the hot water storage cylinder.
Mass flow rate: the mass of a substance (in
kilograms) which passes in a unit of time. In this
case, it is kilograms per second.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
1m
20 m
8m
8m 8m 8m
Figure 2.53 Secondary circulation sizing
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
From the drawing in Figure 2.53, we can see that the To find the kW:
length of the return pipe is 53 m. From this, we can
calculate the size of the return pipe and the size of the kW = length × W/m2/C
pump. The data we need for this is as follows:
kW = 53 × 8 = 425 W = 0.425 kW
Length of pipe = 53 m
Therefore:
Temperature of the secondary flow (t f ) = 65 °C
Ma = kW = kg/s
Temperature of the secondary return (t r) = 55 °C SHC × ∆t (t f - t r)
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.19 kJ/kg
Ma = 0.425 = kg/s
Heat loss from the insulated pipe = 8 W/m2/C 4.19 × (65 - 55)
By calculating the mass flow rate of the return
Ma = 0.425 = kg/s
pipe in kg/s, the size of the return pipe and the
4.19 × 10
circulating pump size (in pascals pressure drop) can
be calculated by using the reference data for copper
tubes from CIBSE guide C. First, however, the mass Ma = 0.425 = kg/s
41.90
flow rate must be calculated by using the following
formula: Ma = 0.010 kg/s
Ma = kW = kg/s
SHC × ∆t (t f - t r) Looking at CIBSE guide C for copper tube (Figure 2.54),
it can be seen that the nearest mass flow rate to the
calculated figure is boxed in red.
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Pipe sizing tables 1
qm = mass flow rate kg/s
c = velocity m/s Copper tubes BS2871 Table X
∆p/l = pressure loss per unit length pa/m
Water at 75 °C
∆p/l c 10 mm 12 mm 15 mm 22 mm 28 mm 35 mm 42 mm c ∆p/l
qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c
0.1 0.001 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.007 0.01 0.015 0.01 0.1
0.2 0.002 0.01 0.005 0.01 0.014 0.02 0.023 0.02 0.2
0.3 0.003 0.01 0.008 0.02 0.019 0.02 0.026 0.02 0.3
0.4 0.004 0.01 0.011 0.02 0.019 0.02 0.032 0.03 0.4
0.5 0.001 0.01 0.005 0.02 0.014 0.03 0.021 0.03 0.036 0.03 0.5
0.6 0.001 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.015 0.03 0.023 0.03 0.040 0.03 0.6
0.7 0.001 0.01 0.007 0.02 0.015 0.03 0.026 0.03 0.044 0.04 0.7
0.8 0.001 0.01 0.008 0.03 0.015 0.03 0.028 0.03 0.048 0.04 0.8
0.9 0.001 0.01 0.009 0.03 0.016 0.03 0.030 0.04 0.051 0.04 0.9
1.0 0.002 0.01 0.010 0.03 0.017 0.03 0.032 0.04 0.055 0.05 0.05 1.0
1.5 0.001 0.01 0.003 0.02 0.012 0.04 0.022 0.04 0.040 0.05 0.070 0.06 1.5
2.0 0.001 0.01 0.004 0.03 0.012 0.04 0.026 0.05 0.048 0.06 0.083 0.07 2.0
2.5 0.002 0.02 0.005 0.04 0.014 0.04 0.030 0.06 0.055 0.07 0.094 0.08 2.5
3.0 0.001 0.02 0.002 0.02 0.006 0.04 0.016 0.05 0.033 0.06 0.061 0.07 0.105 0.09 3.0
3.5 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.007 0.05 0.017 0.05 0.036 0.07 0.067 0.08 0.114 0.09 3.5
4.0 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.008 0.06 0.019 0.06 0.039 0.07 0.072 0.09 0.124 0.10 4.0
4.5 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.008 0.06 0.020 0.06 0.042 0.08 0.078 0.10 0.132 0.11 4.5
5.0 0.001 0.02 0.004 0.04 0.008 0.06 0.022 0.07 0.045 0.09 0.083 0.10 0.141 0.12 5.0
5.5 0.002 0.03 0.004 0.04 0.008 0.06 0.023 0.07 0.048 0.09 0.087 0.11 0.149 0.12 5.5
6.0 0.002 0.03 0.005 0.06 0.008 0.06 0.024 0.08 0.050 0.09 0.092 0.11 0.156 0.13 6.0
6.5 0.002 0.03 0.005 0.06 0.008 0.06 0.025 0.08 0.053 0.10 0.096 0.12 0.164 0.14 6.5
7.0 0.002 0.03 0.006 0.07 0.008 0.06 0.027 0.09 0.055 0.10 0.100 0.12 0.171 0.14 7.0
7.5 0.002 0.03 0.006 0.07 0.009 0.06 0.028 0.09 0.057 0.11 0.105 0.13 0.178 0.15 0.15 7.5
8.0 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.009 0.06 0.029 0.09 0.059 0.11 0.108 0.13 0.185 0.15 8.0
8.5 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.030 0.10 0.061 0.12 0.112 0.14 0.191 0.16 8.5
9.0 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.031 0.10 0.064 0.12 0.116 0.14 0.198 0.16 9.0
9.5 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.032 0.10 0.066 0.13 0.120 0.15 0.204 0.17 9.5
10.0 0.05 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.011 0.08 0.033 0.11 0.068 0.13 0.123 0.15 0.210 0.17 10.0
12.5 0.004 0.07 0.006 0.07 0.012 0.08 0.037 0.12 0.077 0.15 0.140 0.17 0.239 0.20 12.5
15.0 0.005 0.08 0.007 0.08 0.014 0.10 0.042 0.13 0.086 0.16 0.156 0.19 0.265 0.22 15.0
17.5 0.005 0.08 0.008 0.09 0.015 0.11 0.046 0.15 0.094 0.18 0.170 0.21 0.289 0.24 17.5
20.0 0.005 0.08 0.008 0.09 0.016 0.11 0.049 0.16 0.101 0.19 0.184 0.23 0.312 0.26 20.0
22.5 0.005 0.08 0.009 0.10 0.017 0.12 0.053 0.17 0.108 0.21 0.197 0.24 0.334 0.28 22.5
25.0 0.005 0.08 0.010 0.11 0.019 0.13 0.056 0.18 0.115 0.22 0.209 0.26 0.354 0.29 0.30 25.0
27.5 0.005 0.08 0.010 0.11 0.020 0.14 0.060 0.19 0.122 0.23 0.221 0.27 0.374 0.31 27.5
Figure 2.54 CIBSE guide C for copper tube (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), www.cibse.org)
This shows that a 15 mm copper pipe will deliver alternative. Look at the table again, you will see
0.010 kilograms per second (kg/s) at a velocity of that 12 mm pipe will also deliver 0.010 kg/s but the
0.07 litres per second (l/s) with a pressure loss of pascals per metre is 27.5 with a velocity of 0.11 litres
9.5 pascals per metre (Pa/m). In this case, the mass per second. This means that the pump power will have
flow rate matches perfectly. In most instances, the to be over twice the size than for 15 mm to deliver
nearest figure up would be chosen. However, there the same flow rate, so in this case 15 mm would be
may be instances where there is more than one chosen.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating pump size The return pipe has been calculated to 15 mm pipe.
Looking at the system drawing in Figure 2.53, you will
Now the pump size can be calculated. To do this, the
see that there are:
frictional resistance of the return pipe must be found
considering the fittings and valves. 6 elbows @ 0.5 m = 3 m
Each change of direction and valve resist flow. This 3 tees @ 0.6 m = 1.8 m
is measured in length of pipe. In other words, the 1 check valve @ 2.5 m = 2.5 m
resistance of an elbow or bend will have the same = 7.3 m
resistance as a specific amount of pipe. Consider
Table 2.9. So, the resistance in the fittings totals another 7.3 m of
pipe. When this is added to the actual length of pipe,
Table 2.9 Typical equivalent lengths for copper tube it totals:
Bore of pipe Equivalent length 53 + 7.3 = 60.3 m
Elbow Tee (m) Stop Check Looking at the CIBSE table again (Figure 2.54), the
(m) valve (m) valve (m) pascals pressure drop was 9.5. This is now multiplied
15 0.5 0.6 4.0 2.5 by the length of pipe:
22 0.8 1.0 7.0 4.3 9.5 × 60.3 = 572.85 Pa
28 1.0 1.5 10.0 5.6 So, the circulating pump must have at least 572.85
35 1.4 2.0 13.0 6.0 pascals of pressure to circulate the return water
42 1.7 2.5 16.0 7.9 through 15 mm copper pipe at 0.07 l/s to guarantee
the temperature of the return water is 55 °C when it
54 2.3 3.5 22.0 11.5
reaches the hot water storage cylinder.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Pump duty is calculated in kilopascals, the pascal being
Attempt the calculation again, adding 10 m to all
the unit of pressure:
pipe lengths. The temperatures must be: 1 bar pressure = 10 m head = 100 kPa
t f = 60 °C Flow rate is calculated in litres per second. Shower
t r = 50 °C pumps can deliver between 11 and 25 litres per minute
Assume the following fittings: (l/m) or 0.41 litres per second (l/s), depending on the
type and their application.
l 10 elbows
l 6 tees To correctly size a shower pump, you must find the
l 1 check valve. pump duty. The pump duty is the ability of the pump to
overcome frictional resistances and the additional static
head to displace water from one point (such as the cistern
Sizing a hot water shower boosting in an open vented hot water storage system) to another,
pump often higher, point (such as the shower head). When
A shower boosting pump is designed to boost water calculating the pump duty, both the desired flow rate and
at low pressure and flow rate to a higher pressure head (pressure) must be taken into account. Once this
and flow rate to give a better showering experience. has been calculated then the correct pump can be chosen
Calculation of the size of a shower boosting pump is from the duty point on the manufacturer’s design charts.
based upon the pressure and flow rate that the pump
The duty point is defined as that point on the H–Q
is designed to deliver at the showerhead and the
system curve where the actual pump performance is
height of the column of water that the pump has to
in line with the calculated design criteria. Figure 2.55
move.
illustrates a typical duty point where the design criteria
and the pump performance coincide.
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H
Pump curve
Duty point
Head
HA.O
System curve
Duty point Q
Figure 2.55 Pump duty point
The actual duty point is always at the point where the IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
pump H–Q and the system H–Q points intersect.
Calculation of pump power
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Calculation of pump power is usually performed to
ascertain the power of the pump needed to lift a
Calculating pump duty certain quantity of water at a certain pressure. It is
A shower boosting pump is required to deliver based on the physics of work done relative to time.
15 litres per minute at a pressure of 2 bar to a Work done is the applied force through distance
shower head 3 m higher than the pump itself. moved and the unit of measurement is the joule. It is
Frictional losses in the system due to pipework, thus explained as the work done when a 1 newton
valves and fittings can be calculated as static force acts through 1 metre distance or:
head × 0.05. 1 joule = 1 N × 1 m
Static head from the pump to the shower head
The time must be expressed as a period of seconds,
= 3 m or 0.3 bar or 30 kPa
which can be combined with work done to become
Frictional losses = 30 × 0.05 = 1.5 kPa work done over a period of time. It is expressed in
the following way:
Design head = 2 bar or 200 kPa Power = work done ÷ time
Therefore, the pump duty is: = (force × distance) ÷ seconds
30 + 200 + 1.5 = 231.5 kPa
= (newtons × metres) ÷ seconds (J/s)
Now, a pump can be chosen from the manufacturer’s
where: 1 J/s = 1 watt
literature with a duty of 231.5 kPa that will deliver
15 l/m or 0.25 l/s flow rate. Force (newtons) = kg mass × acceleration due
to gravity (9.81m/s2 )
Power (watts) = mass × 9.81 × distance ÷ time
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
Table 2.10 Density of water by temperature
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3) Specific volume
Calculate the pump duty
10 −3 (m3 /kg)
A shower boosting pump is required to deliver 11 0 (ice) 916.8.8
litres per minute at a pressure of 1.5 bar to a shower
0.01 999.8 1.00
head 2.5 m higher than the pump itself. Frictional
losses in the system due to pipework, valves and 4 (maximum density) 1000.0
fittings can be calculated as static head × 0.05. 5 999.9 1.00
Calculate the pump duty in kPa. Consult the 10 999.8 1.00
manufacturer’s literature to source a suitable shower 15 999.2 1.00
pump (either inlet or outlet type).
20 998.3 1.00
25 997.1 1.00
30 995.7 1.00
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
35 994.1 1.01
Consider the example below.
40 992.3 1.01
A delivery rate of 4 kg/s is required to fill the cistern.
1 kg = 1 litre, therefore 4 kg/s = 4 l/s. The total 45 990.2 1.01
length of pipework with all bends, valves and fittings 50 988 1.01
is 45 m. 55 986 1.01
Power = (mass × 9.81 × distance) ÷ time 60 983 1.02
= (4 × 9.81 × 45) ÷ 1 65 980 1.02
70 978 1.02
= 1765.8 watts
75 975 1.03
Allowance for pump efficiency:
80 972 1.03
= 1765.8 × (100 ÷ 75) 85 968 1.03
= 2354.4 watts 90 965 1.04
Therefore: 95 962 1.04
Pump rating (including 75% efficiency allowance) 100 958 1.04
= 2500 watts or 2.5 kW (rating rounded up to the
nearest ½ kW).
The expansion of the water in a central heating system,
if not accommodated, will lead to an increase in system
pressure and possibly component or appliance failure
Sizing expansion vessels for as a result. In a sealed heating system, the expansion
sealed heating systems and of water is accommodated in an expansion vessel. In
an open vented system, the feed and expansion cistern
feed and expansion cisterns accommodates the expansion of water. Both of these
for open vented systems vital parts of the installation will need to be sized
Water, when it is heated, expands. The amount of correctly.
expansion will depend on the temperature of the water.
At atmospheric pressure, water is at its greatest density
Sizing an expansion vessel
at 4 °C. At this temperature, 1 m3 of water has a mass There are several methods for sizing expansion vessels.
of 1000 kg. From this point forwards as the water All methods must consider the volume of cold water
temperature increases, 1 m3 will lose density. At 100 °C, in the system and the amount by which it will expand
1 m3 of water has a mass of 958 kg or an expansion in order to reach its design temperature. The CIBSE
rate of 4 per cent. The densities of water at various method is shown below.
temperatures and pressures are shown in Table 2.10.
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If the system volume is known, expansion vessels can Table 2.11 Expansion factors
be sized with the following formula:
Expansion factor ‘e’ Temperature (°C)
V = eC 0.0324 85
P
1- 1 0.0359 90
P2
0.0396 95
Where: 0.0434 100
V = the total volume of the expansion vessel
‘e’ can be found from the formula:
C = the total volume of water in the system in litres
d1 - d2
P1 = t he fill pressure in bars absolute (gauge e=
d2
pressure + 1 bar)
Where:
P2 = the setting of the pressure relief valve + 1 bar
d1 = density of water at filling temperature kg/m3
e = t he expansion factor that relates to the
maximum system requirements d2 = density of water at operating temperature kg/m3
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Sizing an expansion vessel: example 1 Step 2: Calculate the expansion vessel volume
An unvented hot water system has a total water V = the total volume of the expansion vessel
volume of 300 litres. The pressure of the water main is C = 300 litres
1.5 bar and the pressure relief maximum pressure is 6
bar. The system is designed to operate at a maximum P1 = 1.5 + 1
temperature of 60 °C, which means the expansion P2 = 6 + 1
factor will have to be calculated. The fill temperature
of the water is 10 °C. e = 0.0170
Calculate the expansion factor using: V = eC
P
d1 - d2 1- 1
e= P2
d2
Calculate the expansion vessel volume using: Therefore, the expansion vessel volume is:
V= eC V = 0.0170 × 300
P
1- 1 1 - 2.5
P2 7
= 5.1
Step 1: Calculate the expansion factor ‘e’ 1 - 0.357
The temperature of the fill water is 10 °C with a
density of 999.8 kg/m3. The maximum operating = 5.1
temperature is 60 °C with a density of 983 kg/m3. 0.643
Therefore the ‘e’ factor is: = 7.931 litres or 2.64% expansion
e = 999.8 - 983 = 0.0170 So, the expansion vessel volume is: 7.931 litres or
983 2.64% of total system volume.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Scale and not-to-scale drawings
A sealed central heating system has a total water Scale drawings and schematic drawings produced using
volume of 400 litres. The pressure of the water main computer aided design (CAD) packages help to show
is 1 bar and the pressure relief maximum pressure the customer what you are proposing to install to fulfil
is 4 bar. The system is designed to operate at a their requirement. This is especially important when
maximum temperature of 85 °C, which means the a large installation is to be completed as it helps the
expansion factor will have to be calculated. The fill
customer to keep a track of what is being installed and
temperature of the water is 4 °C.
where. Many companies now also provide 3D drawings
Calculate the expansion factor using:
and artistic impressions of what the installation will
d1 - d2
e= look like when completed.
d2
Calculate the expansion vessel volume using: Presentation of designs and calculations
eC The calculation process for hot water supply takes
V=
P time to complete and unless the calculations are
1- 1
P2 set out correctly, mistakes are often made. The use
of spreadsheets and tables when completing design
calculations, especially for pipe sizing, is commonplace
amongst most professional building services engineers.
Design calculations in an These are excellent for including with any quotation
acceptable format or design specification that the company wishes to
The methods that can be used to present the design present to the customer and can be saved as a hard
of a hot water system and the results of calculations copy in portable document format (PDF) or as either
performed were covered in Chapter 1. However, it Word or Excel documents.
is worth revisiting the basic principle of design and
calculation presentation.
5 THE INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS OF HOT
WATER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
This is an important section. Here, you will learn how
to use ‘best practice’ when installing unvented hot
The installation of unvented
water storage systems (UHWSS) that comply with hot water storage cylinders
both the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations and The installation of unvented hot water storage systems
Approved Document G of the Building Regulations. is subject to strict requirements of Building Regulations
Approved Documents G3 and L and the Water Supply
(Water Fittings) Regulations. Typical pipework layouts
are shown in Figures 2.56 and 2.57.
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Isolation valve
In-line strainer
Pressure reducing valve
Balanced cold
connection
Expansion
vessel
Check valve
Shower valve
Temperature
relief valve Washbasin
Expansion Bath
(pressure)
relief valve
Immersion Heating
Wiring centre heater circuit
and cylinder
thermostat
Sink
Filling loop
System boiler
Figure 2.56 Installation of an indirectly heated UHWSS with a system boiler
Isolation valve INDUSTRY TIP
In-line strainer The unit or package must be installed
in accordance with the manufacturer’s
Pressure reducing valve
Balanced cold
instructions that are supplied with the vessel.
connection There may be special instructions from the
manufacturer regarding the installation
Single check
valve Pressure requirements of that particular vessel.
relief valve
Expansion bubble
Temperature
relief valve
Tundish
Discharge
pipework Immersion
heaters
Wiring centre and cylinder thermostat
Figure 2.57 Installation of a directly fired UHWSS with immersion heaters as the primary heat source
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The floor on which the vessel is to be sited must be critical factors when fitting unvented hot water storage
substantial enough to accommodate the weight of the systems as these rely on a good flow rate and pressure
vessel and its water contents. to provide a satisfactory operation. It should be borne
in mind, however, that boosting pumps that deliver
The pipework must be fitted in accordance with BS
more than 12 litres per minute are not allowed under
EN 806 and BS 8558. Unvented hot water storage
the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations when
systems (UHWSS) require at least a 22 mm cold water
the cold water supply is being taken directly from a
feed supplied by a water undertaker because of the
water undertaker’s mains supply.
high flow rate and pressure that the vessels operate
at. Water can be supplied through a boosting pump
and cold water accumulator if necessary (this will be The issue of poor mains
discussed later in the chapter). A 22 mm hot water supply
draw-off is required in all installations but this may be
Water supply pressures have consistently diminished
reduced for particular appliances such as washbasins,
over the last 30 years. As more and more homes,
sinks and bidets. Isolation valves should be fitted at all
factories, offices and shops are built, the loading on
appliances in line with good practice.
the UK water system has increased with little or no
upgrading of the water mains supply network. The
KEY POINT pipework that serves our towns and cities is now
It doesn’t actually state that isolation valves supplying more properties than ever before and that
are needed at every appliance in the Water
has resulted in a gradual degradation of both pressure
Regulations but it is considered good practice
to install them. The Water Regulations say that and flow rate. In some areas of the UK, the supply
every float operated valve must have a service pressure can be as little as 1 bar, which is unsatisfactory
valve fitted as near to the float operated valve as for an unvented hot water storage system.
possible. Other appliances aren’t mentioned.
Pressure of water takes two forms: static pressure and
dynamic pressure.
The order that the functional and safety components
are installed is of paramount importance if the system KEY TERMS
is to operate safely and efficiently and this can be
Static pressure: this is the water pressure when no
studied from Figure 2.56 for indirectly heated vessels
flow is occurring. This is always greater than the
and Figure 2.57 for directly heated vessels. dynamic pressure.
Unvented hot water storage systems require the Dynamic pressure: also known as ‘running
installation of discharge pipework to safely convey any pressure’, this is the water pressure when outlets
water that may be discharged as the result of a defect are open and water is flowing.
or malfunction. Discharge pipework will be discussed
later in this section. During periods of peak use, both static and dynamic
pressures will decrease. If, during this time, a property
The use of cold water has a static pressure of, say 2 bar, then the dynamic
pressure could drop to below 1 bar. At off-peak times,
accumulators in unvented say during the night, this could rise significantly to 3
hot water systems bar static and 2 bar dynamic simply because less water
The use of cold water accumulators is becoming is being used in the surrounding area. An accumulator
increasingly popular, especially in areas where the would take advantage of the night-time rise in
water pressure is exceptionally low. Accumulators pressures to replenish its storage capacity while the
and boosting pumps, as we saw in Chapter 1, offer a mains pressure is at its highest. With the accumulator
positive solution to the problem of low water pressure fully replenished, a good pressure and flow rate would
and poor low flow rate by storing water at night for be available throughout the day provided that the
use during the day. Both flow rate and pressure are accumulator has been sized correctly.
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Figure 2.58 shows a typical unvented hot water storage is replenishing. The second PRV reduces the pressure to
system with an accumulator installed to increase both that of the UHWSS manufacturer’s recommendations.
the pressure and the flow rate. An important factor
Accumulators require a minimum incoming supply
here is the use of two pressure reducing valves. The
pressure to replenish successfully, usually around 2
first PRV regulates the pressure entering the property
bar. If the incoming supply cannot deliver this even at
so that any pressure fluctuations can be controlled to a
off peak periods, then a booster pump should also be
predetermined pressure at night when the accumulator
installed as shown in Figure 2.59.
Cold water accumulator
Pressure
reducing
valve
In-line
Pressure strainer
gauge
Isolation
In-line Double valve
strainer check valve
Non-return valve
Water undertaker’s Non-return valve Cold supply to outlets
stop valve
Pressure reducing valve
Figure 2.58 An accumulator installed on an unvented system
Cold water accumulator
Pressure
reducing
valve
In-line
Pressure Non-return strainer
gauge valve Isolation
In-line Double valve
strainer check valve
Boosting pump
Non-return valve
Pressure reducing valve
Water undertaker’s stop valve Balanced cold supply to outlets
Figure 2.59 An accumulator with a boosting pump installed on an unvented system
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The installation of hot water thermostat designed to switch off the power to the
unit when the maximum temperature is exceeded.
pipework – general It must be manually reset.
The materials used for hot water installations are l Immersion heaters with a non-resettable double
copper tubes to BS EN 1057 and polybutylene pipes thermostat – one thermostat can be set between
and fittings, as these are the only materials that 50 and 70 °C, the other is a high-limit thermostat
do not cause contamination of the water and can designed to permanently switch off the power to
withstand the temperatures associated with hot water the unit until the immersion heater is replaced and
distribution pipework. The pipework should be capable the fault rectified.
of withstanding at least 1½ times the normal operating l Open vented double feed indirect cylinders with
pressure of the system and sustained temperatures gravity or pumped primary circulation must be
of 95 °C with occasional temperature increases up to fitted with a minimum of a cylinder thermostat and
100 °C to allow for any malfunctions of any hot water a motorised zone valve which closes when the water
heating appliances that may occur. All systems must in the cylinder reaches a pre-set level.
be capable of accommodating thermal expansion and l Open vented cylinders with no high-limit
movement within the pipework. Care should be taken thermostat can be fitted with a temperature relief
when pressure testing open vented cylinders to ensure valve which opens automatically at a specified
that the maximum pressure that the cylinder can temperature to discharge water via a tundish and
withstand is not exceeded. If necessary, the cylinder discharge pipework safely to outside the property.
should be disconnected and the pipework capped
before testing commences. The insulation of hot water
The installation methods for hot water systems are pipework
very similar to those for cold water installations.
When installing new hot water installations in domestic
Care should be taken when installing hot and cold
properties, pipes should be wrapped with thermal
water pipework side-by-side so that any cold water
insulation that complies with the Domestic Heating
installation is not unduly warmed by the hot water
Compliance Guide. There are four main considerations:
pipework.
l Primary circulation pipes for heating and hot water
circuits should be insulated wherever they pass
Temperature control of hot outside the heated living space such as below
water systems ventilated suspended timber floors and unheated
roof spaces. This is for protection against freezing.
Hot water systems must not be allowed to exceed
l Primary circulation pipes for domestic hot water
100 °C at any time. A maximum normal operating
circuits should be insulated throughout their entire
temperature of 60 °C is required to kill off Legionella
length except where they pass through floorboards,
bacteria. There are several methods by which we can
joists and other structural obstructions.
maintain and control the temperature of hot water
l All pipes connected to hot water vessels, including
systems and prevent it from exceeding the maximum
the vent pipe, should be insulated for at least one
temperature specified.
metre (1 m) from their points of connection to
A thermostat should be installed and set to the the cylinder or at least up to the point where they
temperature required. A second, high-limit thermostat become concealed.
operates should the maximum temperature be l If secondary circulation, such as a pumped circuit
exceeded. This is known as a second-tier level of feeding bath and basin taps in a large property, is
temperature control: installed, all pipes fed with hot water should be
l Immersion heaters that have a re-settable double insulated to prevent excessive heat loss through the
thermostat – one thermostat can be set between secondary circulation circuit.
50 and 70 °C, the other is a re-settable high limit
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Expansion of hot water l The coefficient of linear expansion of copper pipe is
0.000016 m per metre per °C.
pipework This means that for every degree rise in temperature,
When the pipework of the hot water system is filled Polybutylene pipe will expand 0.00018 m in every
with hot water, the heated pipework will expand. As the metre and copper will expand 0.000016 m in every
pipework cools down, it will contract. This expansion metre.
and contraction must be accommodated for during the
installation process or noise within the installation will
result. Pipes that pass through walls and floors, and not
Protection against backflow
enough room has been left for expansion, will ‘tick’ and and back siphonage
‘creak’ as the expansion and contraction take place. Hot water is categorised as fluid category 2 because
The rate of expansion will depend upon the material heat has been added to the cold, wholesome water.
the pipe is made from. Generally, pipework made from Other considerations here are that many of the
plastic materials tends to expand more than that made bathroom appliances that are connected to the hot and
from copper. The coefficients of linear expansion for cold supply are also at risk from fluid categories 3 and 5.
polybutylene and copper are as follows: Appliances that may be at risk from backflow are listed
l The coefficient of linear expansion of plastic pipe is in Table 2.12.
0.00018 m per metre per °C.
Table 2.12 Backflow risks
Wash basins Taps for use with wash basins should discharge at least 20 mm above the spillover level of the
appliance (AUK2 air gap). Mixer taps should be protected by the use of single check valves on
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk
the hot and cold supplies. Twin-flow mixer taps do not require any backflow protection as the
water mixes on exit of the tap.
Kitchen sinks No backflow protection is required as the height of the outlet is well above the spillover level
of the appliance. This is classified as an AUK3 air gap. If a mixer tap, where both hot and cold
Fluid cat. 5 risk
water mix in the tap body is installed then single check valves must fitted on both hot and cold
supplies. Twin-flow mixer taps do not require any backflow protection as the water mixes on exit
of the tap.
Baths As for wash basins except that the air gap should be 25 mm. Bath/shower mixer taps, where
the water is fed from the mains cold water supply and there is a risk of the shower head being
Fluid cat. 2, 3 and 5 risk
below the water level in the bath, should be protected by double check valves, or a shower hose
retaining ring which maintains an AUK2 air gap above the spillover level of the bath.
Bidets There are two types of bidet that are at risk from backflow. These are:
l The ascending spray type – special consideration must be made when fitting this type of
Fluid cat. 2, 3 and 5 risk
bidet (see Figure 1.100). These cannot be used with mains-fed hot and cold water systems.
Fluid cat 5 risk.
l The over rim with shower hose connection – with this installation, there is fluid cat. 5 risk as
well as a fluid cat. 2 risk.
Shower valves When both hot and cold supplies are fed from a cistern, no backflow protection is required.
However, when both are fed from mains-fed supplies then single check valves are required with a
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk
hose retaining ring to prevent the hose entering the water. If no retaining ring is fitted then both
hot and cold supplies should have a double check valve installed.
Electric shower units A double check valve is required where a hose retaining ring is not fitted.
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk
Backflow and methods of prevention were discussed in
detail in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning and
design.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
6 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING
REQUIREMENTS OF HOT WATER SYSTEMS
AND COMPONENTS
Testing and commissioning of hot water systems is l Building Regulations Approved Document G3
probably the most important part of any installation, l manufacturer’s instructions of any equipment and
as it is here that the system design is finally put into appliances.
operation. For an installation to be successful, it has
The documents required for correct testing and
to comply with both the manufacturer’s installation
commissioning were investigated in Chapter 1.
instructions and the regulations in force. It also has to
satisfy the design criteria and flow rates that have been The checks to be carried out during
calculated and the customer’s specific requirements. a visual inspection of an unvented
Testing and commissioning performs a vital role hot water storage system to confirm
and its importance cannot be overstated. Correct that it is ready to be filled with water
commissioning procedures and system set-up often Before soundness testing a hot water system, visual
make the difference between a system working to the inspections of the installation should take place. This
specification and failing to meet the required demands. should include:
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the correct l Walking around the installation. Check that you
methods of testing and system commissioning. are happy that the installation is correct and meets
installations standards.
Information sources l Check that all open ends are capped off and all
valves are isolated.
required to complete l Check that all capillary joints are soldered and that
commissioning work on hot all compression joints are fully tightened.
l Check that enough pipe clips, supports and brackets
water systems are installed and that all pipework is secure.
Inadequate commissioning, system set-up, system l Check that the equipment (such as unvented hot
flushing and maintenance operations can affect the water storage cylinder, shower boosting pumps,
performance of any hot water system, irrespective of the expansion vessels and subsequent safety and
materials that have been used in the system installation. functional controls) are installed correctly and that
Building debris and swarf (pipe filings) can easily block all joints and unions on and around the equipment
pipes and these can also promote bacteriological growth. are tight.
In addition, excess flux used during the installation l Check that the pre-charge pressure in the expansion
can cause corrosion and may lead to the amount of vessel is correct and in accordance with the
copper that the water contains exceeding the permitted manufacturer’s data.
amount for drinking water. This could have serious health l Check that any cisterns installed on open vented hot
implications and, in severe cases, may cause corrosion of water storage systems are supported correctly and
the pipework, fittings and any storage vessel installed. that float operated valves are provisionally set to
It is obvious, then, that correct commissioning the correct water level.
procedures must be adopted if the problems stated are l Check that all appliances’ isolation valves and taps
to be avoided. There are four documents that must be are off. These can be turned on and tested when the
consulted: system is filled with water.
l Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 l Check that the D1 and D2 discharge pipework
l British Standard BS EN 806 (in conjunction with complies with the Building Regulations and that it
BS 8558) terminates in a safe but visible position.
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The initial system fill Soundness testing hot water
The initial system fill is always conducted at the normal systems
operating pressure of the system. The system must be
The procedure for soundness testing hot water
filled with fluid category 1 water direct from the water
systems is described in Water Supply (Water Fittings)
undertaker’s mains cold water supply. It is usual to
Regulations 1999, as well as BS EN 8064. There are
conduct the fill in stages so that the filling process can be
two types of tests:
managed comfortably. There are several reasons for this:
l testing metallic pipework installations
l Filling the system in a series of stages allows the
l testing plastic pipework systems.
operatives time to check for leaks stage by stage.
Only when the stage being filled is leak free should Both of these test procedures are covered in detail in
the next stage be filled. Chapter 1.
l Open vented systems – air locks from cistern-fed
open vented systems are less likely to occur as each Flushing procedures for
stage is filled slowly and methodically. Any problems
can be assessed and rectified as the filling progresses
hot water systems and
without the need to isolate the whole system and components
initiate a full drain down. Allowing cisterns to fill to Again, this subject was covered in detail in Chapter 1,
capacity and then opening any gate valves is the best but differs slightly because of the appliances and
way to avoid air locks. This ensures that the full pressure equipment installed on hot water systems.
of the water is available and the pipes are running at
Like cold water installations, the flushing of hot water
full bore. Trickle filling can encourage air locks to form
systems is a requirement of the British Standards. All
causing problems later during the fill stage.
systems, irrespective of their size, must be thoroughly
l Unvented systems – before an unvented hot water
flushed with clean water direct from the water
storage system is filled, the pressure at the expansion
undertaker’s main supply before being taken into
vessel (if fitted) should be checked with a Bourdon
service. This should be completed as soon as possible
pressure gauge to check the pre-charge pressure.
after the installation has been completed to remove
Unvented hot water storage systems should be filled
potential contaminants, such as flux residues, PTFE,
with all hot taps open. This is to ensure that pockets
excess jointing compounds and swarf. Simply filling a
of air at high pressure are not trapped within the
system and draining down again does not constitute a
storage vessel as this can cause the system to splutter
thorough flushing. In most cases, this will only move
water, even after the system has filled. Water should
any debris from one point in the system to another. In
be drawn from every hot water outlet to evacuate
practice, the system should be filled and the water run
any air pockets from the system. The taps can be
at every outlet until the water runs completely clear
closed when the water runs freely without spluttering.
and free of any discoloration. It is extremely important
The temperature and pressure relief valves should be
that any hot water storage vessels and cold water
opened briefly to ensure their correct operation and
storage cisterns should be drained down completely.
to test the discharge pipework arrangement.
l When the system has been filled with water, It is generally accepted that systems should not be
the system should be allowed to stabilise to full left charged with water once the flushing process
operating pressure. Any float operated valves should has been completed, especially if the system is not
be allowed to shut off. The system will then be going to be used immediately, as there is a very real
deemed to be at normal operating pressure. risk that the water within the system could become
stagnant. In practice, it is almost impossible to effect
Once the filling process is complete, another thorough
a complete drain down of a system, particularly large
visual inspection should take place to check for any
systems, where long horizontal pipe runs may hold
possible leakage. The system is then ready for pressure
water. This in itself is very detrimental as corrosion
testing.
can often set in and this can also cause problems with
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
water contamination. It is recommended, therefore, to ensure that any thermostatic mixing valves are
that to minimise the risk of corrosion and water quality operating at the correct temperature and that the
problems to leave systems completely full and flush hot water reaches the outlet within the 30-second
through at regular intervals of no less than twice limit. If a secondary return system is installed, then
weekly, by opening all terminal fittings until the system the circulating pump should be running when the
has been taken permanently into operation. If this is the tests are conducted and the temperature of the
case, then provision for frost protection must be made. return checked just before it re-enters the cylinder
to ensure that the temperature is no less than 10 °C
Taking flow rate and lower than the draw-off, 50 °C minimum.
pressure readings
Once the hot water system has been filled and flushed,
the heat source should be put into operation and the
system run to its operating temperature. Thermostats
and high-limit thermostats should be checked to ensure
that they are operating at their correct temperatures.
When the system has reached full operating
temperature and the thermostats have switched off,
the flow rates, pressures and water temperatures can
then be checked against the specification and the
manufacturer’s instructions. This can be completed in Figure 2.60 Checking hot water flow rates
several ways:
l Flow rates can be checked using a weir gauge.
This is sometimes known as a weir cup or a weir
jug. The method of use is simple. The gauge has a
slot running vertically down the side of the vessel,
which is marked with various flow rates. When
the gauge is held under running water, the water
escapes out of the slot. The height that the water
achieves before escaping from the slot determines
the flow rate. Although the gauge is accurate,
excessive flow rates will cause a false reading
because the water will evacuate out of the top of Figure 2.61 Checking the hot water temperature using an
infrared thermometer
the gauge rather than the side slot.
l System pressures (static) can be checked using a
Bourdon pressure gauge at each outlet or terminal Balancing a secondary
fitting. Bourdon pressure gauges can also be
permanently installed either side of a boosting
circulation system
Large secondary circulation systems should contain
pump to indicate both inlet and outlet pressures.
bronze lockshield valves on every return leg of the hot
l Both pressure (static and running) and flow rate can
water secondary circuit. These should be fitted as close
be checked at outlets and terminal fittings using a
to the appliances as possible and are used to balance the
combined pressure and flow rate meter.
system so that the flow rates to each leg are such that:
l The temperature should be checked using a
l heat loss through the circuit is kept to a minimum
thermometer at the hot water draw-off to ensure
l the temperature of each leg is constant
that it is at least 60 °C but does not exceed 65 °C.
l the temperature of the return at the cylinder is not
Each successive hot water outlet, moving away from
less than 50 °C.
the storage vessel should be temperature checked
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Correct balancing is achieved by opening the valves drawing to the building. Poor installation techniques
on the longest circuits and then successively closing account for:
the lockshield valves a little at a time working towards l Noise – incorrectly clipped pipework can often be a
the cylinder until the flow rate through each circuit is source of frustration within systems running at high
equal. The flow rate should be balanced so that all of pressures because of the noise that it can generate.
the circuits achieve the same temperature at the same Incorrect clipping distances and, often, lack of clips
time. This is especially important with those systems and supports can put strain on the fittings and
that operate through a time clock. cause the pipework to reverberate throughout the
installation, even causing fitting failure and leakage.
Dealing with defects found To prevent these occurrences, the installation should
be checked as it progresses and any deficiencies
during commissioning brought to the attention of the installing engineer.
Commissioning is the part of the installation where the Upon completion, the system should be visually
system is filled and run for the first time. It is now that checked before flushing and commissioning begins.
we see if it works as designed. Occasionally, problems l Leakage – water causes a huge amount of damage
will be discovered when the system is fully up and to a building and can even compromise the building
running, such as systems that do not meet correct structure. Leakage from pipework if left undetected
installation requirements. This can take several forms: causes damp, mould growth and an unhealthy
l Systems that do not meet the design atmosphere. It is, therefore, important that leakage
specification – problems such as incorrect flow is detected and cured at a very early stage in the
rates and pressures are quite difficult to deal with. system’s life.
If the system has been calculated correctly and the It is almost impossible to ensure that every joint on
correct equipment has been specified and installed every system installed is leak free. Manufacturing
to the manufacturer’s instructions, then problems defects on fittings and equipment and damage
of this nature should not occur. However, if the pipe sometimes cause leaks. Leakage due to badly jointed
sizes are too small in any part of the system, then fittings and poor installation practice are much
flow rate and pressure problems will develop almost more common, especially on large systems where
immediately downstream of where the mistake has literally thousands of joints have to be made until
been made. In this instance, the drawings should be the system is complete. These can often be avoided
checked and confirmation with the design engineer by taking care when jointing tubes and fittings,
that the pipe sizes that have been used are correct using recognised jointing materials and compounds
before any action is taken. It may also be the case and using manufacturer’s recommended jointing
that too many fittings or incorrect valves have been techniques.
used causing pipework restrictions.
Another cause of flow rate and pressure deficiency
is the incorrect set-up of equipment such as
boosting pumps and accumulators. In this instance,
the manufacturer’s data should be consulted and
set-up procedures followed in the installation
instructions. It is here that mistakes are often made.
If problems still continue, then the manufacturer’s
technical support should be contacted for advice. In
a very few cases, the equipment specified is at fault
and will not meet the design specification. If this is
the case then the equipment must be replaced.
l Poor installation techniques – installation is the
Figure 2.62 A plumber’s nightmare! A badly designed plumbing
point where the design is transferred from the
system makes fault finding almost impossible
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
The risk from Legionella Defective components and
pneumophila in hot water equipment
systems Defective components cause frustration and cost
valuable installation time. If a component or piece of
equipment is found to be defective, do not attempt
INDUSTRY TIP a repair as this may invalidate any manufacturer’s
warranty. The manufacturer should first be contacted
The Health and Safety Executive provides further
as they may wish to send a representative to inspect
information on the safe control of Legionnaires’ disease at:
www.hse.gov.uk/Legionnaires/ the component prior to replacement. The supplier
should also be contacted to inform them of the faulty
component. In some instances where it is proven that
According to the Health and Safety Executive, the the component is defective and was not a result of
instances of Legionnaires’ disease derived from hot poor installation, the manufacturer may reimburse the
water supply has diminished over recent years due to installation company for the time taken to replace the
better installation techniques and more awareness component.
of sterilisation methods. However, large hot water
systems can often be complex in their design and,
therefore, still present a significant risk of exposure. The
The procedure for notifying
environments where the Legionella bacteria proliferates works carried out to the
are listed below: relevant authority
l At the base of the cylinder or storage vessel where
At all stages of the installation from design to
the cold feed enters and cold water mixes with the
commissioning, notification of the installation will need
hot water within the vessel. The base of the storage
to be given so that the relevant authorities can check
vessel may well eventually contain sediments, which
that the installation complies with the regulations and
support the bacterial growth of Legionella.
to ensure that the installation does not constitute a
l The water held in a secondary circulation system
danger to health. It must be remembered that only
between the outlet and the branch to the secondary
operatives that are registered to do so can install
circulation system as this may not be subject to the
unvented hot water storage systems. The operative’s
high-temperature sterilisation process.
registration number must be given on any paperwork
submitted to the local authority.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
In general, hot water systems should be designed Under Building Regulations Approved Document G, hot
to aid safe operation by preventing or controlling water installations are notifiable to the local authority
conditions which allow the growth of Legionella. They building control office. Building Regulations approval
should, however, permit easy access for cleaning can be sought from the local authority by submitting
and disinfection. The following points should be a ‘building notice’. Plans are not required with this
considered:
process so it is quicker and less detailed than the full
l Materials such as natural rubber, hemp, linseed
oil-based jointing compounds and fibre washers plans application. It is designed to enable small building
should not be used in domestic water systems. works to get under way quickly. Once a building
Materials and fittings acceptable for use in water notice has been submitted and the local authority has
systems are listed in the directory published by been informed that work is about to start, the work
the Water Research Centre. will be inspected as it progresses. The authority will
l Low-corrosion materials (copper, plastic, stainless
steel, etc.) should be used where possible.
notify if the work does not comply with the Building
Regulations.
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Notice should be given to building control not
later than five days after work completion and until
Hand over to the customer
this is received no completion certificates can be or the end user
issued. When the system has been tested and commissioned,
it can then be handed over to the customer. The
Building Regulations customer will require all documentation regarding
the installation and this should be presented to the
Compliance certificates customer in a file, which should contain:
From 1 April 2005, the Building Regulations demanded l all manufacturers’ installation, operation and
that all installations must be issued with a Building servicing manuals for the unvented hot water
Regulations Compliance certificate. This is to ensure storage vessel and associated controls
that all Building Regulations relevant to the installation l the commissioning records and certificates
have been followed and complied with. l the Building Regulations Compliance certificate
l an ‘as fitted’ drawing showing the position of all
Commissioning records for hot isolation valves, backflow prevention devices, etc.
water systems
Commissioning records such as benchmark certificates
for hot water systems should be kept for reference
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
during maintenance and repair and to ensure that Remember, it leaves a positive impression to take
the system meets the design specification. Typical time at the end of a job to ensure the customer
information that should be included on the record is as fully understands how to operate their new
follows: system. Ask if they have any questions and try to
l the date, time and the name(s) and I.D. numbers of answer any questions asked with a plain, non-
the commissioning engineer(s) technical explanation.
l the location of the installation
l the amount of hot water storage and cold water
The customer must be shown around the system
storage (if any)
and shown the operating principles of any controls.
l the types and manufacturer of equipment and
Emergency isolation points on the system should
components installed
be pointed out and a demonstration of the correct
l the type of pressure test carried out and its duration
isolation procedure in the event of an emergency.
l the incoming static water pressure
Explain to the customer how the systems work and
l the flow rates and pressures at the outlets
ask if they have any questions. Finally, point out the
l the expansion vessel pressure
need for regular servicing of the appliances and leave
l whether temperature and pressure relief valves have
emergency contact numbers.
been fitted
l the results of tests on the discharge pipework.
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
The benchmark certificate should be signed by the Clear communication skills are vital to ensure the
operative and the customer and kept in a file in a customer fully understands how their system works.
secure location. Give them the opportunity to ask any questions and
ensure you answer clearly in terms they are likely to
understand.
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
7 DIAGNOSING AND RECTIFYING FAULTS IN
HOT WATER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
As with cold water systems, the risk of breakdown and
failure of hot water systems is ever present.
How to use manufacturer
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate some of
instructions and industry
the methods that help us identify system faults. standards to establish the
diagnostic requirements
Obtaining details of system of hot water system
faults from end users components
When identifying faults that have occurred on hot
When attempting to identify faults with hot water
water systems, the customer can prove an invaluable
systems, the most important document that can be
source of information as they can often describe
consulted is the manufacturer’s instructions. In most
when and how the fault first manifested itself and
cases these will contain a section on fault finding that
any characteristics that the fault has shown. Verbal
will prove an invaluable source of information. Fault-
discussion with the customer often results in a
finding using manufacturer’s instructions usually takes
successful repair without the need for extensive
three forms:
diagnostic tests.
l known problems that can occur and the symptoms
associated with them
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH l methods by which to identify the problem in the
When consulting the client to obtain information form of a flow chart; these usually follow a logical,
about system faults, the customer should be asked:
step-by-step approach, especially if the equipment
l The immediate history of the fault:
has many parts that could malfunction, such as a
l When did it first occur?
pressure reducing valve or an expansion vessel
l How did they notice it?
l the techniques required for replacement of the
l What characteristics did it show? malfunctioning component.
l Did they notice any unusual discharge of water
around the storage vessel or an increase or A replacement parts list will also be present for those
decrease in flow rate or pressure? This may well components that can be replaced. When ordering
indicate the type of component failure that has parts, it is advisable to use the model number of the
taken place. equipment and the parts number from the replacement
l Did they attempt any repairs themselves? If so, parts list. This will ensure that the correct part is
what did they do? This is important because purchased.
if repairs have been attempted, they may well
have to be undone to successfully diagnose the BS 8558 Table 5 may also be consulted as it contains
problem. important information regarding minimum flow rates
l What was the result of the fault? Again, an required by certain appliances. Again, this should
important aspect because it can often indicate be used in conjunction with the manufacturer’s
where the fault lies. For instance, if the customer instructions.
has noticed a drop in flow rate or pressure, this
might indicate a blockage, a blocked strainer or
scale growth. KEY POINT
Remember! Manufacturer’s instructions always
take precedence over the British Standards and
Regulations.
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The routine checks and l there are no signs of leakage from the pump
l that the pump switches on and off at the
diagnostics performed on hot correct pressure
water system components as l that there are no unusual noises or vibrations
when the pump is operating.
part of a fault-finding process l Timing devices – time clocks can be checked
Routine checks on components and systems can to see if they activate at the correct time and
help to identify any potential problems that may that any advance timings such as 1-hour boost
be developing within the system as well as keeping buttons, work correctly. The time display should
the system operating to its maximum performance be checked against the correct time of the check
and within the system design specification. Checks and any alterations to the time made.
performed can include: l Expansion and pressure vessels – these should
l Checking components for correct operating be checked for the correct pressure using a
pressures, temperatures and flow rates – portable Bourdon pressure gauge. The type used
these are important checks, simply because they to check tyre pressures is ideal for this. Any signs
can indicate whether a component has started of water leakage should be investigated. Always
to fail and will require replacement or whether refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for the
the component will require recalibration. Those correct charge and pre-charge pressures.
components that are pressure and temperature l Gauges and controls – gauges are notorious for
related such as expansion vessels, pressure reducing requiring replacement or recalibration as they
valves and thermostats are particularly vulnerable often display an incorrect pressure. They should
and susceptible to failure. be replaced as necessary.
l Cleaning system components (including l Checking for correct operation of system safety
dismantling and reassembly) – components valves:
such as in-line strainers should be checked during l Temperature relief and expansion/pressure
periodic maintenance or when there is a noticeable relief valves – these can be checked by twisting
drop off on flow rate. A blocked strainer will the top and holding the valve open for
dramatically reduce the flow of water and may 30 seconds. Always ensure that the valve
well affect the dynamic pressure of the system closes completely and that the water stops
also. Pressure reducing valves and composite valves without any drips.
can also be checked and cleaned but usually these
Should any components require replacing, they should
contain sealed cartridges where dismantling is
be replaced with like-for-like components or, if this is
not advisable. New cartridges should be installed
not possible, check with the manufacturers that the
wherever a blockage in the PRV is suspected.
part is approved for use with the storage vessel.
l Checking for correct operation of system
components:
l Thermostats – these can be checked using The methods of repairing
a thermometer in the hot water flow once faults in hot water system
the thermostat has shut off. This will indicate
whether the thermostat is operating at the components
correct temperature. Repairing system components should be undertaken
l Pumps – these should be checked using the using the manufacturer’s servicing and maintenance
manufacturer’s commissioning procedures to instructions, as these will contain the order in
ascertain whether the pump is performing as the which the component should be dismantled and
data dictates. A slight fall in performance is to be re-assembled. As with all components, there will be
expected with age. Check to ensure: occasions when it cannot be repaired and replacement
l there no signs of damage or wear and tear on is the only option. Some of the components that may
the pump be repaired and/or replaced are listed in Table 2.13.
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Table 2.13 Hot water components
Component Known fault Symptom Repair
Pumps Worn/broken impeller Motor working but water not being No repair possible. Replace the pump
pumped. No water at the outlets
Burnt out motor Voltage detected at the pump No repair possible. Replace the pump
terminals but pump not working
Cracked casing Water leaking from the pump body No repair possible. Replace the pump
Faulty capacitor Slow starting pump Replace the capacitor if possible.
Check manufacturer’s instructions
Expansion vessels Pressure loss due to No pressure in the expansion vessel. Pump air into the expansion vessel
faulty Schrader valve Water discharging from the pressure using a foot pump and check the
relief valve during water heat up Schrader valve with leak detector
fluid. Check for bubbles. Replace
Schrader valve as necessary
Ruptured bladder/ Water discharging from the Schrader It is possible to replace the bladder/
diaphragm valve. Water discharging from the diaphragm of some accumulators.
pressure relief valve on water heat up Check the manufacturer’s instructions
Expansion (pressure) Water dripping Usually an indication that the Check and recharge the expansion
relief valve intermittently when expansion vessel has lost its air vessel or internal air bubble.
the water is being charge or internal expansion bubble
heated has disappeared
Water running Usually an indication of incorrect Check and replace the pressure
constantly pressure due to a malfunction of the reducing valve
pressure reducing valve
Temperature/pressure Cold water running Usually an indication of two potential Check and replace the pressure
relief valve constantly faults: reducing valve and the pressure relief
l incorrect pressure due to a valve
malfunction of the pressure
reducing valve
l faulty pressure relief valve
Hot water running Usually a sign of thermostat and high Isolate the system from the electrical
constantly limit stat malfunction supply and allow to cool before
attempting a repair. Check and
replace the thermostat and high limit
stat as necessary
Thermostats Hot water too hot System thermostat is not operating at Check the temperature of the hot
the correct temperature water with a thermometer against the
setting on the thermostat. Replace the
thermostat as necessary
No hot water System thermostat not operating Check the thermostat with a GS38
electrical voltage indicator for correct
on/off functions. Replace as necessary
High-limit thermostat No hot water Usually an indication that the system Check the main system thermostat
thermostat has malfunctioned, and reset the high limit thermostat
and the high limit thermostat has
activated to isolate the heat source
Pressure (Bourdon) Sticking pressure Gauge not reading the correct No repair possible. Replace the gauge
gauges indicator needle pressure and does not move when
the pressure is raised or lowered
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KEY POINT
When replacing or repairing valves and controls,
it is important to ensure that the water supply is
isolated and the section of pipework is completely
drained before beginning to repair or replace the
valve.
Table 2.14 Unvented hot water storage system fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
No hot water flow Mains cold water off Check and open isolation valve/stop valve
Strainer blocked Turn off water and clean filter
Cold water connection incorrectly installed Check and refit mains cold water as necessary
Poor flow rate Strainer blocked Turn off water and clean filter
Water from the hot taps Immersion heater not switched on Check and switch on as necessary
is cold
Thermal cut-out (high limit thermostat) Check and reset by pushing the reset button or
has operated replace immersion heater as necessary
Indirect boiler is not working Check boiler operation. If a fault is detected, repair
boiler
Indirect boiler thermal cut-out 5 (high Reset the boiler cut-out and check the operation of
limit thermostat) has operated the boiler thermostat
Motorised valve is not working properly Check wiring of motorised valve and replace/repair
as required
Water discharges from the Intermittently Recharge the air bubble by draining down, or;
pressure relief valve Air bubble has reduced or expansion Check and recharge expansion vessel as necessary
vessel has lost its air charge
Continually 1 Check and replace pressure reducing valve as
Pressure reducing valve not working required
correctly 2 Replace pressure relief valve as required
Pressure relief valve seating damaged
Water discharges from the Hot SWITCH OFF ELECTRICAL POWER. DO NOT TURN
temperature relief valve Thermal control failure OFF WATER SUPPLY. When the discharge stops,
check all thermal controls. Replace as necessary
Cold 1 Check and replace pressure reducing valve as
Joint failure of the pressure reducing valve required
and the pressure relief valve 2 Replace pressure relief valve as required
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Table 2.15 Open vented hot water storage system fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
No hot water flow Mains cold water off Check and open isolation valve/stop valve
Float operated valve stuck in the Check and clean or replace the float operated valve as
off position necessary
System air locked Drain down the cylinder and refill the system
Water flowing cold Immersion heater failure Check and replace immersion heater
Heat source not working Check the boiler for correct operation. Repair as necessary
Water flowing only lukewarm Cylinder thermostat or immersion Increase the temperature setting to 60 °C and check the
heater thermostat set too low correct operation
Poor flow rate Cold feed pipe and/or hot water Check the cold feed connection and the hot water draw-off
draw-off blocked with scale and de-scale as required
Poor pressure Cold water feed/storage cistern Raise the cistern to increase the distance to the hot water
too low outlets
Very hot water discharging into Failure of the immersion heater Check and test the thermostat and energy cut-out and
the cold water feed/storage thermostat and energy cut-out replace
cistern from the open vent
Safe isolation of hot water prevent accidental turn on whilst the system is drained
down. Where no such isolation exists, it may be of a
systems or components benefit to use a pipe freezing kit so that total system
during maintenance and isolation is not undertaken. If a component requires
removal and replacing, it is always a good idea to cap
repair off any open ends until the new component is installed.
Repair and maintenance tasks on hot water services,
Where the equipment also uses an electrical supply,
appliances and valves are essential to ensure the
safe isolation of the electricity supply is vital and
continuing correct operation of the system. The term
the safe isolation procedure should be followed and
used when isolating a water supply during maintenance
the fuse/supply locked off for safety (see Chapter 5,
operations is temporary decommissioning. There are
Electrical principles).
basically two types:
l planned preventative maintenance A record of all repairs and maintenance tasks
l unplanned/emergency maintenance. completed will need to be recorded on the maintenance
schedule at the time of completion, including their
When a maintenance task involves isolating the hot
location, the date when they were carried out and the
water supply, a notice will need to be placed at the
type of tests performed. This will ensure that a record
point of isolation stating ‘system off – do not turn on’
of past problems is kept for future reference.
to prevent accidental turn on of the system. Where key
components such as the expansion vessel, pressure relief Where appliance servicing is carried out, the
and temperature relief valves are found to be faulty, manufacturer’s installation and servicing instructions
then the system should be isolated and temporarily should be consulted. Any replacement parts may be
decommissioned until replacement parts are obtained obtained from the manufacturers.
and fitted. In most systems, it will be possible to isolate Do not forget to keep the householder/responsible
specific parts of the installation without the need to person informed of the areas that are going to be
have the whole supply turned off. It may be a good isolated during maintenance tasks and operations.
idea to remove any levers from the isolation valves to
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Procedures for carrying out Shower pumps
diagnostic tests to locate Diagnostic tests on shower pumps are fairly
straightforward to undertake. Table 2.16 illustrates
faults on shower pumps, some of the problems associated with shower pumps
expansion vessels and and their diagnostic approaches.
thermostats
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate diagnostic
checks that we can perform on shower pumps,
expansion vessels and thermostats.
Table 2.16 Shower pump fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
Pump will not start Electrical Check power supply
Check fuse
Check circuit breaker
Loose wiring connections
Inlet/outlet connections incorrectly Check that connections are plumbed in the correct way round
installed or reversed and that all valves are open
Insufficient gravity flow Check that the installation complies with the instructions
Check inlet filters are not blocked
Check flow rate is a minimum required by the manufacturer’s
instructions on both hot and cold
Float switch sticking in the outlet Ensure there is no debris in the outlet area
Float switch malfunction Replace float switch
Reduced or intermittent Incorrect or no anti-aeration Check that the pipework connections comply with the
flow flange/pipework arrangement fitted instructions
Insufficient gravity flow See above
Blocked inlet filters Ensure that the filters and the showerhead are free of debris.
Always fit the filters to the pump inlets
Couplers are restricting flow Ensure that the flexible anti-vibration couplers at the shower
pump are not bent or distorted
Air in the system Run the system on full hot with the pump isolated from the
electrical supply (gravity only) for several minutes
Check that the cold water storage requirements are correct
for the installation and that the pump is fitted to the
manufacturer’s instructions
Ensure that the cold water fill rate of the cisterns is adequate
and that water starvation is not occurring
Ensure that automatic air vents are fitted at all high points
where airlocks may occur
Wrong size pump for the system Ensure that the pump size is correct for the system
Hot water temperature too high Ensure that the temperature of the hot water does not exceed
65 °C. Fit a hot water system thermostatic mixing valve at the
hot water storage cylinder if required
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Table 2.16 Shower pump fault finding (continued)
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
Pump starts with all Leak in the system Check pipework for leaks
outlets closed Outlet open Ensure all outlets are closed and all open ends are capped
Pump is noisy Air in the system See above
Pump is vibrating on the surface Ensure rubber shock absorbers are fitted
Flexible pump connections are Ensure that the flexible anti-vibration couplers at the shower
causing vibration pump are not bent or distorted
Pump is leaking Pump is subjected to mains Check that the installation complies with the instructions
pressure
Pump has suffered chemical Ensure that the pump has not come into contact with a
damage chemical substance such as flux
Pump is exposed to excessive Ensure that the temperature of the hot water does not exceed
temperature 65 °C. Fit a hot water system thermostatic mixing valve at the
hot water storage cylinder if required
Pump appears to have leaked but Check that the leak is not from pipework directly above the
not sure pump
Pump motor appears to Pump has suffered a major Pump needs replacing
be running hot and water terminal internal fault
flow rate is minimal
Pump is air locked Bleed the air from the pump
Expansion vessels
Expansion vessels are checked at the Schrader valve
with a pressure gauge to ensure that the vessel
contains the correct pressure.
Table 2.17 Expansion vessel fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
No air charge in the Faulty Schrader valve Recharge the vessel with air and check the Schrader valve
expansion vessel with leak detection fluid. If the valve is leaking, then replace
the expansion vessel
Water detected at the Expansion vessel full of water due Replace the membrane if possible (check the manufacturer’s
Schrader valve to a ruptured membrane/diaphragm instructions). If not replace the expansion vessel with one of
in the expansion vessel similar capacity
Note: If a faulty expansion vessel is diagnosed, the system should be isolated and temporarily decommissioned until a replacement vessel is
obtained and fitted.
Thermostats heated. The use of manufacturer’s instructions when
Faulty thermostats are usually indicated by one of two diagnosing faults with thermostats and high-limit
symptoms: thermostats is recommended.
l excessive hot water Figure 2.63 shows a fault-finding chart to determine
l no hot water. the cause of excessive hot water in an indirectly heated
The type of thermostat on the system will depend hot water storage system.
on whether the system is directly heated or indirectly
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Excessive hot water from the taps
Thermostat set too high? Yes
Is the thermostat wired Reduce the temperature
as per ‘S’ or ‘Y’ plan No setting on the thermostat
Installation?
Yes Check that the cylinder
thermostat is switching The thermostat is faulty.
Connect the wiring as on and off with the No
Replace the thermostat
per the installation Yes programmer and hot
instructuctions water on
Is the motorised valve Yes
closing when the cylinder Check wiring on the
reaches temperature? No cylinder thermostat
Wiring fault. Check the
wiring of the system Yes
p Figure 2.63 Fault-finding chart to assess excessive hot water in an indirectly heated hot water storage system
8 SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
Work related to servicing accounts for the majority of
problems found in hot water systems and components,
The periodic servicing
although the lack of periodic maintenance can also requirements of hot water
cause a significant amount of hot water related systems
problems.
Hot water systems, like other plumbing systems
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate some of in the home, require a certain amount of periodic
the more common problems found in both open vented maintenance to ensure a continued and efficient
and unvented hot water systems. operation. Open vented and unvented systems have
different maintenance requirements.
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Table 2.18 Maintenance requirements of hot water systems
Open vented systems Unvented systems
1 Check the installation for signs of leakage around the 1 Unvented hot water storage systems should be serviced
storage vessel and associated pipework. every 12 months.
2 Check the cold water storage cistern in the roof space and 2 Check the installation for signs of leakage around the
clean as necessary. Check that the base and the bearers storage vessel and associated pipework.
that the cistern is sitting on are in good condition and fit 3 Check that the components are approved for use with the
for purpose. storage vessel. Ask the customer if any of the components
3 Adjust the float operated valve to the correct water level. have been replaced during the lifetime of the vessel.
If there have been signs of the water overflowing, then the 4 Check the pressure in the expansion vessel and top-up the
FOV should be re-washered. pressure with a foot pump as necessary.
4 Check the operation of the isolation valves and gate valves 5 If the system has an internal expansion bubble, the system
to ensure that they operate correctly. Advise the customer should be drained down and refilled to recharge the air.
if they require replacement. 6 While the system is drained, remove the in-line strainer
5 Check and replace as necessary the sacrificial anode inside (filter) and clean of any debris.
the cylinder. 7 Check the discharge pipework to ensure it complies with
6 Run the heat source and check the temperature of the hot the regulations. Check the termination point.
water. 8 Operate the pressure relief valve by twisting the top and
7 Run the system to 65 to 70 °C to ensure that the cylinder holding open for 30 seconds.
has been disinfected. Do not forget to reset the thermostat 9 Operate the temperature/pressure relief valve by twisting
to 60 °C for safety purposes. the top and holding open for 30 seconds.
8 Check the system flow rates using a weir gauge. 10 Check the tundish to ensure that water is not discharging
from the air gap.
11 Run the heat source(s) and check the temperature of the
hot water. Check the operation of the system thermostat(s)
to ensure that they shut down at the desired temperature.
12 Check that the non-self-setting high-limit (energy cut-out)
thermostat operates to the manufacturer’s specification.
This is a requirement of the Building Regulations.
13 Run the system to 65 to 70 °C to ensure that the cylinder
has been disinfected. Do not forget to reset the thermostat
to 60 °C for safety purposes.
14 Check the static and dynamic pressures of the system
to determine if the pressure reducing valve is operating
within the manufacturer’s limits.
15 Check the temperature of the water at the outlets.
16 Check the flow rates using a weir gauge.
17 Check that any information and warning notices required
by the unvented cylinders are displayed permanently on
the storage vessel. This is a requirement of the Building
Regulations.
18 Complete the servicing log in the benchmark handbook.
SUMMARY
As we have worked through this chapter, we have seen to determine flow rates, pipe sizes and quantity of hot
that hot water is a very complex subject. It becomes water required. This chapter gives you the knowledge
obvious that careful consideration must be given to the needed to install good, well thought out, well planned
requirements of the customer if the system that we fit hot water storage systems as well as an insight into the
is to meet their specific needs. The subsequent system complexities of good hot water system design.
choice is often the result of the calculations we make
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Test your knowledge
1 What is the minimum diameter of the open vent 3 What minimum distance should the draw-off
pipe within an open vented hot water system? pipework from the top of an open vented hot
a 15 mm water cylinder rise before connection to the
open vent pipe?
b 22 mm
a 150 mm c 350 mm
c 28 mm
b 250 mm d 450 mm
d 35 mm
4 Which of the following appliances is most likely
2 Which of the following materials would be most
to offer the customer low pressure at a hot
suitable for the manufacture of a secondary
water outlet?
circulator to be installed within a hot water
system? a Combination boiler
a Bronze b Direct cylinder
b Plastic c Combination unit
c Steel d Indirect cylinder
d Aluminium 5 An unvented hot water storage system requires
safety controls to be fitted to ensure that
the water it contains does not exceed what
temperature?
a 60 °C c 85 °C
b 65 °C d 100 °C
6 Identify the type of DHW system shown in the
image:
Optional F & E cistern Isolation valve
built into the unit
Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve
Boiler
Heat exchanger
Expansion
chamber
To hot taps
Pump on
primary return To cold taps
Central heating Heat exchanger
pump
Heating flow
Heating return
Mains cold water inlet
a Unvented direct storage unit
b Gas fired hot water storage heater
c Thermal store
d Combination boiler
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Chapter 2 Hot water systems, planning and design
7 Under Building Regulations Part G, what is a new 13 What material is used to make the secondary
or replacement immersion heater required to have? circulation pump that could be fitted to an
a Temperature relief valve unvented system?
b Non-resetting overheat thermostat a Brass
c Restricted thermostat to a maximum b Copper
temperature of 60 °C c Cast iron
d Protective coating to avoid electrolytic d Bronze
corrosion 14 What item could have failed if the pressure
8 What is the maximum distance between the relief valve is letting by in to the tundish?
outlet of a temperature relief valve and the a Expansion vessel
tundish forming part of the D1 pipework?
b Strainer
a 300 mm
c Pressure regulating valve
b 550 mm
d Cylinder stat
c 600 mm
15 Between what temperatures does Legionella
d 650 mm multiply?
9 Water at the outlet of a shower installed within a 15–25 °C
a school should be fitted with a TMV so that the
b 20–30 °C
water does not exceed what temperature?
c 20–45 °C
a 43 °C
d 30–45 °C
b 48 °C
16 The Water Regulations state that hot water
c 50 °C
should be distributed at a temperature of not
d 60 °C less than 55 °C and should reach the outlets at
10 Which Building Regulation Approved Document 50 °C within what time period?
relates to unvented hot water storage systems? a 30 seconds
a L1A b 15 seconds
b L2B c 45 seconds
c G3 d 60 seconds
d G2 17 At what temperature will the temperature and
11 At what temperature should a TMV that is pressure relief valve discharge water?
supplying a domestic bath be set? a 65 °C
a 44 °C b 85 °C
b 38 °C c 75 °C
c 48 °C d 95 °C
d 31 °C 18 What is a typical kW rating of an immersion
12 When installing a balanced cold supply with an heater in a hot water cylinder?
unvented hot water system, what is positioned a 1 kW
immediately after the pressure reducing valve? b 2 kW
a Single check valve c 3 kW
b Isolator d 4 kW
c Cold supply
d Strainer
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19 The minimum storage requirement of a hot 25 If a hot water cylinder contains 150 litres of
water storage vessel allows how many litres of cold water before being heated, what is the
water per person? approximate volume of the expansion?
a 15–25 litres per person a 1.5 litres
b 25–35 litres per person b 15 litres
c 35–45 litres per person c 6 litres
d 45–55 litres per person d 8 litres
20 In what units is specific heat capacity 26 What is the requirement for the installation of a
measured? TMV if installing a wash hand basin in an infant
school?
a °C/litre
27 Describe what happens to Legionella bacteria
b kJ/kg/°C
when water is held at a temperature of 60 °C.
c kJ/litre
28 Name the functional controls of an unvented
d litre/kJ/kg hot water storage system.
21 At what temperature is water most dense? 29 Using the formula below, calculate the kW input
a 0 °C required to raise the temperature of a 300-litre
b 4 °C cylinder from 4 to 65 °C in 2 hours:
c 60 °C SHC × litres of water × temperature difference ( ∆t)
d 100 °C × boiler efficiency (93)
= kW
22 By how much, approximately, does water Time in seconds ×100
expand when heated in a hot water system? When:
a 10% SHC = 4.19
b 7.5% litres of water = 300 litres
c 4% ∆t = 61 °C
d 2% time in seconds = 7,200 seconds (2hrs)
23 If the coefficient of linear expansion of copper 30 A discharge pipe from a ¾" temperature relief
pipe is 0.000016 mm/m/°C, by how much valve is to be installed. The route from the
would a 5.0 m length of copper pipe expand by tundish will include 7.5 m of pipework and two
if heated from 10 °C to 60 °C? elbows. What size D1 and D2 pipework will be
a 4 mm required and why?
b 0.048 mm 31 Describe a centralised hot water system.
32 Outline the three tiers of safety and their
c 0.48 mm
temperatures that are required for an unvented
d 48 mm hot water cylinder.
24 If a customer had a problem with low pressure 33 When designing a hot water system, state what
at a shower, which of the following would NOT the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
improve the installation? state about the temperature of the hot water at
a Install an unvented hot water system with the outlet point.
balanced cold feed 34 A customer states that there is a continual drip
b Install a twin impellor pump through the tundish when the hot water system
c Install a larger open vented indirect cylinder gets up to temperature. Explain what the most
d Install an electric shower likely cause of this is.
Answers can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
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CHAPTER 3
CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS, PLANNING AND DESIGN
Central heating is a vast and complex subject. There in-depth learning of system types, components,
are now more options with regard to sources of heat, controls, and servicing requirements in systems up
pipe materials and heat emitters than ever before. to large domestic dwellings and/or systems of equal
Environmentally friendly technology and the re- size in commercial and industrial premises. We will
emergence of underfloor heating has meant that the investigate new and exciting technology that has the
customer can now afford to be selective about the potential to dramatically cut the cost of heating our
system they have installed into their property. The homes whilst, at the same time, reducing our carbon
advent of heat pumps and solar systems, with the emissions. We will also look at new controls and
savings on fuel and running costs, has dramatically components that can transform an existing wasteful
lowered the carbon footprint of domestic properties. installation into an energy efficient system.
No longer does the customer have to rely appliances
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge
that burn carbon rich fuels such as gas and oil. Zero
of the following six areas:
carbon and carbon neutral fuels have revolutionised
l types of central heating system and their layout
domestic heating whilst advances in technology have
requirements
lowered the cost of the energy saving appliances that
l design techniques for central heating systems
were once only available to a select few.
l positioning central heating system components
In this chapter, we will build on the knowledge of l installation, connection and testing requirements
central heating systems you learned in Book 1. of electrically operated central heating
components
This chapter provides learning in installation,
l commissioning central heating systems and
maintenance, application of design techniques
components
to include heat and ventilation loss through the
l diagnosing and rectifying faults in central heating
building fabric, diagnostics and rectification of
systems and components.
faults and commissioning procedures. It provides
Return to Book 1, and remind yourself of the topics
covered in Chapter 7, Central heating systems,
which included:
l understanding central heating systems and
their layouts
l installing central heating systems and
components
l understanding the decommissioning
requirements of central heating systems and
their components.
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1 TYPES OF CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM
AND THEIR LAYOUT REQUIREMENTS
As highlighted, there are now more options with regard Both of these documents were produced by the
to sources of heat, pipe materials and heat emitters Government as guidance to help installers comply with
than ever before. In this section we will consider the Approved Document L. To support these documents,
types and layouts of central heating systems. the Energy Saving Trust published a set of standards
known as the CHeSS standards (Central Heating
The space heating zoning Systems Specifications), which lay down both good
practice and best practice with regard to controls of
requirements of single central heating systems.
occupancy dwellings
Central heating systems in dwellings are subject to the Approved Document L1A and L1B
strict requirements of the Building Regulations, which The main requirement of Approved Document L is
stipulate that every home must be divided into at least for a boiler interlock. A boiler interlock is a series of
two heating zones. Approved Document L is driven by controls (cylinder thermostats, programmable room
the need for energy efficiency. It lays down specific thermostats, programmers and time switches) that
requirements as to how this must be carried out. prevents the boiler from cycling when there is no
demand for heat. In addition:
● every home must be divided into at least two
INDUSTRY TIP
heating zones, using a thermostat controlling a
You can access the Conservation of fuel and power: Approved motorised valve
2
Document L at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/ ● if the house is less than 150 m , then these can be
conservation-of-fuel-and-power-approved-document-l controlled by the same time clock or programmer
2
● if the house is larger than 150 m , then each
The current Building Regulations came into force zone must be controlled by its own time clock/
in 2013 (with 2016 amendments) for England and programmer
Wales. Part L is currently being updated and should be ● living and sleeping areas (zones) must be controlled
re-issued in the coming months. This update should at different temperatures by means of a thermostat
include any amendments along with elements from ● every radiator should be fitted with a thermostatic
Boiler plus, CHeSS, Domestic Heating Compliance radiator valve, unless the radiator is being used as
Guide and The Building Services Compliance Guide. The the reference radiator for a thermostat situated
document is divided into four specific sections: elsewhere in the room.
● Part L1A Installations in new domestic dwellings
These requirements apply every time a home is built.
● Part L1B Installations in existing domestic dwellings
● Part L2A Installations in new industrial/commercial
Where existing installations are concerned, the
buildings requirements of Document L are made retrospectively.
● Part L2B Installations in existing industrial/
In other words, if an existing system does not comply
commercial buildings. with the regulations, then the system must be updated:
● every time a home has an extension or change of
The requirements of both of these very different use
aspects of space heating are explained in two ● every time more than one individual component,
accompanying documents: such as a boiler, is replaced in a heating system.
● the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
for Parts L1A and L1B (see Table 3.1 on page 195) Simple boiler servicing is exempt from this, but the
● the Non-Domestic Building Services Compliance
recommendation is made that radiator thermostats
Guide for Parts L2A and L2B. should be fitted when the system is drained down.
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Table 3.1 Recommended minimum controls for new gas-fired wet central heating systems (BEAMA Domestic Building Services
Compliance Guide 2021, Table 3)
Control type Minimum standard
Boiler interlock System controls should be wired so that when there is no demand for space heating or hot
water, the boiler and pump are switched off.
Zoning Dwellings with a total floor area > 150 m2 should have at least two space heating zones, each
with an independently controlled heating circuit[1].
Dwellings with a total floor area[2] ≤ 150 m2 may have a single space heating zone[3].
Control of space heating Each space heating circuit should be provided with:
● independent time control, and either:
● a room thermostat or programmable room thermostat located in a reference room[4] served
by the heating circuit, together with individual radiator controls such as thermostatic radiator
valves (TRVs) on all radiators outside the reference rooms, or
● individual networked radiator controls in each room on the circuit.
Control of hot water Domestic hot water circuits supplied from a hot water store (i.e. not produced instantaneously as
by a combination boiler) should be provided with:
● independent time control, and
● electric temperature control using, for example, a cylinder thermostat and a zone valve or
three-port valve. (If the use of a zone valve is not appropriate, as with thermal stores, a
second pump could be substituted for the zone valve.)
The standards in this table apply to new gas-fired wet central heating systems. In existing dwellings, the standards set out in Table 4 will apply
in addition.
Always also follow manufacturers’ instructions.
[1] A heating circuit refers to a pipework run serving a number of radiators that is controlled by its own zone valve.
[2] The relevant floor area is the area within the insulated envelope of the dwelling, including internal cupboards and stairwells.
[3] The SAP notional dwelling assumes at least two space heating zones for all floor areas, unless the dwelling is single storey, open plan with
a living area > 70% of the total floor area.
[4] A reference room is a room that will act as the main temperature control for the whole circuit and where no other form of system
temperature control is present.
Table 3.2 Recommended minimum standards when replacing components of gas-fired wet central heating systems (BEAMA Domestic
Building Services Compliance Guide 2021, Table 4)
Component Reason Minimum standard Good practice[1]
1. Hot water Emergency For copper vented cylinders and combination units, the standard Upgrade gravity-fed systems
cylinder losses should not exceed Q = 1.28 × (0.2 + 0.0521V2/3) kWh/day, to fully pumped.
where V is the volume of the cylinder in litres. Install a boiler interlock and
Install an electric temperature control, such as a cylinder separate timing for space
thermostat. Where the cylinder or installation is of a type that heating and hot water.
precludes the fitting of wired controls, install either a wireless
or thermo-mechanical hot water cylinder thermostat or electric
temperature control.
If separate time control for the heating circuit is not present,
use of single time control for space heating and hot water is
acceptable.
Planned Install a boiler interlock and separate timing for space heating Upgrade gravity-fed systems
and hot water. to fully pumped.
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Table 3.2 Recommended minimum standards when replacing components of gas-fired wet central heating systems (BEAMA Domestic
Building Services Compliance Guide 2021, Table 4) (continued)
2. Boiler Emergency/ All boiler types except heating boilers that are combined with Upgrade gravity-fed systems
planned range cookers to fully pumped.
The ErP[2] seasonal efficiency of the boiler should be a Fit individual radiator
minimum of 92% and not significantly less than the efficiency controls such as thermostatic
of the appliance being replaced. radiator valves (TRVs) on all
In the exceptional circumstances defined in the Guide to the radiators except those in the
condensing boiler installation assessment procedure for dwellings reference room.
(ODPM, 2005), the boiler SEDBUK 2009 efficiency should not
be less than 78% if natural gas-fired, or not less than 80% if
LPG-fired. In these circumstances the additional requirements
for combination boilers would not apply.
Install a boiler interlock as defined for new systems.
Time and temperature control should be installed for the
heating system.
Combination boilers
In addition to the above, at least one of the following energy
efficiency measures should be installed. The measure(s) chosen
should be appropriate to the system in which it is installed:
● Flue gas heat recovery
● Weather compensation
● Load compensation
● Smart thermostat with automation and optimisation.
3. Radiator Emergency Fit a TRV to the replacement
radiator if in a room without
a room thermostat.
Planned Fit TRVs to all radiators
in rooms without a room
thermostat.
4. New Planned The new boiler and its controls should meet the standards in In dwellings with a total floor
heating section 2 of this table. area > 150 m2, install at
system – Fit individual radiator controls such as TRVs on all radiators least two heating circuits,
existing except those in the reference room. each with independent time
pipework and temperature control,
retained together with individual
radiator controls such as
TRVs on all radiators except
those in the reference rooms.
Always also follow manufacturers’ instructions.
[1] Best practice would be as for a new system.
[2] Refers to the efficiency methodology set out in Directive 2009/125/EC for energy performance related products.
The types of central heating Sealed heating systems
systems and their layout Sealed heating systems are those that do not contain
a feed and expansion cistern but are filled with water
requirements directly from the mains cold water supply via a
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate central temporary filling loop. Large systems would be filled
heating systems and their pipework layouts and controls. via an automatic pressurisation unit. The expansion
These will be restricted to sealed heating systems, as of water is taken up by the use of an expansion vessel
open vented systems were covered in depth in Book 1. and the open vent is replaced by a pressure relief valve
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which is designed to relieve the excess pressure by this means that slightly smaller heat emitters may
releasing the system water and discharging safely to a be used in some cases.
drain point outside of the dwelling. This is vital as the ● Greater range of heat emitters – the slightly higher
water may be in excess of 80 °C. A pressure gauge is operating temperature offers a greater range in
also included so that the pressure can be set when the heat emitters, including fan convectors and skirting
system is filled and periodically checked for rises and heating.
falls in the pressure as these could indicate a potential ● Quicker installation time – sealed systems are
component malfunction. The system is usually often easier to install and this results in quicker
pressurised to around 1 bar. There are several types: installation time.
● sealed systems with an external pressure vessel ● Quicker filling – sealed systems fill much more
● system boilers that contain all necessary safety quickly than vented systems because the filling water
controls is coming straight from the mains cold water supply.
● combination boilers. ● Fewer airlocks – filling the system from the mains
cold water supply eliminates the problems of airlocks.
All fully pumped systems, such as those with two or
● Sealed system components inside the boiler –
three 2-port zone valves (known as the S-plan and the
system boilers are supplied with all necessary
S-plan plus) or a 3-port mid-position valve (known as
sealed system components already installed as part
the Y-plan) or a 3-port diverter valve (known as the
of the boiler within the boiler casing. This simplifies
W-plan), can be installed as sealed systems or they can
the system installation.
be purpose designed ‘heating only’ systems using a
● Fewer components – if a system boiler is used,
combination boiler with instantaneous hot water supply.
the problems of siting and installing the expansion
It is important to remember that the safety controls vessel and its associated components are eliminated.
are installed to prevent explosions caused by high
pressure and also products of steam. Fully pumped systems with two or
three 2-port zone valves (known as
The advantages of sealed central heating
systems the S-plan and the S-plan plus)
There are several advantages to sealed heating systems. The S-plan has two 2-port motorised zone valves to
● Less pipework – because the need for a feed and
control the primary and heating circuits separately by the
expansion cistern is removed, less pipework is cylinder and room thermostats respectively. This system is
often used. recommended for dwellings with a floor area greater than
● Smaller pipework – sealed heating systems operate
150 m2 because it allows the installation of an additional
at a slightly higher temperature than vented 2-port zone valve to zone the upstairs heating circuit from
systems, which means that the heat delivery the downstairs circuit (the S-plan plus). A separate room
for the size of pipe is increased. This means that thermostat and, possibly, a second time clock/programmer
smaller pipework can often be used. would also be required for upstairs zoning.
● Higher heat emitter temperatures – because sealed A system bypass is required for overheat protection of
systems operate at a slightly higher temperature, the boiler.
KEY TERM
Overheat protection: when water cannot circulate required. A pump-overrun circuit, which is fitted
or the thermostats have been satisfied and the to most modern boilers, will ensure that the pump
motorised valves have closed, the boiler will continue continues to run when the boiler has shut down to
to heat up for a short period even though the dissipate any latent heat. If the motorised valves are
burner has shut down. This is because of the latent closed, the automatic bypass valve opens from the
heat (see Book 1) in the boiler casing. If the boiler pump pressure to allow water circulation, allowing
overheats, the high-limit thermostat will activate, the excess heat to dissipate, keeping the boiler
and the boiler will fail to operate when it is next temperature below high-limit shut-down.
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Upstairs timer switch
Upstairs room
System bypass thermostat
Two-port zone Cylinder
valve to hot water thermostat
22 mm flow and
return pipework Two-port
zone valve for
Expansion upstairs circuit
vessel
Downstairs room
thermostat
Two-port
zone valve for
downstairs
circuit
Wiring centre
Programmer
Pressure gauge
Filling loop
Pressure relief valve
and discharge pipework
Figure 3.1 The S-plan plus system
Thermostat
Pressure gauge
Wiring centre Programmer
Temporary filling loop
with double check valve
arrangement
Pressure relief valve
and discharge pipework Expansion vessel
Figure 3.2 The Y-plan system
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Fully pumped systems with 3-port The system contains a system bypass fitted with an
mid-position valve (known as the automatic bypass valve which simply connects the
flow pipe to the return pipe. The bypass is required
Y-plan) or a 3-port diverter valve
when all circuits are closed either by the motorised
(known as the W-plan) valve or the thermostatic radiator valves as the
The 3-port valve mid-position (Y-plan) or diverter valve rooms reach their desired temperature. The bypass
(W-plan) controls the flow of water to the primary valve opens automatically as the circuits close to
(cylinder) circuit and the heating circuit. The valve protect the boiler from overheating by allowing water
reacts to the demands of the cylinder thermostat or to circulate through the boiler keeping the boiler
the room thermostat. below its maximum high temperature. This prevents
the boiler from ‘locking out’ on the overheat energy
cut-out.
System boilers
A system boiler is an appliance where all necessary
safety and operational controls are included and fitted
directly to the boiler. There is no need for a separate
expansion vessel, pressure relief valve or filling loop
and this makes the installation much simpler.
Figure 3.3 The 3-port mid-position valve
The system boiler has all the components for a sealed system contained within the boiler unit. It is filled directly from the mains cold
water via a filling loop which is often fitted by the boiler manufacturer.
Expansion vessel
Pressure
gauge
Temporary filling loop with double check valve arrangement
Pressure relief valve and discharge pipe
Figure 3.4 A sealed system with a system boiler
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Room thermostat
Time clock
Combination boiler
Expansion vessel
Pressure relief valve
and discharge pipe
Filling
loop
Heating
flow
Heating
Hot return
water
supply
Mains cold water
Figure 3.5 A sealed system with a combination boiler
Combination boilers before the condensing mode begins to work effectively.
In recent years, combination boilers have become one Installation of a low loss header allows the creation of
of the most popular forms of central heating in the two separate circuits. These are shown in Figure 3.6.
● The primary circuit – the flow rate within the
UK. A combination boiler provides central heating and
instantaneous hot water supply from a single appliance. primary circuit can be maintained at the correct
Modern combination boilers are very efficient and flow rate for the boilers so that the maximum
they contain all the safety controls (such as expansion efficiency of the boilers is maintained regardless of
vessel, pressure relief valve) of a sealed system. Most the demand placed on the secondary circuit. Each
‘combis’ also have an integral filling loop. boiler has its own shunt pump so that equal velocity
through the boilers is maintained.
● The secondary circuits – the secondary circuits allow
KEY TERM
for varying flow rates demanded by the individual
Integral filling loop: a filling loop that is designed balanced zones or circuits. Each zone would be
and installed as part of the boiler by the
manufacturer. controlled by a shunt pump set to the flow rate for
that particular zone. A 2-port motorised zone valve,
time clock and room thermostat control each zone
Multiple boiler installations and the independently and these are often fitted in conjunction
with other controls such as outdoor temperature
use of low loss headers
sensors. In some cases, the flow rates through each
For a boiler to work at its maximum efficiency, the water secondary circuit will exceed that required by the
velocity passing through the heat exchanger needs to be boilers. In other cases, the opposite is true and the
maintained within certain parameters. This is especially boiler flow rate will be greater than the maximum flow
important for condensing boilers as they rely on a rate demanded by the secondary circuits, especially
defined temperature drop across the flow and return where multiple boiler installations are concerned.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Boiler management control
Zone
controller
Zone
controller
Outdoor
sensor
Zone
valves
Shunt
pumps
Primary circuit Secondary circuit
Hot water cylinder
Boiler shunt pumps Low loss
header
Expansion
vessel
Boiler Boiler Boiler
Pressurising unit
Figure 3.6 A multiple boiler installation with a low loss header
Water velocity is just part of the problem. Water that may collect in the header. Both of these features
temperature is also important. There are two potential are usually fitted as standard on most low loss headers.
problems here:
● If the difference in temperature between the flow How it works – the low loss header
and return is too great, it puts a huge strain on the Low loss headers act as an intermediary between the
boiler heat exchangers because of the expansion boiler and the heating and hot water circuits. They are
and contraction. This is known as thermal shock. designed to provide a hydraulic separation between the
● For a condensing boiler to go into condensing mode, boiler and the heating circuits. This helps to regulate
the return water temperature must be in the region the flow rate through the boiler at optimum velocity
of 55 °C. In some instances, temperature sensors are for the best efficiency of the appliance(s), ensuring
fitted to the low loss header to allow temperature greater performance of the heating system.
control over the primary circuit.
Controls for heating systems
KEY TERM No matter how good the central heating design or how
Thermal shock: the rapid cooling or heating of a accurate the calculations, the system requires proper
substance that can lead to failure of the material. control to be effective, efficient and economical to run.
The types of controls that are added to a system can
The low loss header is ideal for use with systems greatly improve its performance. Even older systems can
that have a variety of different heat emitters. It is benefit from the addition of modern and effective controls.
the perfect place for installing an automatic air valve In this part of the chapter, we will look at the various
for removing unwanted air from the system. Drain controls for central heating systems, their function and
points can also be fitted for removing any sediment how they ‘fit’ into modern systems.
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The function of components used in OPEN
central heating systems
In Book 1, we investigated some of the more
common controls, such as room thermostats, cylinder
thermostats, time clocks and programmers. Here we will
investigate some of the more advanced controls that
can be installed alongside these as well as recapping the
working principles of other common components.
Zone control valves Figure 3.8 The 2-port zone valve
Zone control of multiple spaces within a dwelling is Valves of 22 mm can be used on boilers up to around
achieved by the use of motorised valves activated 20 kW. 28 mm or larger should be used where the
and controlled by a time clock/programmer/room system is greater than 20 kW.
thermostat arrangement or a programmable room
thermostat that will do the same function. Advanced controls – weather
The most common types of motorised valves are 2-port compensation, optimum start and
zone valves and 3-port mid-position and diverter valves. delayed start
The method of use of these valves will depend on the Domestic central heating systems can benefit from more
pipework layout and installer/end user preference. advanced controls, which are often digital, especially
● 3-port valves provide separate hot water and when a condensing boiler is fitted. Condensing boilers
heating circuits. Zoning of the living spaces can be respond to lower flow and return temperatures better
achieved by the inclusion of additional 2-port valves than non-condensing appliances. Advanced controls
on the individual space circuits (such as upstairs and enhance system efficiency.
downstairs circuits). 3-port valves include a mid- ● Weather compensation – compensates for
position which allows shared flow. the external temperature. This control uses an
● 2-port motorised zone valves are probably the externally fitted temperature sensor fitted on a
most common of all zone arrangements used. They north or north-east facing wall so as not to be in
provide zoning of individual circuits and are used the direct path of solar radiation. As the external
where more than one zone is needed. A separate temperature rises, the weather compensator
zone valve is used for each zone. reduces the circulation temperature of the flow
from the boiler to compensate for the warmer
outside temperature. Similarly, the reverse occurs if
the weather gets colder.
● Delayed start – here, the end user sets the time to
bring on the heating taking into account the time
it would normally take to warm the dwelling (for
A B example, people might set the heat to come on at
5 p.m. if they were due to arrive home from work
at 6 p.m.). A delayed start unit will, at the time
AB the heat is due to come on, compare the current
In the mid-position, indoor temperature to that required by the room
the valve allows the
water to circulate thermostat. It will then delay the start of the boiler
around both heating 'A' firing if required. The benefits are that during milder
and hot water 'B' circuits
weather when the heat requirement is less, energy
Figure 3.7 The mid-position valve showing the heating will be saved. Room thermostats with a delayed
connection (A), hot water connection (B) and the common or start function are now available.
primary connection (AB)
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
● Optimum start – the end user sets the required Internal
temperature (°C)
occupancy times and the required room
temperature and the controller calculates the
necessary heat up time so that the rooms are at
the required temperature irrespective of the outside 20
temperature. The idea is based around comfort
Potential
rather than energy savings. Earliest energy saving
16 normal
start
INDUSTRY TIP
Central heating control technology now includes smart 12 Delayed start
devices that can communicate remotely via Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth. Such devices will increasingly be connected to
the internet of things. You should aim to keep up to date 8
with all developments in this fast-moving field.
External
temperature (°C) 5 6 7 8 9 10
20 Time (hours)
Typical settings
Warmer
16 Maximum heat up period, e.g. 6 a.m. to 8 a.m.
Normal occupancy period, e.g. 8 a.m. to 10 a.m.
12 Figure 3.11 Delayed/optimum start function
Cooler Compensation
8 slope Domestic boiler management systems
(home automation systems)
4
A boiler management system (BMS) is an electronic
controller that provides bespoke control solutions for
0
domestic central heating systems.
-4 Standard functions of BMS control include real-time
0 20 40 60 80 100 temperature and boiler/controls monitoring, room
Boiler flow temperature (°C)
temperatures (known as set points) and time schedule
Figure 3.9 A weather compensation graph adjustment, optimisation, and night setback control.
The system remembers key points, such as how quickly
the building heats up or cools down and makes its own
adjustments so that energy savings can be made. If it is
very cold outside at, for example, 2 a.m., the BMS will
switch the heating on at 4.15 a.m. to allow the building
to be at the correct temperature by the time the user has
set the heating to come on, say, at 7 a.m., irrespective of
the time that the user has set the time for the heating to
activate. On milder nights, the heating may not come on
until 6.15 a.m. but it will still reach its set point by 7 a.m.
It will also learn how well your house retains heat
Figure 3.10 A weather compensator and may shut down early if it calculates that your set
point will still be maintained at your OFF time of, for
example, 10 p.m.
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These systems provide a cost-effective means of 1
Good practice: this set of controls
monitoring system efficiency and can reduce heating achieves good energy efficiency in line
costs by up to 30 per cent. with Approved Document L 2010. This
is described in detail in the CHeSS
Electronic sensors are fitted to the flow and return
document:
pipework and an external temperature sensor is fitted
for weather compensation. The information is used a HR7: Good practice for systems with
to accurately vary the system output according to a regular and a separate hot water
demand. This helps to significantly reduce fuel wastage storage:
caused by temperature overshoot, heat saturation of i full programmer
the heat exchanger, unnecessary boiler cycling and flue ii room thermostat
gas losses whilst maintaining internal comfort levels iii cylinder thermostat
and reducing CO2 emissions. iv boiler interlock (see note 1)
v TRVs on all radiators, except in
The selection of system and control
rooms with a room thermostat
types for single family dwellings
vi automatic bypass (see note 2).
The installation of an effective system of central
b HC7: Good practice for systems using
heating controls has a major effect on the consumption
a combination boiler or combined
of energy and the effectiveness of the system.
primary storage unit:
Choosing the right controls will lead to:
● improved energy efficiency
i time switch
● reduced fuel bills ii room thermostat
● lower CO2 emissions. iii boiler interlock (see note 1)
The establishment of a minimum standard of heating iv TRVs on all radiators, except in
controls is vital if the heating system is to achieve rooms with a room thermostat
satisfactory efficiencies when the system is in use. The v automatic bypass valve (see note 2).
efficiency of the boiler is only part of the story. For the 2
Best practice: this standard uses
boiler to achieve these efficiencies, at least a minimum enhanced controls to further enhance
standard of controls MUST be installed. energy efficiency in line with Approved
Document L1A/B 2010. This is described
So, what is a good system of controls?
in detail in the CHeSS document:
A good system of controls must: a HR8: Best practice for systems with
● ensure that the boiler does not operate unless there
a regular and a separate hot water
is demand. This is known as boiler interlock storage:
● only provide heat when it is required to achieve the
i programmable room thermostat, with
minimum temperatures.
additional timing capability for hot
water
KEY TERM
ii cylinder thermostat
Boiler interlock: this is NOT a single control. It
is a combination of several controls working in iii boiler interlock (see note 1)
conjunction to ensure that the boiler does not fire iv TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms
unless it is required. It is key in ensuring good with a room thermostat
system efficiency and saving energy.
v automatic bypass valve (see note 2)
vi more advanced controls, such as
There are two levels of controls for domestic properties weather compensation, may be
and these are set out in Central Heating System considered.
Specification (CHeSS) CE51 2008:
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
b HC8: Best practice for systems using The application of system controls
a combination boiler or combined – time and temperature – to space
primary storage unit:
heating zones
i programmable room thermostat
The number of homes that require both time and
ii boiler interlock. temperature zone control has increased in recent
iii TRVs on all radiators, except in years. In 2006, a survey showed that the average floor
rooms with a room thermostat area of a domestic property with four bedrooms was
iv automatic bypass valve (see note 2) around 157 m2 and over 200 m2 for a five-bedroom
v more advanced controls, such as domestic property. With properties of this size, zoning
weather compensation, may be becomes a necessity and in 2006, Document L1A/B of
considered. the Building Regulations requested that zoning of the
Note 1 (from CHeSS): Boiler interlock is heating system must be installed in all properties of
not a physical device but an arrangement 150 m2 or more. This was updated in 2010 to include
of the system controls (room thermostats, any property.
programmable room thermostats, cylinder In most instances zoning requires the separating of
thermostats, programmers and time switches) the upstairs circuit from the downstairs or, in the
so as to ensure that the boiler does not fire case of single-storey dwellings, separating the living
when there is no demand for heat. In a system space from the rest of the property. Separate time
with a combi boiler this can be achieved by and temperature control of the individual circuits is a
fitting a room thermostat. In a system with a necessity.
regular boiler this can be achieved by correct
wiring interconnection of the room thermostat, Zoning with separate temperature
cylinder thermostat, and motorised valve(s). control
It may also be achieved by more advanced Separate temperature-controlled zones provide a
controls, such as a boiler energy manager. TRVs much better living environment because different
alone are not sufficient for boiler interlock. parts of the dwelling can be maintained at different
Note 2 (from CHeSS): An automatic bypass temperatures without relying on a single room to
valve controls water flow in accordance with dictate the temperature across the whole system.
the water pressure across it, and is used to Lower temperatures can be maintained in those
maintain a minimum flow rate through rooms within the dwelling that are not occupied,
the boiler and to limit circulation pressure allowing the dwelling to take full advantage of
when alternative water paths are closed. A any solar gains, especially in rooms that face
bypass circuit must be installed if the boiler south, south-east or south-west. This can be quite
manufacturer requires one, or specifies that a pronounced, even in the winter Sun. Significant
minimum flow rate has to be maintained while savings on both energy usage and fuel costs can be
the boiler is firing. The installed bypass circuit made by simply taking advantage of the free heat
must then include an automatic bypass valve that the Sun can provide. Outside sensors linked
(not a fixed position valve). to weather compensators and delayed start and
Care must be taken to set up the automatic optimum start controls further help to reduce energy
bypass valve correctly, in order to achieve the usage and cost.
minimum flow rate required (but not more)
when alternative water paths are closed. Zoning with separate time control
Source: Energy Saving Trust (2008) Central heating system Zoning with separate time control offers another
specifications (CHeSS) dimension to the concept of zoning by allowing the
heating to be controlled at different times of the day
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in different zones. The heat can be focussed in those Zoning can help make significant energy savings. It
rooms that are occupied throughout the day with the allows the optimisation of the heating system whilst
heating to other parts of the dwelling timed to come maintaining the dwelling at a comfortable temperature
on in the early morning and evening. Separate zones and saving money at the same time.
reduce energy usage and costs whilst maintaining
improved comfort levels throughout the property. Underfloor heating systems
Zoning in practice Underfloor heating has been around for many years –
the Romans used a warm air system 1500 years ago
The choice of controls for the zones should be decided
to good effect. It is only fairly recently that its benefits
by the predicted activity in those zones. There
have been rediscovered. It is very suitable for use with
are many options that can be used individually or
the lower flow temperatures from new environmental
collectively to achieve a good system control:
technologies such as air and ground source heat
● Using individual temperature and timing controls in
pumps and solar heating, and so it has become not
every zone.
only a viable option for the domestic dwelling but
● Multi-channel programmers allow the timing of
one that will also save money, energy, reduce CO2
individual rooms or multiple zones to be set from a
emissions and, as a consequence, significantly reduce
single point. This is often more desirable than many
environmental impact.
individual programmers at different locations within
the dwelling. The design principles of underfloor
● Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) vary the
heat output of individual heat emitters. This can
central heating systems
be beneficial where solar gain adds to the room An underfloor heating system provides invisible
temperature as they are very fast reacting in most warmth and creates a uniform heat, eliminating cold
circumstances. Some TRVs also have electronically spots and hot areas. The temperature of the floor
timed thermostatic heads which can be linked to a needs to be high enough to warm the room without
wireless programmer. being uncomfortable underfoot. There is no need
for unsightly radiator/convectors because the heat
literally comes from the ground up. Underfloor heating
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS creates a low temperature heat source that is spread
Zoning is required by Approved Document over the entire floor surface area. The key word here is
L1A/B of the Building Regulations 2013 (with low temperature. Whereas most wet central heating
2016 amendments) and the installer must make systems containing radiators and convectors operate at
decisions on the best way to arrange those zones around 70 to 80 °C, underfloor heating operates at a
to take the best advantage of energy savings much lower temperatures, making it an ideal system for
whist complying with the wishes of the customer/ air and ground source heat pump fuel sources. Typical
end user and complying with the regulations. temperatures are:
The only way that this can be achieved is by ● 40–45 °C for concrete (screeded) floors
talking to the customer and finding out their ● 50–60 °C for timber floor constructions.
usage patterns. The main aim of zoning is to
avoid overheating areas that require less heat to
maintain the warmth or because the set point
could be lower than in other areas. The point
here is that the number of zones laid down by
Document L is the minimum and there are real
benefits to adding additional zones in key areas of
the property.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
making the floor surface a large storage heater, the
heat is then released into the room as radiated heat.
80 ºC convected heat
24 ºC Around 50 per cent to 60 per cent of the heat emission
Radiator heating is in the form of radiation providing a much more
comfortable temperature at low room levels when
Hot air rises compared to a traditional wet system with radiators
and, with the whole floor being heated, furniture
21 °C
positioning no longer becomes a problem because as
the furniture gains heat, it too emits warmth.
20% Cooler air During the design stage, the pipe coils are fixed at
radiated descends
heat specific centres depending on the heat requirement of
the room and the heat emission (in watts) per metre on
pipe. The whole floor is then covered with a screed to
Radiator at
70 ºC a specific depth creating a large thermal storage heat
18 ºC
emitter. The water in the pipework circulates from and
to a central manifold and this heats the floor. The heat
is then released into the room at a steady rate. Once
the room has reached the desired temperature, a room
20 ºC
thermostat actuates a motorised head on the return
manifold and closes the circuit to the room.
Underfloor heating
Such is the nature of underfloor heating that many
fuel types can be used, some utilising environmentally
friendly technology. Gas and oil fired boilers are
20 ºC common, but biomass fuels, solar panels and heat
pumps are also used.
Underfloor pipework
at 35–40 ºC VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
More information regarding green energy heating
18–29 ºC
solutions can be found at: www.gov.uk/green-
deal-energy-saving-measures
Floor coverings are an important aspect for underfloor
Figure 3.12 The principle of underfloor heating heating. Some floor coverings create a high thermal
resistivity, making it difficult for the heat to permeate
Traditional wet central heating systems generate through. Carpet underlays and some carpets have
convection currents and radiated heat. Around 20 per particularly poor thermal transmittance, which means
cent of the heat is radiated from the hot surface of the heat is kept in and not released. Thermal resistivity
the radiators and if furniture is placed in front of the of carpets and floor coverings is known as TOG rating.
radiator, the radiation emission is reduced. 80 per cent The higher the TOG rating, the less heat will get
of the heat is convection currents, which makes the hot through. Floor coverings used with underfloor heating
air rise. This adds up to a very warm ceiling! Underfloor should have a TOG rating of less than 1 and must never
heating systems, however, rely on both conduction and exceed 2.5.
radiation. The heat from the underfloor heating system
conducts through the floor warming the floor structure,
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Quite often, underfloor heating is used in conjunction valve to maintain a steady temperature required
with traditional wet radiators, especially on properties for the underfloor system. Zoning the upstairs and
such as barn conversions. The higher temperatures downstairs circuits with 2-port motorised zone valves
required for radiators do not present a problem because and independent time control for the heat emitters also
the flow water for the underfloor system is blended helps in this regard.
with the return water via a thermostatic blending
Theoretical Underfloor Radiator heating Warm air
ideal heating heating on inside wall heating
2.7 m
Eye level
1.7 m
16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º
Figure 3.13 Heating theory
Hot water cylinder
Pump Two-way manifold
Pump
4
5
3
2 6
1 7
Top view
Boiler
Underfloor heating circuits
Figure 3.14 Typical underfloor heating system combined with wet radiators
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Table 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of underfloor heating
Advantages Disadvantages
● The pipework is hidden underfloor. This allows better ● Not very suitable for existing properties unless a full
positioning of furniture and interior design. renovation means the removal of floor surfaces.
● The heat is uniform giving a much better heat distribution than ● Can be expensive to install when compared to more
traditional systems. traditional systems.
● These systems are very energy efficient with low running costs. ● Heat up time is longer as the floor will need to get to
● Environmentally friendly fuels can be used. full temperature before releasing heat.
● Underfloor heating is almost silent with low noise levels when ● Slower cool-down temperatures mean the floors may
compared to other systems. still be warm when heat is not required.
● Cleaner operating with little dust carried on convector currents. ● Greater installation time.
This can help those people who suffer allergies, asthma and ● More electrical installation of controls is required,
other breathing problems. as each room will need its own room thermostat and
● System maintenance is low and decorating becomes easier as associated wiring.
there are no radiators to drain and remove.
● Individual and accurate room temperatures as every room has
its own room thermostat that senses air temperature.
● Lower possibility of leaks.
● Greater safety, as there are no hot surfaces that can burn the
elderly, infirm or the very young.
● Better zone control as each room is in effect a separate zone.
The layout features of underfloor The manifold arrangement also contains a
heating thermostatic mixing valve to control the water to
the low temperatures required by the system and an
Underfloor heating uses a system of continuous pipework,
independent pump to circulate the water through every
laid under a concrete or timber floor in a particular
circuit.
pattern and at set centre-to-centre pipe distances.
Each room served by an underfloor heating system is Each underfloor heating circuit is individually controlled
connected at a central location to a flow and return by a room thermostat, which activates a motorised
manifold, which regulates the flow through each circuit. head on the return manifold to precisely control the
The manifold is connected to flow and return pipework heat to the room to suit the needs of the individual.
from a central heat source, such as a boiler or a heat pump.
Hot water
cylinder
Ground source Two-way
heat pump manifold
Pump Pump
Buried captor or ‘slinky’ 2
3
1
4
5
7
6
Pump Top view
Underfloor heating circuits
The flow and return connections to
the thermostatic mixing valves
enter side by side
Figure 3.15 Typical underfloor heating system using a ground source heat pump
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The working principles of underfloor Most manifolds contain a circulating pump and a
central heating system pipework and thermostatic mixing valve, often called a blending
valve. These will be discussed below.
components
As we have already seen, underfloor heating works by The thermostatic mixing (blending) valve
distributing heat in a series of pipes laid under the floor The thermostatic mixing or blending valve is designed
of a room. To do this, certain components are required to mix the flow and return water from the heat source
to distribute the flow of heat to ensure that the system to the required temperature for the underfloor heating
warms the room. However, the components must be circuits. They are available in many different formats,
controlled in such a way so as to maintain a steady flow the most common being as part of the circulating
of heat whilst ensuring that the floor does not become pump module as shown in Figure 3.17. The temperature
too hot to walk on. This is achieved by the use of: of the water is variable by the use of an adjustable
● manifolds
thermostatic cartridge inside the valve.
● a thermostatic blending valve
● a circulating pump
● various pipework arrangements to suit the floor and
its coverings
● the application of system controls – time and
temperature – to space heating zones.
The use of manifolds
In technical terms, the manifold is designed to minimise
the amount of uncontrolled heat energy from the
underfloor pipework. The manifold is at the centre of an
underfloor heating system. It is the distribution point
where water from the heat source is distributed to all
of the individual room circuits, and as such, should be
positioned as centrally in the property as possible. Room
temperature is maintained via thermostatic motorised
actuators on the return manifold whilst the correct flow
rate through each coil is balanced via the flow meters on
the flow manifold. Both the flow and return manifolds
contain isolation valves for maintenance activities, an
automatic air valve to prevent air locks and a temperature
gauge so that the return temperature can be monitored. Figure 3.17 Underfloor heating circulating pump/blending valve
Automatic air vent module
Flow meter
Isolating valve
The circulating pump
The circulating pump is situated between the
Pump
Actuator
thermostatic mixing valve and the flow manifold to
head Pressure circulate the blended water through every circuit. Most
gauge
models are variable speed.
Isolating
valve
Underfloor heating pipework
arrangements
The success of the underfloor heating system depends
Blending valve upon the installation of the underfloor pipework and
Figure 3.16 Typical underfloor heating manifold the floor pattern installed. There are many variations
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
of pipe patterns based upon two main pattern types.
These are:
● the series pattern
● the snail pattern.
In general, underfloor heating pipes should not be laid
under kitchen or utility room units.
The series pattern
The series pattern (also known as the meander pattern)
is designed to ensure an even temperature across the
floor especially in systems incorporating long pipework
runs. It is often used in areas of high heat loss.
The flow pipe must be directed towards any windows
or the coldest part of the room before returning
backwards and forwards across the room at the defined
pipe spacing centres.
The snail pattern Figure 3.19 The snail pattern
The snail pattern (also known as the bifilar pattern) is
used where an even uniform temperature is required Positioning components in underfloor
such as under hardwood floors and vinyl floor tiles. central heating systems
The flow pipe runs in ever decreasing circles until the For an underfloor heating system to work effectively,
centre of the room is reached, it then reverses direction the components require careful positioning to ensure
and returns with parallel runs back to the starting point. that the efficiency of the system is maintained. All too
often, systems fail to live up to their potential because
of poor positioning of key components.
Manifolds
The longer the circuit, the more energy is needed
to push the water around it. Water will always take
the least line of resistance and shorter circuits will
always be served first. In many instances, balancing
the system will help even out the circulation times
so that all circuits receive the heat at the same time
but the system will only be as good as the slowest
circuit. If the longest circuit is slow, once the system is
balanced, then ALL circuits will be slow. In this regard,
the positioning of the manifold is of great importance.
By positioning the manifold centrally within the
dwelling, the length of each circuit is balanced so that
long circuits become shorter. Even if the short circuits
become longer, the time for the heating system to
reach full temperature will be shortened and balancing
the system will become much easier.
Figure 3.18 The series pattern
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A potential problem that may occur where the manifold Pipework installation techniques
is located is that the area may become a potential Solid floor
‘hot spot’ on the system because of the pipework
There are many types of underfloor heating installation
congestion around the manifold. This can be prevented
techniques for a solid floor. The drawing above shows one
by insulating the pipework around the manifold until
of the more common types using a plastic grid where the
the pipework enters the room it is serving.
underfloor heating pipe is simply walked into the pre-
Pipework arrangements (cabling) made castellated grooves for a precise centre-to-centre
guide for the pipework using a minimum radius bend.
There are many variations to these two basic layouts.
The pattern should be set out in accordance with
the orientation and the shape of the room. Window
areas may be colder and may require the bulk of the
heat in that area. Other considerations include the
type of floor construction and the floor coverings.
The pipework should be laid in one continuous length
without joints. In some instances, the pipe is delivered
on a continuous drum of up to 100 m to enable large
areas to be covered without the need for joints. Large
rooms may require more than one zone and the
manufacturer’s instructions should be checked for
maximum floor coverage per zone.
Figure 3.22 Solid floor underfloor heating installation method
The panels are laid on to pre-installed sheets of
insulation to ensure a good performance and minimal
heat loss downwards. Edge insulation is required to
allow for expansion of the panels.
Table 3.4 Key design and installation information for solid floor
Maximum heat output Approx. 100 W/m2
Recommended design 50 °C
flow temperature
Maximum circuit length 100 m (15 mm pipe)
Figure 3.20 The series pattern laid out
120 m (18 mm pipe)
Maximum coverage per 12 m2 @ 100 mm centres
circuit 22 m2 @ 200 mm centres
30 m2 @ 300 mm centres
(18 mm pipe only)
Material requirements
Pipe 8.2 m/m2 @ 100 mm centres
4.5 m/m2 @ 200 mm centres
3.3 m/m2 @ 300 mm centres
(18 mm pipe only)
Floor plate usage 1 plate/m2 allowing for cutting
Edging insulation strip 1.1 m/m2
Figure 3.21 The snail pattern laid out Conduit pipe 2 m/circuit
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Tiled floor covering
Wall
Edge insulation 75 mm screed
Floor panel
Insulation
Solid floor plate
Underfloor heating pipes
Figure 3.23 Solid floor underfloor heating installation
Suspended timber floor Table 3.5 Key design and installation information for suspended
floor
This system is designed for use under timber suspended
floors. It uses aluminium double heat spreader plates to Maximum heat output Approx. 70 W/m2
transmit heat evenly across the finished floor surface. Recommended design 60 °C
flow temperature
This system is suitable for any timber suspended
Maximum circuit length 80 m (15 mm pipe)
floor with joist widths up to 450 mm. The heat plates
are simply fixed to the joists using small flat headed Maximum coverage per 17 m2 @ 225 mm centres
circuit using a double
nails or staples. A layer of insulation must be placed
spreader plate
below the plates to prevent the heat penetrating
Material requirements
downwards.
Pipe 4.5 m/m2 @ 100 mm centres
Where the pipework must cross the joists, the joists 2 plate/m2
Heat spreader plates
must be drilled in accordance with the Building
Regulations.
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Wall
Tongued and grooved floor boards
Double heat spreader plates
Insulation
Timber joists
Underfloor heating pipes
Figure 3.24 Suspended floor underfloor heating installation
Wall
Finished floor surface
Double heat spreader plates
Floating floor panels
Underfloor heating pipes
Figure 3.25 Floating floor underfloor heating installation
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Floating floor Initial system fill
This system is designed for use where a solid floor 1 Close the isolating valves on the flow and return
installation is not suitable due to structural limitations. manifolds.
It can be installed directly on to finished concrete or 2 Connect a hosepipe to the flow manifold drain-off
timber floors. point, with the other end connected to the mains
cold water supply.
The pipework is laid on top of 50 mm thick polystyrene
3 Connect a second hose to the return manifold
panels, each having a thermal transmittance of
drain-off point. The other end must discharge over a
0.036 Wm2K. The insulation has pre-formed grooves
drain gully.
that the pipe clips into after the heat spreader plates
4 Turn on the mains cold water and open each circuit
have been fitted. The insulation is not fixed and ‘floats’
of the underfloor system in turn until the water is
on the top of the sub-floor. The finished flooring can
running smoothly through the system and any air
then be laid directly on to the top of the pipework,
has been removed.
completing the ‘floating’ structure.
5 Turn off the water, close the drain points and
Table 3.6 Key design and installation information for floating remove the hoses.
floor 6 Connect a hydraulic test pump and pressurise the
Maximum heat output Approx. 70 W/m2 system to 6 bar. Leave for a period of 1 hour.
Recommended design 60 °C 7 Once the pressure test is complete, reduce the
flow temperature pressure to 3 bar.
Maximum circuit length 80 m (15 mm pipe) 8 Now the over screed can be laid.
100 mm (18 mm pipe) Note: The screed should be allowed to dry thoroughly
Maximum coverage per 28.5 m2
@ 300 mm centres before the heat is turned on.
circuit using a double (15 mm pipe)
spreader plate 30 m2 @ 300 mm centres System balancing
(18 mm pipe)
1 Set the correct temperature at the manifold mixing/
Material requirements
blending valve. Ensure that the boiler is operating
Pipe 3.1 m/m2 @ 300 mm centres
and the correct temperature is being supplied at the
Single heat spreader 3 plate/m2 mixing valve. Open the manifold isolating valves.
plates Adjust the mixing valve as required and check the
Floating floor panel 1 panel/1.4 m2 temperature of the water being supplied to the
circuits using the dial thermometers fitted to the
Commissioning an underfloor manifold.
heating system 2 Ensure that the manifold pump is set to a suitable
speed.
Before commissioning takes place, it is recommended
3 Open the actuators to each circuit and adjust the
that the mixing valve and all other valves and pipework
flow rate through each circuit to the manufacturer’s
in the heating circuits are thoroughly flushed with
flow rate recommendations, using the flow meters
water to remove flux and debris before the final filling
on the return manifold. Repeat this process for each
and venting takes place.
circuit.
4 Check the operation of each circuit actuator by
operating the individual room thermostats.
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2 DESIGN TECHNIQUES FOR CENTRAL
HEATING SYSTEMS
The main purpose of central heating is to provide the occupants, the less heat will be required so
thermal comfort conditions within a building or temperatures may have to be adjusted to suit.
dwelling. ● Clothing – relates to the type of clothing worn
by the occupants of the building. Obviously, the
The factors which affect more clothes that are worn, the warmer the person
will be. Elderly people tend to feel temperature
the selection and design of variations more.
central heating systems for ● Age and health – a major factor in heating design.
The age of the occupants will have a direct effect
dwellings on the type of the systems we install. Older people
The factors to consider when discussing comfort are: feel the cold more than young people, which
● Humidity – the amount of moisture there is within
may mean that designs will have to be modified,
the environment. Ideal conditions for humans especially when it comes to the temperatures of
require 40 to 60 per cent humidity. Anything below key rooms such as lounge and bedroom.
40 per cent can make the eyes and throat very
dry. Above 60 per cent makes the atmosphere very The criteria used when selecting
damp and uncomfortable. heating system and component
● Air changes – the amount of air movement (not
velocity) within the building. Air movement is
types
important because it replaces used air with fresh air, All too often, installers will install what they know
which is needed for breathing. Air changes, however, and not what is best for the property or the customer.
lead to heat loss. Every time an air change occurs, Heating design requires a careful consideration
the fresh, cold air requires heating up. Air changes of specific criteria if the heating system is to fulfil
account for the biggest heat loss when calculating its potential to the customer as an efficient and
the fabric heat loss from a building. economical system.
● Customer’s needs – the overriding concern when
● Air temperature – air temperatures between
16 and 22 °C, dependent upon the type of activity designing any central heating system is that the
being carried out, age of occupants and the level customer requirements are satisfied. However,
and quality of clothing. Air temperature at feet legislation will also need to be taken into account as
level, not greater than 3 °C below that at head the system must comply with the requirements of
level. Room surface temperatures not above the air the regulations in force.
temperatures. Consultation with the customer is most important
● Air velocity – this is the speed at which the air
and the design needs to be approved with them
travels within the building. If it travels too fast then before work can begin.
● Building layout and features – the positions of key
a draught will be felt by the occupants; if there
is no movement, then the air changes will not be components and appliances are often dependent on
satisfied. Airflow past the body is horizontal and at the layout and the features of the property. Many
a velocity of between 0.2 and 0.25 m per second. A designers will look at the plans of the property
variable air velocity is preferable to a constant one. and assess the best methods of heating the space.
● Activity within the building – applies to the
Consultation with the building owner is important
type of work that is being carried out within the as they may have their own ideas of what they want
building. The more activity that is carried out by within a particular space or room.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
● Building size and the suitability of system – whilst ● if all areas of the building need the same heating
small domestic properties do not present many requirements or if there are areas with specific
design problems with regard to pipe sizing, pipework requirements.
layout and routing, larger systems may require These factors may determine or even limit the heating
careful planning utilising a multi-zoning approach, options available. The expected occupancy patterns
complete with separate timing and temperature (such as occupied 12 hours per day and no weekend
control for each zone and may well present a occupancy) and future building usage and adaptability
necessity for a low loss header to cope with the may also influence heating system choice.
load of each of the separate zones. The greater the ● Fuel availability – not all areas of the UK have
number of heat emitters, the greater the possibility mains gas supply. In some rural areas, LPG, oil and
that a low loss header would need to be installed. even solid fuel/biomass are used for heating systems.
Multiple boiler installations may also feature in Again, these choices may limit the heating system
larger properties and these would require careful choice, especially where solid fuel is considered.
and considered design practice if the system is to be Other considerations are:
economical and energy efficient when completed. ● access for fuel delivery
● Energy efficiency – in many cases, the controls ● availability of the chosen fuel
that are installed on the system will determine ● delivery times
whether a system is energy efficient or not. New ● legislation and regulation of the local area.
controls such as night setback, delayed start and ● Cost – the bigger and more complex the system,
weather compensation will assist in making the the more it will cost. To a large degree, regulations
most of good system design and this will help in dictate the type of system that is installed with
creating an energy efficient and economical system. regard to zoning and control, but other factors such
Again, zoning will help in this regard by limiting as heat emitter type, boiler type, size and location
the heat in areas which are not occupied whilst and system design, all play a significant role in the
maintaining a comfortable environment within the cost of materials and labour usage costs.
dwelling.
● Environmental impact – new technology KEY POINT
developed in recent years means that systems no Where a conflict exists between the customer
longer have to rely on carbon-rich fuels to maintain requests and the legislation, it must be explained
a warm living environment. Both carbon neutral to the customer that their wishes cannot be
fuels, such as biomass systems, and low and zero fulfilled as the system would not meet the
requirements of the regulations.
carbon options, such as air and ground source heat
pumps means that the opportunity to lower the
carbon fuel usage is available. Biomass is particularly
good when a communal heating system serving a
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
A successful consultation process means you obtain
number of dwellings is being considered.
all the necessary information in order to design
● Occupancy and purpose of the building – heating a system that fulfils the individual’s needs. Clear
design must always consider what the building is to and structured communication is vital if the system
be used for, the number of occupants in the building is to perform to the necessary requirements of
and how often the building will be occupied. You the occupants. Remember to ask questions about
must consider: the structure of the building such as cavity wall
insulation. Assumptions made on the designer’s
● how many occupants there will be and whether
part could mean that the system does not live up
they will be sedentary or physically active – to expectations. Also, offer choices in boiler make
activity leads to heat gain and model, radiator design etc. Find out where you
● what heat gains can be expected from processes, can install pipework and where the customer does
machinery and electrical equipment within the not want pipework. These are all points that make a
building good design into a superb installation.
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VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS INDUSTRY TIP
Utilising ‘green’ technology to its full advantage There are two further documents in the Approved Document
reduces carbon emissions and, as a consequence, L range. These are:
the carbon footprint of the building. Other ● L2A Conservation of fuel and power in new buildings
technological advances in solar heating and other than dwellings
micro-CHP systems have also widened the scope ● L2B Conservation of fuel and power in existing buildings
for significant savings, not only to the customer, other than dwellings.
but to the environment as a whole. You would consult these documents if you were designing
heating installations in commercial or industrial properties.
Information sources The British Standards
BS EN 12828:2003 Heating systems in buildings.
required for design work on ●
Design for water-based heating systems.
central heating systems ● BS EN 12831:2003 Heating systems in buildings.
The installation of central heating systems is governed Method for calculation of the design heat load.
strictly by various regulations, British Standards and ● BS EN 14336:2004 Heating systems in buildings.
recommendations. Installation and commissioning of water-based
heating systems.
The regulations ● BS EN 1264.1:2021 Floor heating. Systems and
● The Building Regulations: components. Definitions and symbols.
● Approved Document L 2010 Conservation of fuel ● BS EN 1264.2:2021 Water-based surface
and power embedded heating and cooling systems. Floor
● L1A Conservation of fuel and power in new heating. Prove methods for the determination of the
dwellings thermal output using calculation and test methods.
● L1B Conservation of fuel and power in ● BS EN 1264.3:2021 Water-based surface
existing dwellings embedded heating and cooling systems.
● Approved Document F Ventilation Dimensioning.
● Approved Document J Combustion appliances ● BS EN 1264.4:2021 Water-based surface
and fuel storage system embedded heating and cooling systems. Installation.
● The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations ● BS EN 442:2003 Specification for radiators and
1999 convectors.
● The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
● BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations. The recommendations
● The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
2021.
INDUSTRY TIP ● The Central Heating System Specifications (CHeSS)
2008. This publication offers advice for compliance
Visit the Government’s Building Regulation pages for
with good practice and best practice for the
access to all relevant Approved Documents, at
www.gov.uk/government/collections/approved-documents installation of central heating systems.
● Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers
(CIBSE) Domestic Heating Design Guide 2021. This
was produced to assist heating engineers to specify
and design wet central heating systems.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Manufacturer’s technical instructions ● the construction of the ceiling or roof
Central heating systems and components must be ● the size and type of the windows
installed, commissioned and maintained strictly in ● the type and size of the doors
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. ● the minimum outside temperature
● the internal temperature of the room
If the manufacturer’s instructions are not available or ● the exposure of the building
have been misplaced, most manufacturers now have ● any relevant manufacturer’s data such as radiator
the facility to download the instructions from the sizing sheets
company website. ● CIBSE guides.
Manufacturer’s installation and maintenance
instructions were covered in Chapter 1, Cold water The principles of heat loss
systems, planning and design.
and heat gain in dwellings
Verbal and written feedback from In this section, we will investigate the heat loss and
the customer heat gain of a building. Both principles rely on the
steady state transfer of heat through the fabric of the
Verbal and written customer feedback was covered in
building itself.
depth in Chapter 1, Cold water systems, planning and
design. Heat loss
Heat loss from a building is the reason why we need
Taking measurements central heating systems in our homes, offices, shops
of building features in and factories. The heat the building loses will have to
be replaced with more heat to maintain a comfortable
order to carry out design temperature within the building itself. The principles
calculations of heat loss are known as ‘steady state thermal
Central heating system calculations require diverse characteristics’ of a building. Heat loss from a building
types of data to allow the correct design of central is measured in watts and occurs two ways:
heating systems. Data needs to be taken and recorded ● through the building fabric
and can be sourced from: ● due to ventilation.
● visiting the site and taking the information direct
from the building using a tape measure or a laser Heat loss through the fabric of the
rule building
● taking the information from working drawings and The thermal transmittance of heat from a building to
plans using a scale rule. the outside is known as U-values. U-values express,
for the purposes of calculation, the rate of heat transfer
The type of data needed to successfully design heating
through the building structure (its walls, floors, ceilings,
systems:
roofs and windows) and because the construction of
● the length, width and height of the room
buildings varies so much due to different materials
● the number of external walls and their construction
and construction methods, the U-values vary too. This
● the number of internal walls and their construction
means that on occasion the U-value for a particular
● the construction of the floor
building will need to be calculated from scratch.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
The calculation of a U-value for, say, an outside sub-divided into the required thickness of the material
wall, is based upon the heat loss of each element or being used to obtain its R-value. This can be very
material used in the wall. Each element will have its confusing so let’s take a look more closely:
own heat loss measured in watts per metre kelvin
K-value = T he thermal conductivity of a material per
(W/mK) known as a K-value.
metre (W/mK)
The units used to express U-values are watts per
m2 kelvin (W/m²K). This means that if a wall, for Thickness of the material (mm)
R-value =
example, had a U-value of 1.0 W/m²K, for every K-value (W/mK)
degree of temperature difference between the air on
the surface inside the wall and the air on the surface U-value = 1
outside, 1 watt of heat would pass through any m2. Total of all R-values for the wall (W/m2K)
So, it follows that the smaller the U-value, the better So, if an outside wall was constructed from 100 mm
the wall is at keeping the heat in. brick with 50 mm of cavity, 100 mm of thermalite block,
Most materials have published K-values for the rate 50 mm of mineral wool and finished with 12.5 mm
of thermal conductance through them and this is plaster board, to calculate the U-value of the wall, the
measured under specific conditions. These are then procedure is as follows.
Outside surface resistance
0.040 m2 K/W (Rso)
102 mm brick (conductivity 0.77 W/mK) (R4)
50 mm air cavity (thermal resistance 0.18 m2 K/W (Ra)
100 mm AAC blocks (conductivity 0.11 W/mK) (R3)
50 mm mineral wool (conductivity 0.038 W/mK) (R2)
12.5 mm plasterboard (conductivity 0.25 W/mK) (R1)
Heat flow
Internal surface resistance 0.130 W/mK) (Rsi)
Figure 3.26 Calculating U-values
K-values for the wall construction: Brick = 0.102 m ÷ 0.77 W/mK = 0.132 (R4)
Brick = 0.77 W/mK Cavity = 0.050 m ÷ 0.18 W/mK = 0.277 (R a)
Cavity = 0.18 W/mK Thermalite block = 0.100 m ÷ 0.11 W/mK
= 0.909 (R 3)
Thermalite block = 0.11 W/mK
Mineral wool insulation = 0.050 m ÷ 0.038 W/mK
Mineral wool insulation = 0.38 W/mK
= 1.315 (R 2)
Plaster board = 0.25 W/mK
Plaster board = 0.0125 m ÷ 0.25 W/mK = 0.050 (R1)
Because each material is of a specific thickness (such
There are two other elements that need to be added
as 102 mm brick), the thickness of the material must
to the list. These are constants and never change.
be divided by the K-value to obtain the R-value:
➜
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
These are air resistances to heat loss and are different 1
for the inside and outside faces of the building. 0.130 + 0.05 + 1.31 + 0.909 + 0.277 + 0.132 + 0.040
Outside air resistance = 0.040 W/mK (R so) 1 = 0.35 W/m2K
=
2.848
Inside air resistance = 0.130 W/mK (R si)
U-value = 0.35
The calculation of the U-value now looks like this:
So, the U-value for the outside wall is 0.35. This can
1 = W/m2K now be used in heat loss calculations for the building.
R si + R1 + R2 + R3 + R a + R 4 + R so
1
0.130 + 0.0125 + 0.050 + 0.100 + 0.050 + 0.102 + 0.040
0.25 0.038 0.11 0.18 0.77
= W/m2K
Table 3.7 Glazing U-values
INDUSTRY TIP
U-value for stated exposure
Construction
U-values express the rate of heat transfer through any Sheltered Normal Severe
element of a building – walls, roofs, floors and windows. Single window glazing 5.0 5.6 6.7
Double window glazing with air space
Fortunately, some U-values are published so this long 25 mm or more 2.8 2.9 3.2
calculation is not often needed. Approved Document
12 mm or more 2.8 3.0 3.3
L1A/B 2010 of the Building Regulations, Conservation
of fuel and power, has traditionally set U-values and 6 mm or more 3.2 3.4 3.8
this is still the case where extensions to existing 3 mm or more 3.6 4.0 4.4
properties are concerned. For new buildings, however, Triple window glazing with air space
a more holistic approach has been taken to prove
25 mm or more 1.9 2.0 2.1
energy efficiency. Whole building calculations that
take a detailed look at the carbon emissions now 12 mm or more 2.0 2.1 2.2
have to be conducted. U-values are still included but 6 mm or more 2.3 2.5 2.6
they form only a small part. For new dwellings up 3 mm or more 2.8 3.0 3.3
to 450 m2 standard assessment procedures (SAPs)
Roof glazing light 5.7 6.6 7.9
are used to perform these calculations. For larger
buildings the simplified building energy model (SBEM)
is used. Heat gain
Just as buildings lose heat during the winter months,
Glass and glazing they can also gain heat when the surrounding
Glass has a fairly high thermal conductivity of around temperature is higher than that inside.
1.05 W/mK. However, the reason why so much heat During the summer months, when the outside
is lost through the glass is that it is the thinnest part temperature is higher, a building will gain heat in two ways:
of a building. The heat loss can only be reduced by ● from direct solar radiation, in other words direct
increasing the thickness of the glass or using it to form sunlight
cavities like double and triple glazing. Table 3.7 shows ● from the surrounding warm air.
the U-values for glazing.
The passage of heat from outside to inside is almost
the exact same principle as for heat loss. The difference
is that it is not uniform. Different parts of the building
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will gain more heat due to the length of exposure to Heat gain also occurs because of the warmth of the
the Sun’s solar radiation. In simple terms, the Sun rises air. This is known as sol-air temperature and occurs
in the east, swings out to the south during the day because the Sun has warmed the air surrounding
whilst gaining height until it reaches a peak height at the dwelling. The same principle occurs inside the
noon, before slowly setting in the west. This height to dwelling when heat is transferred from one room to
angle ratio is called an ‘azimuth’ and is crucial when another when the two rooms have different internal
calculating solar gain for air conditioning and cooling temperatures. If one room is at 21 °C and an adjoining
purposes. The solar effect even exists in the winter room is at 18 °C then heat will be gained by one and
when the angle of the Sun is much lower. On average, lost by the other. The rate at which this heat transfer
a south-facing wall in London will gain about 900 takes place and the amount of heat lost or gained will
watts of heat per square metre (m2) every hour during depend on the U-value of the wall.
the summer and around 300 watts in the winter. This
Dwellings also gain heat from other sources, such as
reduces for east and west-facing walls as they are not
electrical equipment and lighting, as these give off heat
exposed to the Sun for as long a period. A north-facing
when they are on. A 150 watt bulb, for instance will
wall gains very little solar radiation because it never
give off just that: 150 watts of heat. Human beings
feels the heat of the Sun.
also contribute to heat gains in a building. A human will
emit around 115 watts of sensible heat and around 50
INDUSTRY TIP watts of latent heat when at rest. This increases with
physical exercise.
The intensity of the Sun during the summer explains why
solar hot water heating works so well in the summer. Solar INDUSTRY TIP
hot water panels can give as much as 60 per cent of a
household’s yearly hot water needs, free of charge, just from Sensible and latent heat were discussed in Book 1, Chapter 3,
the heat of the Sun! Scientific principles.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Heat loss due to ventilation – air change rate The ventilation factor is taken as the specific heat of
air at 20 °C, which is 0.33 W/m3K and is used to
Approved Document F of the Building Regulations sets
calculate the heat loss to the air changing within the
the provisions for the ventilation of a building. They
rooms due to infiltration or mechanical ventilation.
set out the regulations required to restrict the build-
up of moisture and pollutants that would otherwise The specific mass (density of air) at 20 °C is 1.205 kg/m3
present a danger to health. The flow of air through the and the specific heat capacity of air at 20 °C is
building results in heat loss, the lost heat having to be 1.012 kJ/kgK. Therefore, the quantity of heat
replaced. Ventilation rates are usually quoted as ‘air required to raise unit volume through 1 kelvin is:
changes per hour’, which are defined as the volume 1.012 × 1.205 = 1.219 kJ/m3
of air moving through the room every hour divided
by the volume of the room itself. The replacement air In order to be able to apply this heat loss of air by
will be heated by the central heating system and is volume, the unit of kilojoules needs to be converted to
calculated by multiplying the volume of the room by joules and from hours to seconds because 1 watt is
the air change rate by the temperature rise and by equal to 1 joule per second. Therefore:
the ventilation factor. Thus, the loss of heat due to air 1.219 × 1000 = 0.3386 J/s/m3K or 0.3386 W/m3K
change can be calculated by: 3600
Ventilation heat = room volume (m³) Hence the air change U-value of 0.33 W/m3K.
loss (watts ) × air change rate (qty)
× temperature difference (°C)
× ventilation factor (W/m³K)
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
The heating requirements of rooms to select a design room temperature that needs to be
in dwellings when designing a achieved when the central heating system is operating.
There are three aspects that must be considered to
central heating system
achieve a comfortable condition in a room:
Now that the U-values have been determined for the ● temperature
heat loss calculations, the information needed can be ● humidity
collated to allow the calculations to be performed. The ● ventilation rate.
information that is required is listed below:
● room size The temperature of the heated space during the
● temperature required – indoor to outdoor winter at which humans feel comfortable falls within
● air change rate. a temperature range of 19 and 23 °C when wearing
normal clothing. Some people may disagree when
The room size subjected to temperatures in the higher or lower
The size of the room may seem like an obvious piece of end of the acceptable range. The exact comfort
information but if the room is measured inaccurately temperature often results from the physical condition
then the calculations will also be inaccurate. It follows of the individual. Because of these varying temperature
that the bigger the room, the greater the heat loss. The ranges, exact room temperatures need to be discussed
heat emitter positioning also becomes troublesome as and agreed with the customer before any design work
the room size increases. In most cases it is better to commences.
consider the use of two or more strategically positioned Too much heat in a room can be controlled by
heat emitters in larger rooms rather than using just one thermostatic means but a shortfall in temperature
large one. This subject will be discussed later in this is rather more difficult to assess and may result in a
chapter. costly re-design of the heat losses. Design temperatures
Key information is required about each room before become even more critical if the customer is to be the
heat loss calculations can be performed, such as: permanent resident within the dwelling, as is the case
● the length, width and height of the room with domestic dwellings. If the customer is an architect
● the number of external and internal walls and their or a developer, temperatures may have been specified
construction as part of the design brief or specification.
● the number and type of internal walls and party Special considerations may be needed where the
walls customer is elderly or infirm. The table below illustrates
● the type of floor and ceiling the risk that the elderly and infirm face during the
● the type and size of the windows and doors. winter months.
The information required may be noted during a site Table 3.8 The effects of low temperatures on the elderly and
visit or it may be taken from working drawings and infirm
plans. Temperature (°C) Effects
24 Top end of the comfort condition
The room temperature and the outside
21 Recommended living condition
temperature
<20 Below 20 °C, the risk of death begins
Internal design temperatures
18 Recommended bedroom temperature
The design temperatures within dwellings are based Resistance to respiratory diseases is
upon the type and usage of the room. Internal design 16
weakened
temperatures should be chosen to ensure satisfactory More than two hours at this
comfort conditions. In order to achieve a comfortable 12 temperature, the risk from raised blood
living condition within the room and to enable the pressure, heart attack and strokes
heat loss calculations to be completed, it is necessary 5 Significant risk of hypothermia
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For normal circumstances recommended temperatures are given in Table 3.9.
Table 3.9 Design room temperatures
Kitchen/breakfast room
Lounge/sitting room
Bedroom/en-suite
Bed sitting room
Breakfast room
Bedroom/study
Dressing room
Games room
Dining room
Utility room
Living room
Cloak room
Storeroom
Bathroom
Bedroom
Landing
Kitchen
Study
Toilet
Hall
Design
21 21 21 18 21 21 18 18 18 18 21 21 18 18 21 21 18 22 21 16
temperature (°C)
The temperatures listed in the table represent normal during the coldest months. Research shows that the
living conditions and working conditions. For properties temperatures vary greatly in the UK with the south-
that are designed for the elderly or the infirm, these eastern corner being the mildest throughout the year
temperatures should be increased by one or two and the north of Scotland being the coldest.
degrees for each given application and usage. It will
also be seen that the temperatures vary depending on INDUSTRY TIP
the intended use of the room. This is simply because
the body temperature of an individual and their For further information on climatic conditions in the UK,
subsequent comfort levels will vary depending on their reference should be made to CIBSE guides A and J, and
activity (such as resting, sleeping, bathing, etc.). Hence local meteorological data.
the wide range of temperatures quoted.
Some building services engineers design heating The UK often sees temperatures between −2 and −6 °C
systems for residential buildings with a constant during the winter and, on occasions, it has been known
temperature throughout, irrespective of the room type to drop as low as −15 °C or lower. However, it would
or usage. This single temperature approach reduces be uneconomical to design a central heating system
the amount of calculations required, as it uses the using −15 °C as it occurs so infrequently. The resultant
‘whole house’ assessment method but this can lead to over-sizing would encourage the boiler to ‘hunt’ on its
over-sizing of the heating system and an unnecessary thermostat and increase the risk of boiler breakdown.
increase in overall energy usage. Therefore, a more logical external design temperature
should be used based upon the lowest average
External design temperatures temperature for the location. Another possibility for
The successful design of any central heating system determining the external design temperature is to use
is based on the fact that the dwelling is maintained the lowest two-day mean temperature, which has been
at a certain specified temperature based upon the registered ten times over a twenty-year period.
prevailing (at the time) external temperature. It follows Table 3.10 shows the recommended base temperatures
that calculations must be based on a realistic external for the UK but local knowledge can also be applied, as
temperature that can be expected for the region severe exposure conditions are not always obvious.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Table 3.10 Recommended UK base temperatures
Type of building Exposure Base design temperature (°C)
House and multi-storey buildings with solid Normal, sheltered in towns and cities −1
intermediate floors up to and including the 4th surrounded by other buildings
floor: England and Wales
House and multi-storey buildings with solid Normal, sheltered in towns and cities −3
intermediate floors up to and including the 4th surrounded by other buildings
floor: Scotland, Northern England and Northern
Ireland
Single-storey houses Normal −3
Houses in coastal areas or at high altitude Exposed −4
including exposed rural areas
Multi-storey buildings with solid intermediate floors Exposed −5
up to and including the 4th floor and single-storey
in coastal or exposed rural areas
Air change rates Air enters the building because of the poor seal in the
It is necessary to prevent the air in the room from building structure, usually through airbricks, ventilators,
becoming stale and to prevent the onset of moisture flues and chimneys. Flues and chimneys often cause
problems and mould growth. As the air change occurs, excessive air change because warm air escapes through
the heat in the room is lost by warm air leaving the the flue, due to the fact it is less dense. As cold air
room and cold air entering. enters, it forces out more warm air. This effect is known
as the stack effect.
Less dense warm
Dense cold air air escaping
Stack
effect
Cold air entering
Warm air escaping Movement of air
Wind pressure
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
(−) PRESSURE ZONE (+) PRESSURE ZONE
Warm air escaping
Warm air
escaping Cold air entering
Cold air entering
Cold air entering
Figure 3.27 The stack effect
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 3.11 Air change rates
Lounge/sitting room
Kitchen/breakfast
Bedroom/en-suite
Bed sitting room
Breakfast room
Bedroom/study
Dressing room
Games room
Dining room
Utility room
Living room
Cloak room
Storeroom
Bathroom
Bedroom
Landing
Kitchen
Study
Toilet
room
Hall
Air change
1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
rate
The air change rates listed below are for modern Each room needs to be dealt with separately. We
buildings. When calculating heat losses for older will look at a simple example which should help in
dwellings, there is a case for increasing the rates to understanding how the heat losses are put together.
allow for ill-fitting doors and windows because these
The simple room shown in Figure 3.28 has four outside
will affect the heat loss from the building.
walls and heat loss through both the floor and roof.
The exact amount of air infiltration is difficult to assess Intermediate rooms in a large building may not have
and because of this, exact design temperatures are often these losses unless there is a temperature difference
difficult to predict. The air changes listed in Table 3.11 between the rooms.
are arrived at by methods that are verifiable or by
Window 2.0 m × 1.5 m
demonstrable means and can be considered accurate for
new and well-maintained buildings.
KEY TERM 5.0 m
Air change rate: a measure of how many times
the air within a defined space (normally a room Height of room 2.5 m 3.0 m
or a house) is replaced per hour, usually through
natural ventilation.
Door 2.0 m × 1.0 m
Where mechanical ventilation is installed in a room, it is
advisable to allow for the increased air change rate in the
heat loss calculations. This should be allowed for not just Figure 3.28 Plan of a simple room
in the room where the mechanical ventilation system is
fitted but also any connecting rooms such as an en-suite The U-values required are as follows:
bathroom with an extractor fan and a bedroom. External walls: 0.35
Floor: 0.25
Calculating the heat loss Roof: 0.25 (flat roof)
from a dwelling – the Windows: 2.9
External door: 2.9 (the same as the
tabulation method windows)
The easiest and quickest way to conduct heat loss Air change factor: 0.33
calculations is by using a table to record all of the Temperature difference: 21 (internal temperature)
figures. Each room would require its own table. Take a - -3 (external temperature)
look at the example in Table 3.12 on page 228. You will = 24 °C
see that it is divided into various columns. Not all of The first point is that there are no internal walls to
these columns will be used for every room. worry about. As all walls are external the calculation
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
is quite straightforward. So, the calculations revolve 3 Calculate the glazing heat losses.
around the following elements: 4 Calculate the floor and roof heat loss.
1 Calculate the air change heat loss. 5 Calculate any adjustments due to exposure and
2 Calculate the external wall heat loss. intermittent heating loads.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
First, let’s concentrate on Point 1. isn’t always the case and you must check before
doing the calculation:
Point 1 – air change heat loss
Window heat loss: 3 × 24 × 2.9 = 208.8 watts
The room is 5 m × 3 m × 2.5 m. This gives a volume
of 37.5 m3. When this figure is multiplied by the Door heat loss: 2 × 24 × 2.9 = 139.2 watts
temperature difference (24 °C), the number of air The penultimate stage, Point 4.
changes (2) and the air change factor (0.33), the total
becomes 594 watts. This means that because there Point 4 – heat loss from the floor and roof/ceiling
are two air changes every hour, the room will lose Because these use the same area, the calculation, again,
594 watts of heat during these changes: becomes very straightforward. The area of the room is:
37.5 × 24 × 2 × 0.33 = 594 watts 5 m × 3 m = 15 m2
Now look at Point 2. So, now multiply all of the figures together for both
Point 2 – external wall heat loss floor and ceiling:
This can be a little involved. If we laid all of the external Floor: 15 × 24 × 0.25 = 90 watts
walls flat, we would end up with the following: Ceiling/roof: 15 × 24 × 0.25 = 90 watts
5 + 5 + 3 + 3 = 16 m So, the total heat loss for the room is the sum of all of
This figure must now be multiplied by the height of the the calculated elements:
wall: 594 + 294 + 208.8 + 139.2 + 90 + 90 = 1416 watts
16 × 2.5 = 40 m2 Point 5, the last stage, is the calculation of any
But this figure is not much use to us as it is. There are adjustments.
windows and doors that have a greater heat loss than Point 5 – calculating adjustments
the wall so these MUST be deducted BEFORE we
calculate the external wall heat loss. The window and We are assuming that the room is in an exposed location.
door heat loss will be dealt with separately. So first This would mean an increase in the total of 10 per cent
calculate the area of the windows and doors: in case of severe weather. Furthermore, we are also
assuming that the heating will be on intermittently. In
Window: 2 m × 1.5 m = 3
other words, it will only be on at certain times of the
Door: 2 m × 1 m = 2 day or when external controls call for heat such as a
= 5 m2 frost stat. This will result in an extra 15 per cent increase
in the total to cope with the intermittent heating patterns:
This figure can now be deducted from the external
wall total: Exposed location @ 10% = 1416 × 0.10 = 141.6 watts
40 – 5 = 35 m2 Intermittent heating load @ 15% = 1416 × 0.15
So, the heat loss from the external walls is: = 212.4 watts
35 × 24 × 0.35 = 294 watts = 1416 + 141.6 + 212.4 = 1770 watts
Progress to Point 3. Therefore, the heat loss from the room when all
adjustments have been made is 1770 watts.
Point 3 – glazing heat loss The calculation is probably more understandable when
This part of the calculation is made easy by the fact viewed in a table format. Take a look at Table 3.12. It
that we have already calculated the areas of the must be realised, however, that because all of the walls
glazing, so it’s a straightforward calculation. Also, were external and the structure was a single-storey,
the same U-value is used for both window and door there is no data for internal wall structures or where
because they are made from the same material. This there is another room above. This will be dealt with next.
➜
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 3.12 Heat loss calculation table for Figure 3.28
Design temperature 21 Outside temperature (°C) −3 Design temperature difference 24
(°C) (°C)
Room volume Room dimensions Volume of room (m3) Air change Temperature Air changes Total heat loss
Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) factor (W/m3K) difference (°C) per hour watts (W)
Total room 5 3 2.5 37.5 0.33 24 2 594
Fabric heat loss Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Fabric area (m2) U-value Temperature Gain Loss
(W/m3K) difference (°C)
Floor 5 3 15 0.25 24 90
Ceiling/roof 5 3 15 0.25 24 90
External glazing 2 1.5 3 2.9 24 208.8
External doors 1 2.0 2 2.9 24 139.2
External wall 16 2.5 40
External wall
(minus glazing) 40 – (3.0 + 2.0) = 35 35 0.35 24 294
Internal wall 1
Internal wall 2
Internal wall 3
Internal wall 4
Party wall
Design heat loss (total watts for all elements) 1416
Additional factors Y/N % add Total
Exposed location Y 10 141.6
Intermittent heating Y 15 212.4
Grand total heat loss for room (W) 1770
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Heat loss and heat gain from the internal walls and one internal wall. This due to the fact that Room
and rooms above and below 2 is slightly shorter in length than Room 1 and leaves
a small amount of wall as an external structure. We
The first example we looked at was a building with cannot ignore this and so it must be treated as a small
four external walls. Now we must advance to a room external wall.
that contains both external and internal walls.
The dimensions for the external wall of Room 1 are:
The method of calculation is exactly the same, but
with addition of extra walls that may mean a loss of 4.5 + 4 + 4 + 1 = 13.5 m
heat from our example rooms or, indeed, may give a
Multiply by the height of the room:
heat gain! Take a look at the example rooms shown in
Figure 3.29 and Table 3.13. 13.5 × 3 = 40.5 m2
The window size is:
Window 1.0 m × 1.5 m
1.75 m × 1.5 m = 2.625 m2
Height of both rooms 3.0 m
Deduct the window from the wall:
3.5 m
40.5 – 2.625 = 37.875 m2
4.5 m
Room 1 Room 2
Now using the formula previously shown, we can
enter the details on the table and calculate the
4.0 m
external wall heat loss (see Table 3.14). We can also
4.0 m
calculate the heat loss for the glazing.
Look at the internal wall dimensions. The wall is 3.5 m
in length including the door opening and 3 m high.
Window 1.75 m × 1.5 m Some designers will work out the heat loss for the
door, but for this chapter it will be treated as part of
Figure 3.29 Plan of Rooms 1 and 2 the wall for simplification. The most important factor
Table 3.13 Room data for Rooms 1 and 2 here is that the room temperatures are different. The
adjoining room requires a warmer temperature at
Element Room 1 Room 2 21 °C. This means that Room 1, at 18 °C, will GAIN
Temperature 18 °C 21 °C heat from the Room 2 next door and so any heat gain
must be DEDUCTED from our calculation and NOT
Outside temperature −3 °C −3 °C
added. The temperature difference between Room 1
Temperature difference 21 °C 24 °C and Room 2 is 3 °C. Take a look at Table 3.14.
Number of exterior walls 4 3 When the calculation for the internal walls is
Number of interior walls 1 1 conducted, it will be seen that there is a gain of
U-value of exterior walls 0.35 0.35 54.18 watts. This is highlighted in red to remind us to
deduct it and not add it. If the temperatures were the
U-value of interior walls 1.72 1.72
same, then the internal wall would be ignored purely
U-value of the glazing 2.9 2.9 because there is neither a heat loss nor a heat gain.
U-value of the floor 0.25 0.25 The rest of the table can now be completed.
U-value of the roof/ceiling 0.16 0.16 Now look at Room 2. The heat gain that was seen in
Number of air changes 1 2 Room 1 now becomes a heat loss in Room 2 because
Room 1 is a cooler 18 °C and so this must be allowed
The rooms are of normal exposure. for in the heat loss calculations. All other factors
The heating is intermittent. remain the same and so the heat loss for the room
We will deal with Room 1 first. The first thing to note can be calculated in the normal way.
is that the data states that there are four outside walls
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 3.14 Heat loss calculation table for Figure 3.29, Room 1
Design temperature 18 Outside temperature (°C) −3 Design temperature difference 21
(°C) (°C)
Room volume Room dimensions Volume of room (m3) Air change Temperature Air changes Total heat loss
Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) factor (W/m3K) difference (°C) per hour watts (W)
Total room 4.5 4 3 54 0.33 21 1 374.22
Fabric heat loss Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Fabric area (m2) U-value Temperature Gain Loss
(W/m3K) difference (°C)
Floor 4.5 4 18 0.25 21 94.5
Ceiling/roof 4.5 4 18 0.16 21 60.48
External glazing 1.75 1.5 2.625 2.9 21 159.86
External doors
External wall 13.5 3 40.5
External wall
(minus glazing) 40.5 – 2.625 37.875 0.35 21 278.38
Internal wall 1 3.5 3 10.5 1.72 3 54.18 −54.18
Internal wall 2
Internal wall 3
Internal wall 4
Party wall
Design heat loss (total watts for all elements) 913.26
Additional factors Y/N % add Total
Exposed location N 10
Intermittent heating Y 15 136.99
Grand total heat loss for room (W) 1050.25
➜
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Table 3.15 Heat loss calculation table for Figure 3.29, Room 2
Design 21 Outside temperature (°C) −3 Design temperature difference 24
temperature (°C) (°C)
Room volume Room dimensions Volume of room (m3) Air change Temperature Air changes Total heat loss
Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) factor (W/m3K) difference (°C) per hour watts (W)
Total room 4.0 3.5 3 42 0.33 24 2 665.28
Fabric heat loss Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Fabric area (m2) U-value Temperature Gain Loss
(W/m3K) difference (°C)
Floor 4.0 3.5 14.0 0.25 24 84
Ceiling/roof 4.0 3.5 14.0 0.16 24 53.76
External glazing 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.9 24 104.4
External doors
External wall 11.5 3 34.5
External wall
(minus glazing) 34.5 – 1.5 = 33.0 33.0 0.35 24 277.2
Internal wall 1 3.5 3.0 10.5 1.72 3 54.18
Internal wall 2
Internal wall 3
Internal wall 4
Party wall
Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Design heat loss (total watts for all elements) 1238.82
Additional factors Y/N % add Total
Exposed location N 10
Intermittent heating Y 15 185.82
Grand total heat loss for room (W) 1424.64
➜
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
From the table, it can be seen that the heat gain from These two examples show only heat loss. They do not
Room 1 is exactly the same as the heat loss in Room 2. tell us the size of heat emitter each room requires. The
The total heat loss for the room is greater simply totals here require further work to convert them into
because the air change rate was doubled in Room 2 heat emitter emissions and these will be discussed
and the temperature difference between the internal later in the chapter.
temperature and external temperature was higher.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
The diagram in Figure 3.30 shows the floor plan the external temperature is −5 °C. All other factors
for a simple single-storey dwelling situated in an and U-values remain as the examples previously
exposed location. Using the knowledge you have attempted.
gained, calculate the heat losses for each room when
3.0 m 2.7 m 3.0 m 3.0 m
Patio doors Window Window Window
2.0 m × 2.3 m 1.3 m × 1.2 m 1.5 m × 1.2 m 2.0 m × 1.2 m
Door
h 2.3 m
Dining room 3.0 m
21 ºC Kitchen Bathroom Bedroom 2
18 ºC 22 ºC 18 ºC
1.3 m
7.8 m
Lounge
21 ºC
Bedroom 1 Bedroom 3
18 ºC 18 ºC 3.5 m
Doors
h 2.3 m
Window Window Window
2.2 m × 1.2 m 2.0 m × 1.2 m 1.5 m × 1.2 m
4.2 m 1.5 m 3.3 m 2.7 m
Figure 3.30 Plan of a simple single-storey dwelling
A blank heat loss calculation table is provided
(Table 3.16). You will need one table for every room.
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Table 3.16 Blank heat loss calculation table
Design Outside temperature (°C) Design temperature difference
temperature (°C) (°C)
Room volume Room dimensions Volume of room (m3) Air change Temperature Air changes Total heat loss
Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) factor (W/m3K) difference (°C) per hour watts (W)
Total room
Fabric heat loss Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Fabric area (m2) U-value Temperature Gain Loss
(W/m3K) difference (°C)
Floor
Ceiling/roof
External glazing
External doors
External wall
External wall
(minus glazing)
Internal wall 1
Internal wall 2
Internal wall 3
Internal wall 4
Party wall
Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Design heat loss (total watts for all elements)
Additional factors Y/N % add Total
Exposed location Y 10
Intermittent heating Y 15
Grand total heat loss for room (W)
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
The methods of sizing the central The different models available allow the calculation
heating pipework and central of single dwelling heat losses, conservatory heat
losses and the heat loss from industrial heating
heating circulating pumps
systems.
There are three very different methods for sizing the
pipework and circulators for central heating systems
KEY POINT
and each one has its advantages and disadvantages:
The index circuit of a central heating system is
● Longhand calculations – this is by far the most
the circuit which has the biggest resistance to
accurate of all heating design methods, as U-values flow and NOT the circuit with the biggest heat
can be calculated to suit the building structure load. The index circuit is always taken as the
where the installation is to take place. This ensures circuit with the longest run of pipework because
that an economical and environmentally friendly the circulating pump will have to overcome the
design of the building heating system can be resistance due to length of pipe.
guaranteed. Longhand calculations involve the use
of external data such as the tables for flow rate
and resistance published by the Chartered Institute
of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) in the CIBSE
design guide C.
Circulating pump size is fairly simple to calculate
as most of the work is done during the pipe sizing
calculation. It should be remembered that the size
of the circulator will be based around the resistance
in the index circuit. This will be discussed later in
this chapter.
● Computer aided central heating design
programs – computer design programs have
become more widespread over the last few years
as they offer not only an accurate sizing method,
but also the ability to print out the finished design
complete with calculations for presentation to the
customer. Pipesizing computer programs are widely
used by building services engineers for the design of
heating, air conditioning, lighting and hot and cold
water services.
● Mears calculator – the Mears calculator is a circular
slide rule that enables the calculation of central
heating systems. The key functions of the calculator
are:
● calculation of heat loss
● calculation of heat emitter size and output
● calculation of hot water load
● calculation of boiler size
● calculation of heating pipework size.
The calculator is usually used as an on-site tool
because it allows the quick calculation of heat
losses and heat emitter size, but it can be a little
inaccurate for modern dwellings as the U-values it
uses are higher than modern U-values. Figure 3.31 The Mears calculator
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
The selection criteria for central if the pipe is insulated and the water is at 75 °C.
heating boilers An uninsulated pipe distributes the heat loss into
its surrounding and, as such, will help to warm
The selection of central heating boilers is often based
the dwelling. However, the heat loss contributes
on experience, efficiency and cost. Many installers will
to the water losing heat, so by the time it reaches
install what they are familiar with simply because of
the heat emitter, it has already cooled from when
the cost and the ease of installation. However, boiler
it had left the boiler. In most cases, the heat loss
selection should be based upon the suitability of the
from the pipes is acceptable as insulating all of the
boiler in relation to the system on which it is installed.
heating pipes could lead to the boiler overheating
The points that should be considered are:
and the undesirable operation of the high limit
● Space heating load – will the boiler satisfy the
thermostat on the boiler due to an insufficient
space heating load? Or, put more simply, will it
temperature difference between the flow and
warm the dwelling to the design temperatures? It is
return heating pipes as they leave and return from
uneconomical to oversize a boiler. It may well heat
and to the boiler. As a rough guide, a 5 to 10 per
the system but the water content may be higher,
cent allowance can be made on the boiler size for
which will require more heat, therefore more fuel
uninsulated pipes.
and in consequence will cost more to run and give
● Factors for intermittent heating – central heating
off more CO2 emissions than would otherwise be
systems for domestic dwellings are normally
necessary. Similarly, if the boiler is undersized, then
operated on time clocks and programmers that
the boiler will struggle to meet the demands of the
allow for the system to run at specific times of the
system. This will mean that the boiler is working
day. When the heating system is off, the rooms will
far too hard and could fail to reach the desired
lose heat very quickly creating a noticeable drop in
temperature as quickly as it should. Boiler cycling
temperature. Because of this, an increase of around
would increase and fuel usage would be high.
15 per cent on the total heating load is advisable
● Hot water heating load – will the boiler satisfy
to counter the effects of intermittent heating. This
the hot water demand? Combination boilers are
would amount to a slight increase in heat emitter
not always the best choice, especially where hot
size across all rooms ensuring a quick heat up of
water demand is considered. They may well satisfy
the room to bring the rooms back to the desired
the heating requirements but will they deliver
temperature in cold weather.
the amount of hot water required at the desired
flow rate and temperature? The ‘one boiler fits all’
approach is the wrong approach to take, especially VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
where multiple hot water outlets are to be supplied
All too often, the customer is not told of the
or long distances exist between the appliance and
disadvantages with combination boilers. It’s good
the hot water outlets.
practice for you to ensure they are well informed
When storage of hot water is considered, then the
on the positive and negatives of all systems
kW required to heat it must firstly be calculated
available to them.
properly and then added to the total space heating
load, otherwise the boiler will fail to meet the total
heat demand, especially where a hot water priority
system is installed, such as the Honeywell W-plan Sizing expansion vessels for sealed
system. heating systems and feed and
● Heat loss from pipework – uninsulated heating expansion cisterns for open vented
pipes will lose heat. The amount of heat loss will systems
depend on the material that the pipe is made from Water, when it is heated, expands. The amount of
and the temperature of the water. On average, expansion will depend on the temperature of the
a copper 15 mm pipe will lose around 40 watts water. At atmospheric pressure, water is at its greatest
per metre (W/m) when uninsulated and 8 watts density at 4 °C. At this temperature, 1 m3 of water has
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
a mass of 1000 kg. From this point forwards as the in an open vented system, the feed and expansion
water temperature increases, 1 m3 will lose density. cistern accommodates the expansion of water. Both of
At 100 °C, 1 m3 of water has a mass of 958 kg or an these vital parts of the installation will need to sized
expansion rate of 4 per cent. The densities of water correctly.
at various temperatures and pressures are shown in
Table 3.17. Sizing an expansion vessel
Table 3.17 The densities of water at various temperatures and There are several methods for sizing expansion vessels.
pressures All methods must take into account the volume of cold
water in the system and the amount by which it will
Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3) Specific volume
10 −3 (m3 /kg) expand in order to reach its design temperature. The
CIBSE method is shown below.
0 (ice) 916.8
0.01 999.8 1.00 If the system volume is known, expansion vessels can
4 (maximum density) 1000.0 be sized with the following formula:
5 999.9 1.00 eC
V=
10 999.8 1.00
P
1- 1
15 999.2 1.00 P2
20 998.3 1.00 V = the total volume of the expansion vessel
25 997.1 1.00
C = the total volume of water in the system in litres
30 995.7 1.00
35 994.1 1.01 P1 = t he fill pressure in bars absolute
(gauge pressure + 1 bar)
40 992.3 1.01
45 990.2 1.01 P2 = the setting of the pressure relief valve + 1 bar
50 988 1.01
e = t he expansion factor that relates to the
55 986 1.01 maximum system requirements
60 983 1.02
65 980 1.02 Expansion factor ‘e’ Temperature (°C)
70 978 1.02 0.0324 85
75 975 1.03 0.0359 90
80 972 1.03 0.0396 95
85 968 1.03 0.0434 100
90 965 1.04
95 962 1.04 ‘e’ can be found from the formula:
d1 – d2
100 958 1.04 e=
d2
The expansion of the water in a central heating system, Where:
if not accommodated, will lead to an increase in system d1 = density of water at filling temperature (kg/m3)
pressure and possibly component or appliance failure
d2 = density of water at operating temperature
as a result. In a sealed heating system, the expansion
(kg/m3)
of water is accommodated in an expansion vessel;
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Sizing an expansion vessel – CIBSE method: Step 2: calculate the expansion vessel volume
example 1
V = the total volume of the expansion vessel
A sealed central heating system has a total water
volume of 600 litres. The pressure of the water main C = 600 litres
is 1.5 bar and the pressure relief maximum pressure
P1 = 1.5 + 1
is 6 bar. The system is designed to operate at a
maximum temperature of 80 °C, which means the P2 = 6 + 1
expansion factor will have to be calculated. The fill
temperature of the water is 10 °C. e = 0.0286
Calculate the expansion factor using:
V = eC
d1 - d2 P
e= 1- 1
d2 P2
Calculate the expansion vessel volume using: Therefore, the expansion vessel volume is:
V = eC V = 0.0286 × 600
P
1- 1 1 - 2.5
P2 7
= 17.16
Step 1: calculate the expansion factor ‘e’ 1 - 0.357
The temperature of the fill water is 10 °C with a = 17.16
density of 999.8 kg/m3. The maximum operating 0.643
temperature is 80 °C with a density of 972 kg/m3. = 26.68 litres or 4.4%
Therefore the ‘e’ factor is:
So, the expansion vessel volume is: 26.68 litres or
999.8 - 972 = 0.0286 4.44% of total system volume.
972
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Sizing a feed and expansion cistern
A sealed central heating system has a total water Sizing a feed and expansion cistern for open vented
volume of 400 litres. The pressure of the water main systems is quite straightforward. If the expansion of
is 1 bar and the pressure relief maximum pressure water from 4 to 100 °C is 4 per cent, then an allowance
is 4 bar. The system is designed to operate at a of 4 per cent of the total system volume
maximum temperature of 85 °C, which means the
can be used.
expansion factor will have to be calculated. The fill
temperature of the water is 4 °C. Therefore, if an open vented central heating system has
Calculate the expansion factor using: a total system volume of 400 litres, the expansion of
d1 - d2 water is:
e=
d2 400 × 0.04 = 16 litres
This can be checked using the following formula:
Calculate the expansion vessel volume using:
V = C [(v1 ÷ v0 ) - 1]
V = eC
P Where:
1- 1
P2 V = required expansion cistern volume (litres)
C = water volume in the system (litres)
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
v0 = specific volume of water at initial (4 °C) Calculating heat emitter size
temperature (1 m3/kg)
Calculating the size of the heat emitter is not just
v1 = specific volume of water at operating (85 °C) a case of performing the heat loss calculations and
temperature (0.968 m3/kg) selecting a heat emitter size. Adjustments have to
V = 400 × [(1.0 – 0.968) - 1] = 13.223 litres made using correction factors. Radiator catalogues list
radiator outputs but these outputs were obtained in
a controlled laboratory environment using tests laid
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS down by various British Standards. Whilst these tests
Calculate the expansion volume of water for a give accurate outputs in laboratory conditions, the
central heating system containing 600 litres of water. requirement for the designer is to adjust these figures
The operating temperature is 90 °C and the initial based upon BS EN 442.
water temperature is 4 °C.
In July 1997, according to BS EN 442, all radiators
manufactured in the EU had to undergo specific tests
Calculating the size of central based upon a flow temperature of 75 °C and a return
of 65 °C in a test room with a temperature of 20 °C. In
heating components addition, the flow and return connections were at the
Earlier in this chapter we looked at how to calculate same end. This is known as top, bottom, same end, or
the heat loss from a dwelling. This was only the first TBSE. The pipe arrangements that are common are:
step in designing a successful heating system. Further ● top, bottom, same end or TBSE
calculations are required, and these are listed below: ● top, bottom, opposite end or TBOE, which is the
● heat emitter size
most efficient method of connecting a radiator
● hot water heating load
● bottom, bottom, opposite end or BBOE (the
● boiler size
most common arrangement in domestic heating
● pipe size
systems).
● pump size.
Most domestic systems in the UK are designed
These follow a logical pattern and will be discussed in with flow and return temperatures and pipework
turn. arrangements that are different from those that were
used under the test conditions of BS EN 442. This
means that to obtain the correct output, correction
factors have to be applied.
Bottom, bottom, opposite end Top, bottom, opposite end Top, bottom, same end
(BBOE) (TBOE) (TBSE)
Figure 3.32 Radiator connections
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
The correction factor is based upon the mean water Table 3.18 ∆t adjustment factors
temperature, or MWT. This is half of the sum of the
flow and return when added together. For example, °C Factor
if a condensing boiler is fitted to a central heating 45 0.700
system with a flow temperature of 82 °C and a return 46 0.719
of 60 °C, then the MWT is: 47 0.739
82 + 60 ÷ 2 = 142 48 0.758
142 ÷ 2 = 71 °C 49 0.778
From this, we now deduct the temperature of the 50 0.798
room, say a lounge at 21 °C: 51 0.818
52 0.838
71 – 21 = 50 °C∆t
53 0.858
In Table 3.18, it can be seen that an adjustment
54 0.878
factor of 0.798 must be applied to all radiators
installed in rooms that require 21 °C. Similarly, a 55 0.898
factor of 0.858 must be applied to all radiators to 56 0.918
rooms of 18 °C and a factor of 0.778 to those rooms 57 0.938
that require 22 °C. 58 0.959
A further adjustment factor is required because the 59 0.979
radiators are connected BBOE. The BBOE factor is 0.98.
60 1.000
Therefore, the calculation of the output from the
61 1.021
radiator looks like this.
62 1.041
Figure 3.33 shows a simple single-storey dwelling.
63 1.062
The heat loss calculations were performed using a
Mears calculator, model number 15: Domestic Central 64 1.083
Heating Calculator. 65 1.104
Lounge: L 6 m × W 5 m Bathroom: L 4 m × W 3 m
Kitchen 21 ºC 22 ºC
2 air changes 2 air changes
Window: H 1.5 m × W 2 m Window: H 1.5 m × W 1.7 m
Bedroom 1 Bathroom Heat loss: 2400 watts Heat loss: 1300 watts
Bed 1: L 4.5 m × W 4.5 m Hall: L 6 m × W 1.5 m
18 ºC 18 ºC
1 air change 1 air change
Window: H 1.5 m × W 2 m Door: H 2.2 m × W 1.2 m
Heat loss: 1400 watts Heat loss: 960 watts
Bed 2: L 6 m × W 4 m Cloaks: L 2 m × W 2 m
18 ºC 18 ºC
1 air change 1 air change
Window: H 1.5 m × W 2 m Heat loss: 460 watts
Heat loss: 1700 watts
Lounge Bedroom 2
Kitchen: L 3 m × W 3 m
18 ºC
2 air changes
Door: H 2.2 m × W 1.2 m
Heat loss: 860 watts
Cloaks
Figure 3.33 Plan of a simple single-storey dwelling
➜
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The heat losses from the dwelling are as follows: Therefore, a radiator with an output of 2727 watts is
● Lounge: 2400 watts required and NOT 2400. If a radiator of 2400 watts
was chosen, with a ∆t of 50 °C, the radiator would
● Bedroom 1: 1400 watts
only give out the following:
● Bedroom 2: 1700 watts
2400 × 0.798 × 0.98 = 2112 watts
● Kitchen: 860 watts
● Bathroom: 1300 watts What this means is that even though the
● Cloaks: 460 watts manufacturer’s data states that the output of the
radiator is 2400 watts, this is with water with a ∆t of
● Hall: 960 watts.
75 °C and NOT 50 °C as is required so the radiator
The lounge at 21 °C has a heat loss of 2400 watts, would be only 88 per cent of the required size.
so, if the factors are applied:
The final heat emitter sizes can now be calculated.
2400 ÷ 0.898 ÷ 0.98 = 2727 watts
Table 3.19 Heat emitter final sizes
Room watts + adjustment factors Final emitter size (watts)
Lounge @ 21 °C 2400 ÷ 0.898 ÷ 0.98 = 2727 2727
Bedroom 1 @ 18 °C 1400 ÷ 0.858 ÷ 0.98 = 1665 1665
Bedroom 2 @ 18 °C 1700 ÷ 0.858 ÷ 0.98 = 2021 2021
Kitchen @ 18 °C 860 ÷ 0.858 ÷ 0.98 = 1022 1022
Bathroom @ 22 °C 1300 ÷ 0.778 ÷ 0.98 = 1705 1705
Cloaks @ 18 °C 460 ÷ 0.858 ÷ 0.98 = 547 547
Hall @ 18 °C 960 ÷ 0.858 ÷ 0.98 = 1141 1141
Total for the entire system 10828
Where:
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
SHC = specific heat capacity of water. This is taken
You should have, by now, calculated the heat loss
as being 4.19 kJ/kg/°C
for the single-storey building previously shown.
Calculate the heat emitter/radiator sizes for the Litres of water = the storage of water in the hot
building from the heat losses previously calculated. water storage vessel
Temperature difference (∆t) = the difference in
Calculating hot water heating load temperature between the incoming cold supply and
The hot water heating load has been discussed the required temperature of the stored hot water
previously, but it is of sufficient importance to be Boiler efficiency = usually taken as 93% for a
discussed again here. condensing boiler
The heat input into a hot water storage cylinder can be Time in seconds = the time limit for the water to get
calculated based upon the efficiency of the heat source. hot in seconds
If a boiler is the main source of heat for the generation
of hot water, then the efficiency of the boiler is
required. This is one of the most important factors for
improving energy efficiency for the selection of a hot
water storage vessel.
The formula for calculating heat input is as follows:
SHC × litres of water × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
Time in seconds × 100
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculating hot water heating load: example SHC = 4.19
A hot water storage cylinder has a capacity of Litres of water = 240 litres
240 litres. The cylinder is required to be at 60 °C
within 2 hours. The temperature of the incoming ∆t = 55 °C
water is 5 °C. What is the kW required?
Time in seconds = 7200 seconds (2 hrs)
SHC × litres of water × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
4.19 × 240 × 55 × 93 = 7.14 kW
Time in seconds × 100 7200 × 100
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
A hot water storage cylinder has a capacity of SHC = 4.19
190 litres. The cylinder is required to be at 65 °C
within 2 hours. The temperature of the incoming Litres of water = 190 litres
water is 5 °C. What is the kW required? ∆t = 60 °C
SHC × litres of water × temperature difference ( ∆t) × boiler efficiency
Time in seconds = 7200 seconds (2 hrs)
Time in seconds × 100
Calculating total boiler size This can be rounded up to 21 kW. A suitable boiler can
In previous sections, the totals for both heat emitter now be sourced from the various manufacturers’ literature.
output and hot water input were calculated. Now,
these must be added together to find out what the
Calculating central heating pipe sizes
boiler size will be: Pipe sizing central heating systems is not calculated on
● Radiator output: 10828 watts or 10.828 kW the amount of heat required by any one room in kW. It is
● Hot water input: 7.14 kW calculated on the amount of water containing heat that
will flow down a pipe in kilograms per second or kg/s.
When these are added together a total of 17.968 kW
is obtained. However, this does not consider the fact As the heated water moves along the pipe, it will
that there will be heat loss from the pipework. If all of encounter frictional resistance. In other words, the
the pipework is to be surface mounted in the rooms movement of water will be slowed by the size of the
on walls and skirting boards, then no allowance need pipe, the smoothness of the internal surface of the pipe,
be made because the heat loss will contribute directly the number of changes of direction and restrictions,
to the heating of the room but, typically, much of the such as radiator valves and other fittings. To counteract
pipework will be under floors and in roof spaces. In the resistance to flow, a central heating circulating
this instance it is usual to allow around 10 per cent to pump is used to force the water around the system. In
15 per cent extra to take into account heat loss from any system, the resistance will always be greater at the
pipework and further extensions to the system. The beginning of the circuit than at the end because the
extra percentage of heat allowance will also ensure a resistance, measured in pascals, diminishes with length.
quick water heat up but caution must be exercised if The greatest resistance to flow will be in the longest
boiler oversizing is to be avoided. circuit. If the pump used will overcome the resistance
in the longest circuit, it will always circulate around any
So, taking the 17.968 kW and adding 15 per cent will
other circuit, simply because the resistance is less. For
give:
this reason, pump sizing is always calculated from the
17.968 × 0.15 = 2.7 longest circuit. This is known as the index circuit. This
17.968 + 2.7 = 20.668 will be discussed in the next section.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
So, let us work through the pipe sizing process. Take
a look at the drawing in Figure 3.34.
Index circuit Length F+R
C1 Kitchen D2
D1
Boiler to A 6m 12 m
A to B 3m 6m
B to E 2m 4m
Bedroom 1 D Bathroom E to G 2m 4m
C
G to G1 10 m 20 m
Other circuits
B A
Cyl. A to Cyl. 1.5 m 3m
B to C 1.5 m 3m
Hall 10.0 m C to C1 7m 14 m
H1 C to D 1.5 m 3m
E F D to D1 5m 10 m
D to D2 8m 16 m
Lounge 2 H2
E to F 2m 4m
Bedroom F2 F to F1 6m 12 m
F to F2 7m 14 m
2
G
H G to H 1.5 m 3m
H to H1 5m 10 m
H to H2 7m 14 m
Lounge 1 Boiler
F1
G1
Cloaks
8.0 m
Figure 3.34 Heating system
Figure 3.34 shows a heating system that has been ● Column 3: this is the percentage of the heat
designed to heat the radiators from the heat losses of required being allowed for heat loss from the pipe.
the single-storey dwelling completed in Figure 3.33. As Typically, this is between 5 per cent and 20 per
can be seen, the pipework has been split into sections cent depending on the length of the pipe run. As a
with each section being given a letter or letter/ rough guide, add 10 per cent for a 20 m run
number combination. This is so that pipe sizing can be and 5 per cent up to 10 m run but never less than
calculated by section. These sections are then entered 5 per cent for any section.
on to a table to simplify the pipe sizing process and to ● Column 4: this is the total heat requirement with
provide a visual reminder of progress. You will see that the heat allowance added.
the table is divided into various columns.
● Column 5: this is the flow rate through the pipe in
● Column 1: this is the section of pipe that is being kg/s and needs to be calculated.
sized.
● Column 6: the pipe size.
● Column 2: this is the total heat requirement for the
section.
Table 3.20 Headings for pipe sizing table
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Section Heat Mains Total heat Flow Pipe Length Fittings Effective Velocity Pressure Total
required loss required rate size of pipe resistance length of (m/s) loss pascals by
(kW) (%) (kW) (kg/s) (mm) run (m) (m) pipework (Pa/m) section
(m)
➜
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
● Column 7: the actual length of pipe from the If you look at Table 3.22, you will see that these
drawing. figures have been added.
● Column 8: this is the allowance made for fittings As was discussed earlier, the heat required is converted
and changes of direction, usually around 33 per from kilowatts to kg/s. The method is as follows:
cent of the actual pipe length.
Flow rate = kW = kg/s
● Column 9: the presumed length of pipe once the
SHC × ∆t
resistance from column 8 has been added. This
will be used to calculate the total resistance to flow Where:
so that the pump can be sized correctly. kW = total heat carried by the pipe
● Column 10: the velocity of the water through the
pipe. This should not be greater than 1.5 metres SHC = specific heat capacity of water taken as 4.19
per second (m/s) or the system may be noisy. A kJ/kg °C
typical velocity of between 0.5 and 1 m/s should
∆t = flow and return temperature difference
be adequate.
● Column 11: this is the resistance per metre of the The boiler is to be a condensing boiler with a 20 °C
size of pipe chosen and will be used to calculate temperature difference across the flow and return.
the pump size. Therefore, the calculation looks like this:
● Column 12: the total of the pascals per section is 19.765 = 0.235 kg/s
Flow rate =
calculated by multiplying columns 9 and 11. This is 4.19 × 20
used for pump sizing.
Now, we must look at the CIBSE copper pipe sizing
The pipe sizing procedure tables for water at 75 °C.
Because the pump size is calculated from the index As you can see, the CIBSE tables are divided into
circuit, this is what we will be concentrating on. The columns. To the far left and the far right are columns
index circuit is the longest circuit and follows the with the heading ∆p/l. This is the resistance and is
sections of pipework shown in Table 3.21. measured in pascals, the unit of pressure. This is a vital
piece of data as we cannot calculate the pump size
Table 3.21 The index circuit (see Figure 3.34) without it and so must be entered on our Table 3.22
Section Heat required (kW) in column 11. Across the top of the tables are the
various pipe sizes. Below each pipe size are two
Boiler to A 17.968
columns. The left column is marked qm and is the
A to B 10.828 flow rate that we have calculated. The flow rates
B to E 6.436 calculated and the flow rate on the table may not be
E to G 3.868 identical. In this instance, the nearest flow rate ABOVE
the calculated flow rate should be used and NEVER
G to G1 1.364
below or the pipe will not deliver enough heat. To the
A provisional pipe size can be estimated by looking right is a column marked c. This is the water velocity
at how much heat a pipe will carry: and should not exceed 1 m/s for small-bore systems
and 1.5 m/s for micro-bore systems. The maximum
28mm = 22 kW velocity is 1.5 m/s across all systems. The velocity
22mm = 12 kW must be entered on to Table 3.22 in column 10. The
15mm = 6 kW zig-zag line also relates to velocity. To read it, follow
10mm = 3 kW the line upwards until you find the velocity in m/s.
Remember! The flow rate we require is 0.235 kg/s.
Stage 1
Now look at the chart and find the flow rate, which
Look at section Boiler to A in Table 3.21. The total either matches or is slightly above. Also keep an eye
boiler load is 17.968 kW (without the 15 per cent) on the left/right columns as the pascals should not
and so the pipe size from Boiler to A will need to exceed 300 pa/m for any one section or the pump,
carry all of that heat. A 10 per cent margin for heat when its size is calculated, will be need a large head
loss from the pipe is being added and the length of of pressure and this could possibly create noise in the
the pipe run is 12 m. system. Figure 3.35 is a snapshot of CIBSE table 1.
The nearest flow rate is boxed for identification.
17.968 × 1.10 (10%) = 19.765 kW
➜
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Pipe sizing tables 1
qm = mass flow rate kg/s
c = velocity m/s Copper tubes BSEN1057 R250
∆p/l = pressure loss per unit length pa/m
Water at 75 °C
∆p/l c 10 mm 12 mm 15 mm 22 mm 28 mm 35 mm 42 mm c ∆p/l
qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c
35.0 0.006 0.10 0.012 0.13 0.023 0.16 0.069 0.22 0.140 0.27 0.253 0.31 0.429 0.36 35.0
37.5 0.007 0.12 0.012 0.13 0.024 0.17 0.071 0.23 0.145 0.28 0.263 0.32 0.446 0.37 37.5
40.0 0.007 0.12 0.013 0.15 0.025 0.18 0.074 0.24 0.151 0.29 0.273 0.33 0.462 0.38 40.0
42.5 0.007 0.12 0.013 0.15 0.026 0.18 0.077 0.25 0.156 0.30 0.283 0.35 0.478 0.40 42.5
45.0 0.008 0.13 0.014 0.16 0.026 0.18 0.079 0.25 0.161 0.31 0.292 0.36 0.494 0.41 45.0
47.5 0.008 0.13 0.014 0.16 0.027 0.19 0.082 0.26 0.166 0.32 0.301 0.37 0.509 0.42 47.5
50.0 0.008 0.13 0.015 0.17 0.028 0.20 0.084 0.27 0.171 0.32 0.310 0.38 0.524 0.44 50.0
52.5 0.15 0.008 0.13 0.015 0.17 0.029 0.20 0.087 0.28 0.176 0.33 0.319 0.39 0.539 0.45 52.5
55.0 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.030 0.21 0.089 0.28 0.181 0.34 0.327 0.40 0.553 0.46 55.0
57.5 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.031 0.22 0.091 0.29 0.186 0.35 0.336 0.41 0.567 0.47 57.5
60.0 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.031 0.22 0.094 0.30 0.190 0.36 0.344 0.42 0.581 0.48 60.0
62.5 0.009 0.15 0.017 0.19 0.032 0.23 0.096 0.31 0.195 0.37 0.352 0.43 0.594 0.49 0.50 62.5
65.0 0.010 0.17 0.017 0.19 0.033 0.23 0.098 0.31 0.199 0.38 0.360 0.44 0.608 0.51 65.0
67.5 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.034 0.24 0.100 0.32 0.203 0.39 0.368 0.45 0.621 0.52 67.5
70.0 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.034 0.24 0.102 0.33 0.208 0.40 0.375 0.46 0.634 0.53 70.0
72.5 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.035 0.25 0.104 0.33 0.212 0.40 0.383 0.47 0.646 0.54 72.5
75.0 0.010 0.17 0.019 0.21 0.036 0.25 0.107 0.34 0.216 0.41 0.390 0.48 0.659 0.55 75.0
77.5 0.011 0.19 0.019 0.21 0.036 0.25 0.109 0.35 0.220 0.42 0.398 0.49 0.671 0.56 77.5
80.0 0.011 0.19 0.019 0.21 0.037 0.26 0.111 0.35 0.224 0.43 0.405 0.50 0.683 0.57 80.0
82.5 0.011 0.19 0.020 0.22 0.038 0.27 0.113 0.36 0.228 0.43 0.412 0.51 0.695 0.58 82.5
85.0 0.011 0.19 0.020 0.22 0.038 0.27 0.114 0.36 0.232 0.44 0.419 0.51 0.707 0.59 85.0
87.5 0.011 0.19 0.021 0.24 0.039 0.28 0.116 0.37 0.236 0.45 0.426 0.52 0.718 0.60 87.5
90.0 0.012 0.20 0.021 0.24 0.040 0.28 0.118 0.38 0.240 0.46 0.432 0.53 0.730 0.61 90.0
Figure 3.35 Snapshot of CIBSE copper pipe sizing table 1 (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE),
www.cibse.org)
Pipe sizing tables 2
qm = mass flow rate kg/s
c = velocity m/s Copper tubes BSEN1057 R250
∆p/l = pressure loss per unit length pa/m
Water at 75 °C
∆p/l c 10 mm 12 mm 15 mm 22 mm 28 mm 35 mm 42 mm c ∆p/l
qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c
92.5 0.012 0.20 0.021 0.24 0.040 0.28 0.120 0.38 0.243 0.46 0.439 0.54 0.741 0.62 92.5
95.0 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.041 0.29 0.122 0.39 0.247 0.47 0.446 0.55 0.752 0.63 95.0
97.5 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.042 0.30 0.124 0.40 0.251 0.48 0.452 0.55 0.763 0.63 97.5
100 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.042 0.30 0.126 0.40 0.254 0.48 0.459 0.56 0.774 0.64 100
120 0.014 0.24 0.025 0.28 0.047 0.33 0.139 0.44 0.282 0.54 0.508 0.62 0.857 0.71 120
140 0.015 0.25 0.027 0.30 0.051 0.36 0.152 0.49 0.308 0.59 0.554 0.68 0.934 0.78 140
160 0.017 0.29 0.029 0.32 0.056 0.40 0.164 0.52 0.332 0.63 0.598 0.73 1.000 0.83 160
180 0.30 0.018 0.30 0.032 0.36 0.060 0.42 0.176 0.56 0.354 0.67 0.638 0.78 1.070 0.89 180
200 0.019 0.32 0.034 0.38 0.063 0.44 0.186 0.59 0.376 0.71 0.677 0.83 1.130 0.94 200
220 0.020 0.34 0.035 0.39 0.067 0.47 0.197 0.63 0.397 0.75 0.714 0.88 1.200 1.00 1.00 220
240 0.021 0.35 0.037 0.41 0.070 0.49 0.207 0.66 0.417 0.79 0.750 0.92 1.260 1.05 240
260 0.022 0.37 0.039 0.44 0.074 0.52 0.216 0.69 0.436 0.83 0.784 0.96 1.310 1.09 260
280 0.023 0.39 0.041 0.46 0.077 0.54 0.226 0.72 0.454 0.86 0.817 1.00 1.370 1.14 280
300 0.024 0.40 0.042 0.47 0.080 0.56 0.235 0.75 0.472 0.90 0.849 1.04 1.420 1.18 300
320 0.025 0.42 0.044 0.49 0.083 0.59 0.243 0.78 0.490 0.93 0.880 1.08 1.470 1.22 320
Figure 3.36 Snapshot of CIBSE copper pipe sizing table 2 (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE),
www.cibse.org)
➜
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
This shows that the nearest flow rate is slightly above take a look at the pascals per metre. At 300 Pa/m it
0.235 at 0.236 with a pipe size of 28 mm. The is at the limit of the 300 Pa/m maximum. There are
velocity 0.45 m/s and the pascals are 87.5 pa/m several advantages to using 22 mm. It is cheaper to
pressure drop. On the face of it this looks good BUT buy, which keeps the cost of the installation down
are there any alternative pipe sizes? Look at sheet 2, and it is easier to work with and install. However, the
in Figure 3.36. pascals may present a problem later, but this will not
There is an alternative pipe size because a 22 mm be known until the rest of the index circuit is calculated.
pipe will also deliver the required flow rate with a For the purpose of this example, 22 mm pipe will be
velocity of 0.75 m/s (nearer to the ideal 1 m/s) but chosen. The data can be entered into Table 3.22.
Table 3.22 Pipe sizing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Section Heat Mains Total Flow Pipe Length Fittings Effective Velocity Pressure Total
required loss heat rate size of pipe resistance length (m/s) loss pascals
(kW) (%) required (kg/s) (mm) run (m) (33%) of pipework (Pa/m) by section
(kW) (m)
Boiler 17.968 10 19.765 0.235 22 12 1.33 15.96 0.75 300 4788
to A
A to B 10.828 5 11.37 0.135 22 6 1.33 7.98 0.44 120 957.6
B to E 6.436 5 6.75 0.080 22 4 1.33 5.32 0.26 47.5 252.7
E to G 3.868 5 4.10 0.049 15 4 1.33 5.32 0.36 140 744.8
G to G1 1.364 10 1.50 0.017 10 20 1.33 26.6 0.29 160 4256
Total pascals for pump sizing from the index circuit 10999.1
A to Cyl 7.140 5 3 1.33
B to C 4.392 5 3 1.33
C to C1 1.665 7 14 1.33
C to D 2.727 5 3 1.33
D to D1 1.022 5 10 1.33
D to D2 1.705 7 16 1.33
E to F 2.568 5 4 1.33
F to F1 0.547 6 12 1.33
F to F2 2.021 7 14 1.33
G to H 2.505 5 3 1.33
H to H1 1.141 5 10 1.33
H to H2 1.364 7 14 1.33
Stage 2 Therefore:
At the beginning of the process we allowed a Length of run × 78 watts (see Table 3.22)
percentage of the total kW for the section for heat 12 × 78 = 936 watts
loss from the pipe. This can now be checked to see if
it is adequate. Percentage emission = Total watts of run × 100
To check to see if the 5 per cent we added to the heat Total heat emission in watts
required is sufficient, we perform another calculation. 93,600
Percentage emission = = 5.2%
If the room is to be maintained at 21 °C and the flow 17,968
pipe is at 80 °C, this gives a temperature difference
of 59 °C. For the purposes of the calculation, we can So, the estimation of 5 per cent heat loss from the
round this up to 60. pipework was correct therefore the pipe size is also
correct.
➜
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 3.23 Heat emission in watts per metre of pipe run
Nominal pipe size (mm) Temperature difference of surface to surroundings (°C)
40 45 50 55 60
8 28 32 35 39 43
10 33 37 41 46 50
15 40 46 53 59 66
22 48 56 62 70 78
28 58 68 78 88 98
35 71 82 93 110 120
42 78 92 105 110 130
54 96 112 130 150 170
66.7 120 140 160 180 200
76.1 140 160 180 211 230
B to E
INDUSTRY TIP
B to E = 6.436 + 5% = 6.75 kW
There are four sheets for pipe sizing copper tubes. These Flow rate =
6.75
= 0.080 kg/s
documents are taken from the CIBSE concise guide. CIBSE 4.19 × 20
also produce pipe sizing tables for low-carbon steel pipe Pipe size = 22 mm
and plastic pressure pipe. Velocity = 0.44 m/s
Pascals = 120
Stages 1 and 2 can now be performed for the entire
index circuit. Percentage check
Length of run × 78
The index circuit
4 × 78 = 312 watts
A to B Total watts of run × 100
Percentage emission =
A to B = 10.828 + 5% = 11.37 kW Total heat emission in watts
Flow rate = 11.37 = 0.135 kg/s Percentage emission = 31200 = 1.73%
4.19 × 20 17968
Pipe size = 22 mm
E to G
Velocity = 0.44 m/s E to G = 3.868 + 6% = 4.10 kW
Pascals = 120 Flow rate = 64.10 = 0.049 kg/s
4.19 × 20
Percentage check Pipe size = 15 mm
Length of run × 78 Velocity = 0.36 m/s
6 × 78 = 468 watts Pascals = 140
Percentage emission = Total watts of run × 100 Percentage check
Total heat emission in watts Length of run × 66
Percentage emission = 46800 = 2.6% 4 × 66 = 264 watts
17968
Percentage emission = Total watts of run × 100
Total heat emission in watts
Percentage emission = 26400 = 1.4%
17968
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Pipe sizing tables 1
qm = mass flow rate kg/s
c = velocity m/s Copper tubes BSEN1057 R250
∆p/l = pressure loss per unit length pa/m
Water at 75 °C
∆p/l c 10 mm 12 mm 15 mm 22 mm 28 mm 35 mm 42 mm c ∆p/l
qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c
0.1 0.001 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.007 0.01 0.015 0.01 0.1
0.2 0.002 0.01 0.005 0.01 0.014 0.02 0.023 0.02 0.2
0.3 0.003 0.01 0.008 0.02 0.019 0.02 0.026 0.02 0.3
0.4 0.004 0.01 0.011 0.02 0.019 0.02 0.032 0.03 0.4
0.5 0.001 0.01 0.005 0.02 0.014 0.03 0.021 0.03 0.036 0.03 0.5
0.6 0.001 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.015 0.03 0.023 0.03 0.040 0.03 0.6
0.7 0.001 0.01 0.007 0.02 0.015 0.03 0.026 0.03 0.044 0.04 0.7
0.8 0.001 0.01 0.008 0.03 0.015 0.03 0.028 0.03 0.048 0.04 0.8
0.9 0.001 0.01 0.009 0.03 0.016 0.03 0.030 0.04 0.051 0.04 0.9
1.0 0.002 0.01 0.010 0.03 0.017 0.03 0.032 0.04 0.055 0.05 0.05 1.0
1.5 0.001 0.01 0.003 0.02 0.012 0.04 0.022 0.04 0.040 0.05 0.070 0.06 1.5
2.0 0.001 0.01 0.004 0.03 0.012 0.04 0.026 0.05 0.048 0.06 0.083 0.07 2.0
2.5 0.002 0.02 0.005 0.04 0.014 0.04 0.030 0.06 0.055 0.07 0.094 0.08 2.5
3.0 0.001 0.02 0.002 0.02 0.006 0.04 0.016 0.05 0.033 0.06 0.061 0.07 0.105 0.09 3.0
3.5 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.007 0.05 0.017 0.05 0.036 0.07 0.067 0.08 0.114 0.09 3.5
4.0 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.008 0.06 0.019 0.06 0.039 0.07 0.072 0.09 0.124 0.10 4.0
4.5 0.001 0.02 0.003 0.03 0.008 0.06 0.020 0.06 0.042 0.08 0.078 0.10 0.132 0.11 4.5
5.0 0.001 0.02 0.004 0.04 0.008 0.06 0.022 0.07 0.045 0.09 0.083 0.10 0.141 0.12 5.0
5.5 0.002 0.03 0.004 0.04 0.008 0.06 0.023 0.07 0.048 0.09 0.087 0.11 0.149 0.12 5.5
6.0 0.002 0.03 0.005 0.06 0.008 0.06 0.024 0.08 0.050 0.09 0.092 0.11 0.156 0.13 6.0
6.5 0.002 0.03 0.005 0.06 0.008 0.06 0.025 0.08 0.053 0.10 0.096 0.12 0.164 0.14 6.5
7.0 0.002 0.03 0.006 0.07 0.008 0.06 0.027 0.09 0.055 0.10 0.100 0.12 0.171 0.14 7.0
7.5 0.002 0.03 0.006 0.07 0.009 0.06 0.028 0.09 0.057 0.11 0.105 0.13 0.178 0.15 0.15 7.5
8.0 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.009 0.06 0.029 0.09 0.059 0.11 0.108 0.13 0.185 0.15 8.0
8.5 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.030 0.10 0.061 0.12 0.112 0.14 0.191 0.16 8.5
9.0 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.031 0.10 0.064 0.12 0.116 0.14 0.198 0.16 9.0
9.5 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.010 0.07 0.032 0.10 0.066 0.13 0.120 0.15 0.204 0.17 9.5
10.0 0.05 0.003 0.05 0.006 0.07 0.011 0.08 0.033 0.11 0.068 0.13 0.123 0.15 0.210 0.17 10.0
12.5 0.004 0.07 0.006 0.07 0.012 0.08 0.037 0.12 0.077 0.15 0.140 0.17 0.239 0.20 12.5
15.0 0.005 0.08 0.007 0.08 0.014 0.10 0.042 0.13 0.086 0.16 0.156 0.19 0.265 0.22 15.0
17.5 0.005 0.08 0.008 0.09 0.015 0.11 0.046 0.15 0.094 0.18 0.170 0.21 0.289 0.24 17.5
20.0 0.005 0.08 0.008 0.09 0.016 0.11 0.049 0.16 0.101 0.19 0.184 0.23 0.312 0.26 20.0
22.5 0.005 0.08 0.009 0.10 0.017 0.12 0.053 0.17 0.108 0.21 0.197 0.24 0.334 0.28 22.5
25.0 0.005 0.08 0.010 0.11 0.019 0.13 0.056 0.18 0.115 0.22 0.209 0.26 0.354 0.29 0.30 25.0
27.5 0.005 0.08 0.010 0.11 0.020 0.14 0.060 0.19 0.122 0.23 0.221 0.27 0.374 0.31 27.5
30.0 0.006 0.10 0.011 0.12 0.021 0.15 0.063 0.20 0.128 0.24 0.232 0.28 0.393 0.33 30.0
32.5 0.006 0.10 0.011 0.12 0.022 0.16 0.066 0.21 0.134 0.25 0.243 0.30 0.411 0.34 32.5
35.0 0.006 0.10 0.012 0.13 0.023 0.16 0.069 0.22 0.140 0.27 0.253 0.31 0.429 0.36 35.0
37.5 0.007 0.12 0.012 0.13 0.024 0.17 0.071 0.23 0.145 0.28 0.263 0.32 0.446 0.37 37.5
40.0 0.007 0.12 0.013 0.15 0.025 0.18 0.074 0.24 0.151 0.29 0.273 0.33 0.462 0.38 40.0
42.5 0.007 0.12 0.013 0.15 0.026 0.18 0.077 0.25 0.156 0.30 0.283 0.35 0.478 0.40 42.5
45.0 0.008 0.13 0.014 0.16 0.026 0.18 0.079 0.25 0.161 0.31 0.292 0.36 0.494 0.41 45.0
47.5 0.008 0.13 0.014 0.16 0.027 0.19 0.082 0.26 0.166 0.32 0.301 0.37 0.509 0.42 47.5
50.0 0.008 0.13 0.015 0.17 0.028 0.20 0.084 0.27 0.171 0.32 0.310 0.38 0.524 0.44 50.0
52.5 0.15 0.008 0.13 0.015 0.17 0.029 0.20 0.087 0.28 0.176 0.33 0.319 0.39 0.539 0.45 52.5
55.0 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.030 0.21 0.089 0.28 0.181 0.34 0.327 0.40 0.553 0.46 55.0
57.5 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.031 0.22 0.091 0.29 0.186 0.35 0.336 0.41 0.567 0.47 57.5
60.0 0.009 0.15 0.016 0.18 0.031 0.22 0.094 0.30 0.190 0.36 0.344 0.42 0.581 0.48 60.0
62.5 0.009 0.15 0.017 0.19 0.032 0.23 0.096 0.31 0.195 0.37 0.352 0.43 0.594 0.49 0.50 62.5
65.0 0.010 0.17 0.017 0.19 0.033 0.23 0.098 0.31 0.199 0.38 0.360 0.44 0.608 0.51 65.0
67.5 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.034 0.24 0.100 0.32 0.203 0.39 0.368 0.45 0.621 0.52 67.5
70.0 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.034 0.24 0.102 0.33 0.208 0.40 0.375 0.46 0.634 0.53 70.0
72.5 0.010 0.17 0.018 0.20 0.035 0.25 0.104 0.33 0.212 0.40 0.383 0.47 0.646 0.54 72.5
75.0 0.010 0.17 0.019 0.21 0.036 0.25 0.107 0.34 0.216 0.41 0.390 0.48 0.659 0.55 75.0
77.5 0.011 0.19 0.019 0.21 0.036 0.25 0.109 0.35 0.220 0.42 0.398 0.49 0.671 0.56 77.5
80.0 0.011 0.19 0.019 0.21 0.037 0.26 0.111 0.35 0.224 0.43 0.405 0.50 0.683 0.57 80.0
82.5 0.011 0.19 0.020 0.22 0.038 0.27 0.113 0.36 0.228 0.43 0.412 0.51 0.695 0.58 82.5
85.0 0.011 0.19 0.020 0.22 0.038 0.27 0.114 0.36 0.232 0.44 0.419 0.51 0.707 0.59 85.0
87.5 0.011 0.19 0.021 0.24 0.039 0.28 0.116 0.37 0.236 0.45 0.426 0.52 0.718 0.60 87.5
90.0 0.012 0.20 0.021 0.24 0.040 0.28 0.118 0.38 0.240 0.46 0.432 0.53 0.730 0.61 90.0
Figure 3.37 CIBSE sheet 1 (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), www.cibse.org)
247
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Pipe sizing tables 2
qm = mass flow rate kg/s
c = velocity m/s Copper tubes BSEN1057 R250
∆p/l = pressure loss per unit length pa/m
Water at 75 °C
∆p/l 10 mm 12 mm 15 mm 22 mm 28 mm 35 mm 42 mm ∆p/l
c c
qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c qm c
92.5 0.012 0.20 0.021 0.24 0.040 0.28 0.120 0.38 0.243 0.46 0.439 0.54 0.741 0.62 92.5
95.0 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.041 0.29 0.122 0.39 0.247 0.47 0.446 0.55 0.752 0.63 95.0
97.5 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.042 0.30 0.124 0.40 0.251 0.48 0.452 0.55 0.763 0.63 97.5
100 0.012 0.20 0.022 0.25 0.042 0.30 0.126 0.40 0.254 0.48 0.459 0.56 0.774 0.64 100
120 0.014 0.24 0.025 0.28 0.047 0.33 0.139 0.44 0.282 0.54 0.508 0.62 0.857 0.71 120
140 0.015 0.25 0.027 0.30 0.051 0.36 0.152 0.49 0.308 0.59 0.554 0.68 0.934 0.78 140
160 0.017 0.29 0.029 0.32 0.056 0.40 0.164 0.52 0.332 0.63 0.598 0.73 1.000 0.83 160
180 0.30 0.018 0.30 0.032 0.36 0.060 0.42 0.176 0.56 0.354 0.67 0.638 0.78 1.070 0.89 180
200 0.019 0.32 0.034 0.38 0.063 0.44 0.186 0.59 0.376 0.71 0.677 0.83 1.130 0.94 200
220 0.020 0.34 0.035 0.39 0.067 0.47 0.197 0.63 0.397 0.75 0.714 0.88 1.200 1.00 1.00 220
240 0.021 0.35 0.037 0.41 0.070 0.49 0.207 0.66 0.417 0.79 0.750 0.92 1.260 1.05 240
260 0.022 0.37 0.039 0.44 0.074 0.52 0.216 0.69 0.436 0.83 0.784 0.96 1.310 1.09 260
280 0.023 0.39 0.041 0.46 0.077 0.54 0.226 0.72 0.454 0.86 0.817 1.00 1.370 1.14 280
300 0.024 0.40 0.042 0.47 0.080 0.56 0.235 0.75 0.472 0.90 0.849 1.04 1.420 1.18 300
320 0.025 0.42 0.044 0.49 0.083 0.59 0.243 0.78 0.490 0.93 0.880 1.08 1.470 1.22 320
340 0.026 0.44 0.046 0.52 0.086 0.61 0.252 0.81 0.506 0.96 0.910 1.12 1.530 1.27 340
360 0.027 0.46 0.047 0.53 0.089 0.63 0.260 0.83 0.523 0.99 0.940 1.15 1.570 1.31 360
380 0.028 0.47 0.049 0.55 0.092 0.65 0.268 0.86 0.539 1.02 0.968 1.19 1.620 1.35 380
400 0.028 0.47 0.050 0.56 0.094 0.66 0.276 0.88 0.555 1.05 0.996 1.22 1.670 1.39 400
420 0.029 0.49 0.052 0.58 0.097 0.68 0.283 0.90 0.570 1.08 1.020 1.25 1.720 1.43 420
440 0.50 0.030 0.51 0.053 0.59 0.099 0.70 0.291 0.93 0.585 1.11 1.050 1.29 1.760 1.46 440
460 0.031 0.52 0.054 0.60 0.102 0.72 0.298 0.95 0.600 1.14 1.070 1.31 1.800 1.50 1.50 460
480 0.032 0.54 0.056 0.63 0.105 0.74 0.306 0.98 0.614 1.17 1.100 1.35 1.850 1.54 480
500 0.032 0.54 0.057 0.64 0.107 0.76 0.313 1.00 0.628 1.19 1.120 1.37 1.890 1.57 500
520 0.033 0.56 0.058 0.65 0.109 0.77 0.320 1.02 0.642 1.22 1.150 1.41 1.930 1.61 520
540 0.034 0.57 0.060 0.67 0.112 0.79 0.326 1.04 0.656 1.25 1.170 1.44 1.970 1.64 540
560 0.035 0.59 0.061 0.68 0.114 0.81 0.333 1.06 0.669 1.27 1.200 1.47 2.010 1.67 560
580 0.035 0.59 0.062 0.69 0.116 0.82 0.340 1.09 0.682 1.30 1.220 1.50 2.050 1.70 580
600 0.036 0.61 0.063 0.71 0.119 0.84 0.346 1.11 0.695 1.32 1.240 1.52 2.090 1.74 600
620 0.037 0.62 0.065 0.73 0.121 0.85 0.353 1.13 0.708 1.35 1.270 1.56 2.130 1.77 620
640 0.037 0.62 0.066 0.74 0.123 0.87 0.359 1.15 0.721 1.37 1.290 1.58 2.160 1.80 640
660 0.038 0.64 0.067 0.75 0.125 0.88 0.365 1.17 0.733 1.39 1.310 1.61 2.200 1.83 660
680 0.039 0.66 0.068 0.76 0.127 0.90 0.371 1.19 0.745 1.42 1.330 1.63 2.240 1.86 680
700 0.039 0.66 0.069 0.77 0.130 0.92 0.378 1.21 0.757 1.44 1.350 1.66 2.270 1.89 700
720 0.040 0.67 0.070 0.78 0.132 0.93 0.383 1.22 0.769 1.46 1.380 1.69 2.310 1.92 720
740 0.041 0.69 0.071 0.80 0.134 0.95 0.389 1.24 0.781 1.48 1.400 1.72 2.350 1.95 740
760 0.041 0.69 0.073 0.82 0.136 0.96 0.395 1.26 0.793 1.51 1.420 1.74 2.380 1.98 2.00 760
780 0.042 0.71 0.074 0.83 0.138 0.97 0.401 1.28 0.804 1.53 1.440 1.77 2.410 2.00 780
800 0.043 0.73 0.075 0.84 0.140 0.99 0.407 1.30 0.816 1.55 1.460 1.79 2.450 2.04 800
820 0.043 0.73 0.076 0.85 0.142 1.00 0.412 1.32 0.827 1.57 1.480 1.82 2.480 2.06 820
840 0.044 0.74 0.077 0.86 0.144 1.02 0.418 1.34 0.838 1.59 1.500 1.84 2.510 2.09 840
860 0.044 0.74 0.078 0.87 0.146 1.03 0.423 1.35 0.849 1.61 1.520 1.86 2.550 2.12 860
880 0.045 0.76 0.079 0.88 0.147 1.04 0.429 1.37 0.860 1.63 1.540 1.89 2.580 2.15 880
900 0.046 0.78 0.080 0.90 0.149 1.05 0.434 1.39 0.871 1.65 1.560 1.91 2.610 2.17 900
920 0.046 0.78 0.081 0.91 0.151 1.07 0.440 1.41 0.881 1.67 1.570 1.93 2.640 2.20 920
940 0.047 0.79 0.082 0.92 0.153 1.08 0.445 1.42 0.892 1.69 1.590 1.95 2.680 2.23 940
960 0.047 0.79 0.083 0.93 0.155 1.09 0.450 1.44 0.902 1.71 1.610 1.97 2.710 2.25 960
980 0.048 0.81 0.084 0.94 0.157 1.11 0.455 1.45 0.913 1.73 1.630 2.00 2.740 2.28 980
1000 0.048 0.81 0.085 0.95 0.158 1.12 0.461 1.47 0.923 1.75 1.650 2.02 2.770 2.30 1000
1100 0.051 0.86 0.090 1.01 0.167 1.18 0.486 1.55 0.973 1.85 1.740 2.13 2.920 2.43 1100
1200 0.054 0.91 0.094 1.05 0.176 1.24 0.510 1.63 1.020 1.94 1.820 2.23 3.060 2.54 1200
1300 0.056 0.94 0.098 1.10 0.184 1.30 0.533 1.70 1.060 2.01 1.910 2.34 3.200 2.66 1300
1400 1.00 0.059 1.00 0.103 1.15 0.191 1.35 0.555 1.77 1.110 2.11 1.980 2.43 3.330 2.77 1400
1500 0.061 1.03 0.107 1.20 0.199 1.41 0.577 1.84 1.150 2.18 2.060 2.53 3.460 2.88 1500
1600 0.063 1.06 0.111 1.24 0.206 1.45 0.598 1.91 1.190 2.26 2.140 2.63 3.580 2.98 3.00 1600
1700 0.066 1.11 0.115 1.29 0.214 1.51 0.618 1.97 1.230 2.34 2.210 2.71 3.700 3.08 1700
1800 0.068 1.15 0.118 1.32 0.220 1.55 0.638 2.04 1.270 2.41 2.280 2.80 3.820 3.18 1800
1900 0.070 1.18 0.122 1.37 0.227 1.60 0.658 2.10 1.310 2.49 2.350 2.88 3.930 3.27 1900
2000 0.072 1.21 0.126 1.41 0.234 1.65 0.677 2.16 1.350 2.56 2.410 2.96 4.040 3.36 2000
Figure 3.38 CIBSE sheet 2 (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), www.cibse.org)
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
G to G1 Total watts of run × 100
Percentage emission =
G to G1 = 1.364 + 10% = 1.50 kW Total heat emission in watts
Flow rate =
1.50
= 0.017 kg/s Percentage emission = 100000 = 5.5%
4.19 × 12 17968
Pipe size = 10 mm
Velocity = 0.29 m/s IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Pascals = 160 Using the techniques discussed in this section,
complete the pipe sizing table for the single-storey
Percentage check dwelling.
Length of run × 50
20 × 50 = 1000 watts
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Sizing the circulating pump multiplying the pipe length by 1.33 as shown in the
index circuit table below. This will give the effective
Before we can size the circulating pump, we must
pipe length. Now, multiply the effective length by
calculate the total pascals per section of pipe. This
the pascals for the section. Then when all of the total
is completed by first finding out the effective length
pascals per section have been calculated, add the
of pipe in column 9. It is usual to allow a 33 per
totals together as shown.
cent increase in the pipework to allow for fittings
resistance. This is a fairly simple task that involves
Table 3.24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Section Heat Mains Total heat Flow Pipe Length Fittings Effective Velocity Pressure Total
required loss required rate size of pipe resistance length of (m/s) loss pascals by
(kW) (%) (kW) (kg/s) (mm) run (m) (33%) pipework (m) (Pa/m) section
Boiler 17.968 10 19.765 0.235 22 12 1.33 15.96 0.75 300 4788
to A
A to B 10.828 5 11.37 0.135 22 6 1.33 7.98 0.44 120 957.6
B to E 6.436 5 6.75 0.080 22 4 1.33 5.32 0.26 47.5 252.7
E to G 3.868 5 4.10 0.049 15 4 1.33 5.32 0.36 140 744.8
G to G1 1.364 10 1.50 0.017 10 20 1.33 26.6 0.29 160 4256
Total pascals for pump sizing from the index circuit 10,999.1
The total needs to be converted to metres head. If one Assuming there is a pressure drop at the boiler of 2 m
pascal is equal to 0.0001019977334 metres head then: head, then the total for the system will be:
10,999.1 × 0.0001019977334 = 1.122 metres head 2 + 1.122 = 3.122 metres head pressure drop
You can see that the index circuit has a pressure loss This must be converted to kilopascals (kPa). To convert
of 1.122 metres head. metres head to kPa simply multiply the metres head by
The next step is to find out if the boiler creates a 9.81:
significant pressure drop. Some low water content 3.122 × 9.81 = 30.63 kPa
boilers generate a high resistance to flow through the
heat exchanger and this results in a drop in pressure. You must now consult the pump manufacturer’s literature
This, too, is measured in metres head. Consulting the to select a pump and pump speed based on your
boiler manufacturer’s instructions will indicate if this is the calculation. From Figure 3.39, it will be seen that a
case. Any pressure drop at the boiler will also need to Grundfos UPS-15/50 pump will give 30.63 kPa on
be added to the pressure drop across the index circuit. either speed 2 @ 0.28 l/s or speed 3 @ 0.38 l/s.
➜
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
P H
(kPa) (m)
4.5
40
4.0
3.5
30 3.0
2.5
20 2.0
1.5
10 1.0
Speed 3
0.5 Speed 2
Speed 1
0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 Q (m3/h)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Q(I/s)
30.31 kPa
@ speed 2 = 0.28 I/s
@ speed 3 = 0.38 I/s
Figure 3.39 Pump flow chart
Presenting the calculations to the and can be saved as either a hard copy in portable
customer document format (PDF) or as Word or Excel documents.
The methods that can be used to present the design of Many proprietary heating design packages also produce
a central heating system and the results of calculations a printable report of the heat losses, heat emitters
performed were covered previously, but it is worth and pipework sizes. These too can be supplied to the
revisiting the basic principle of design and calculation customer at the estimation stage.
presentation.
Scale and not-to-scale drawings 3 POSITIONING
Scale drawings and schematic drawings produced using
computer aided design (CAD) packages help to show
CENTRAL
the customer what you are proposing to install to fulfil HEATING SYSTEM
their heating requirements. This is especially important
when a large installation is to be completed as it helps COMPONENTS
the customer to keep a track of what is being installed
and where. Many of the components listed below were discussed
in Chapter 7 of Book 1. However, because of the
Presentation of designs and calculations importance of positioning central heating components,
The calculation process for central heating takes we will revisit them again to ensure learning and
time to complete and unless the calculations are understanding.
set out correctly, mistakes can be made. The use of
spreadsheets and tables when completing design Boilers
calculations, especially for pipe sizing and fabric heat Boilers must always be positioned in accordance with
loss, is commonplace amongst most professional the manufacturer instructions to maintain compliance
building services engineers. These are excellent for with the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
including with any quotation or design specification 1998.
that the company wishes to present to the customer
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
System under negative System under positive System under positive pressure.
pressure. pressure. Correct arrangement showing
Pushing into the cistern Pumping over the vent pipe the position of the vent and feed
behind the pump. This is known
as the neutral zone
Figure 3.40 The position of the circulating pump
Pumps Expansion vessels
The circulating pump must be positioned with care Expansion vessels should be positioned on the return
to avoid design faults that could lead to problems pipework wherever possible. If the expansion vessel is
with corrosion by aeration of the water due to water positioned on the flow pipe, it must be placed on the
movement in the feed and expansion cistern in open suction (negative) side of the circulating pump so that
vented systems (see Figure 3.40). This occurs when the pump does not force open the pressure relief valve,
water is either pushed up the cold feed pipe and the causing water loss.
open vent pipe or is circulated between the cold feed
pipe and the open vent pipe. Isolation valves
On sealed systems, the pump should, wherever Isolation valves should be positioned at the fill point
possible, be positioned on the flow pipe. In most cases, of the system for draining and maintenance. Isolation
sealed system boilers and combination boilers have the valves should also be installed either side of the pump
pump already installed within the boiler casing. so that the pump may be removed/replaced.
Motorised valves Fill points
The position of motorised valves will depend upon the The filling point of the system depends on the type of
type of system and the type of motorised valve: system installed.
● S-plan and S-plan plus systems use 2-port zone ● Sealed systems are fed through a temporary filling
valves, one for each circuit to be controlled. These loop that connects the mains cold water supply to
are usually positioned in an accessible place, usually the return pipe on the heating system. Filling loops
the airing cupboard. contain two isolation valves and must contain a
● Y-plan systems use a 3-port mid-position valve double check valve type EC or type ED backflow
which controls both hot water and heating circuits. prevention device. The filling loop must be removed
Additional zoning may be achieved by installing when the system is full and commissioned.
2-port motorised zone valves to give extra ● Open vented systems are filled via the cold feed
temperature control. pipe that leads from the small feed and expansion
● W-plan systems use a 3-port motorised diverter cistern in the roof space. Both the open vent and
valve. Mid-position operation is not possible with the cold feed should be positioned on the suction
this type of valve. side of the pump and no more than 150 mm apart.
Alternatively, an air interceptor can be used to
connect the cold feed and open vent to the system.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Radiators The expansion vessel
Radiators should be positioned with care to give the The expansion vessel is a key component of the system.
best heat distribution throughout the property. The It replaces the feed and expansion cistern on the vented
customer’s wishes on heat emitter position should be system and allows the expansion of water to take place
taken into account. safely. It comprises of a steel cylinder which is divided
in two by a neoprene rubber diaphragm.
UFH manifolds The vessel is installed on to the return because the
See the section on underfloor heating (page 210). return water is generally 20 °C cooler than the flow
water and this does not place as much temperature
stress on the expansion vessel’s internal diaphragm as
UFH pipework the hotter flow water. If installing the vessel on the
See the section on underfloor heating (page 210). flow is unavoidable, it should be placed on the suction
side of the circulating pump in the same way as the
Cylinders cold feed and open vent pipe on the open vented
The position of the cylinder is usually dictated by the system.
position of the airing cupboard within the property. On one end of the expansion vessel is a Schrader air
However, unvented hot water storage cylinders may be pressure valve where air is pumped into the vessel to
positioned in almost any position in the property with 1 bar pressure and this forces the neoprene diaphragm
the only constraint being accessibility to outside for the to virtually fill the whole of the vessel.
discharge (D2) pipework.
On the other end is a ½ inch male BSP thread and this
is the connection point to the system. When mains
Automatic bypass pressure cold water enters the heating system via
The automatic bypass valve connects the flow pipe to the filling loop and the system is filled to a pressure
the return pipe. The flow connection to the automatic of around 1 bar, the water forces the diaphragm
bypass valve is connected immediately after the backwards away from the vessel walls compressing
pump and connects directly to the return pipework the air slightly as the water enters the vessel. At this
via the automatic bypass valve. It is designed to open point, the pressure on both sides of the diaphragm is
when all thermostatic radiator valves are closed, and 1 bar pressure.
the hot water circuit is satisfied. Boilers that have an
electrical pump overrun circuit designed into the boiler As the water is heated, expansion takes place. The
require an automatic bypass valve to prevent boiler expanded water forces the diaphragm backwards
overheating. Most modern system and combination compressing the air behind it still further and, since
boilers have bypass circuits built in to the appliance. water cannot be compressed, the system pressure
increases.
Sealed system components On cooling, the water contracts, the air in the expansion
As we have already seen, sealed systems do not contain vessel forces the water back into the system and the
a feed and expansion cistern nor open vent pipe. Instead, pressure reduces to its original pressure of 1 bar.
these systems incorporate the following components: Periodically, the pressure in the vessel may require
● an external expansion vessel fitted to the system return topping up. This can be done by removing the cap on the
● a pressure relief valve Schrader valve and pumping the vessel up to its original
● the system is filled via a temporary filling loop or a pressure with a foot pump. The operation of expansion
CA disconnection device vessels was discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
● a pressure gauge.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
The pressure relief valve constitutes a cross connection between the cold
The pressure relief valve (also known as the expansion main (fluid category 1) and the heating system (fluid
valve) is installed on to the system to protect against category 3), which is not allowed under the Water
over-pressurisation of the water. Pressure relief valves Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. The filling loop
are usually set to 3 bar pressure. If the water pressure must protect the cold water main from backflow and
rises above the maximum pressure that the valve is set this is done in two ways:
● A filling loop has a type EC verifiable double check
to, the valve opens and discharges the excess water
pressure safely to the outside of the property through valve included in the filling loop arrangement.
● The filling loop must be disconnected after filling
the discharge pipework.
creating a type AUK3 air gap for protection against
Pressure relief valves are most likely to open because backflow.
of lack of room in the system for expansion due to a
malfunction with the expansion vessel. This can be
caused if:
● the diaphragm in the expansion vessel has ruptured
allowing water both sides of the diaphragm, or
● the vessel has lost its charge of air.
Figure 3.42 The filling loop
The filling loop is generally fitted to the return pipe
close to the expansion vessel and may even be supplied
as part of the expansion vessel assembly.
Permanent filling connections to
sealed heating systems
It is possible to permanently connect sealed heating
systems to the mains cold water supply by using
a type CA backflow prevention device. The type
CA backflow prevention device, when used with
a pressure reducing valve, can be used instead of
a removable filling loop to connect a domestic
Figure 3.41 A pressure relief valve heating system direct to the water undertaker’s
cold water supply. This is possible because the water
The filling loop in a domestic heating system is classified as fluid
category 3 risk. A CA device can also be installed on a
The filling loop is an essential part of any sealed
commercial heating system but only when the boiler
system and should contain an isolation valve at either
is rated up to 45 kW. Over 45 kW, the water in the
end of the filling loop and a double check valve on the
system is classified as fluid category 4 risk and so any
mains cold water supply side of the loop. The filling
permanent connection would require a type BA RPZ
loop is the means by which sealed central heating
valve. An example of a CA backflow prevention device
systems are filled with water. Unlike open vented
can be seen in Chapter 1.
systems, sealed systems are filled directly from the
mains cold water via a filling loop. The connection The device contains an integral tundish to remove any
of a heating system to the mains cold water supply discharge should a backflow situation occur. Under
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
normal operation, the valve should not discharge water. The pressure gauge
However, the valve may discharge a small amount of This is to allow the correct water pressure to be
water if the supply pressure falls below 0.5 bar or set within the system. It also acts as a warning of
11 per cent of the downstream pressure. component failure or an undetected leak should the
pressure begin to inexplicably rise or fall.
Pressure gauge
60
40
80
20
100
Type CA
device
Pressure relief valve
and discharge pipework Expansion vessel Cold water supply
Figure 3.43 A sealed system with CA backflow prevention device
4 INSTALLATION, CONNECTION AND TESTING
REQUIREMENTS OF ELECTRICALLY OPERATED
CENTRAL HEATING COMPONENTS
In this part of the chapter, we will look at some of the ● fully pumped incorporating hot water and multiple
more common wiring diagrams for domestic central space heating zones
heating systems: ● fully pumped incorporating weather compensation,
● pumped heating systems with combination boilers optimum start or delayed start controllers
● pumped heating with gravity hot water systems ● application of frost thermostats and boilers with
● fully pumped incorporating 3-port valves – mid- pump overrun facility.
position and diverter valves It should be remembered that electrical connections to
● fully pumped incorporating 2 × 2-port valves heating systems must be through a switched fuse spur
fitted with a 3 amp fuse.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Zone 1
Zone valve
M
~ M
~
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 2
Room thermostat Room thermostat Zone valve
L N E 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10-way junction block
230 V
Mains supply in
Preheat
CH ON
Boiler connection panel
Programmer
Figure 3.44 Pumped heating systems with combination boilers
Pumped heating systems from a Pumped heating with gravity hot
combination boiler water (C-plan)
The wiring diagram in Figure 3.44 shows a typical This system is better known as the C-plan and has
combination boiler wired to separate upstairs and gravity primary circulation pipes to the cylinder
downstairs zone control through a wiring centre. In from the boiler. The 2-port zone valve is operated
this particular drawing the system would have an by a cylinder thermostat to control the hot water
external time clock or programmer and not a boiler temperature by simply preventing gravity circulation
integrated model. when closed. The room thermostat operates the pump.
This system uses an external time clock/programmer.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
C-PLAN
Gravity hot water pumped central heating
Link terminals 5-9 in the 10-way junction box
A
5
B
A
** 1 **4 CM901
1
5 3 5
B CM907 1
4 2 2 2
DT90E T6360B Wireless 3
Room Room thermostats Brown
thermostat OR thermostat OR 8 4
available
Blue 2 5
Grey 1 6 L
1 Orange I
C 10 7 N
L 1 6 Green/ 3 8 K
N 2 Not used yellow
2 9
E 3 8 White 9
10
230 volt L641A Hot water
mains Cylinder valve 10-way junction
input thermostat box Honeywell
part No.
42002116-001
230 V G/YELLOW
50 Hz
3 A rated
L N E 28 mm
GREY
BLUE
Cylinder Zone
Room stat. stat. valve
BROWN
2 1 3
1 C ORANGE
LINK WHITE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BOILER
HTG
HW
L E N
PUMP L
L N E
N
Figure 3.45 Pumped heating with gravity hot water
Fully pumped incorporating 3-port sit in the mid-position. The diverter valve (W-plan),
valves – mid-position (Y-plan) and however, will either allow flow to the hot water or
central heating circuits. The W-plan system is known
diverter valves (W-plan)
as a hot water priority system. In other words, the
The two diagrams here look very similar but are two hot water storage cylinder must be satisfied before
very different systems. The mid-position valve (Y-plan) the central heating circuit will operate. The W-plan is
allows water to be circulated to both heating and hot identifiable because there are only three wires (L/N/E)
water circuits simultaneously because the valve will from the diverter valve.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
230 V MID-POSITION
50 Hz ZONE VALVE
WHITE
ORANGE
3 A rated
G/YELLOW
L N E Cylinder LINK 8 to10
BLUE
stat.
GREY
Room stat. 1 PUMP
OVERRUN
2 1 3
8 9 10
C 2
BOILER
SL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N E L
PL
PUMP
L
E
N
BOILER
HW OFF
HW ON
N E L
HTG
L
PUMP
E
N L N
Mid-position valve (Y-plan)
DIVERTER VALVE
230 V
BROWN
50 Hz
G/YELLOW
3 A rated Cylinder
BLUE
L N E stat. LINK 7 to10
Room stat. 1
BOILER
2 1 3 WITH
C 2
7 8 9 10 PUMP
OVERRUN
BOILER
SL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N E L
PL
PUMP
L
E
N
BOILER
H.W.
HTG
N E L
L
PUMP
N L E
N
Diverter valve (W-plan)
Figure 3.46 Fully pumped incorporating 3-port valves – mid-position and diverter
Fully pumped incorporating include a system boiler will not require an external
2 × 2-port valves (S-plan) pump as shown in the diagram and this can be
omitted.
This system is immediately identifiable because of the
2 × 2-port motorised zone valves. Some systems that
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
S-PLAN
If using a 6 wire 28mm or 1" BSP V4043H on either circuit, the white wire is not needed and must be
made electrically safe.
A Brown 5
Fully pumped system only
5 Blue 2
B
** **4
A 1 Grey 1
1 Orange
CM901 10
5 3 5 Green/
B CM907 3 1
4 2 2 yellow
2
DT90E T6360B Wireless V4043H 3
Room Room thermostats Hot water
thermostat OR thermostat OR valve 4
available
5
6
Brown 8 7
Blue 2 8
C 1 Grey 1 9
6 L 1
Orange 10 10
Not used N 2
2 Green/ 3
8 yellow E 3
10-way junction
L641A V4043H 230 volt box Honeywell
Cylinder Hot water mains part No.
thermostat valve input 42002116-001
When circuit is wired as above: Complete wiring will be as line drawing below
NOTE:
It is recommended that either the 10-way junction box or sundial Wiring Centre should be used to
ensure first time, fault free wiring.
Motor Motor
G/YELLOW
BROWN
BROWN
GREY
BLUE
BLUE
Zone valve Zone valve
HTG HW
230 V
50 Hz
3 A rated PUMP
L N E Cylinder OVERRUN
ORANGE
ORANGE
Room stat. stat. 8 9 10
2 1 3
1 C
BOILER
SL
N E L
PL
PUMP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 L
E
N
BOILER
HTG
HW
N E L
PUMP L
N L E
N
Figure 3.47 Fully pumped incorporating 2 × 2-port valves (S-plan)
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Fully pumped incorporating hot dwellings and refurbishments. It incorporates multiple
water and multiple space heating heating zones with separate time/temperature control.
Two heating zones are shown but more can be added if
zones (S-plan plus)
required.
To comply with Building Regulations Document L1, this
is the recommended system for all new build domestic
S-PLAN PLUS
If using a 6 wire 28 mm or 1" BSP V4043H on either circuit, the white wire is not needed and must be made electrically safe.
Fully pumped system only
Brown 5 1
Blue 2 2
** **4
A Grey 1 3
1 Orange 10 4
5 3 5 Green/
B 3 10-way junction 5
4 2 2 yellow box Honeywell
part No. 6
DT90E T6360B V4043H 42002116-001 7
Room Room Hot water
thermostat OR thermostat OR valve 1 8
9
A Brown 7 10
Brown 8
Blue 7 Blue 2
2
B 1 Grey 1
C 1 Grey 1
6 Orange L 1
Orange 10 CM901 10
Not used CM907 Green/ 3 N 2
2 Green/ 3
yellow yellow E 3
8
L641A V4043H Wireless V4043H 230 volt
Cylinder Hot water thermostats Hot water mains
thermostat valve available valve 2 input
When circuit is wired as above: Complete wiring will be as line drawing below
NOTE:
It is recommended that a 10-way junction box should be used to ensure first time, fault free wiring.
Motor Motor Motor
G/YELLOW
G/YELLOW
BROWN
BROWN
GREY
BLUE
BLUE
BLUE
Zone valve Zone valve Zone valve
HTG 1 HW HTG 2
230 V
50 Hz
3 A rated
L N E Cylinder
ORANGE
ORANGE
ORANGE
stat. Programmable
BROWN
Room stat.
stat.
2 1 3 A B
1 C
PUMP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 OVERRUN
8 9 10
BOILER
SL
BOILER
HTG
N E L
HW
N E L PL
PUMP L PUMP
L
N L E
E
N
N
Figure 3.48 Fully pumped incorporating hot water and multiple space heating zones (S-plan plus)
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Fully pumped incorporating weather and the zone valves have closed. Water is then
compensation, optimum start or circulated through the automatic bypass valve to keep
the boiler below the high limit temperature.
delayed start controllers
The diagram in Figure 3.49 shows a fully pumped The diagrams previously shown indicate the wiring
S-plan system including weather compensation. The arrangement of a pump overrun facility.
red dashed line shows the alteration that must be
made to a standard S-plan wiring arrangement to Frost thermostats
accommodate the weather compensator. Frost thermostats should always be fitted in
conjunction with a pipe thermostat. The frost
Application of frost thermostats and thermostat will sense the temperature of the air whilst
boilers with pump overrun the pipe thermostat will sense the temperature of the
Pump overrun is a feature that some boilers require to water. Both thermostats have to be closed before the
dissipate the heat after the burner has finished firing. boiler will fire. When the water temperature reaches
Pump overrun allows the hot water to be circulated near freezing point, then the boiler will fire preventing
away from the boiler preventing the operation of the the system from freezing. Frost thermostats will
energy cut-out. It often occurs when both the hot override all other controls to ensure the safety of the
water and heating circuits have reached temperature system.
CH HW
2-port 2-port
zone valve zone valve
Fused spur
L N E
C/S
R/S
NOTE: Changes to cylinder stat
connections and addition of
HW OFF from timer
LINK
Boiler
CH R/S HW HW L N E sL
L N E C/S 9 10
ON ON ON OFF
Weather compensation
sL N
L N CH ON Outside sensor
HW ON
Time clock
HW OFF 'HW OFF' wiring centre
Figure 3.49 Fully pumped incorporating weather compensation, optimum start or delayed start controllers
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Frost thermostat Pipe thermostat 7 Keep the key with you.
8 Post notices in appropriate places or lock switch
2
1 3 Not used gear room, etc.
Onto 10-way It is important to test your equipment before you carry
1 C junction box
Permanent live terminal out any electrical testing. This principle is the same
when carrying out tests in plumbing or gas work. For
Figure 3.50 Frost and pipe thermostat wiring example, you would test a manometer when testing
sanitary pipework or a combustion analyser when
Electrical testing procedures commissioning the performance of a boiler. These
instruments should be calibrated and tested before use.
Quite often a plumber will be involved in a range of
Safe isolation procedure testing procedures when installing, servicing and fault-
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 require that finding appliances.
circuits engineers work on should be dead. Live work
Before working on any electrical appliance, it is
on circuits is only permitted when it is not practical for
important to identify the circuit which it is connected
the circuit to be dead. This rule also applies to testing.
to and then safely isolate it. The following step-by-
However, it does not mean an engineer can work on a
steps aim to help illustrate a realistic process of safe
live circuit merely because it is inconvenient to turn the
isolation.
electrical supply off.
Testing for polarity
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS AC electrical circuits consist of live (also known as
Anyone working on an electrical system should line), neutral and earth conductors. When connections
ensure that when isolating the circuit other are made to AC circuits, it is vitally important the
people who could be affected are warned in electricity flows through the live conductor to the
advance that the supply will be turned off, and neutral and NOT the other way around. To ensure that
they should be allowed enough time to finish the this is correct, a polarity test can be performed.
work they are doing. For example, ensure that if
Polarity tests are done using a GS38 approved voltage
working in a large building, lifts are evacuated
indicator.
before isolating the supply if you think that they
may be affected.
KEY POINT
It is important to understand that a polarity test
IS A LIVE TEST so extra care is advised.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The key requirement of electrical testing procedures
is to ensure the safety of others who may be affected The polarity test sequence
by your actions.
1 Unscrew the switched fused spur from the back box
to expose the electrical connections behind.
Safe isolation of an electrical circuit requires that the 2 Using a suitable GS38 approved voltage indicator,
plumber should follow the procedure stated below: test between live and neutral. The reading should be
1 Firstly, identify the circuit. 230 V.
2 Then if safe to do so, isolate the circuit. 3 Test between live and earth. Again, the reading
3 Make sure your test voltage instrument works. should be 230 V.
4 Ensure the test circuit is dead. 4 Test between neutral and earth. The reading should
5 Test the voltage tester. be 0 V.
6 Lock off supply. 5 Re-screw the switched fuse spur to the back box.
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Testing for earth continuity 2 Connect the live conductor to the earth conductor
by using one of the spare earth connections on the
When we test for earth continuity, we are ensuring that
earth bar of the consumer unit. By doing this, a
the current will have a safe path to earth in the event
circuit will be created which is half live conductor
of a fault or short circuit occurring.
and half earth conductor.
3 Select the correct test function on the test
Insulation and continuity testers equipment. This should usually be the low reading
The use of an insulation and continuity tester covers ohm meter function.
all aspects of domestic, commercial and industrial 4 The test equipment must be zeroed before the
electrical contracting, building maintenance, testing, test is performed. This can usually be completed by
inspection and servicing. Combining both insulation connecting the two test leads together and pressing
testing and continuity testing, each instrument the test button on the tester until the reading on
caters for all aspects of fixed wiring installations. The the test equipment reads 0 ohms.
instruments are useful for checking circuits that trip 5 Unscrew the switched fused spur from the back box
their protective devices. to expose the electrical connections behind.
6 On the switch fuse spur, touch the earth connection
with the green test lead and the live connection
with the brown test lead. The test reading must be
less than 1 ohm.
7 At the consumer unit, place the live conductor back
into the correct circuit connection.
5 COMMISSIONING
CENTRAL HEATING
Figure 3.51 Insulation and continuity testers
SYSTEMS AND
COMPONENTS
KEY POINT
The earth continuity test is performed WHILE Testing and commissioning of central heating systems
THE CIRCUIT IS DEAD. Always perform the safe is probably the most important aspect of any heating
isolation procedure before working on electrical installation as it is here that we see if the system
circuits. we have installed is leak-free and performs to the
requirements of the design.
The earth continuity test sequence Correct commissioning procedures are laid down by
industry standards and manufacturer’s instructions, but
1 Select the circuit to be tested on the distribution
experience will also play a vital part in the testing and
board (consumer unit) and remove the live
commissioning process.
conductor from the residual current device (RCD) or
circuit breaker (MCB). In this section, we will assess the correct
commissioning and testing processes that are designed
to set up the system to work as the design intended.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Interpret information Guidance clauses G12.1 to G12.3). This requires
that a pressure test of 1.5 times the maximum
sources required to operating pressure for the installation or any
complete commissioning relevant part.
work on domestic central This document should be read in conjunction with the
British Standards.
heating systems
Inadequate commissioning, system flushing and The British Standards – BS EN
maintenance operations can inflict damage to even 12828, BS EN 12831, BS EN 14336
the best designed and installed central heating system. and BS 7593
Building debris and swarf (pipe filings) can easily block The main British Standards for the design, installation,
pipes and these can also promote bacteriological commissioning and testing of central heating systems
growth. In addition, excess flux used during the are:
installation can cause corrosion and may lead to ● BS EN 12828:2003 Heating systems in buildings.
system leakage and component failure. Design for water-based heating systems
It is obvious, then, that correct commissioning ● BS EN 12831:2003 Heating systems in buildings.
procedures must be adopted if the problems stated Method for calculation of the design heat load
are to be avoided. There are documents that must be ● BS EN 14336:2004 Heating systems in buildings.
consulted: Installation and commissioning of water-based
● the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 heating systems
● British Standards BS EN 12828, BS EN 12831, BS ● BS 7593:2006 Code of practice for treatment
EN 14336 and BS 7593 of water in domestic hot water central heating
● the Building Regulations Approved Document L1A systems. BS 7593 gives guidance on the potential
and L1B problems and the remedies required to maintain
● the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide system efficiency in line with Approved Document
● the manufacturer’s instructions of any equipment L1, thereby increasing the lifespan of hot water
and appliances. central heating systems.
For commissioning and testing of systems, the key
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) British Standards are BS EN 14336 and BS 7593. The
Regulations 1999 following sections are of relevance:
These are the national requirements for the design, ● BS EN 14336 Section 5 Pre-commissioning checks:
installation, testing and maintenance of cold and hot ● 5.1 Objective
water systems in England and Wales. ● 5.2 State of the system
● 5.3 Water tightness test
● 5.4 Pressure test
INDUSTRY TIP
● 5.5 System flushing and cleaning
Remember, Scotland has its own but almost identical ● 5.6 System filling and venting
Scottish Water Bylaws 2004. ● 5.7 Frost precautions
● 5.8 Operational checks
● 5.9 Static completion records
The purpose is to prevent contamination, wastage,
● Section 6 Setting to work
misuse, undue consumption and erroneous metering of
● Section 7 Balancing water flow rates
the water supply used for domestic purposes. Schedule
● Section 8 Adjusting of controls
2 of the Regulations states that:
● Section 9 Handover:
The whole installation should be appropriately
● 9.1 Objective
pressure tested, details of which can be found
● 9.2 Documents for operation, maintenance
in the Water Regulations Guide (Section 4:
and use
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● 9.3 Instructions on operation and use the commissioning of central heating systems. In
● 9.4 Hand over documentation Section 2 of the guide, its states that:
● Annex A: Guide to good practice for water tightness a On completion of the installation of a boiler
test or hot water storage system, together with
● Annex B: Guide to good practice for pressure testing associated equipment such as pipework,
● Annex C: Guide to good practice for system flushing pumps and controls, the equipment should
and cleaning be commissioned in accordance with
● Annex D: Guide to good practice for operational the manufacturer’s instructions. These
tests instructions will be specific to the particular
● Annex E: Guide to good practice for static completion boiler or hot water storage system.
● Annex F: Guide to good practice for setting to work b The installer should give a full explanation
● Annex G: Guide to good practice for balancing water of the system and its operation to the user,
flow rates including the manufacturer’s User Manual
● Annex H: Guide to good practice for setting of where provided.
control systems.
These will be looked at a little later in the chapter. Manufacturer’s instructions
Where appliances and equipment are installed
The Building Regulations on a system, the manufacturer’s instructions are
The Building Regulations make reference to a key document when undertaking testing and
commissioning of central heating systems. These are commissioning procedures and it is important that
mentioned briefly in Approved Document L1A/B. Here these are used correctly at both installation and
it states that: commissioning operations. Only the manufacturers
(3) Where this regulation applies the person will know the correct procedures that should be used
carrying out the work shall, for the purpose to safely put the equipment into operation so that it
of ensuring compliance with paragraph performs to its maximum specification. Remember:
● Always read the instructions before operations begin.
F1(2) or L1(b) of Schedule 1, give to the local
● Always follow the procedures in the correct order.
authority a notice confirming that the fixed
● Always hand the instructions over to the customer
building services have been commissioned in
accordance with a procedure approved by the upon completion.
● Failure to follow the instructions may invalidate the
Secretary of State.
manufacturer warranty.
(4) The notice shall be given to the local
authority–
a Not later than the date on which the notice Visual inspections of central
required by regulation 16(4) is required to be heating systems
given; or Before soundness testing a central heating system,
b Where that regulation does not apply, not more visual inspections of the installation should take place.
than 30 days after completion of the work. British Standard BS EN 14336 states:
● that all plant items are in accordance with the
The Domestic Building Services design, drawings, specifications and, where
Compliance Guide applicable, the manufacturers’ instructions
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide 2013 ● that correct installation procedures are being followed
(amended 2018) gives specific instructions regarding ● that the standards of installation are being met
● availability of a fuel supply and the correct
installation of the flue gas removal system.
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This should include the following actions: Only when the stage being filled is leak free should
● Walk around the installation. Check that you are the next stage be filled.
happy that the installation is correct and meets ● Air locks from cistern-fed, open vented systems are
installations standards. less likely to occur as each stage is filled slowly and
● Check that the power supply and fuel supply i.e. gas, methodically. Any problems can be assessed and
oil, etc. is off and cannot be inadvertently switched rectified as the filling progresses without the need
on. If necessary, place warning notices at key to isolate the whole system and initiate a full drain
isolation points. down.
● Check that all radiator valves and air release valves ● Where a sealed system has been installed, the
are closed. system should be filled until the pressure gauge
● Check that the drain-off valves for the system are reaches the normal fill pressure, usually 1 bar.
closed.
Once the system pressure has stabilised and the cistern
● Check that all motorised valves have been manually
(if an open vent system) is full, the furthest radiator on
opened.
the index circuit can be opened and the radiator bled
● Check that the pump has been removed and a
of air. Where sealed systems are concerned, this will
temporary section of pipe installed. This is to
cause the pressure to drop. The system should then be
prevent the pump being damaged by any debris that
recharged with water to normal operating pressure.
has found its way into the system.
● Ensure that all room and cylinder thermostats are in
KEY POINT
the off position.
Do not be tempted to overfill the system just for
● Check that all capillary joints are soldered and that
the sake of filling the system with water, as this
all compression joints are fully tightened. can often cause the pressure relief valve to open
● Check that enough pipe clips, supports and brackets and discharge water.
are installed and that all pipework is secure.
● Check that the equipment (boiler, pump, motorised
Working back towards the boiler, open and fill the
valves, expansion vessels, etc.) are installed correctly
downstairs radiators first. This will ensure that airlocks
and that all joints and unions on and around the
do not occur on any pipework work drops to the lower
equipment are tight.
radiators. Once the downstairs circuit is full, then the
● Check that cisterns and tanks are supported
upstairs circuit can be filled working from the furthest
correctly and that float operated valves are
radiator back towards the boiler.
provisionally set to the correct water level.
If the system has been connected to the heat
The initial system fill exchanger coil of a hot water storage vessel, open and
vent the air from any automatic air valves.
The initial system fill is always conducted at the normal
operating pressure of the system. Again, the British When the system has been filled with water, the
Standard BS EN 14336 is very clear: system should be allowed to stabilise and any float
The heating system shall be water tight and operated valves should be allowed to shut off and a
tested for leakage. … This test may be an check made to see where the water line is to ensure
independent test or a combined test for water there is room for the expansion of water. Where a
tightness and pressure verification. sealed system is installed, the water pressure should
be topped up and the system allowed to stabilise. The
The system must be filled with fluid category 1 water system will then be deemed to be at normal operating
direct from the water undertaker’s mains cold water pressure.
supply. It is usual to conduct the fill in stages so that
the filling process can be managed comfortably. There Once the filling process is complete, another thorough
are several reasons for this: visual inspection should take place to check for any
● Filling the system in a series of stages allows the
possible leakage. The system is then ready for pressure
operatives time to check for leaks stage by stage. testing.
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Pressure testing procedures 1 When filling the system with water or other liquid,
‘walk’ the system continuously checking for leaks by
Pressure testing can commence when the initial fill to
the noise of escaping air or signs of liquid leakage.
test the pipework integrity has been completed. Again,
2 Release air from high points systematically up
on large systems, this is best done in stages to avoid
through the system.
any possible problems.
3 When the system is full of water, raise the pressure
to test pressure and seal.
The requirements of the British 4 Should the pressure fall, check that stop valves
Standards are not letting and then ‘walk’ the system again
BS EN 14336:2004, Heating systems in buildings. checking for leaks.
Installation and commissioning of water-based heating 5 When satisfied that the system is sound, have the
systems, is very specific regarding the testing of central test witnessed by, for example, the clerk of works, the
heating systems. It states: client’s representative, and obtain relevant signatures.
The heating system shall be pressure tested to
a pressure at least 30 per cent greater than the The requirements of the Water
working pressure for an adequate period, as Regulations
a minimum of 2 hours duration. A suggested In most domestic situations, pressure testing of central
method is given in Annex B. heating systems follows closely the requirements
of Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations.
Annex B of BS EN 14336
The procedure for this is given in British Standard
B.2.2 Hydraulic pressure testing BS EN 806. These documents suggest that the method
B.2.2.1 Preparations of testing should relate to the pipework materials
installed and give specific tests for both systems with
When preparing a hydraulic pressure testing, the metallic pipes and those with elastomeric (plastic)
following procedure should be applied: pipes. This subject was covered in detail in Chapter 1.
1 Blank, plug or seal off all open ends.
2 Remove and/or blank off vulnerable items, fittings Planning the test
and plant pressure switches and expansion bellows.
Before the test is conducted, a risk assessment should
3 Close all valves at the limits of the test section of
be carried out. Pressure testing involves stored energy,
the pipework. Plug the valves if they are not tight, or
the possibility of blast and the potential hazards of
could be subjected to vibration or tampering.
high velocity missile formation due to pipe fracture and
4 Open all valves in the enclosed test section.
fitting failure. A safe system of work should be adopted
5 Check that all high points have vents, and that these
and a permit to work sought where necessary. Personal
vents are closed.
protective equipment should also be used.
6 Check that the testing pressure gauge or manometer
is functioning, has the correct range and has been The following factors should be carefully considered:
recently calibrated. ● Is the test being used appropriate for the service and
7 Check that there are adequate drain cocks, a hose is the building environment?
available and that it will reach from the cocks to the ● Will it be necessary to divide the vertical pipework
drain. into sections to limit the pressures in multi-storey
8 Assess the best time to start the test in view of buildings?
the duration required after completion of all the ● Will the test leave pockets of water that might
preliminaries. cause frost damage or corrosion later?
● Can all valves and equipment withstand the test
B.2.2.2 During tests
pressure? If not, these will need to be removed and
For a hydraulic pressure testing, the following temporary pipework installed.
procedure should be applied:
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● Are there enough operatives available to conduct 7 Refit any vulnerable pieces of equipment,
the test safely? components and appliances.
● Can different services be inter-connected as a
temporary measure to enable simultaneous testing? The flushing requirements
How long will it take to fill the system using the
of central heating systems
●
available water supply?
● When should the test be started when the size of Again, British Standard BS EN 14336 is very specific
the system is considered? regarding the flushing requirements of central heating
● Preparation should also be taken into account. systems. It states that:
Systems shall, if necessary, be cleaned and/
Preparing for the test or flushed. If the system is not to be used
● Check that the high points of the system have an immediately, consideration shall be given to
air vent to help with the removal of air from the whether the system is to be left full or empty.
system during the test. These should be closed to In this section of the chapter, we will look at the
prevent accidental leakage. requirements of BS EN 14366 system flushing, paying
● Blank or plug any open ends and isolate any valves particular attention to:
at the limit of the test where the test is being ● cold and hot flushing
conducted in stages. ● system additives:
● Remove any vulnerable equipment such as the ● cleansers
circulating pump and components and install ● neutralisers
temporary piping. ● corrosion inhibitors
● Open the valves within the section to be tested. ● power flushing.
● Important! Check that the test pump is working
correctly and that the pressure gauge is calibrated Cold and hot system flushing
and functioning correctly.
● Cold flushing – after the system has been filled with
● Attach the test pump to the pipework and install
water and checked for leakage, the system should be
extra pressure gauges if necessary.
drained and completely emptied. This will remove
● Check that a suitable hose is available for draining
much of the debris left over from the installation
down purposes.
process, such as copper filings, that may otherwise
foul the moving parts of the system or become
The hydraulic test procedure lodged in crucial sections of the system such as
1 Using the test pump, begin to fill the system. When the boiler heat exchanger. Once the system has
the pressure shows signs of rising, stop and walk drained, those components of the system removed
the route of the section under test. Listen for any prior to testing, such as the circulating pump, can be
sounds of escaping air and visually check for any re-fitted and the system re-filled with fresh water
signs of leakage. following the same procedure stated on page 265.
2 Release air from the high points of the system or ● Hot flushing – a hot flush is conducted to remove
section and completely fill the system with water. any excess jointing compounds, flux residues and
3 When the system is full and free of air, pump the oils that may be present after the installation has
system up to the required test pressure. been completed. The hot water separates these
4 If the pressure falls, check that any isolated valves from the pipework and components.
are not passing water and visually check for leaks.
5 Once the test has been proven sound, the test With the system now full, the system should be run to
should be witnessed and a signature obtained on its maximum operating temperature. Before this can
the test certificate. take place, it is important to remember:
● The electricity supply to the system must be tested
6 When the pressure is released, open any air vents and
taps to atmosphere before draining down the system. and switched on. Always check to ensure that the
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correct size fuse of 3 amps has been used in the radiator valves. Mineral oils can also lead to eventual
switched fused spur. pump failure. Flux residues lead to corrosion of the pipe
● Ensure that the fuel supply to the boiler has been and fittings, especially in those systems using copper
tested in line with the regulations in force and that tubes. The risk of failures is eliminated by the use of a
it has been turned on. chemical cleanser which is administered in accordance
● Ensure that all radiator valves are open to allow with the recommendations in BS 7593:2006. The
water circulation to take place. cleanser should then be circulated around the system for
● Ensure that all thermostats are calling for heat. a period of one hour with the boiler on, after which the
system should be drained down and the system flushed
When the system has reached temperature, it should
to remove the cleanser until the water runs clear.
be switched off and completely isolated from the
electricity and gas/oil supplies to prevent accidental
operation of the system and drained down whilst the
water is still hot.
Using central heating system
cleaners, neutralisers and inhibitors
British Standard BS EN 14336 makes recommendations
regarding chemical cleaning. It states that:
For chemical cleaning, the following procedure
should be applied:
a Chemical cleaning should be preceded by
flushing with frequent sample testing as
necessary;
b The system shall be completely flushed and
water filled with or without inhibitor, in
accordance with the specification;
c Where the whole system is not being Figure 3.52 System cleaner
chemically cleaned at the same time, it is
recommended that the isolating valves be Central heating inhibitor
locked in order to avoid pollution from Untreated central heating systems are prone to
untreated sections. electrolytic corrosion where metal deposits form a
thick, black oxide sludge which blocks boiler heat
Chemical cleanser
exchangers, radiators and fouls circulating pumps
Central heating systems can become contaminated causing them to seize. In severe cases, sludging can
with mineral oils that are used to protect steel result in component and even boiler failure.
components, such as radiators, from corrosion during
the manufacturing process and excess flux residues In some areas of the UK, where temporary hard water
from the installation process. If the oil is not removed, exists, boilers and the associated system pipework
then component failure becomes a greater risk because are susceptible to scaling by the calcium carbonate
the oil attacks the rubber parts that are present in deposits (limescale) present in the water. Again, this
components such as motorised valves and thermostatic
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
can cause major problems with loss of boiler efficiency, water containing an acid is harmful to the environment
boiler noise and component failure. and causes major problems for water undertakers
when discharged down a drain or sewer. A neutraliser,
System corrosion and scaling is prevented by adding a
administered through either the F and E cistern,
central heating inhibitor to the system water via the
injected through a radiator or via a power flushing unit,
feed and expansion cistern in open vented systems or
will pacify the effects of the cleanser on the inside
via a radiator in sealed systems. Approved Document
of the system, neutralising its effects. The system
L of the Building Regulations stipulates that where the
should be thoroughly flushed and the water tested
water undertaker’s cold water main exceeds 200 ppm of
to ensure that the system is free of both acid cleaner
calcium carbonate, the feed water must be chemically
and neutraliser. An inhibitor can then be put into the
treated to reduce the rate of limescale accumulation.
system once the system has been flushed through.
To be completely effective, the inhibitor must be
administered at the correct dosage. If not enough
inhibitor enters the system, then its protection will be
diminished. A 1-litre bottle of inhibitor is enough for a
ten radiator system with a water content of 100 litres.
One radiator = 10 litres. Double panel radiators count
as two radiators.
Figure 3.54 System neutraliser
Power flushing
When replacing boilers, or dealing with blocked
pipework or radiators, a power flush may be required
to remove any sludge within the system. In most cases,
where a new boiler is being installed, a power flush is
Figure 3.53 System inhibitor required as part of the warranty.
Central heating neutralisers INDUSTRY TIP
Older central heating systems may require de-sludging
and de-scaling using an acid-based cleanser to remove Manufacturer’s warranties are void if power flushing is not
any hard, encrusted deposits that have formed on the carried out during new boiler installations.
inside of the pipework, radiators and components. Any
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Power flushing involves using a high-powered pump to
circulate strong, often acid based cleaning chemicals
Balancing a central heating
and de-sludging agents through the system. These system
powerful chemicals strip the old corrosion residue
from the system, ensuring that the system does not KEY POINT
contain sediment which may be harmful to new boilers, Balancing a central heating system is one of
controls and valves. the most important parts of the commissioning
process.
The power flushing unit is connected to the heating
system, often by removing the pump or a radiator.
Balancing means adjusting all of the various
thermostats, thermostatic valves and the circulating
pump speed to give the desired temperatures in every
room in the dwelling, whilst maximising the efficiency
of the system, thus saving money and energy.
Connection to the flow
All radiators (except one) will have a thermostatic valve,
and return usually on the flow and a lockshield balancing valve on
the other. The idea is to achieve similar temperature
drop of 10 °C across all radiators on the system. If the
Pump
pump rate is set too high, then the temperature drop
will be less than this on a correctly balanced system, so
it is important that the circulating pump speed is set
correctly.
Fern o x
P ow e rflo w M K I I
Power flush unit
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
Before beginning the balancing process, it is a
Figure 3.55 System power flush good idea to record the temperatures and valve
settings of each radiator. If anything should go
After power flushing is complete, the system may have
wrong, then this reference point will help in
an inhibitor added to the system water to keep the
starting the process again.
system free from corrosion.
Where zone valves are fitted, it is especially important
that these valves are open during the balancing
operation.
Balancing a central heating system can be quite a
lengthy process. A simple chart or table helps to
record all the necessary information (see Table 3.25).
Here, each radiator in turn can be adjusted and the
thermostatic radiator valve and lockshield valve
settings, flow and return temperatures and the vital
temperature difference can all be recorded.
Figure 3.56 Power flush pump
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Table 3.25 Example of the record chart
Room Radiator Reading TRV setting Lockshield Flow Return Temperature
valve setting temperature Temperature difference
Original
1
2
3
4
The table shows the record for just one room. Each 14 Repeat 11, 12 and 13 until all radiators are fully hot
room would require the same table. and the temperature differences are as near to 10 °C
as possible.
The balancing process 15 Adjust the boiler temperature to give a flow
1 Record the initial TRV and lockshield valve settings temperature of 80 °C. Then, adjust the pump speed
of all radiators. Also record the room thermostat to give a temperature difference of 10 °C across the
temperature, the boiler temperature setting and the radiator flow and returns. Caution must be exercised
pump speed. here as altering the pump speed may mean that
2 Open all zone valves. points 12 and 13 may need to be repeated to give
3 Open all TRVs fully. the correct temperature difference.
4 Open all lockshield valves fully. It is important that 16 Adjust all TRVs to give the desired temperatures
you record how many turns it takes to open the in all rooms. This is best done over several days as
lockshield valves from fully closed to fully open. rooms often take time to warm up and cool down.
5 Set the room thermostats to maximum. 17 Now, set the room thermostats to the desired
6 While the system is off and cold, bleed all radiators temperatures.
to remove any air. 18 Turn the boiler down to the lowest setting needed
7 Check and reset, if necessary, the system pressure. to maintain the temperatures required. It can always
8 Turn on the boiler. be increased later if needed.
9 As the system begins to warm up, visit each radiator 19 Measure and record the flow and return
in turn and check which is the flow and return of temperatures at the boiler. This information should
each radiator. Make a note of which radiators get be kept with all other system records to assist in any
hot first. fault-finding procedures in the future.
10 While the system is warming, turn down the
lockshield valves of the radiators that are heating Dealing with defects with
up the quickest half way so that the cooler radiators
catch up. This gives an approximate balance.
central heating systems
11 Now let the system stabilise for about an hour. that are discovered during
12 Using an infrared thermometer, record the first
set of temperatures on the chart. Don’t forget to
commissioning
Commissioning is the part of the installation where the
calculate the temperature difference. This should
system is filled and run for the first time. It is now that
be about 10 °C but, as this is only the first set of
we see if it works as designed. Occasionally problems
figures it is unlikely to be so.
will be discovered when the system is fully up and
13 On the radiators with the smallest temperature
running, such as:
difference, close the lockshield valves a little,
● Systems that do not meet correct installation
recording how many turns were made. The radiators
requirements. This can take two forms:
with the highest temperature difference should be
● Systems that do not meet the design specification
left fully open.
– problems such as incorrect flow rates and
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temperatures are quite difficult to deal with. If free. Manufacturing defects on fittings and
the system has been calculated correctly and equipment and damage sometimes cause
the correct equipment has been specified and leaks. Leakage due to badly jointed fittings
installed to the manufacturer’s instructions, and poor installation practice are much more
then problems of this nature should not occur. common, especially on large systems where
However, if the pipe sizes are too small in any part literally thousands of joints have to be made
of the system, then flow rate and temperature until the system is complete. These can often
problems will develop almost immediately be avoided by taking care when jointing tubes
downstream of where the mistake has been made. and fittings, using recognised jointing materials
In this instance, the drawings should be checked and compounds and using manufacturers’
and confirmation with the design engineer that recommended jointing techniques.
the pipe sizes that have been used are correct ● Poor balancing techniques – as we have seen, the
before any action is taken. It may also be the case correct balancing of a system is vital if the system
that too many fittings or incorrect valves have is to achieve the correct room temperatures in the
been used causing pipework restrictions. dwelling. Incorrect balancing often means that a
Another cause of flow rate and temperature well designed and installed system is incapable
deficiency is the incorrect set-up of equipment of achieving its true efficiency potential. A poorly
and balancing processes. In this instance, the balanced system will often lead to:
manufacturer’s data should be consulted and ● insufficient room temperatures
set-up procedures followed in the installation ● increased running costs
instructions. ● increased CO2 emissions
● Poor installation techniques – installation is ● differing flow and return differentials.
the point where the design is transferred from ● Defective components and equipment – defective
the drawing to the building. Poor installation components cause frustration and cost valuable
techniques can cause: installation time. If a component or piece of
● Noise – incorrectly clipped pipework can equipment is found to be defective, do not attempt
often be a source of nuisance within systems a repair as this may invalidate any manufacturer’s
running at high pressures because of the warranty. The manufacturer should first be
noise that it can generate. Incorrect clipping contacted as they may wish to send a representative
distances and, often, lack of clips and supports to inspect the component prior to replacement. The
can put strain on the fittings and cause the supplier should also be contacted to inform them of
pipework to reverberate throughout the the faulty component. In some instances where it is
installation, even causing fitting failure and proven that the component is defective and was not
leakage. To prevent these occurrences, the a result of poor installation, the manufacturer may
installation should be checked as it progresses reimburse the installation company for the time
and any deficiencies brought to the attention taken to replace the component.
of the installing engineer. Upon completion,
the system should be visually checked before Commissioning records for
flushing and commissioning begins.
● Leakage – water causes a huge amount of
central heating systems
damage to a building and can even compromise Commissioning records for large central heating
the building structure. Leakage from pipework systems should be kept for reference during
if left undetected causes damp, mould growth maintenance and repair and to ensure that the system
and an unhealthy atmosphere. It is, therefore, meets the design specification. Typical information that
important that leakage is detected and cured should be included on the record is as follows:
at a very early stage in the system’s life. ● the date, time and the name(s) of the commissioning
It is almost impossible to ensure that every engineer(s)
joint on every system installed is leak ● the location of the installation
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● the types and manufacturer of equipment and authority will notify if the work does not comply with
components installed the Building Regulations.
● the type of pressure test carried out and its duration
the type and quantities of any inhibitors and
●
INDUSTRY TIP
de-scalers administered
● the temperatures of the flow and return from the Notice should be given to building control not later than
boiler five days after work completion and until this is received no
● the balancing procedure and resulting temperature completion certificates can be issued.
differences of the heat emitters/radiators
● the expansion vessel pressure. Building Regulations Compliance
certificates
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH From 1 April 2005, the Building Regulations demanded
Clear and thorough completion of written records
that all installations must be issued with a Building
during initial installation will ensure the best course
of action can be followed later in the event of any Regulations Compliance certificate, issued by the local
repair work. Ask yourself – will this information be authority. This is to ensure that all Building Regulations
clear and legible for future engineers? relevant to the installation have been followed and
complied with.
KEY TERM Hand over to the customer
Legible: readable. or end user
When the system has been tested and commissioned,
Examples of commissioning reports can be found in it can then be handed over to the customer. The
Annexes A to H of British Standard BS EN 14336. The customer will require all documentation regarding
records should be kept in a file in a secure location. the installation and this should be presented to the
customer in a file, which should contain:
Notification of work carried out ● all manufacturers’ installation, operation and
At all stages of the installation from design to servicing manuals for the boilers, heat emitters and
commissioning, notification of the installation will need any other external controls, such as motorised zone
to be given so that the relevant authorities can check valves, pumps and temperature/timing controls
that the installation complies with the regulations and fitted to the installation
to ensure that the installation does not constitute a ● the commissioning records and certificates
danger to health. ● the Building Regulations Compliance certificate
● an ‘as fitted’ drawing showing the position of all
Notification must be given to the local building
isolation valves, drain-off valves and strainers, etc.
control office – under Building Regulations Approved
and all electrical controls.
Document L, central heating systems are notifiable
to the local authority building control office. Building The customer must be shown around the system and
Regulations approval can be sought from the local shown the operating principles of any controls, time
authority by submitting a building notice. Plans are clocks and thermostats. Emergency isolation points on
not required with this process so it’s quicker and less the system should be pointed out and a demonstration
detailed than the full plans application. It is designed to of the correct isolation procedure in the event of an
enable small building works to get under way quickly. emergency. Explain to the customer how the systems
Once a ‘building notice’ has been submitted and the work. Finally, point out the need for regular servicing of
local authority has been informed that work is about to the appliances and leave emergency contact numbers.
start, the work will be inspected as it progresses. The
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IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH Components of a gas central
During the handover, always ask your customer if heating boiler
they have any questions. Answer as thoroughly as
you can, using terms they will understand. Look for Here we will look at some of the components of
cues that they have understood your explanations. If central heating boilers. It is impossible to look at all
your customer appears confused, you can take them the components in this book, so some of the more
through the process again. common ones are covered:
● heat exchanger
● water-to-water heat exchanger
The Energy Related ● diverter valve
● gas valve (multi-functional control)
Products Directive and ● condense trap
central heating boilers ● air pressure switch.
The Energy Related Products Directive (ErP) sets new The position of these components is shown on the
efficiency levels for many energy related products. Its cutaway diagram of a combination boiler (Figure 3.57).
aim is to reduce carbon emissions from products that
consume energy. It came into effect on 26 September
Gas valve (hidden from
2015. The customer has no responsibility under ErP. Air pressure view under burner)
switch
ErP has two parts: Heat
● Ecodesign – this implemented new regulations for exchanger
manufacturers. Appliances such as boilers and heat
pumps have to meet directed energy efficiency
targets, and this resulted in manufacturers designing
more efficient boiler models to meet the new Diverter valve
criteria. Water-to-water
heat exchanger
● Energy labelling – all energy related products must
Condensate
display a label showing the appliance energy rating.
This is banded from A to G. High efficiency boilers
are banded as ‘A’.
Although the responsibility for the appliance
Figure 3.57 Combination boiler cutaway
banding lies with the manufacturer, the installer
may be required to provide more information by
assessing the overall efficiency of the entire system. Heat exchanger
The ratings for the installed heating system and Heat exchangers transfer the heat from the burner
the heating controls have to be combined with into the heat transfer medium. With boilers, the heat
the appliance efficiency to give an overall system transfer medium is water. Common materials include
efficiency. cast iron, stainless steel, aluminium and copper.
The heat exchanger is often located above the burner,
INDUSTRY TIP and the products of combustion pass through it to heat
the water, although with modern condensing boilers
For more information on the ErP Directive, visit: www.tuv- the heat exchanger is circular, with the burner passing
sud.co.uk/uk-en/activity/product-certification/european- through the middle. Here, a gas/air mixture is blown
approvals/ce-marking-gain-access-to-the-european- by a fan through the burner, where it is ignited, heating
market/erp-directive
the heat exchanger. Irrespective of the method, the
products of combustion are then directed into the flue
system.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
The cooler return water typically enters at the bottom ● a gas regulator – this regulates the gas to the
of the heat exchanger and the heated flow water exits correct pressure for the burner
from the top. ● a solenoid valve – this opens when the appliance
calls for heat
Water-to-water heat exchanger ● a gas inlet pressure test point
Often called plate heat exchangers, these are ● a gas burner pressure test point
constructed from a number of corrugated plates – the ● a pilot flame adjustment screw (if applicable).
more plates that are sandwiched together, the better There are many designs of multi-functional control, and
the heat transfer. The plates provide two separated most are based on two specific methods of operation:
circuits for water to flow through. One circuit is ● controls fitted to boilers that have a permanent
connected to the primary system and is heated by the pilot flame and incorporate a thermoelectric flame
water in the primary heat exchanger. The other circuit failure device (thermocouple)
is connected to the mains cold water supply. ● controls that utilise some form of electronic ignition
As the cold water flows through the heat exchanger, and flame-ionisation flame failure system.
it is warmed instantly by the heated plates from the
primary circuit, thereby providing instant hot water to
Condense trap
the taps. A condense trap, or condensate trap, is fitted to
condensing boilers to collect the condensate that
Diverter valve forms as a part of the boiler’s operation, and to allow
In a combination boiler, the diverter valve is an a path for the condensate to evacuate from the boiler
electrically operated valve that provides a means of to the outside of the building via a drain or soakaway.
changing the direction of the flow of heated water Condense traps are usually made from moulded plastic,
produced by the primary heat exchanger. and often incorporate a siphon to maintain some
water in the trap at all times. The body of the trap has
When the boiler is in heating mode, the diverter valve an inlet from the boiler heat exchanger/combustion
allows water to flow to the heating circuit. When a chamber and an outlet to the drain.
hot tap is opened, a flow switch activates the diverter
valve to alter the flow of water through the plate heat Air pressure switch
exchanger to warm the flowing water to the hot tap. The air pressure switch uses pressure differential
caused by the running of the flue fan to activate a
Gas valve (multi-functional control) small micro-switch. Inside the air pressure switch is a
The gas valve, or to give its correct name, the multi- small diaphragm that moves due to the movement of
functional control, is a valve that incorporates many air caused when the fan starts. When the diaphragm
components in one unit: moves, it operates the small micro-switch that
● a filter activates the ignition sequence on the boiler. The air
● a thermoelectric safety shut off valve – this shuts pressure switch is usually connected to the fan and the
down the boiler in the event of pilot failure (if flue by rubber tubing.
applicable)
6 DIAGNOSING AND RECTIFYING FAULTS IN
CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Central heating systems, if installed and commissioned developing. Faults occur because of wear and tear on
in accordance with the manufacturer’s data, should the system, but occasionally, faults develop many
last at least 30 years without any major problems years later because of poor installation, commissioning
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or poor servicing techniques. A simple omission, such and maximum settings to ensure that the boiler
as not administering inhibitor to the system at the shuts down satisfactorily.
commissioning stage, will, over time develop into a 5 Every radiator must be checked to ensure that it
major problem with black oxide sludge that could, achieves the correct temperature and that the
in severe cases, mean the system has to be de- temperature difference across the flow and return
commissioned, removed and re-installed. is within 10 °C ± 1 °C. Over time, as deposits
within the system form, openings of valves
In this part of the chapter, we will look at fault-finding
become narrower and this affects the balancing
procedures for central heating systems, the causes of
of the system. The system may need a complete
faults and, of course, their remedies.
re-balancing procedure depending on its age and
condition.
The periodic servicing 6 Linked to point 4, if the system balancing is out,
requirements of central check the condition of the water. Initiate a test
to ensure that the system has inhibitor in it by
heating systems using a test kit like the example below. If too much
Central heating systems, like other plumbing systems sediment is detected, the system may need a
in the home, require a certain amount of periodic complete power flush.
maintenance to ensure a continued and efficient 7 Check the operation of the room thermostat and
operation. Most servicing techniques centre around cylinder thermostat. Take a water temperature
the appliance and its correct operation. In reality, reading and, if possible an air temperature reading.
though, this is only part of the story. For a central 8 Check the system for signs of leakage. Repair any
heating system to be properly serviced, there are leaks that may be present on the system.
many points and NOT just the boiler that need to be 9 The customer should receive a boiler servicing
looked at: report on the checks carried out and their findings.
1 Talk to the customer and ask if there have been any The benchmark service log book should also be
problems with the system. completed by a suitably qualified gas safe registered
2 The boiler is the centre of the system. Without engineer.
it, none of the heat emitters will work. The boiler
must be thoroughly serviced in accordance with the
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
manufacturer’s instructions by a gas safe registered
Communicate with your customer in the first instance
engineer. The flue gases must be analysed for the – they will be your first source of information on any
correct CO2 content and the appliance case checked developing or persistent problems.
to ensure a correct seal.
3 The system must be run and the temperatures of
the flow and return at the boiler checked to ensure Obtaining details of system faults
that the temperatures and subsequent temperature from end users
difference across the flow and return are within
When identifying faults that have occurred on central
manufacturer’s data. This is crucial for condensing
heating systems, the customer can prove an invaluable
appliances as the boiler will not go into condensing
source of information as they can often describe
mode without the correct temperature difference.
when and how the fault first manifested itself and any
4 Linked with point 2, check the correct operation
characteristics that the fault has shown.
of the boiler thermostat to ensure it operates with
acceptable limits. It should be checked at minimum
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
it is advisable to use the model number of the equipment
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH and the parts number from the replacement parts list.
Verbal discussion with the customer often results in
This will ensure that the correct part is purchased.
a successful repair without the need for extensive
diagnostic tests. The customer should be asked: The associated British Standards may also be consulted
● The immediate history of the fault. as it contains important information regarding
● When did it first occur? minimum flow rates required by certain appliances.
● How did they notice it? Again, this should be used in conjunction with the
● What characteristics did it show? manufacturer’s instructions.
● Did they notice any unusual discharge of water
around the storage vessel or an increase or KEY POINT
decrease in flow rate or pressure? This may well Remember! Manufacturer’s instructions always
indicate the type of component failure that has take precedence over the British Standards and
taken place. Regulations.
● Did they attempt any repairs themselves? If so,
what did they do? This is important because if
repairs have been attempted, they may well have
to be undone to successfully diagnose the problem.
The routine checks and diagnostics
● What was the result of the fault? Again, an
performed on central heating
important aspect because it can often indicate system components as part of a
where the fault lies. For instance, if the customer fault-finding process
has noticed a drop in flow rate or pressure, this
might indicate a blockage, a blocked strainer or Routine checks on components and systems can
scale growth. help to identify any potential problems that may
be developing within the system as well as keeping
the system operating to its maximum performance
How to use manufacturer instructions and within the system design specification. Checks
and industry standards to establish performed can include:
● Checking components for correct temperatures
the diagnostic requirements of
– these are important checks, simply because they
central heating system components
can indicate whether a component has started to
When attempting to identify faults with central heating fail and will require replacement or whether the
systems, the most important document that can be system will require rebalancing. Those components
consulted is the manufacturer’s instructions. In most that are pressure and temperature related such as
cases, these will contain a section on fault finding that expansion vessels and thermostats are particularly
will prove an invaluable source of information. Fault- vulnerable and susceptible to failure.
finding using manufacturer’s instructions usually takes ● Rust spots on radiators – this is usually a sign that
three forms: the radiator has rusted through due to excessive
● known problems that can occur and the symptoms
system corrosion. Do not touch the rust spot as it
associated with them could start to leak. It should be pointed out to the
● methods by which to identify the problem in the
customer.
form of a flow chart. These usually follow a logical, ● Excessive system air in the radiators – in actual
step-by-step approach, especially if the equipment fact, it may not be air at all. It is probably hydrogen
has many parts that could malfunction, such as a that has collected in the top of the radiator due to
pressure reducing valve or an expansion vessel electrolytic corrosion. It usually occurs regularly in
● the techniques required for replacement of the
one or two radiators.
malfunctioning component. ● Cleaning system components (including
A replacement parts list will also be present for those dismantling and reassembly).
components that can be replaced. When ordering parts,
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● Checking for correct operation of system often display an incorrect pressure. They should
components: be replaced as necessary.
● Thermostats – can be checked using a ● Checking for correct operation of system safety
thermometer in the hot water flow once the valves:
thermostat has shut off and against the surface ● Pressure relief valves – can be checked by
of the radiator. This will indicate whether twisting the top and holding the valve open for
the thermostat is operating at the correct 30 seconds. Always ensure that the valve closes
temperature. completely and that the water stops without any
● Thermostatic radiator valves – should be drips.
checked to ensure that they have not stuck in ● Checking for blockages in heat emitters – if a
the closed position. TRVs that stick could indicate radiator only gets hot at the top and down each
either potential TRV failure or system debris side, it is probably blocked with black oxide sludge.
holding the valve closed. Black oxide sludge collects in low spots on the
● Motorised valves – should be activated to system, especially radiators and circulating pumps.
ensure that they are operating in line with the Being metallic in nature, the sludge is also attracted
system thermostats. to any electrical component that emits a magnetic
● Pumps – these should be checked using the field. Radiators can be removed and flushed out but
manufacturer’s commissioning procedures to this will only be a temporary solution. The problem
ascertain whether the pump is performing as the is system deep and requires further investigation.
data dictates. A slight fall in performance is to be It could even be the system design that is causing
expected with age. Check to ensure: the fault. One solution is to initiate a full system
● there no signs of damage or wear and tear on power flush using a sludge remover and then treat
the pump the system with inhibitor but the root cause of the
● there are no signs of leakage from the pump problem must be investigated if a total cure to the
● that there are no unusual noises or vibrations problem is to be found.
when the pump is operating.
● Timing devices – time clocks can be checked HEALTH AND SAFETY
to see if they activate at the correct time and Caution should be exercised when checking for
that any advance timings such as 1-hour boost system air, especially when bleeding the radiator as
buttons, work correctly. The time display should hydrogen is highly flammable!
be checked against the correct time of the check
and any alterations to the time made. Should any components require replacing, they should
● Expansion vessels – should be checked for
be replaced with like-for-like components or, if this is
the correct pressure using a portable Bourdon not possible, check with the manufacturers that the
pressure gauge. The type used to check tyre part is approved for use with the system.
pressures is ideal for this. Any signs of water
leakage should be investigated. Always refer to Methods of repairing faults in central
the manufacturer’s instructions for the correct heating system components
charge and pre-charge pressures.
Repairing system components should be undertaken
● Feed and expansion cisterns – check that the
using the manufacturer’s servicing and maintenance
float operated valve has not stuck in the off
instructions, as these will contain the order in
position and that the vent pipe terminates above
which the component should be dismantled and
the water line. Check that the feed pipe is clear
re-assembled. As with all components, there will be
of any debris.
occasions when it cannot be repaired and replacement
● Gauges and controls – gauges are notorious for
is the only option. Some of the components that may
requiring replacement or re-calibration as they
be repaired and/or replaced are listed in Table 3.26.
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Table 3.26 Central heating components
Component Known faults Symptom Repair
Filling and Blocked cold feed pipe to System not filling after drain down The affected section of pipe or the
venting – open the system or blocked air due to a blockage of sediment air separator must be removed and
vent systems separator replaced.
System discharging water Water level in the F and E cistern Lower the water level and reset the
from the feed and expansion too high and will not accommodate float operated valve to shut off at a
cistern overflow when the the expansion of water lower level.
system is heating up
Air locks in the system Usually occur at high spots on the Fit air release valves at all high spots
installation pipework in the pipework.
Often occurs with older systems The feed and vent pipes must be
where the feed and vent pipes are separated or the problem will re-occur
combined every time the system is drained down.
Water pumping over the Often occurs when the pump, vent Check that the pump, vent and cold
feed and expansion cistern and feed are arranged incorrectly feed pipes are arranged – vent/cold
feed/pump (VCP) working away from
the boiler.
Filling and venting Service valve to the filling Service valve worn Replace service valve.
– sealed systems loop passing water
Rising pressure causing Service valve open slightly or worn Check the service valve, replace as
the pressure relief valve to (see fault above) necessary and remove the filling loop.
discharge water
Pin hole in the hot water plate heat Replace the plate heat exchanger.
exchanger causing the cold water
to pass through to the heating
system (combination boilers only)
Radiators will not vent No pressure Top up the pressure at the filling loop
and retry venting procedure.
Pumps Worn/broken impeller Motor working but water not being No repair possible. Replace the pump.
pumped
Burnt out motor Voltage detected at the pump No repair possible. Replace the pump.
terminals but pump not working
Cracked casing Water leaking from the pump body No repair possible. Replace the pump.
Faulty capacitor Slow starting pump Replace the capacitor if possible.
Check manufacturer’s instructions.
Expansion vessels Pressure loss due to faulty No pressure in the expansion Pump air into the expansion vessel
Schrader valve vessel. Water discharging from the using a foot pump and check the
pressure relief valve during water Schrader valve with leak detector fluid.
heat up Check for bubbles. Replace Schrader
valve as necessary.
Ruptured bladder/ Water discharging from the It is possible to replace the bladder/
diaphragm Schrader valve. Water discharging diaphragm of some accumulators.
from the pressure relief valve on Check the manufacturer’s instructions.
water heat-up
Expansion Water dripping Usually an indication that the Check and recharge the expansion
(pressure) relief intermittently when the expansion vessel has lost its vessel or internal air bubble.
valve water is being heated air charge or internal expansion
bubble has disappeared
Motorised valves Motorised valve not Faulty actuator or faulty motor 1 Replace valve actuator head.
activating when 2 Replace valve motor.
thermostats calling for heat
➜
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Table 3.26 Central heating components (continued)
Component Known faults Symptom Repair
Valve not shutting off As most motorised valves close Check the operation of the valve with
when de-energised, the problem is the manual lever:
most likely to be a seized valve or 1 If the valve moves freely, then the
broken valve spring valve spring is broken, so replace
the valve head.
2 If the valve will not move, the valve
is seized and must be replaced.
Valve leaking from below Valve spindle seal has worn Replace the valve.
the actuator head
Cylinder Hot water too hot System thermostat is not operating Check the temperature of the hot
thermostats at the correct temperature water with a thermometer against the
setting on the thermostat. Replace the
thermostat as necessary.
No hot water System thermostat not operating Check the thermostat with a GS38
electrical voltage indicator for correct
on/off functions. Replace as necessary.
Room thermostats Thermostat not activating Dirt/dust on the sensors Follow safe isolation procedure and
– hard wired the heating – radiators cold clean the dust from the thermostat.
Room thermostat not working. Check the thermostat with a GS38
Faulty thermostat electrical voltage indicator for correct
on/off functions. Replace as necessary.
Room thermostats Thermostat not activating Loss of radio connection between 1 Follow manufacturer’s instruction to
– wireless the heating – radiators cold the thermostat and the boiler re-establish the signal.
2 Check and replace thermostat
batteries.
Room thermostat not operating Replace thermostat.
correctly
Room thermostat Thermostat not activating Loss of internet connection Check internet connection – contact
– Wi-Fi the heating – radiators cold internet provider.
High limit No hot water Usually an indication that the system Check the main system thermostat and
thermostat thermostat has malfunctioned reset the high limit thermostat.
and the high limit thermostat has
activated to isolate the heat source
Pressure Sticking pressure indicator Gauge not reading the correct No repair possible. Replace the gauge.
(Bourdon) gauges needle pressure and does not move when
the pressure is raised or lowered
Weather As these controls often contain multiple sensors, it is recommended that the manufacturer’s installation
compensation, instructions are referred to whenever possible. Alternatively, contact the manufacturer’s technical help
delayed and support line.
optimum start
controls
Radiator/heat Radiator/emitter is blocked Emitter heating at the top and 1 Remove radiator and flush through
emitter with black oxide sludge sides only. Middle of the emitter with clean water.
is cold 2 Undertake a full, chemical system
power flush to remove the system
sludge build-up.
Thermostatic Stuck valve Radiator not getting hot ● May be possible to release the valve
radiator valve by gently working the pin at the top of
(TRV) the valve underneath the temperature
sensor head up and down.
● Replace the TRV.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Safe isolation of central heating
systems or components during VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
maintenance and repair Do not forget to keep the householder/responsible
Repair and maintenance tasks on central heating person informed of the areas that are going to be
systems, appliances and valves are essential to isolated during maintenance tasks and operations.
ensure the continuing correct operation of the
system. The term used when isolating a water
supply during maintenance operations is ‘temporary Procedures for carrying out
decommissioning’. There are basically two types: diagnostic tests to locate faults in
● planned preventative maintenance
central heating system components
● unplanned/emergency maintenance.
With central heating components, there are simple
When a maintenance task involves isolating the diagnostic tests that can be performed to identify
central heating system, a notice should be placed exactly what the fault is. Here, we will look at the basic
at the point of isolation stating ‘system off – do not tests that can be performed on some of the common
turn on’ to prevent accidental turn on of the system. components and controls:
Where key components such as the expansion vessel, ● replacement of circulating pumps
pressure relief, motorised valves and thermostats are ● sealed heating system components
found to be faulty, then the system should be isolated ● control components.
and temporarily decommissioned until replacement
parts are obtained and fitted. If a component requires Replacement of circulating pumps
removal and replacing, it is always a good idea to cap The first time that the customer notices that the pump
off any open ends until the new component is installed. isn’t working is when the radiators fail to get hot or
When removing radiators fitted with thermostatic the boiler makes unusual noises. In most cases, the
radiator valves, the TRV should be shut off using the boiler will shut down on the high-limit energy cut out
proprietary cap that came with the valve. because the hot water is not being circulated away.
Where the equipment also uses an electrical supply, If pump failure is suspected:
safe isolation of the electricity supply is vital and 1 Check that the rest of the system is operating (such
the safe isolation procedure should be followed and as the room and cylinder thermostats operate the
the fuse/supply locked off for safety (see Chapter 5, motorised valves, etc.).
Electrical principles). 2 Turn off the switched fuse spur.
A record of all repairs and maintenance tasks completed 3 Remove the centre pump bleed screw. This will
will need to be recorded on the maintenance schedule expose the pump impeller shaft. Check that it
at the time of completion, including their location, rotates freely with a small screw driver.
the date when they were carried out and the type of a If it does, the pump is not seized up. Now go to
tests performed. This will ensure that a record of past step 4.
problems is kept for future reference. b If it does not, then free the shaft by rotating it
several times and try the system again. In most
Where appliance servicing is carried out, the
cases the pump will now operate satisfactorily.
manufacturer’s installation and servicing instructions
4 With the electricity on, check that there is
should be consulted. Any replacement parts may be
electricity at the pump live and neutral terminals
obtained from the manufacturers.
with a suitable test lamp or GS38 proving unit.
5 If 230 V is detected, it can be assumed that the
pump is faulty and will need to be replaced.
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8 Install the new pump, ensuring that the direction of
KEY POINT flow is correct. If possible, install the pump with a
DO NOT use a multimeter to check for voltage.
slight upwards angle towards the bleed screw as this
EXERCISE CAUTION AS THE SYSTEM WILL BE
LIVE! helps with venting the air and prevents excessive
wear on the pump bearings. Do not forget the
rubber pump washers between the pump and the
Replacing the circulating pump valves. Do not use any jointing compound unless
1 Ensure that the new pump will fit. Some older this is necessary.
pumps were larger and a pump extension might 9 Reconnect the live, neutral and earth wires to
need to be used. the new pump. Ensure that this is done correctly.
2 Isolate the heating system from the electricity Replace the terminal box cover on the pump.
supply using the safe isolating procedure as detailed 10 Turn on the pump valves and bleed the pump of air.
in Chapter 5. Check for leaks.
3 Remove the electrical cover and disconnect the live, 11 Re-instate the electricity supply and test.
neutral and earth wires.
Sealed heating system components
4 Isolate the pump using the gate valves either side.
5 Placing a bowl under the pump to catch water, break Sealed heating system components occasionally
open the pump unions. If the pump has been in for malfunction. Fortunately, these are very easy to
some years, this may prove difficult. If the unions diagnose. Sealed heating system components are:
● the expansion vessel
will not move, try tapping them all the way around
● the filling loop
with a small hammer to loosen them.
● the expansion relief valve
6 Carefully remove the pump, taking note of the
● the pressure gauge.
direction of flow.
7 Clean the pump valves where the washer sits to
ensure a good water tight joint when the new pump
is installed.
The expansion vessel
Table 3.27 Expansion vessel fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
No air charge in the Faulty Schrader valve Recharge the vessel with air and check the Schrader valve with
expansion vessel leak detection fluid. If the valve is leaking, then replace the
expansion vessel.
Water detected at the Expansion vessel full of water Replace the membrane if possible (check the manufacturer’s
Schrader valve due to a ruptured membrane/ instructions). If not replace the expansion vessel with one of
diaphragm in the expansion vessel similar capacity.
If a faulty expansion vessel is diagnosed, the system should be isolated and temporarily decommissioned until a replacement vessel is obtained
and fitted.
The filling loop constitutes a cross connection between a fluid category
Filling loops must be disconnected from the system in 1 fluid and a fluid category 3 and, as such, is a breach of
line with the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. the Water Regulations. After any fault-finding process,
However, some installers choose to ignore this fact and the filling loop MUST be disconnected.
the filling loop is left connected to the system. This
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Table 3.28 Filling loop fault finding (this assumes that the filling loop has been left connected)
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
System pressure rising Faulty service valve Replace the service valve and disconnect the filling loop.
constantly
Water detected when See above. Check the double See above.
the filling loop is check valve as this may be passing Replace double check valve and leave the filling loop
removed water under back pressure disconnected after refilling.
Expansion (pressure) relief valve
Table 3.29 Expansion relief valve fault finding
Fault Probable cause Recommended solution
Water discharges from Intermittently ● Recharge the air bubble by draining down, or;
the pressure relief valve Expansion vessel has lost its air charge ● check and recharge expansion vessel as necessary.
See expansion vessel fault finding chart.
Continually Replace pressure relief valve as required.
1 Pressure relief valve has dirt under
the valve seat
2 Pressure relief valve seating damaged
Pressure gauge a terminal 1 does not become live when calling for
If a fault with the pressure gauge is suspected, simply hot water, or
tap the front of the gauge to see if the needle moves. If b terminal 2 does not become live when satisfied
the gauge continues to give a false reading, replace the (terminal C must be live in both cases).
pressure gauge.
Room thermostat
Control components 1 Make sure the terminals have been wired correctly:
a Disconnect terminal 3 while the checks are
Control components include motorised valves,
taking place. This will prevent false readings due
thermostats and time clocks. These are best diagnosed
to backfeed.
through the system type. In other words, the type of
b Remove wire from terminal 3.
system may dictate the diagnostics that are performed.
c Make sure terminal 1 is live.
d Turn the room thermostat to call for heat, if
KEY POINT
live is not detected on terminal 3 then the
Remember the fault-finding rule with controls – first,
thermostat is faulty.
check that you have wired the system correctly!
Only start suspecting component faults when you Mid-position valve – Y-plan system
are sure that the system is correctly wired.
The valve is faulty if the valve does not operate as
described in the following checks. The checks should be
Cylinder thermostat
made in the correct order, from 1 to 6.
1 Make sure that the terminals have been wired
correctly: Valve is open for heating only:
a Terminal C (common) is the left-hand terminal. 1 a Switch off the electricity supply.
b Terminal 1 is the middle terminal. b Disconnect grey and white wires from
c Terminal 2 is the right-hand terminal. appropriate junction box terminals.
2 Disconnect terminals 1 and 2 while the checks are c Reconnect both grey and white wires to
taking place; this will prevent false readings due to permanent live terminal in junction box.
backfeed. The cylinder thermostat is faulty if: 2 a Switch on the electricity supply. The valve should
move to the fully open heating position at port A.
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b The motor should stop automatically when 2-port motorised zone valve – S-plan and
port A is open. The valve should remain in this S-plan plus
position as long as electricity is applied to white Zone valves on S-plan systems are faulty:
and grey wires. ● if the motor fails to operate when live is applied
c With port A fully open, the orange wire to the brown wire and neutral to the blue wire
becomes live to start pump and boiler. This can (motor can be viewed with valve cover removed)
be checked by feeling port A heating outlet is – the motor should stop automatically when the
getting progressively hotter. valve is fully open and will stay in this condition as
Valve is open for domestic hot water only: long as live is applied to the brown wire; the valve
3 a Switch off the electricity supply. automatically closes under the spring return when
b The valve should now automatically return to live is removed from the brown wire
open the domestic hot water port B. ● the orange wire only becomes live after the valve
c Heating port A should close. has fully opened (make sure the grey wire is live)
4 a Isolate grey and white wires and tape over them ● if the boiler continues to run when the cylinder
to make them safe. thermostat and/or room thermostat is satisfied and/
b Remove cylinder stat wire from terminal 6 in the or the clock is in off position.
wiring centre box and connect to permanent live
2-port motorised zone valve – C-plan
terminal.
c Switch on the fused spur. Zone valves on C-plan systems are faulty:
d Cylinder thermostat must be set to call for heat, ● if the motor fails to operate when live is applied to
pump and boiler should start. the brown wire and neutral to the blue wire (motor
can be viewed with valve cover removed) – the
Valve is open for both domestic hot water and motor should stop automatically when the valve is
heating: fully open and stay in this condition as long as live
5 a Switch off the electricity supply. is applied to the brown wire; the valve automatically
b Replace the cylinder thermostat wire to terminal 6. closes under the spring return when live is removed
c Isolate and make safe the grey wire by taping from the brown wire
it over and connect the white wire to the ● the orange wire only becomes live after the valve
permanent live. has fully opened (make sure the grey wire is live)
d Switch on the electricity supply. The motor ● if the boiler and pump continue to run when the
should now move to the mid-position and stop cylinder and room thermostats are satisfied and the
automatically. clock is in off position.
e Cylinder thermostat must be set to call for heat.
f Both ports A and B are should now be open for Check 1:
hot water and heating and the boiler and the ● Isolate the electricity supply.
pump should start. This can be checked by feeling ● Disconnect the brown wire to the valve and
port A heating outlet and B hot water outlet to terminate safely by taping it over.
see if they are getting progressively hotter. ● Disconnect the white wire and reconnect it to the
6 a Switch off the electricity supply. permanent live terminal at the wiring centre.
b Reconnect white and grey wires to their junction ● Disconnect pump live connection at the wiring
box terminals. centre and re-connect it to the permanent live
c If check 5 completes satisfactorily then the terminal.
problem is not the mid-position valve. The fault ● Switch on the electricity supply. Valve should
is elsewhere in the circuit. remain in the closed position. The orange wire
should become live and the boiler should fire.
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
Check 2: Alternative methods of wiring
● Isolate the electricity supply.
arrangements
● Restore the white wire and pump live connections
The easiest method of wiring a domestic central
to their original positions at the wiring centre.
heating system is using a plug-and-play-type system.
● Connect the brown wire to the permanent live
Controls are simply connected to the system using a
terminal at the wiring centre.
special low-voltage plug and socket system. Controls
● Ensure that the grey wire is connected to the
such as the room thermostat and motorised valve
permanent live.
are plugged into a base unit which is mounted in a
● Switch on the electricity supply. The valve should
convenient location close to them.
now open. When fully open, the orange wire should
become live to fire boiler. Or alternative wireless components are becoming more
● Isolate the electricity supply. popular and have advantages over wired controls when
● Restore the brown wire to its original terminal on it comes to positioning.
the wiring centre.
If these checks complete satisfactorily, the problem is
not on valve but elsewhere in circuit. It should be noted
SUMMARY
that a 28 mm or 1-inch BSP motorised valve is required We have seen that central heating systems are often
for the C-plan system. very complex in nature and require much planning both
in their design, calculation and installation. We have
The programmer
investigated the new technology that is emerging and
The programmer should only be suspected as faulty: the problems that arise when things go wrong either
● after a check that any links required are in place through a fault developing or through poor installation
● after a check that the programmer has power to the techniques.
correct terminals
● after a check that the programmer timing is set up
The way we live our lives means that a modern,
correctly efficient and economical central heating system is
● if a 230 V reading does not appear at heating ON
now considered a ‘must have’ for any modern home.
terminal when heating only is selected either on We, as installers, need to keep our skills up to date so
continuous or timed that we are best able to cope with the changes that
● if 230 V reading does not appear at hot water ON
are happening within the industry. We need to be
terminal when hot water only is selected either on able to respond to the new methods of installation, to
continuous or timed innovative ideas and, more importantly, to the wishes
● if 230 V reading does not appear on hot water OFF
of the customer.
terminal with hot water off on programmer.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Test your knowledge
1 A house which has a floor area of 162 m2 3 What is the most suitable backflow prevention
should comply with which of the following device to be installed to the filling loop between
control principles: the heating circuit and the mains cold water in
a Controlled under one zone with one a domestic situation?
timeclock or programmer a Single check valve
b Split into two zones and controlled with one b AUK air gap
timeclock or programmer c Double check valve
c Controlled by one zone valve providing all d RPZ valve
radiators are fitted with thermostatic control
4 When designing a central heating system for
d Split into two zones, each zone having a new dwelling, which of the following British
independent time control standards would be most relevant for reference?
2 Identify the component in the image below: a BS 1710
b BS EN 806
c BS EN 14336
d BS 7670
5 The term ‘U-value’ has a unit of measure taken
as:
a W/m2 K
b KW/m3
c J/sec
d J/m3 sec
a Underfloor heating manifold
b Low loss header
c ‘H’ Frame
d Magnetic filter system
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
6 The image below shows a wiring diagram for a
heating system. What type of heating system
layout does it represent?
CH HW
2-port 2-port
zone valve zone valve
Fused spur
L N E
C/S
R/S
NOTE: Changes to cylinder stat
connections and addition of
HW OFF from timer
LINK
Boiler
CH R/S HW HW L N E sL
L N E C/S 9 10
ON ON ON OFF
Weather compensation
sL N
L N CH ON Outside sensor
HW ON
Time clock
HW OFF 'HW OFF' wiring centre
a C-plan 8 Identify the pattern of the underfloor heating
b S-plan pipework in the image below.
c W-plan
d Y-plan
7 Select the correct formula to determine the
required flow rate (Q) in kg/s through heating
pipes from the options below:
a kW/∆p × 9.81
b kW × SHC/∆p
c SHC/3600 × ∆t
d kW/SHC × ∆t
a Snail c Linear
b Bifilar d Series
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9 What is the most efficient method of connecting 15 What standard outlines the commissioning
radiators to pipework? procedure for a central heating system?
a BOE a BS EN 806
b TBOE b BS EN 14336
c BBOE c BS EN 12828
d TBSE d BS EN 442
10 Where is the best place for an automatic bypass 16 Which of the following is NOT an advantage of
valve to be installed? underfloor heating?
a On the flow pipe immediately above the a Pipework is hidden
boiler b The system is efficient
b On the primary return after the circulator c Low maintenance
c Between the flow and return pipes near to d Suitable for existing properties
the hot water cylinder
17 Which of the following is NOT an advanced
d Between the flow and return pipes of the control installed with a central heating system?
index radiator
a Weather compensation
11 Where does the water system water flow to on
b Automatic by-pass
the ‘B’ connection of a three-port mid-position
c Delayed start
valve?
d Optimum start
a The boiler
18 How does a three-port divertor valve work?
b The hot water cylinder
a Central heating priority
c The radiators
b Timed priority
d Both the heating and hot water circuits
c Hot water priority
12 Which central heating system incorporates two
two-port valves to control the system water? d Equal system pressure
a S-plan system 19 What is the principal way in which a radiator
heats up a home?
b Y-plan system
a Convection
c C-plan system
b Radiation
d W-plan system
c Infrared
13 On a central heating system with a conventional
boiler, what is the recommended temperature d Conduction
difference between the flow and return 20 You are called to a customer’s property, where
pipework? a radiator fitted with a TRV is not getting hot.
a 25 °C What could be the problem?
b 20 °C a The circulator has failed
c 15 °C b The boiler has not fired
d 10 °C c The regulating pin in the head is stuck
14 What type of central heating system is filled d There is blockage in the return pipe
using a filling loop?
a Y-plan plus system
b W-plan system
c Sealed system
d Open vented system
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Chapter 3 Central heating systems, planning and design
21 What would be the primary symptom if a 26 Using the formula below, calculate the size
circulator were positioned immediately prior to of an expansion vessel required for a large
the open vent pipe? domestic central heating system containing
a Pumping over 200 litres of water.
b Over heating V= eC
c Restricted heating 1 - P1
P2
d Positive pressure
Where:
22 What is required to be installed either side of a
circulator? V = the total volume of the expansion vessel
a Air release valve C = 200 l
b Isolators P1 = 1.5 + 1
c Zone valves
P2 = 6 + 1
d Lockshield valves
e = 0.0324
23 When replacing a synchron motor, what should
be your first course of action? 27 Calculate the air change heat loss of a dining
room measuring 4 m × 4 m × 3 m, when the
a Release the motor housing and pull the tab
outside temperature is −5 °C and the internal
connectors off
temperature is 20 °C.
b Isolate the electrics and check the supply is
28 What function does a weather compensator
dead
provide?
c Disconnect the wires, noting the connections
29 Where would a low loss header typically be
d Isolate the water for the boiler used?
24 To install an oil fired boiler, the competent 30 What is the basic difference between an S-plan
person is required to be registered with which system and an S-plan plus system?
organisation?
31 Describe the function of a low loss header in a
a OFTEC central heating system.
b NICEIC 32 List the advantages of an underfloor heating
c HETAS system compared to a conventional central
d Gas Safe heating system.
25 Which statement best describes a programmer? 33 Describe why air changes are a factor when
a A switched timer that controls the boiler selecting and designing a heating system.
b A controller that is designed to directly 34 Complete the following table for the faults and
activate the pump and boiler repairs that may occur on a central heating
circulating pump.
c A switched timer that independently controls
the hot water and heating systems Fault Symptom Repair
d A timer that activates the zone valves Broken impellor
Burnt out motor
Cracked case
Faulty capacitor
Answers can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
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CHAPTER 4
ADVANCED SANITATION AND RAINWATER SYSTEMS
Plumbers all over the country will be working on By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge
sanitation and rainwater systems which need to be and understanding of the following areas of
installed correctly, work efficiently and remove waste advanced sanitation and rainwater systems:
hygienically. This means a good understanding is l the legislation relating to the installation
required about the fundamental design and workings and maintenance of sanitation and rainwater
of these systems so that an informed discussion systems
can take place with the customer over the choice of l system layouts of sanitation systems
materials, components and layouts. It will also mean l design techniques for sanitation and rainwater
that the customer’s and installer’s health and safety systems
will be paramount whilst working on the system at l commissioning sanitation systems and
height or underground; whilst using some heavy components
materials and due to the nature of the foul water. l servicing and maintenance of sanitation and
rainwater systems
A well-designed, installed and maintained system
l diagnosing and rectifying faults in sanitary
will result in a satisfied customer who will be much
systems and components.
more likely to offer repeat trade.
You can revisit Book 1 to remind yourself of the In Book 1, Chapter 9, we covered:
basics of sanitation and rainwater systems. In Book 1, l sanitary pipework and appliances used in
Chapter 8, we covered: dwellings
l understanding layouts of gravity rainwater systems l installing sanitary appliances and connecting
l installing gravity rainwater systems pipework systems
l understanding maintenance and service l service and maintenance requirements for
requirements of gravity rainwater systems sanitary appliances and connecting pipework
l decommissioning rainwater and gutter systems systems
and components l the principles of grey water recycling.
l performing a soundness test and commission
rainwater, gutter systems and components.
1 THE LEGISLATION RELATING TO THE
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF
SANITATION AND RAINWATER SYSTEMS
Knowing and understanding the correct sources of makes sure the installation is within the law. Building
information is paramount to any work you undertake. Regulations are governed by law which means they are
Following the relevant legislation will not only lead to mandatory and must be followed. British Standards
good design and proper installation of a system, but it and Codes of Practice outline Building Regulations in
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
slightly more practical terms, and if you follow British
Standards fully, then you will have covered everything
required in Building Regulations.
Drainage design to the
European code BS EN 12056
The correct sizing of discharge pipework is essential to
maintain the equilibrium of the traps within a system,
which will prevent the ingress of foul smells through
the loss of trap seals.
KEY TERM
Equilibrium: when referring to drainage systems p Figure 4.1 Plumber talking with customer
this relates to keeping the air pressure even within
the system, so that any negative pressure or
pressure fluctuation does not cause any trap seal
loss and therefore the ingress of foul air in to the
property.
When designing any drainage system, it is important
to discuss the customer’s needs trying to incorporate
them in to the design. The building layout may also p Figure 4.2 An example of poor practice of pipework installation
pose problems with any proposal, but most of these
can be overcome with careful planning and design
which would incorporate all current standards and Presenting design
regulations. Regular and good communication with calculations and quotations
the customer is important outlining any options and
variations to the original design at the outset of any
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
work, as changes later in the installation could be costly
When a Level 3 plumber is qualified, they may take
and could lead to disputes. more of an active role in discussing the pricing for
jobs in more detail.
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
Regular and good communication with the customer Along with the written quotation, there may be a
is important, outlining any options and variations request for some working drawings which would take
to the original design at the outset of any work, as the form of well-drawn, but not to scale drawings. If
changes later in the installation could be costly and
could lead to disputes.
scaled drawings were required, these may have to be
drawn professionally.
A full survey of the proposed job is essential to
understand what type of system would be most INDUSTRY TIP
suitable. A visual inspection of an existing installation
may show up concerns or areas where the system does The name, address and contact details of your company
should be clearly stated on any quotation, so often company
not comply with current standards. There could also be
headed paper is used which gives a professional appearance.
problems with previous workmanship, such as incorrect
If the company belongs to any professional bodies like the
gradients causing backflow or trap seal loss; excessive Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering,
pipe runs; insufficient clipping also causing problems for then the logo of the body would also be included.
the installation.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
INDUSTRY TIP
You can access the data of approved Building Regulations
at: www.gov.uk/government/collections/approved-documents
The Building Regulations Approved
Document F
p Figure 4.3 Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating This gives information on ventilation requirements for
Engineering logo dwellings and states that a bathroom should have an
The customer’s name and address should also be intermittent rate of extraction of 15 l/s. It also gives
clearly shown on the quotation as well. The make advice on the ventilation requirements for other rooms.
and model of appliances and fittings should be clearly
identified on the quotation. The start and end dates for
The Building Regulations Approved
a quoted job could be outlined along with any possible Document G
disruption to the customer like existing appliances or This covers the hygiene for sanitary conveniences
rooms that may be out of service for a period of time. and washing facilities. It also includes bathrooms
and section 3 (G3) deals with hot water.
It is advisable for a plumber to be part of a certification
scheme when installing a new system or when
BS EN 12056
extending an existing system. If they are not a member
then the local authority will need to be informed prior This offers guidance and advice when installing any
to the commencement of work. sanitary system and is broken into five parts:
l Part 1 General information and performance
requirements
KEY POINT
l Part 2 Sanitary pipework including layout calculations
You should have read Book 1, Chapter 9, which
l Part 3 Roof drainage and layout calculations
covers all the basic information for drainage.
l Part 4 Waste water lifting plant
l Part 5 Installation and testing, instructions for
Regulations and Standards operation maintenance and use.
Before we go too deeply into the sanitation and
rainwater systems it would be useful to outline the
regulations associated with these areas as a reminder.
More detail can be found in Book 1, Chapter 9.
The Building Regulations Approved
Document H
Each Building Regulation starts with a different letter
and sometimes with an additional number, such as
Building Regulations Approved Document H, which
deals with the following:
l H1 Foul water drainage
l H2 Waste water treatment systems
l H3 Rainwater drainage
l H4 Building over sewers
l H5 Separate systems of drainage p Figure 4.4 Bathroom suite
l H6 Solid waste storage.
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
2 SYSTEM LAYOUTS OF System IV – separate discharge stack
system
SANITATION SYSTEMS This is the ventilated discharge branch stack (Figure 4.7).
Drainage systems type I, II, III may also be divided into
KEY POINT black water stack serving WCs and urinals and then a
Return to Book 1, Chapter 8 to remind yourself grey water stack serving other appliances.
of the layout of rainwater systems.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
British Standards are one of the most useful sources of Always wear the correct PPE when working on foul
information when designing and installing a sanitation water systems to protect yourself from infections
and diseases, such as Weil’s disease.
system. The standard allows you to look at various
designs used in different situations outlining their
individual design criteria.
Ventilation of sanitary
The different types of systems
As outlined in Book 1 and earlier in this chapter,
systems (BS EN 12056 for any sanitation system to work efficiently the
Part 2) equilibrium of the trap seals MUST be maintained
Book 1, Chapter 9 has already gone into some detail to prevent trap seal loss due to negative pressure
about the four main types of soil stack systems used or pressure fluctuations. Equilibrium of pressure is
in the UK. created by good design, correct commissioning and
regular maintenance.
System I – single stack system with When selecting the above ground drainage system, you
partly filled branch discharge pipes must consider:
This is the primary ventilated stack (Figure 4.5). This l size of the property
means the sanitary appliances are connected to partly l number of outlets
filled branch discharge pipes which are designed with a l lengths of waste run
filling degree of 0.5 (50 per cent) and are connected to l occupancy.
a single discharge stack. This information should be used in line with
BS EN 12056.
System II – single stack system with
There are four types of sanitation systems used in
small bore branch discharge pipes
the UK:
This is the secondary ventilated stack (Figure 4.6).
l primary ventilated stack system
When sanitary appliances are connected to small
l secondary ventilated stack system
discharge pipes, the small bore discharge pipes are
l ventilated branch discharge system
designed with a filling degree of 0.7 (70 per cent) and
l stub stack.
are then connected to a single discharge stack.
All these systems have been outlined in detail in Book 1.
System III – single stack system with
KEY POINT
full bore branch discharge pipes On a primary ventilated stack system, the soil pipe
When sanitary appliances are connected to full bore acts as the ventilation pipe, hence the name soil
discharge pipes, the full bore branch discharge pipes are and vent pipe – SVP.
designed with a filling degree of 1.0 (100 per cent) and
each branch pipe is separately connected to a single
discharge stack. (This is based on UK practice.)
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On primary ventilated stack system the
soil pipe also acts as the ventilation pipe SVP 75 –100 mm dia
hence the name soil and vent pipe (SVP).
32 mm dia 40 mm dia
WB
Bath 40 mm dia WC
Bidet
Shower
50 mm parallel
junction to avoid
cross flow
40 mm dia 40 mm dia
32 mm dia
Sink
WB WC
Washing m/c 75 –100 mm dia
Large radius
or dishwasher 450 mm min.
bend
p Figure 4.5 Primary ventilated stack system
On this system only the main
discharge stack is ventilated which
acts as a safeguard against positive
and negative air pressure
fluctuations which can affect the Secondary ventilating stack
integrity of a water trap.
Rodding eye
Branch discharge pipe
Main discharge stack
To sewer
p Figure 4.6 Secondary ventilated stack system
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Water trap seals are protected from
induced or self siphonage because a
branch ventilating pipe is located not
more than 750 mm from any appliance.
Main ventilating stack
Branch ventilating pipe
Rodding eye
Branch discharge pipe
Branch ventilating pipe
Main discharge stack
To sewer
p Figure 4.7 Ventilated branch discharge system
Ventilation is required if the highest connection of an
appliance from the invert from the drain exceeds 2 metres or Primary ventilated stack system
if the distance between the crown of the WC connection and
the drain inverts exceeds 1.3 metres. The design of this system relies on the soil pipe acting
Access cover or air as the ventilation pipe and so there are no separate
110 mm stub stack admittance valve ventilation pipes. This can only be achieved by
following the guidelines laid down in BS EN 12056:
l All sanitary appliances must be closely grouped to
the discharge stack.
H1 = 2 m max. (Scotland only) l All appliances, as far as possible, should be fitted
H2 = 1.5 m max. with a ‘P’ trap or waste valve, with a discharge pipe
H3 = 1.3 m max. (England &
Wales only) diameter equal to that of the trap.
l Bends and branches should be avoided and the
gradient must be kept to a minimum, normally
H2 H3 H1 2½–5°.
l The vertical discharge stack must be installed as
d straight as possible and incorporate a long radius
d (single appliance) = 6 m max. bend or 2 × 45° bends at the base (the radius
d (group of appliances) = 12 m max.
should be twice the diameter of the pipe). This will
p Figure 4.8 Stub stack system avoid compression.
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Close grouping of appliances is achieved by
adhering to the pipework dimensions and SVP
distances from appliance to soil stack.
WB
Dimensions and WC
distances of Bath
appliances and Bidet
waste pipework
from the soil stack.
Shower
32 mm
waste 1.7 m
40 mm
waste 3.0 m
50 mm
waste 4.0 m
100 mm Sink
waste 6.0 m
WB WC
Waste pipes
All of the measurements above will be
drastically reduced if bends are introduced
to change direction or the gradient on the Washing m/c
branch discharge pipework is too steep. Large radius
or dishwasher
bend
When designing remember that for every
1 m3 of water utilised 30 m3 of air is required
to maintain equilibrium within the system.
p Figure 4.9 Primary ventilated stack system
Close grouping of appliances is achieved by
adhering to the pipework dimensions and SVP
distances from appliance to soil stack.
32 mm dia 40 mm dia
WB
Dimensions and WC
distances of Bath 40 mm dia
appliances and Bidet
waste pipework
from the soil stack. 1.7 m
1.7 m 6m Shower
32 mm 3m
waste 1.7 m
50 mm parallel 3m
40 mm
waste 3.0 m junction to avoid
cross flow
50 mm
waste 4.0 m
40 mm dia 40 mm dia
32 mm dia
100 mm Sink
waste 6.0 m
WB WC
Waste pipes 3m
1.7 m
All of the measurements above will be 3m
drastically reduced if bends are introduced 6m
to change direction or the gradient on the Washing m/c 75 –100 mm dia
branch discharge pipework is too steep. Large radius
or dishwasher 450 mm min.
bend
When designing remember that for every
1 m3 of water utilised 30 m3 of air is required
to maintain equilibrium within the system.
p Figure 4.10 The maximum branch pipework diameters, lengths, gradients and trap seals on a ventilated stack system
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
from 22 mm/m to 44 mm/m, the permissible length
KEY POINT of discharge pipework reduces.
Normally the distance from a soil stack for a
32 mm appliance (such as a basin) branch pipe 120
is 1.7 m, but the length of permissible pipe run
will decrease if the gradient is increased. 100
Gradient (mm per length)
80
Table 4.1 The effects of gradient on sanitary pipework
Branch connections 60
Pipe size Maximum Approximate
(mm) length (m) gradient (mm/m) 40
32 1.7 22
32 1.1 44 20
32 0.7 87
40 3.0 Between 18 and 80
0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75
50 4.0 Between 18 and 80 Length of branch (m)
100 6.0 Minimum 18
p Figure 4.11 Gradient graph for a 32 mm wash basin waste pipe
Whenever the pipe lengths shown in Table 4.1 are
exceeded, the waste pipe diameter should be increased KEY POINT
to the next size up. The graph clearly shows that if the gradient of
fall is increased, then the length of waste pipe is
By using the graph in Figure 4.11, showing 32 mm reduced accordingly.
waste pipe, it can be seen that if the gradient changes
Table 4.2 BS EN 12056 – maximum permissible pipe lengths
Appliance Diameter Maximum pipe Pipe gradient Maximum Maximum drop
(mm) length (m) (mm per m run) number of bends (m) vertical pipe
Wash hand basin or bidet 32 1.7 18 to 22 None1 None
32 1.1 18 to 44 None1 None
32 0.7 18 to 87 None1 None
40 3.0 18 to 44 21 None
Bath or shower 40 3.02 18 to 90 No limit 1.5
Kitchen sink 40 3.02 18 to 90 No limit 1.5
Domestic washing machine 40 3.0 18 to 44 No limit 1.5
or dishwasher
WC with outlet up to 80 mm diameter 75 No limit 18 min. No limit4 1.5
WC with outlet over 80 mm diameter 100 No limit 18 min. No limit4 1.5
Bowl urinal4 40 3.03 18 to 90 No limit4 1.5
Trough urinal 50 3.03 18 to 90 No limit4 1.5
Slab urinal5 65 3.03 18 to 90 No limit4 1.5
Food waste disposal unit6 40 min. 3.03 135 min. No limit4 1.5
Sanitary towel disposal unit 40 min. 3.03 54 min. No limit4 1.5
Floor drain 50 to 100 3.03 18 min. No limit 1.5
Branch serving 2 to 4 wash basins 50 4.0 18 to 44 None None
➜
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Table 4.2 BS EN 12056 – maximum permissible pipe lengths (continued)
Appliance Diameter Maximum pipe Pipe gradient Maximum Maximum drop
(mm) length (m) (mm per m run) number of bends (m) vertical pipe
Branch serving several bowl urinals4 50 3.03 18 to 90 No limit4 1.5
Branch serving 2 to 8 WCs 100 15.0 9 to 90 (21.5) 2 1.5
Up to 5 wash basins with spray taps7 32 4.53 18 to 44 No limit4 None
1E xcluding the ‘connection bend’ fitted directly or close to the trap Operating principle of an AAV
outlet.
2 If no longer than 3 m, this may result in noisy discharge, and there The valve incorporates a sealing diaphragm which
will be an increased risk of blockage. lifts and allows air to be drawn into the system when
3 Should ideally be as short as possible to limit deposition problems.
4 Sweep bends should be used: not ‘knuckle’ bends.
subject to negative pressure. Once the negative
5 For up to 7 people: longer slabs should have more than one outlet. pressure has ceased – equilibrium – the pressure on
6 Includes small potato-peeling machines. the diaphragm returns to the closed position thereby
7 Wash basins must not be fitted with outlet plugs. preventing any escape of foul air into the building.
Some AAVs have a spring to return the diaphragm to
ACTIVITY the closed position. The AAV is designed to open and
When you are next on site, identify the design of soil
close spontaneously when required allowing a supply
stack used for various styles of buildings including
larger and non-residential properties; or as a learner of air to adequately ventilate the system to ensure a
group walk past nearby buildings and carry out a smooth discharge.
similar survey. Photograph them and discuss their
An AAV enables ventilating pipes to be terminated
installation on return.
inside a building, which eliminates the need for a vent
These drainage systems will connect in to differing pipe to penetrate a roof and so offers flexibility in the
underground systems according to the location and age design of new systems. Bear in mind that an AAV is
of the property. The design of the underground system NOT a substitute for a ventilation stack; wherever an
can be identified by a site survey or by contacting the AAV is installed the system at some point must have
local authority. The three main types of underground an open vent to outside air – a ventilating pipe should
drainage systems are fully outlined in Book 1, Chapter 9: be provided at or near the head of each main drain.
l An AAV should not be used if the soil stack provides
l separate system
l partially separate system
the only ventilation to a septic tank or cesspool.
l An AAV should not be used on a system with no
l combined system.
open ventilation on an existing system.
Air admittance valves (AAV) l An AAV should not normally be used outside
and their importance because of the risk of freezing due to moisture
causing the AAV to stick in either the open or closed
There are alternative ways which allow air into a system
position. However, there are some AAVs available
to keep the equilibrium. Air admittance valves can be
which are suitable for external use – these external
installed in certain situations to allow this. The British
AAVs can be removed to provide a secondary
Standard for air admittance valves is BS EN 12380.
rodding point – reading the manufacturer’s
An air admittance valve or AAV, is a device fitted to the instructions is key.
top of sanitary pipework which allows air to enter the
system, but does not allow foul smells to escape. Its KEY TERM
purpose is to maintain the equilibrium in the system
Rodding point: a place where the drain or section
and balance out any suction effects which could cause of drain can be accessed to clear any blockages.
a trap seal to be lost. The mechanism of the AAV
returns to the closed position after it has been opened Figure 4.12 shows how an AAV functions with the
by a negative pressure created within the stack. arrows showing the air flow.
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p Figure 4.12 AAV in action
high water levels in a WC bowl following flushing and
Lid
the consequent slow drainage of appliances located
upstream from the blockage. An AAV should therefore
Upper body
always be installed above the flood level of the highest
Membrane appliance.
Membrane
carrier It is important to remember at the design and installation
O ring stage that size, limitations and the use of AAVs are
subject to national and local regulations and practice.
Insect net
It would be good practice to consult with the building
Lower body control officer (BCO) at the local authority office.
KEY POINT
Rubber
connection
An air admittance valve provides a means of
ventilation to a drainage system under conditions
of reduced pressure when ventilating pipes are
terminated inside a building in accordance with
BS EN 12056.2:2000.
p Figure 4.13 Cut away AAV
AAVs are generally used on discharge stacks up to 45 m AAV installation in multi-dwelling
or ten storeys, with an airflow capacity that equals properties
43 l/sec. They should always be installed vertically If AAVs are fitted, then the following rules apply:
with a minimum of 200 mm above the highest branch l One stack in five must be ventilated to atmosphere
connector. Preferably they should be located in a non- and this should be located at the head or start of
habitable space, such as a duct, boxing or roof space the drain run.
which is required to have adequate ventilation and be l Up to four properties of up to three storeys high can
accessible for maintenance. If the AAV is boxed in, vents use AAVs.
should be located at high and low positions to allow full l All multi-storey buildings will require additional
movement of air and avoid any build-up of moisture. ventilation if more than one property is connected
The valves can also help indicate the possibility of to a drain which is not ventilated by a conventional
blockages within the system by showing evidence of stack.
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l Where a drain serves more than four properties l if there are between 11 and 20 properties
with AAVs, like a housing estate, then: then ventilation is required at the head, foot
l if there are between 5 and 10 properties and mid-point of the drain run.
ventilation is required at the head and foot
of the drain run
6 2 6 6
4 4 4
3 3 3 3
4 4 4
4 4 1 4
5
5 Inspection covers 5
are at ground level
Primary ventilated system configuration
1. Floor gully 2. Air admittance 3. Stack 4. Branch discharge 5. Drain lid 6. Stack vent
valve pipe (mid and ground level)
6 6 6
2 2
4 7 8 7 8
3 3 3 3
4 4 8 8
4 8 4 2 4
1
5 5
5
Inspection covers
are at ground level
Secondary ventilated system configuration
1. Floor gully 2. Air admittance 3. Stack 4. Branch discharge 5. Drain lid 6. Stack vent 7. Ventilating stack 8. Branch
valve pipe (mid and Ventilating pipe
ground level)
p Figure 4.14 Illustrations from BS EN 12056 to demonstrate the installation variations for AAVs
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Fresh air in Vent Inspection/rodding
ACTIVITY Access cover chamber
When next on site, identify the location of the vent
pipe for various styles of buildings, including multi-
occupancy; or as a learner group walk past nearby
buildings and carry out a similar survey. Have a look
to see if you can locate any AAVs, photograph them,
taking note of the manufacturer. Go online and
look up the installation instructions and confirm the Interceptor trap
5.0 m maximum
correct installation.
Inlet
Asphalt or cement
Different types of AAVs mortar
There are many different applications and pipe sizes
for AAVs which give the plumber a variety of options
when specifying and installing.
Puddled clay
The working principle and
layout features for foul tanks
in sanitary systems p Figure 4.15 Cesspool
Building Regulations H2 should be sourced and It is important that customers are informed that
referenced for the design and installation requirements. cesspools require emptying on a regular basis to
prevent the unit from overflowing. This process must
Cesspools be carried out by a drainage contractor who will use
In rural areas many homes and buildings are self- the principle of mechanical suction to draw the waste
contained; the combined waste ends up in a local into the vehicle. Older cesspools were designed with an
cesspool, septic tank or treatment plant. These have NO overflow, but these now no longer conform to current
connection to the public sewer system and are known requirements.
as off-main. A cesspool is also known as a cesspit. Leakage is another problem which is more common with
A cesspool is an underground tank that stores the brick-built units, due to the fabric and structure breaking
sewage until the time of disposal. The design of a down, which would lead to the ingress of groundwater
cesspool will incorporate an inlet pipe but no outlet and the leakage of foul water. This will result in foul
pipe, as the cesspool only collects the waste until it is smells and pollution of the surrounding area. The use of
disposed. Older cesspools were made from brickwork, cesspools is no longer an option in most instances.
but modern ones are made from glass-reinforced
plastic (GRP) – fibre glass. Septic tanks
A septic tank is a multi-chamber storage tank allowing
Cesspools must be constructed so they are watertight
liquid and solid waste to separate. The liquid is allowed
to prevent any leakage of foul water or the ingress of
to flow out of the tank and be disposed of separately.
surrounding groundwater.
The sewage enters the settlement chamber, allowing
KEY POINT the solid waste (sludge) to sink to the bottom and the
Ingress in this context describes the action of, liquid to rise to the surface. The surface liquid is in
or fact that, foul water from the cesspool has contact with oxygen and the organic material starts
entered the groundwater and contaminated it. to break down biologically. This liquid still contains
some sewage but only in small enough particles to be
carried away through the discharge outlet and into the
ground (soakaway).
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Basic septic tanks only partly treat the sewage, and
so many parts of the UK prohibit the installation of
septic tanks as they discharge effluent of low quality.
So, in all instances a sewage treatment plant should
be considered as the first option. Septic tanks may be
installed subject to consent where:
l soil is of suitable porosity
l installation complies with Building Regulations
(Approved Document H)
p Figure 4.17 A section showing the inside of a basic septic tank
l the installation will not contaminate any ditch,
stream or other watercourse.
Cast iron cover and frame
Fresh air inlet
Scum
1.5 m
Inlet manhole
Concrete base
Sludge
225 mm brickwork Concrete base
Dip pipes
Inlet manhole
p Figure 4.16 Septic tank
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It is very important to consult with the building control 3 Refill with water and observe the time taken to
officer from the local authority prior to any installation. drain from 75 per cent full to 25 per cent full
A proper survey of the area and ground type will also (which is 150 mm of water).
need to take place; this will include a soil porosity test. 4 Divide the time by 150 (150 mm).
The following procedure will need to be adopted: 5 The answer will give the average time in seconds
1 Excavate a hole 300 mm × 300 mm × 300 mm (Vp) required for the water to drop 1 mm.
below the proposed invert level of the land drain. 6 Repeat the exercise two more times in at least
2 Fill the hole with water and allow it to drain away two trial holes.
overnight.
Table 4.3 A chart used to help installers work out the suitability of land drainage
Time taken to Equivalent Alpha* Large capacity
fall 150 mm value of Vp Overall length of drain run required (m) Overall length of drain run required (m)
(mins) (secs/mins)
2,800 litres 2,800 litres 2,800 litres 2,800 litres 2,800 litres 2,800 litres
4 people 10 people 14 people 22 people 30 people 38 people
20 8 18 40 56 88 120 152
30 12 24 60 84 182 180 228
40 16 32 80 112 176 240 304
60 24 48 120 168 264 360 466
120 48 96 240 338 528 720 912
180 72 144 360 504 782 1,080 1,368
The above is based upon 500 mm trench width, 2 m apart.
For lengths above 100 m it is acceptable to use 1 m wide trench and half the length.
*Alpha is a type of Klargester septic tank, available in three sizes.
p Figure 4.18 A section of land prepared to receive discharge from a septic tank
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The average time for drain away can be calculated by A sewage treatment plant is ideal for a location where
referencing the table to work out the length of drain there will be a discharge or sub-surface irrigation or to
run required for various capacity tanks. Drainage field a suitable watercourse (which has been approved by
disposal should only be used on test values between 15 the regulator) and where a septic tank will not meet
and 100. Where the Vp value is outside these figures, the required standard.
technical advice should be sort from the supplier.
Reed bed
A reed bed is only required when local water authorities
request a better quality of effluent than that being
discharged from a standard unit.
KEY POINT
A reed bed is a natural filtration process which is
more aesthetically pleasing. Oxygen from effluent
is transferred from leaves down through the reed
stem and out via its root system in the gravel bed.
The advantages of reed beds are:
l they satisfy the new Building Regulations
l they improve effluent quality for existing works
l they are very low maintenance p Figure 4.19 Reed beds
l they are easy to install
l they are aesthetically pleasing and environmentally
friendly
l they significantly improve the discharge from a
treatment plant.
800
Outlet
from
treatment
2500
plant
800
p Figure 4.20 Reed beds in situation
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KEY POINT
If a macerator is installed, Building Regulation
Part G requires that a gravity WC MUST be
Pipe carrying effluent located in the same building.
Gravity fall from appliances
A pump/macerator unit does not suck in the incoming
p Figure 4.21 Sewage treatment plant below ground waste, which means the waste water has to enter
the unit by gravity. This is especially important when
INDUSTRY TIP installing a low trap such as in a shower. If the fall
from the outlet of the appliance to the inlet of the
Employers are now requiring plumbers to have a hepatitis A macerator is not sufficient (less than 1:40) then
jab when they are working on foul water systems. problems such as backing up of soil waste could
occur in the shower tray. It is therefore important to
read through and follow the installation instructions
WC macerators carefully to measure the minimum height of the
Macerators can offer the plumber many options shower trap above floor level.
when installing sanitary appliances in remote
locations. They offer a solution where access to the Vertical rise pipework
main soil stack is not practical from a conventional It is always important to run any vertical outlet
gravity appliance. pipework as near to the macerator unit connection
as possible. This is to ensure the maximum discharge
capability through the outlet pipework. This is
important as long horizontal pipe runs add unwanted
frictional loss and resistance to the mechanical
pumping operation.
The outlet pipework must rise at least 300 mm before
any horizontal pipework is fitted.
p Figure 4.22 WC macerator
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Vertical before
horizontal within
300 mm of unit
Normal
gravity
fall
All inlet pipes need
gravity fall of 1:40
Normal gravity fall
Normal
gravity
fall
Macerator unit
p Figure 4.23 Vertical rise of outlet pipework
Discharge pipework Installation factors for discharge
Copper or solvent weld plastic pipes are both suitable pipework
for discharge pipework from a macerator unit. l Always use smooth bends and not knuckle type 90°
elbows.
If plastic pipe is used it MUST be solvent weld and
l If using copper pipe, pull machine bends rather than
NOT push fit. A continuous run of Hep2O pipe
using fitting where possible.
can be used, but it is important to ensure that
l If using plastic solvent weld pipe, use two 45° bends
it is regularly supported to avoid any sagging or
in series to achieve a 90°.
dipping in the pipe run, which would lead to poor
l If using plastic solvent weld pipe, ensure you wipe
performance.
off all excess solvent cement.
l Remember to deburr cut edges to prevent the build-
INDUSTRY TIP up of effluent at that point.
With any macerator installation, always read the installation Failure to follow these points could result in a narrowing
instructions carefully. of the pipe bore which will inevitably lead to blockages.
For most macerator units, 22 mm discharge pipe is INDUSTRY TIP
suitable. However, if a horizontal run exceeds 10–12
metres, most manufacturers advise that the discharge Installation factors or criteria are important and key points
pipe should be increased to 32 mm, which would allow to consider at the design stage.
for easier drainage.
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is accessible for future maintenance. Full access to all
jubilee clips securing the pipework is important.
Two offset plastic bends
Conceal behind panel using
Multikwik™ extension
150 –200 mm max.
22 mm copper pipe
Use smooth bends not 90° elbows
p Figure 4.24 Discharge pipework
Discharge pipe underground to
a manhole
p Figure 4.25 Connections to macerator
Copper and plastic pipes are suitable for above and
below ground installations provided that the following
criteria are adhered to: INDUSTRY TIP
l The 1:200 minimum fall is laid correctly.
l The ground above is not subject to heavy Installation options need to be considered at the design
wheel loads. stage and are often outlined in the manufacturer’s
l The pipe is insulated to protect against frost. instructions. The instructions may offer two or three
l If the pipe is laid within 450 mm of the ground installation options that could be considered.
level, either concrete casing or paving slabs should
protect the pipe.
Electrical connections
Installation options Full details of how to connect the macerator to the
electrical supply will be outlined in the manufacturer’s
It is normal practice to position the macerator unit
instructions. The macerators require an unswitched
directly behind and connected to the WC. However, it
fused spur connected with a 5 amp fuse. The
is possible to position the unit a short distance away
connection can be to a spur which is connected to
from the WC (for example, the other side of a wall). The
the ring main circuit.
extension should be no longer than 150–200 mm
long – extensions longer than this tend to cause
blockages. Always check for leaks at every joint and HEALTH AND SAFETY
never install the unit underneath the floor. Safe isolation is essential if you are working on any
electrical appliance. The full safe isolation procedure
Macerators are often installed behind a panel for is outlined in Book 1, Chapter 1.
aesthetic reasons. If this is the case, make sure the unit
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Principle of operation
The WC discharges into the macerator drum. A float
or diaphragm switch rises and starts the motor. The
motor has stainless steel blades attached to the
FUSE
Connect with unswitched rotating spindle which breaks up any solids entering the
fused spur with 5 amp fuse macerator drum area and suspends the solid in liquid.
This transformed mass is then positively pumped to the
outlet at a higher part of the unit and into a vertical
pipe through a non-return valve into the discharge
pipe. The discharge pipe then runs horizontally with a
minimum of 1:200 fall to the soil stack. Figures 4.27
p Figure 4.26 Fused spur
to 4.29 show the mechanical sequence of operation.
Discharge pipe
Air valve with charcoal filter
(closed when macerator is
not operating to prevent
escape of odour) Outlet from
WC enters here
Shredder
blades
Backflow
valve
Electric
pressure
switch Motor
(inside base
of unit)
Bath/basin Bath/basin
inlet pipe Inlet control Switch Discharge pump Inlet control inlet pipe
valve operating impeller valve
diaphragm
p Figure 4.27 Macerator in starting position
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Air valve
(remains closed) Outlet from WC
begins entering
Rising
water
level
Switch operating diaphragm begins to rise
p Figure 4.28 Macerator process beginning as WC discharges
Air valve Shredding
(opens to prevent vacuum blades
forming inside macerator) operating
Waste
discharging
Rising
water
level
(falls back
to lowest
level on
completion
of discharge)
Discharge pump operating
Raised diaphragm switches motor on
(falls back on completion of discharge and motor switches off)
p Figure 4.29 Macerator shredding in process
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KEY POINT Macerator faults
An external non-return valve is installed on the The manufacturer’s instructions will usually provide a
outlet of the macerator unit to prevent the return of flow chart that will help with fault finding. Before any
effluent into the unit once it has been discharged. work starts on a macerator, it is imperative that safe
electrical isolation has been achieved before you carry
out any work on one of these appliances.
l If a macerator ran for a long time after flushing, the
problem could be due to a blockage in the area of
the pump located within the unit.
l If a pump failed to operate on a WC macerator after
it had been flushed then the float switch could have
a fault.
l If there was a slow discharge from a WC pan
connected to a macerator with a pump working
correctly, this could be caused by a blocked carbon
air filter.
Waste water lifters
Pumping stations
Compact pump systems for small domestic waste
water applications are suitable in situations where foul
drainage by gravity is not an option. Larger domestic
pumping stations are recommended for 8–13 people
p Figure 4.30 An external non-return valve – no discharge for the removal of sewage effluent. These units are
fitted with an alarm in the event of high fluid levels.
p Figure 4.32 Installation option for a waste water lifter
The waste water lifting units are quite innovative in
their methods of removing waste water, which negate
the use of huge tanks. These devices can take waste
water from basement height and lift the waste into the
gravity pipe under the basement ceiling. This then fills
p Figure 4.31 An external non-return valve – discharging the septic tank which has the same effective capacity
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but much smaller volume. This option offers versatility The installation of a waste water lifter can be below
when specifying and installing therefore impacting on or on the same finished floor level of a property.
the overall cost of a project. These units can reliably The discharge pipe enters the soil stack and forms a
discharge domestic waste water with a pH4–pH10 backflow loop, as shown in Figure 4.34. The vent pipe
value containing fibres, textiles and faeces. must discharge in accordance with BS EN 12056.1
for faecal lifting plants to above roof level to avoid the
BS EN 12056 Part 4 gives guidance on the types of
ingress of foul smells in to the property.
waste water lifting plant and discharge pipework.
Table 4.4 Minimum size of discharge pipe in accordance with KEY TERM
BS EN 12056.4 Backflow loop: prevents backflow. See Figure 4.34,
where the backflow loop rises above the mains
Type of wastewater lifting plant Minimum size of
sewer and drops into the top of the pipe.
discharge pipework
Non-macerating faecal lifting plant DN 80
to prEN 12050-1 Lifting units
Macerating faecal lifting plant to DN32
prEN 12050-1
AAVs cannot be installed on the discharge pipework.
These lifting units are designed to lift waste water
Faecal-free lifting plant to prEN DN32
12050-2 from below the sewer level in a property and then
Non-macerating faecal lifting plant DN25 discharge into the sewer system. They combine pumps,
for limited applications to prEN tanks and controls in one self-contained unit to ease
12050-3 installation and maintain reliable operation. They
Macerating faecal lifting plant DN20 include cabling, sensors and hoses. These units have
for limited applications to prEN a sloping tank bottom design to ensure that dirt and
12050-3
solids are guided towards the pump at all times. The
If the building is located far away from the main sewer, aim is to minimise sedimentation and reduce the need
for example in a rear housing situation or when the for tank cleaning.
use of gravity is impossible, a pumping station could
provide an ideal solution against having to excavate
the land, which would be costly.
p Figure 4.34 A waste water lifter
p Figure 4.33 Pipework outlet to a remote drain where no gravity
drain is available
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KEY POINT
The permanent level control is a device which
triggers an alarm in the event of high water levels.
The unit also incorporates a piezo-pressure sensor that
detects waste water levels inside the tank without the
need for any moving parts or submersion. The tanks are
generally made from non-adhesive polyethylene (PE)
and designed to withstand a column of water 5.0 m
and water temperatures of up to 50 °C and up to 90 °C
for short periods of time.
p Figure 4.35 A waste water lifter in a commercial installation
p Figure 4.36 Control unit
An inspection cover enables a plumber to check the
valves and remove foreign bodies; the design ensures
that adequate access to the built-in non-return valve Sink waste disposal unit
is available. The aim of this style of unit is to keep These units are installed under kitchen sinks and need
construction costs to a minimum by making the need a ready-made hole 89–90 mm in diameter, made in
for excavations into sewers and drain-pipe connections the sink to fit the unit, this is usually positioned in the
outside the building obsolete. The digging of pump pits cutlery bowl. A standard 40 mm trap will fit on to the
can be eliminated, and basement areas can then be outlet of the waste disposal unit.
converted into toilets and utility rooms with minimal
inconvenience. These units dispose of waste food and cooking products
discharging them into the drainage system. The cutting
Waste water lifters (Figure 4.35) incorporate a or grinding blades can deal with a large range of food
permanent level control which triggers an alarm matter including bones.
in the event of high water levels and incorporates
a control unit (Figure 4.36). As water is discharged HEALTH AND SAFETY
into the sump, the water level rises and triggers the
Always outline the safe use of these appliances
internal pump to start. As the water level decreases, to the customer, which are explained in the
the pump stops. manufacturer’s instructions.
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HEALTH AND SAFETY
A residual current device or RCD protects the
customer and engineer from a live–earth fault.
The standard that relates to this appliance is
found in BS EN 60335.2, Specification for safety
of household and similar electrical appliances. An
RCD is a life-saving device which is designed to
prevent you from getting a fatal electric shock if
you touch something live, such as a bare wire. It
can also provide some protection against electrical
fires. RCDs offer a level of personal protection that
ordinary fuses and circuit-breakers cannot provide.
An RCD is a sensitive safety device that switches
off electricity automatically if there is a fault. The
RCD is designed to protect against the risks of
electrocution and fire caused by earth faults. For
example, if you cut through the cable when mowing
the lawn and accidentally touched the exposed live
wires or a faulty appliance overheats causing electric
current to flow to earth. It constantly monitors the
electric current flowing through one or more circuits
it is used to protect. If it detects electricity flowing
down an unintended path, such as through a person
who has touched a live part, the RCD will switch the
circuit off very quickly, significantly reducing the risk
of death or serious injury.
p Figure 4.37 A waste disposal unit fitted to the base of a sink unit
ACTIVITY
The process turns anything in the unit into a paste
Use manufacturer’s instructions and the internet
solution and water flushes it into a drain via a 40 mm to compare the advantages and disadvantages
waste outlet. The electric motor that turns the rotor between waste water lifters and macerators in a
where the blades are attached is located at the base of domestic and then a commercial installation.
the unit. The motor on the unit should be connected
to an electrical supply via the correctly sized fuse
spur, typically 10 amp, but will be specified in the HEALTH AND SAFETY
manufacturer’s instructions. Manufacturers often Care should be taken when servicing these
require the circuit to be protected by a 30 mA RCD. appliances; it is important to ensure you are fully
trained and aware of the manufacturer’s servicing
procedures. The units will be supplied with a special
release tool for the blades, should they become
trapped. The device must have some form of
accessible thermal trip cut-off device that will turn
off the unit in the event of blades jamming or no
water flow.
KEY POINT
The device MUST have some form of accessible
thermal trip cut-off device that will turn off the
unit in the event of blades jamming or no water
flow.
p Figure 4.38 Fused spur
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HEALTH AND SAFETY
It is important to check the earth bonding is
connected to exposed metallic surfaces, such as a
stainless-steel sink unit. Safe electrical isolation is
always vital especially when inspecting the operation
of the mechanism before removing debris or
dismantling the unit.
Wet rooms
A wet room is a waterproofed (tanked) area which is
usually equipped with a walk-in shower, and therefore
the room itself becomes the enclosure. A wet room
can be fitted out with standard or specialist equipment
to suit the customer’s requirements, so it is very
important to discuss with the customer prior to
designing a wet room to get a complete understanding
of what is required. The drain point is inset into the
floor area which has a gently sloping floor draining the
water towards the drain point (this is instead of the
shower tray).
p Figure 4.39 Open plan wet room
VALUES AND BEHAVIOUR
The waterproof membrane is a unique feature in a wet
A wet room is quite often favoured by people
room and installing it is usually carried out by a specialist
with physical impairments as it offers easy access.
As this can be such a personal and individual
contractor and can take several days to complete.
consideration, good and sensitive communication
skills are required. Go online and search for INDUSTRY TIP
specialist wet room installations and use these
websites to create a list of important questions to There are now manufacturers who offer wet rooms in a ‘kit’
ask a prospective customer. form for ease of installation. The customer’s budget and
requirements will indicate which installation is chosen.
Its spacious layout can facilitate more contemporary
designs and because of the free floor area it is also INDUSTRY TIP
suitable for underfloor heating.
The waterproof membrane, if used, would be installed by
Any house or flat can be made suitable for a walk-in
a specialist contractor to ensure watertight wet rooms.
wet room, as their installation requires them to be
This comes in the form of sheet material and or liquid
tanked, which is equivalent of completely sealing the compounds which are sealed to the floor and walls.
floor and shower walls to ensure there is no water
leakage from the wet room area.
Low-level grates allow the collection and removal of
KEY TERM water from the showering area with the aid of a
built-in fall (slope) to the drain at floor level.
Tanking: a process used to ensure that a wet room
area installation is completely leak free. There is quite a process involved in installing the
drainage system for a wet room. The following
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
illustrations give some indication, but in all cases the grate which will accommodate the flow of waste
the manufacturer’s instructions MUST be read and water. The trap is connected under the grate and then
followed at all times. flows to the soil stack. Figures 4.41 and 4.42 show one
style of installation method and design for wooden floors
The built-in fall is designed to drain the water towards
which is adapted to suit solid floors as well.
the outlet. There are two main options for the location of
Reinforcement
on back of wall Tiles/tiled bricks
Tile mortar
Wall membrane
Reinforcement
Fastening Floor membrane
Wall flange Grate Tile mortar
Frame Tiles/tiled bricks
Grate removed
Strainer
Reinforcement
Drain unit
Water trap
Outlet unit
p Figure 4.40 A section of a trap in the floor with the grate
Ply Linear drain floor mounted
Waterproofing membrane
Adhesive and tiles
Clip UniSlope®
Batons Joists
Outlet Support for outlet
p Figure 4.41 Cross section showing waterproof membrane centre outlet
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Linear drain wall mounted
Adhesive and tiles
Ply Waterproofing membrane
UniSlope®
Joists
Baton Support for outlet Outlet
p Figure 4.42 Cross section showing waterproof membrane end outlet
Grates are designed to assist even discharge and full
removal of waste water and often use a collection
gulley. The device shown in Figure 4.43 gathers waste
water and houses the trap which is located under the
grate system.
Special traps are included in the design and provide
easy access. The waste outlet is often discreetly located
to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the installation. p Figure 4.43 A drain collection gulley with outlet
Classic Square
Column Stripe
p Figure 4.44 Four grate styles for wet rooms
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
3 DESIGN TECHNIQUES FOR SANITATION
AND RAINWATER SYSTEMS
First, we will address design techniques of sanitation IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
systems, followed by rainwater systems later in In order to ensure you fully understand the customer’s
this section. objectives and expectations for the installation,
discussions should be had at an early stage. It would
Selection and design be useful to ask the following questions:
l What is the size of property?
of sanitary systems l What is the style of property?
A full survey of a proposed installation is essential to l What is the age of property?
ascertain what type of system and appliances would l What style of appliances?
be suitable. A visual inspection of an existing system l How many appliances?
would outline the condition and design of the current
l What is the position of appliances?
system. It may even show up areas that do not comply
l How many people are living in the property?
with current standards. We have outlined that all
l What are the potential uses of appliances?
systems and installations should comply with:
l What existing installations are present?
l BS EN 12056 Parts 1–5
l Building Regulations Approved Document Part H.
All of these are important factors to be considered.
They should also comply with:
l BS 8000.0:2014 Workmanship on building sites.
Spacing requirements
Code of practice for above ground drainage and Building Regulations Approved Document Part M aims to
sanitary appliances ensure that buildings are accessible and useable to people
l The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999, regardless of disability, age or gender. They should be able
which covers the supply of hot and cold water to to gain access within a building and use its facilities as a
sanitary appliances which must be protected against visitor, living in the property or if the building is a place of
backflow or back siphonage. work. This mainly relates to non-domestic buildings and
new domestic buildings, but when an existing property
There are a lot of other individual standards for
undergoes a significant alteration or has an extension
pipework, fittings and appliances that have been
then consideration is required.
outlined in Book 1.
Plumbers may be asked to install a ‘Doc M’ pack into a
On new-build installations, such as a housing
building. This means that the sanitary equipment installed
development, the position and design of the soil
will aid people with physical impairments by the addition
and vent pipe along with the positioning and style
of bars and levers so that they can use the facilities.
of appliances has already been determined by the
architect. Any preparation work or disruption should When installing bathroom appliances, consideration
be agreed with the relevant trades or customer before MUST be made to allow for the minimum space
work starts. requirements for each appliance for personal use and to
supervise the bathing of children. BS EN 6465.2:2017
Design considerations about materials need to be
gives advice on these space requirements.
made. Plastic is commonly used on modern builds,
but cast iron could be chosen for an older property. KEY POINT
A full survey to confirm what design the underground BS EN 6465.2:2017 gives advice on appliance
system is would need to be carried out – this would space requirements. There must also be a minimum
highlight any changes that may need to be made amount of appliances within a property based on the
and also avoid any incorrect connections to the number of people occupying the property, and this
information is detailed in BS 6465.1:2006+A1:2009.
underground system.
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Table 4.5 Appliances required per dwelling 600 mm
Sanitary Number per Additional notes
appliances dwelling
WC One for up to 4 There should be a wash
800 mm
people, two for 5 basin adjacent to every
people or more WC in every property
Wash basin One 200 mm activity
space overlap
Bath or One for every 4
shower people
Kitchen sink One
It is not always possible to achieve the recommended 400 mm
dimensions, especially when dealing with small
bathrooms. The British Standard therefore makes
allowances for overlaps of the appliance space. These 600 mm
overlaps also apply to a cloakroom and downstairs WC. p Figure 4.47 Overlap – provision in a downstairs WC
ACTIVITY
600 mm When looking at bathroom designs you will now
700 mm
be able to determine if the spacing requirements
800 mm 700 mm
are sufficient, especially in smaller areas. Use your
1000 mm
1100 mm knowledge and reference BS 6465 to design a
Hand rinse
wash basin
Domestic wash basin Bath bathroom layout and WC to a dimension given by
your tutor.
400 mm
Fire stop arrangements
600 mm 600 mm
700 mm
900 mm
Whenever a soil or vent pipe penetrates a wall or a
800 mm 800 mm
900 mm ceiling an intumescent collar is fitted around the soil
Bidet WC Enclosed shower tray Unenclosed shower tray
pipe to prevent the risk of smoke and fire spreading
p Figure 4.45 Provision of space for sanitary installations between areas.
In this layout, the
activity space of KEY POINT
both the bath and
the wash basin
An intumescent collar is a device used to fit
overlap. The space around a plastic soil or waste pipe penetrating a
for the WC usage wall or ceiling. The collar contains material that
is not affected.
will expand and fill the void when the pipe melts
because of the presence of extreme heat from a
In this layout, the fire. This therefore acts as a smoke and fire stop
activity space of the to prevent them spreading for a set period of
bath, wash hand time.
basin and WC all
overlap. The overlap
is shown by the red
rectangle on the
drawing.
This one is the most
common of all
bathroom layouts.
p Figure 4.46 Overlap – provision in bathrooms
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
in the collar will become a carbonaceous char and
will expand then compress the hot plastic pipe and
close the void to prevent the spread of fire, smoke
and fumes.
KEY TERM
PVCu (unplasticised poly vinyl chloride): a common
material used in rainwater guttering and pipework
systems.
Whenever an intumescent collar is installed, it must
be checked to confirm that it is fit for use and in date.
It is very important to refer to the manufacturer’s
instructions to make sure it is installed correctly.
p Figure 4.48 An intumescent collar
HEALTH AND SAFETY
BS EN 12056.1 Section 5.4.1 states that, where The effect of fire spreading through a void
pipes pass through walls, floors and ceilings, subject associated with internal pipework which penetrates
to specific fire resistance requirements, special a fire-resistant wall or floor can be identified in the
following descriptions:
precautions should be taken in accordance with l products of toxic gases and smoke
national and local regulations and practice. l the addition of fuel to total load of the fire
l the risk of fire spreading along the pipework
A PVCu pipe will melt if exposed to excessive heat
l the reduction of the fire resistance of the building
and the space the pipe once occupied could create
materials that have been penetrated with the pipe.
a venturi effect for fire, smoke and fumes. When
exposed to such conditions the intumescent material
Compartment wall Compartment floor Discharge
stack
4 fixing brackets
Intumescent collar Intumescent
uPVC in two parts collar cast in
discharge
pipe
Compartment wall Compartment floor
Service
pipe
Min. 1 m Min. 1 m
Max.
160 mm
nom.i.d.
Discharge pipe
Non-combustable Mineral wool with
sleeve wire binding Fire resisting floor
PIPE SLEEVE FIRE STOP
p Figure 4.49 Building Regulations Approved Document B3 – internal fire spread
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The Building Regulations Approved Document B3 gives l the provision, or lack of a ventilating pipe
an example, showing a range of different applications l surcharging of the drain
of fire stopping. l provision, or lack of an interceptor trap.
If a material, such as a timber suspended floor, is Therefore, when sizing drainage systems we must
penetrated by an incorrectly installed heating appliance refer to BS EN 12056 and the following pipework
flue pipework which did not have the required air gap, dimensions (Table 4.6) in relation to appliances in
then the adjacent material could become pryolised the UK.
and its ignition temperature could be significantly Table 4.6 Pipework dimensions showing waste pipe diameter
reduced, and as a result create a weak point where and appliances
fire could spread.
Waste pipe Appliance
size (mm)
KEY TERM
32 Wash basin, bidet, drinking fountain
Pryolised: when a material begins to decompose 40 Sink, bath, shower, urinal, sanitary towel
due to elevated temperatures. macerator
50 Food waste disposal unit, multiple appliances
Calculating the size of 100 Toilet
sanitary pipework in Houses of single occupancy rarely need sizing, as a
100 mm stack is required for one WC. Even 50
accordance with BS EN houses with one WC can be connected to a 100 mm
12056 vertical stack. Sizing is however required for flats,
BS EN 12056.2 explains that water flowing into halls of residence, commercial buildings and public
discharge stacks will cause air pressure fluctuations entertainment venues where discharge units are used
and suction can occur below discharging branch to help calculate a stack size for a specific installation.
connections and offsets. This can cause water seal
loss by induced siphonage from the appliances KEY POINT
connected to the stack. Back pressure or positive Discharge units are used to calculate the size of a
soil stack.
pressure can occur about bends and offsets in the stack
which can cause foul air to be blown through the trap
water seal and potential loss of seal. The following step-by-step example will help to show
how stack sizes can be calculated. By referring to the
The following identifies some causes for loss of seal: tables and formulas extracted from BS EN 12056,
l the flow load which relates to the total number of discharge units (DU), flow rates (Qww), frequency
appliances connected to the stack, how they are factors (K) and hydraulic capacities (Qmax) can be
distributed on each floor and their frequency of use calculated and result in the calculation of the correct
l the height and diameter of the stack size must size of discharge stack needed.
be calculated to accommodate the height of the
building and the amount of appliances connected Table 4.7 Abbreviations for the formula used for sizing
to it Discharge units DU
l the design of pipe fittings, the shape and size of
Flow rates Qww
branch inlets and radius of the bend and the base of Frequency factor K
the stack connecting the system to the drain
Hydraulic capacity Qmax
l changes in direction in the wet portion of the stack
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Calculating stack sizes step-by-step
Step 1
Table 4.8 Discharge units (DU)
Appliance System I (DU, l/s) System II (DU, l/s) System III (DU, l/s) System IV (DU, l/s)
Wash basin, bidet 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3
Shower without plug 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4
Shower with plug 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.5
Single urinal with cistern 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.5
Urinal with flushing valve 0.5 0.3 – 0.3
Slab urinal 0.2* 0.2* 0.2* 0.2*
Bath 0.8 0.6 1.3 0.5
Kitchen sink 0.8 0.6 1.3 0.5
Dishwasher (household) 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.5
Washing machine up to 6 kg 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.5
Washing machine up to 12 kg 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.0
WC with 4.0 I cistern ** 1.8 ** **
WC with 6.0 I cistern 2.0 1.8 1.2–1.7*** 2.0
WC with 7.5 I cistern 2.0 1.8 1.4–1.8*** 2.0
WC with 9.0 I cistern 2.5 2.0 1.6–2.0*** 2.5
Floor gully DN50 0.8 0.9 – 0.6
Floor gully DN70 1.5 0.9 – 1.0
Floor gully DN100 2.0 1.2 – 1.3
* Per person Use Table 4.9 to select the frequency factor for the use
** Not permitted
*** Depending on type (valid for WCs with siphon flush cisterns only)
of the appliances.
*** Not used or no data
Step 3
Use Table 4.8 (discharge units) to select the total
number of appliances running in to the stack. Qww is the expected flow rate of waste water in a part
System III is based on the British above ground or in the whole drainage system where only domestic
sanitation system as stated earlier. The next stage sanitary appliances are connected to the system.
is to add up the discharge units (DU) for these Where:
appliances.
Qww = K√ΣDU
Step 2 Qww = waste water flow rate (l/s)
Table 4.9 Typical frequency factors (K) K = frequency factor
Usage of appliances K ΣDU = sum of discharge units
Intermittent use, e.g. in dwelling, guesthouse, 0.5
office Use the formula to work out the waste water flow rate.
Frequent use, e.g. in hospital, school, restaurant, 0.7
hotel
Congested use, e.g. in toilets and/or showers open 1.0
to the public
Special use, e.g. laboratory 1.2
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Step 4 Table 4.11 Hydraulic capacity (Qmax) and nominal diameter (DN)
for secondary vent systems
Table 4.10 Hydraulic capacity (Qmax) and nominal diameter (DN)
Stack and Secondary System I, II, III, IV Qmax (I/s)
Stack and stack vent System I, II, III, IV Qmax (I/s) stack vent vent
DN Square entries Swept entries DN DN Square Swept
60 0.5 0.7 entries entries
70 1.5 2.0 60 50 0.7 0.9
80* 2.0 2.6 70 50 2.0 2.6
90 2.7 3.5 80* 50 2.6 3.4
100** 4.0 5.2 90 50 3.5 4.6
125 5.8 7.6 100** 50 5.6 7.3
150 9.5 12.4 125 70 7.6 10.0
200 16.0 21.0 150 80 12.4 18.3
200 100 21.0 27.3
* Minimum size where WCs are connected in system II.
** Minimum size where WCs are connected in system I, III, IV. * Minimum size where WCs are connected in system II.
** Minimum size where WCs are connected in system I, III, IV.
Use the Qww (litres per second) to size the pipe from
Table 4.10. We tend to use swept entry fittings in the If the soil and waste system includes secondary
UK, but as you can see there is also a column for sizing ventilation, then Table 4.11 should be used.
square entry.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
How to calculate the size of a discharge stack Use Table 4.9:
If a congested football stadium is used as an example, Frequency factor = 1.0
we can end up with a calculation as shown. Once the
total discharge units are added up, then the square 1.0 × 10.7 = 10.7 litres per second flow rate
root of that number is applied and multiplied by the Use your answer and refer to Table 4.10.
frequency factor. 10.7 l/s is the calculated flow rate and we will be
Use Table 4.8: using swept entries. Refer to the swept entry column,
50 × 6 l WCs: 50 × 1.7 = 85 going down the column you choose the figure that
is equal to or above the calculated figure. So, going
100 × wash basins: 100 × 0.3 = 30 down the column 7.6 l/s is too small, then 12.4 l/s is
slightly above our calculated flow rate, so this is the
Total discharge units = 115 figure we would use.
Use formula from Step 3: Reading across the table, 12.4 l/s will mean we use
150 mm soil and vent pipe.
Square root of 115 = 10.7
KEY POINT
The frequency factor is a variable that should be rate based on the frequency of use of the sanitary
used when determining the pipework system flow appliances for different building functions.
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
and if the system is not suitable the integrity of the
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS property could be affected. For larger buildings and
How to calculate the size of a discharge stack constructions there are companies that specialise
for a single occupancy in rainwater systems that allow large roof areas
The previous example related to a commercial to remove large volumes of water effectively and
installation, but the same process can be applied to efficiently.
a domestic property. As a Level 3 qualified plumber,
you will need to apply this method to achieve a well-
designed sanitary installation.
KEY POINT
It is important to revisit the information about
For example, we have a property that has two (6 l)
basic rainwater systems in Book 1, Chapter 8
WCs, two baths, two wash basins, one shower with
to remind yourself of the fundamental criteria
plug, one bidet, one kitchen sink, one (6 kg) washing
concerning the choice and installation of guttering
machine, one domestic dishwasher.
systems.
Use Table 4.12 to work out the required soil stack
size.
Table 4.12 Designing rainwater systems
Appliances Discharge units
When designing a rainwater system, a survey of the
property must be carried out followed by discussion
2 × 6 l WCs 1.7 × 2 = 3.4
with the customer concerning their requirements and
2 × baths 1.3 × 2 = 2.6
choice. If a system is to be replaced, it is important
2 × wash basins 0.6 × 2 = 1.2
to ask the customer how the existing installation has
1 × shower with plug 1.3
performed and as to whether the customer has any
1 × bidet 0.6 concerns or has had any problems with it.
1 × kitchen sink 1.3
1 × 6 kg washing machine 0.6 IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
1 × domestic dishwasher 0.2 Remember, customers will usually be able to provide
TOTAL 11.2 you with invaluable information about any work you
undertake. By asking the right questions, you can
The square root of 11.2 is 3.35, and the frequency ascertain how the current installation has performed
factor for this type of property is 0.5. and what issues have been experienced by the
customer to help you make improvements to the new
3.35 × 0.5 = 1.75 litres per second
system design.
If swept entries are used again, you can see that
100 mm diameter soil stack would be more than
adequate.
When working on a new build or alteration, it is good
practice to select some manufacturers’ brochures and
show the customer so they are able to select the design
that is aesthetically pleasing to them. This will also
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
give an opportunity for the plumber to outline suitable
Using the tables provided, calculate the size of a
designs and considerations to the customer.
discharge stack serving two flats, each containing
one (6 l) WC, one bath, one shower without plug,
one (6 kg) washing machine and a dishwasher.
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
The customer will appreciate being consulted at
Design and installation of the design stage – you can use visual aids such
advanced rainwater systems as manufacturers’ brochures to enable them to
make selections and preferences that can then be
It is so important to design and install an effective integrated into your design.
rainwater system on properties. There are many
environmental issues that need to be considered
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
When carrying out the survey of the property, it The angle of the roof is a vital consideration when
would be wise to establish the type of drainage for designing a gutter system. The steeper the roof angle
the premises for the property and plan your system the faster the rain will flow off the roof, the shallower
around whether it is a combined, separate or partially the roof incline the slower the rain will flow off the
separate system and whether the local authority has roof.
any preference for connections. If a partially separate
BS EN 12056.3 gives the following formula to work
system is installed, check for any soakaways on existing
out the effective roof area.
remote downpipes.
Sometimes a new build extension will require a KEY TERM
rainwater system. This could be connected to an
Effective roof area: different to the actual size of the roof
existing system already installed on the premises. In
area. In effect it is the plan view area of the roof.
this situation a recalculation for the gutter size and
design may be required, to accommodate gutter
size and number of outlets for the additional flow of
L
rainwater.
W
Legislation relating to
design and installation of H
advanced rainwater systems
There are many documents which need to be referred
to when designing and installing a rainwater system.
This is because there are a range of restrictions in
legislation to ensure that the water is efficiently
collected and safely discharged from the property.
l Building Regulations Approved Document H3
Rainwater drainage
l BS EN 12056.3:2000 Rainwater system design,
outlet position and rainfall intensity calculations
l the manufacturer’s instructions installation guide
l BS EN 12200.1:2000 Rainwater pipe systems p Figure 4.50 Roof area
Calculating the size of a gutter To calculate effective maximum roof area (allowance
for wind), use the following formula:
To assess the suitability of a gutter system to drain the
roof on a building efficiently, the following factors need H
W + × L
to be taken in to account: 2
l the effective roof area to be drained Where:
l the local rainfall intensity
W = horizontal span of the roof slope
l the flow characteristics of the gutter system
l the number and position of downpipes. H = height of the roof pitch
BS EN 12056.3 measures rainfall intensity in litres per L = length of the roof
second per metre squared (l/s/m2) for a two-minute
storm event. The standard also has maps that give
details of the rainfall intensity in areas around the
country.
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
Table 4.14 Roof pitch and factors
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Roof pitch Factor
Calculating roof area
10° 1.088
Example 1 12.5° 1.111
Calculate the area if a roof is 12 m long, 7 m wide 15° 1.134
and 3 m high. 17.5° 1.158
Solution: 20° 1.182
3 22.5° 1.207
7 + × 12 = (7 + 1.5) × 12 = 8.5 × 12
2 25° 1.233
= 102 m² effective roof area
27° 1.260
30° 1.288
32.5° 1.319
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
35° 1.350
Calculating roof area 37.5° 1.384
Example 2 40° 1.419
42.5° 1.459
Calculate the area if a roof is 11 m long, 6.5 m wide
and 4 m high. 45° 1.500
Solution: 47.5° 1.547
4 For roofs of 50° and above, a factor of 1.600 may be used.
6.5 + × 11 = (6.5 + 2) × 11 = 8.5 × 11
2
= 93.5 m² effective roof area
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
The size of the roof directly relates to the size of the Calculating using roof pitch factor
guttering required, so if the size of the roof increases By using the figures from calculating roof area
so does the guttering and discharge pipework. This example 1, the multiplication factor for the pitch of
principle also applies to the angle of the roof as the the roof (as shown in Table 4.14) can be included in
angle affects the flow of rainwater and therefore the the new calculation.
speed at which the rainwater enters the gutter. Calculate the area if a roof is 12 m long, 7 m wide
and 3 m high.
The rainwater system must therefore be accurately Solution:
designed to adequately manage the predicted rainfall.
3
Table 4.13 shows the factor which should be added to 7 + × 12 = (7 + 1.5) × 12 = 8.5 × 12
2
the roof area once the pitch of the roof is known. = 102 m² effective roof area
Table 4.13 Multiplication factor for all roof pitches If the roof pitch is 45° then the roof area should be
multiplied by a factor of 1.5.
Type of surface Design in (m2) 102 m2 × 1.5 = 153 m2
Flat roof Plan area of relevant portion
Pitched roof at 30° Plan area of portion × 1.29
The manufacturer’s chart can now be used to select an
Pitched roof at 45° Plan area of portion × 1.50
appropriate gutter size and style for the installation.
Pitched roof at 60° Plan area of portion × 1.87
Pitched roof over 70° or any Elevation area × 0.5 The area of a flat roof should be considered as the total
wall plan area. When a roof is more complex with a range of
spans and pitches, then each individual area should be
The next stage is to include the factor for the correct calculated and added together.
roof pitch which can be selected from Table 4.14.
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In an alternative calculation offered by Building
Regulations, the length and span are multiplied then
multiplied again by a factor for a given roof pitch: H
Width × length × (design factor for a given roof angle)
REA W
NA L
PLA p Figure 4.52 Elevation of a roof with a 75° pitch
W If the width of the roof is 9 m and the height is 3.5 m
then: 9 × 3.5 = 31.5 m
H
Multiply with the factor given for elevations from
Table 4.13 (this is 0.5). Therefore, 31.5 × 0.5 = 15.75 m²
= roof area.
Working out the gutter size
The size of the gutter is dependent upon the size of the
roof area to be drained. The effective roof area for flat
roofs is different from that for pitched roofs and needs
to be calculated.
Table 4.15 is from Building Regulations Approved
Document Part H and shows that for pitched roofs, a
greater ‘run-off’ or flow will be experienced and must
p Figure 4.51 Roof plan be allowed for.
If the angle of the roof is known then we can calculate
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
using the factor for the pitch as shown in Table 4.14.
Calculating gutter size
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS In the calculating roof area using alternative formula
example, 36 m2 was calculated as the effective area
Calculating roof area using alternative formula of the roof which had an angle of 45°, so by using
What is the effective area if a roof is 6 m long, 4 m Table 4.15, a gutter size of 100 mm diameter. A half
wide and with a pitch of 45°? round gutter can be chosen along with a 63 mm
Solution: diameter downpipe.
The design factor for a 45° pitch is 1.5 taken from
the table for roof pitch and factors. If the plan area Table 4.15 Gutter sizes and outlet sizes
of a pitched roof measures 6 m × 4 m, then the Maximum Gutter Outlet Flow
effective area will be: effective roof size (mm size (mm capacity
6 × 4 × 1.5 = 36 m2 area (m2) diameter) diameter) (litres/sec)
6.0 – – –
18.0 75 50 0.38
Elevation of a roof 37.0 100 63 0.78
When calculating the effective area from an elevation, 53.0 115 63 1.11
different criteria are used. The elevation area of the roof 65.0 125 75 1.37
is the width × height. 103.0 150 89 2.16
Refers to nominal half round eaves gutters laid level with outlets at one
end sharp-edged. Round-ended outlets allow smaller downpipe sizes.
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
and is commonly positioned above the location of the
ACTIVITY ground level gulley leading to the sewer. The gulley
Locate manufacturers online and use the calculating
positions can be located either by a visual survey or by
roof area examples 1 and 2 to choose a gutter size
for half round, ogee and square line. referring to the property layout drawings.
Half round – used on many domestic
Gutter flow capacity properties
BS EN 12056.3 requires that only 90 per cent
of the gutter flow should be relied upon. It is also
High capacity – used on larger and
recommended by many manufacturers that gutters be
steeper roofs where high volume and
fixed at this level as this enables the gutter to be fitted velocity of water enters the gutter
as high as possible while still ensuring that the correct
position to the roof’s edge is maintained. Square section – good rainwater
Careful consideration needs to be given to the position capacity. Used with square-sectioned
rainwater pipes. Popular during the 1980s
of the rainwater outlets. Centre outlets are more
and 1990s
efficient than end outlets as the area that can be
drained is almost double, with the result of reducing
Ogee (ornamental gutter) – popular
the number of downpipes required on the system,
Victorian style gutter design
saving money and time.
The fall of the gutter p Figure 4.53 Drawings of gutter profiles
Although some manufacturers say that gutters should
be installed level, generally good practice will follow a Rainwater
fall of 1–3 mm/m. This is interpreted as a fall of 1:600 outlet
(25 mm for every 15 m). This fall greatly increases the Rainwater
flow capacity. outlet
Another reason for the fall of 1:600 is so that the gutter Rainwater
outlet
will not fall too low at the end of the run. Brackets
should be installed at a maximum of 1.0 m intervals so
that it does not sway when filled with water, but holds Inspection
Surface water sewer
the fall. in the road chamber
Selecting a gutter type p Figure 4.54 Building layout drawing
There are a range of different gutter profiles and
gutter materials produced today to suit a variety of The outlets, either a running outlet or a stop end outlet,
installations. Plastic guttering is by far the most popular will always denote the lowest point of the gutter run.
material used in domestic installations. Cast iron, cast The system will be more effective with more outlets
aluminium and extruded aluminium are also available. as this will allow for a better and balanced flow of
The expansion and contraction of plastic guttering is a water from the roof. Placing an outlet centrally rather
major installation factor. than at an end of a run will mean that the outlet will
accommodate a greater area of roof water run-off.
Outlet positions Figure 4.55 shows this positioning.
This part of the guttering system acts as the
connection between the gutter run and the downpipe
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1. 8m
KEY TERM
3m
Ratio: 1:600 means 1 mm fall for every 600 mm
length of gutter.
A
2. 4m 4m
By comparing the
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
3m location of outlet
positions shown in
Work out the maximum fall for a gutter length of 3.2 m.
1, 2 and 3 it can
be seen how the
efficiency of the
guttering system
A C
Alternative position C: Here the single
outlet is equal to two outlets either
B can be affected.
4 COMMISSIONING
SANITATION SYSTEMS
end because of the outlet design
Example 3 shows that 3. 2m 2m 2m 2m
the outlets would only
AND COMPONENTS
have 1/4 of the flow to
manage and as a result 3m
the risk of flooding is
reduced.
KEY POINT
A B
Commissioning of rainwater systems was covered
p Figure 4.55 Outlet positions on a roof in Book 1, Chapter 8, so refer back to remind
yourself of information such as rainwater testing
By dividing the expected flow rate from the roof by the and maintenance.
flow rate of the outlet, you can work out how many
outlets should be installed. When doing this, always Like all newly installed systems sanitation systems will
refer to the manufacturer’s literature for their particular need to be commissioned. In other words, make sure it
flow rate. works and performs as expected. Some manufacturers
will outline a recommended commissioning procedure,
ACTIVITY but all will follow this basic outline.
Looking at Figure 4.54, discuss the important design
The correct procedures must be followed and there are
criteria and possible repositioning of the outlets.
several documents that must be consulted:
l BS EN 12056.2:2000
Changes in direction l Building Regulations Approved Document H
Changes in direction are unavoidable as guttering l Building Regulations Approved Document F
follows the roof profile, but they will affect the flow l Building Regulations Approved Document G
capacity of the gutter if the change in direction is l the manufacturer’s instructions.
greater than 10°. A single 90° angle will affect the flow
rate by around 15 per cent, so the more there are in a Visual inspection
single run, the less efficient the flow rate will be.
It is important to check that all the connections are
When designing a gutter system, ensure you: properly fitted, such as push fit fittings are completely
l try to install straight gutter runs which offer the engaged and that solvent welded components are
maximum flow rate secure. It is essential that none of these components
l do not locate outlets near to a change in direction leak. The discharge pipework fall needs to be inspected
l apply the maximum fall ratio (1:600) where there and tested to confirm correct discharge.
are lots of bends
Clips are often overlooked, but must be inspected to
l install larger gutters where there are lots of changes
make sure the pipework is supported sufficiently, and
in direction.
the clips are anchored securely.
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
Water levels in WC cisterns should be inspected and
adjusted. Appliances need to be inspected to make sure INDUSTRY TIP
they have been secured correctly, that there is a seal, if
Always test your equipment before you use it. You do not
required, around the appliance to prevent water leaking
want to find that the system is sound, but the leak is on the
out. The waste connections need to be inspected to test equipment!
make sure they are sealed and secure, that they in turn
are connected to the correct trap and the trap is filled
with water. When walking the system, make sure the Performance test
swept tee connections are facing the correct direction Once a successful soundness test has been completed a
to aid the flow of water. performance test can be carried out.
Once the visual inspection is complete, the system can
then be tested for leaks. KEY TERM
Performance test: carried out on a sanitary system
to ensure that after simultaneous operation of
Soundness test appliances connected to the same soil stack,
In the case of larger buildings or multi-storey buildings, the trap depths remaining should be at least
this test may be required to be carried out in stages 25 mm deep.
or floor by floor. The soundness test is carried out in
accordance with BS EN 12056.2:2000 to ensure there The test requires appliances to be filled with water
are no leaks, as this will result in the ingress of foul and simultaneously discharged.
water and odours. The procedure is:
1 Fill all traps with water.
Air test preparation 2 Check the depth of each trap using a matt black dip
1 Inspect all the traps to ensure they are filled with stick. Record each reading.
water. 3 Fill each appliance up to the overflow level.
2 Seal the soil stack with drain plugs or bags. The top 4 Discharge simultaneously and flush the WCs.
seal will have a test nipple. 5 After the test, check the depth of each trap using a
3 A manometer or U gauge is filled with water and matt black dip stick. Record each reading.
connected to a test hose. 6 Ensure no trap seal is less than 25 mm deep.
4 The test hose is connected to both a hand pump
The performance test is required to be carried out three
and the test nipple via a Y piece connector.
times – one immediately after the other.
5 Inspect water level in manometer. It should read
zero. The performance test is designed to test the system
6 Gently squeeze the hand pump until the water level under the worst conditions and therefore see if the trap
in the manometer reaches 38 mm. seal is sucked out, leaving the trap vulnerable, allowing
7 Close air inlet valve on pump. foul air into the property.
8 Wait for 3 minutes.
It is important to check if the pipework conveying the
9 After 3 minutes if there is no pressure drop, the
water is either too long or too short. A plug of water
system is sound.
accumulates while it is discharging and this in turn
10 If there is a drop in pressure, leak detection fluid
creates a partial vacuum, behind the plug, which sucks
should be used to trace the leak. The leak should
the water from the trap. This happens frequently where
be rectified and the system retested.
a wash basin has been installed due to the speed of
discharge and the small diameter of discharge pipe.
This is known as self or induced siphonage.
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Atmospheric pressure Negative pressure zone 'Plug' of flowing water
Water seal sucked out of trap
p Figure 4.56 Self siphonage in action
Atmospheric pressure Water flowing from an appliance
Trap upstream Trap downstream
Water sucked
out of trap
Negative pressure zone
'Plug' of flowing water
p Figure 4.57 Induced siphonage in action
The second type of siphonage the performance test could
INDUSTRY TIP
highlight is induced siphonage, which occurs to a passive
trap (one not in use) when water is discharged from other These records, especially for larger installations, may be
appliances connected to the same discharge branch. kept by the facility manager.
Again, a plug of water accumulates while it is discharging
and this in turn creates a partial vacuum behind the plug, Typical information that should be included is:
which sucks the water out from the passive trap. This can l date, time and names of commissioning engineer
happen when a series of wash basins are connected to l location
the same discharge branch, hence good practice suggests l manufacturers’ names and components
that if multiple basins are connected to the same l soundness test results
discharge branch the pipe diameter should be increased l performance test results.
from 32 mm to 50 mm in diameter.
These tests may need to be overseen by building
Record keeping control and therefore be signed off by them.
Commissioning records, especially for larger systems,
should be kept for reference during maintenance and
repair to ensure future efficiency of the system.
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The customer must be then shown around the system
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH and shown the operating principle of the system and
Well written, detailed commissioning records will
any appliances such as macerators, waste water lifters,
help improve the approach and process of any
future installations. They will also be used in the sink waste disposal unit and showers. It is good practice
future as reference material if any problems or faults to advise the customer about any future maintenance
occur in the system. or self-maintenance considerations. The customer
will also need to know where to isolate any electrical
appliances should an emergency arise.
Handover
When a system has been tested and commissioned,
it can then be handed over to the customer. The VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
customer will require all the documentation for the Upon completion of any new installation, you
installation, which should include: should take time to adequately advise the
l all manufacturers’ instructions customer about how to maintain their new
l commissioning records and certificates system or appliances. Take time to demonstrate
l Building Regulations compliance certificates correct operation and answer any questions they
l an as-fitted drawing showing the position of access have.
points.
5 SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE
OF SANITATION AND RAINWATER SYSTEMS
Routine maintenance INDUSTRY TIP
The manufacturer’s instructions, along with the
If the macerator runs for a long time after flushing, the
handover to the customer, should outline any
system or unit could be blocked.
maintenance considerations. Maintenance procedures
for different appliances are as follows. If the macerator fails to run after a discharge, check the
fuse or float operated switch.
Macerator maintenance If the macerator cycles, it could be due to a faulty non-
return valve.
After installation, a demonstration on how the unit
operates and is fully isolated needs to be carried out.
The manufacturer’s instructions will often provide a Waste water lifter maintenance
flow chart which will help with fault finding. BS EN 12056.4 covers the maintenance on these
1 Remove fuse from the spur. units. Always communicate with the customer to see
2 Lock and label the spur. if there have been any problems. The manufacturer’s
3 Check the size of fuse is correct. instructions are important to follow for both servicing
4 Visually inspect that pipework has been installed and fault finding as designs vary. When working on
correctly. these units it is important to wear the correct PPE. To
5 Inspect for sufficient clipping. carry out a service or any maintenance on these units,
6 Inspect gradient of at least 1:40 fall from appliances the engineer will require additional training.
to the unit. 1 Check safe isolation.
7 Any filters, non-return valves and seals need 2 Ensure that the motor rotates in the correct
inspecting. direction.
8 If a macerator is faulty follow the manufacturer’s 3 Operate valves to makes sure they open and close
flow chart. fully.
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4 Inspect the switching and setting controls in the and mould will start to show and the possibility of
collection tank. a foul smell may occur. The system will need to be
5 Inspect for water tightness. inspected and a soundness test may need to take
6 Carry out a functional test on the non-return valve. place to find the leak. Replacement of the seal or
7 Inspect the pipework support and clipping. part will need to take place.
8 Test the motor protection switch. l Blockages – this will be evident by a slow discharge
9 Check oil levels if required. from an appliance or a back-up of fluid in the
10 Ensure correct warning light function. appliance. Care will need to be taken with the
11 Check correct voltage. rectification of blockages. Look for any local access
12 Inspect hand pump if fitted. caps that could be removed to allow drain rods
access. The use of correct chemicals is an option,
Sink waste disposal unit maintenance but this will need to be carried out with care, after
These units are installed on specific sinks with fully reading the manufacturer’s instructions. It
89–90 mm waste holes. Care should be taken when could be as simple as just removing a trap and
servicing and maintaining these units. It is important clearing it, or as complicated as replacing a section
to be trained and fully aware of the manufacturer’s of the system.
procedures. The units are supplied with a specific tool l Inadequate support – this will be evident with the
to free the grinding blades should they become blocked. sagging of discharge pipes or easy movement of
The device will have a thermal cut-off device that will pipework. Broken supports or additional supports
trip in the event of the blades jamming. It is important can be installed.
to inspect the earth bonding, RCD and fuse sizes of l Broken pipework – this will be very evident with
these units. major leaks and smells. A section of the system will
need to be replaced and tested.
l Incomplete systems – this will only be found on
6 DIAGNOSING AND new builds where contractors have been changed.
A visual inspection of the property will need to take
RECTIFYING FAULTS place and discussion with your supervisor and the
IN SANITARY SYSTEMS l
site manager will need to take place.
Incorrect fall – the required fall of 2½–5° will give
AND COMPONENTS the correct self-cleaning discharge. If the fall is too
shallow, debris can remain in the discharge pipe,
Fault diagnosis and repairs to sanitation systems tend creating build-ups and then blockages. If the fall is
to be quite simple and can normally be rectified quite too steep, this can create siphonage and pull the
easily. Any fault on a system will generally be described trap seal out. A visual inspection of the system will
by a customer outlining the symptoms. This can be need to be made and an assessment made. This
followed up by a visual inspection which may need to could mean changing the design and fall of the
backed up with manufacturer’s instructions. Listen to the system or installing an anti-vac trap.
customer describe the symptom which will help in the
diagnosis. The customer will need to be informed of your Addressing faults in
findings, costs, time scale and any disruption that may
occur. With all work like this a risk assessment will need rainwater systems
to be made and the correct PPE will need to be worn. l Leaks – these may not be obvious to start with until
it rains, but over time there may be black/green
Addressing faults in moss growing on the side of the building. Leaks are
caused either by a seal being damaged or a crack in
sanitation systems the system. This can be rectified by replacing the
l Leaks – these will become obvious as the system seal or a section of the system.
is used and appliances discharged. Over time, moss
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l Blockages – these are identified by the gutter at the commissioning stage of the installation. The
overflowing when it is raining and causes a nuisance rainwater will flow either too fast or too slow. In
to the customer. Blockages can be caused by the worst scenario, the fall could be the wrong way.
something as simple as a tennis ball, leaves, etc. A recalculation of the 1:600 fall will need to be
blocking the outlet. The blockage will need to be made and any necessary adjustments made to the
removed and the customer advised as to what the installation.
cause was. If there are over-hanging trees, regular l Lack of provision for expansion – in the warmer
leaf clearance or the use of gutter guards should be weather this could cause buckling of the system,
suggested. and in cooler weather this could cause a section to
l Inadequate support – a visual inspection of the come loose. A visual inspection of each connection
system will show the sagging of the gutter or easy will need to be made to ensure the gutter has been
movement of the downpipe. This can cause pooling inserted up to the expansion point and not the stop.
of rainwater and movement of components on Necessary adjustments will need to be made.
windy days, which causes additional stress being
put on the system. Broken supports will need to be
replaced and additional supports could be fitted if SUMMARY
required.
l Broken gutter or downpipes – this will be evident Having looked at the broad subject of sanitation
by a visual inspection, or severe leaks when it rains. and rainwater systems, it shows the importance of
Damage like this will normally have been caused by design, installation and maintenance. There is a high
a physical knock. This could be from an overhanging responsibility on disposing of waste products safely
branch or ladder, a wheelbarrow or car, etc. A and hygienically, which can be affected if not enough
section will need to be replaced and the customer planning, thought and care have taken place at the
advised about care in the future. early stages prior to and during installation.
l Incomplete systems – this will generally only With growing pressure on world resources, especially
happen on a new build if contractors have been water, the saving of wholesome water through the
changed. A visual inspection of the property will re-use of household water by installing grey water
need to take place, as well as a discussion with your recycling systems or through the installation of
supervisor and the site manager. rainwater harvesting systems is becoming a prominent
l Incorrect fall – the symptom will not necessarily issue. As plumbers we need to play a responsible part
be obvious to the customer, but should be evident in this.
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Test your knowledge
1 Which system does the UK primary ventilated 7 Just prior to the connection of the discharge
stack come under being outlined by BS EN 12056? pipe from a pumping station to the sewer what
a System I – 50% capacity must be installed?
b System II – 70% capacity a Backflow stop
c System III – 100% capacity b Backflow enhancer
d System IV – black water and grey water c Backflow loop
systems d Backflow restrictor
2 Where can an air admittance valve be used? 8 What does an RCD protect you from?
a Below the spillover level of a basin a Electric shock
b In a loft area if insulated b Exposure to foul water
c At the base of a soil stack c Toxic gases
d Where a discharge branch enters a soil stack d Build-up of pressure
3 Why must cesspools and septic tanks be 9 Which one of the following is important at the
inspected for soundness? design stage prior to installing a wet room?
a To stop foul air entering the building a Gaining planning permission
b To allow controlled access of air into the b Talking to the building control officer
system c Soundness testing
c To prevent the system from overflowing d Talking to the customer
d To prevent foul water entering the 10 What item must be installed correctly to collect
surrounding ground and remove the flow of water in a wet room?
4 Who should be consulted with at the design a Vent grill
stage if there are any doubts over installing an
b AAV
air admittance valve?
c Low level grill
a Building control officer
d Back up loop
b The customer
11 Which part of BS EN 12056 outlines the different
c The site manager
types of soil stack systems?
d A colleague
a 1
5 Which Building Regulation states that if a WC
b 2
macerator is installed in a customer’s property,
c 3
a gravity WC must also be installed?
d 4
a G
12 What is the maximum height above the invert
b H
level that a WC can be connected to a stub
c A
stack?
d P
a 2.5 m
6 Which type of fitting should not be used on the
b 2.0 m
discharge pipe from a macerator?
c 1.5 m
a Solder ring
d 1.0 m
b Push fit
c Compression
d Solvent weld
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Chapter 4 Advanced sanitation and rainwater systems
13 According to BS EN 12056, what gradient should 19 Which item is the correct electrical connection
the discharge branches of a solid stack be for a macerator unit?
normally kept between? a Switch fused spur with 10 amp fuse
a 0–2.5° b Switch and luminated fused spur with 10
b 2.5–5° amp fuse
c 3–6° c Unswitched fused spur with 13 amp fuse
d 5–10° d Unswitched fused spur with 5 amp fuse
14 What is the recommended discharge branch 20 When would a waste water lifter be used?
size for a kitchen sink? a When draining by gravity is not an option
a 20 mm b When the discharge into the system is high
b 32 mm c When the maximum flow capacity of the
c 40 mm system reaches 75%
d 50 mm d When a system includes a surface water
15 Which appliance does not have an overflow? discharge
a Shower 21 What safety cut-out device is incorporated into
a sink waste disposal unit?
b Bath
a Over load cut-out
c Sink
b Flow switch
d Basin
c Thermal cut-out
16 What is the maximum number of WCs that can
be attached to a 100 mm discharge branch? d Non-return valve
a 2 22 Which standard outlines the minimum space
requirements for each sanitary appliance?
b 5
a Building Regulations part M
c 8
b BS EN 6465
d 12
c BS EN 806
17 Which phrase best describes a septic tank?
d BS 8000
a An underground tank that stores the sewage
until the time of disposal 23 According to BS EN 12056, what should be fitted
when a pipe goes through a ceiling or floor to
b An underground tank that allows the sewage
another property?
to settle
a Non-return valve
c A multi chamber tank allowing the liquid and
solid waste to separate b Air admittance valve
d A multi chamber tank storing the sewage c Water trap
until the time of disposal d Intumescent collar
18 Which one of the installation factors is NOT 24 What size of waste pipe is required as a
associated with a WC macerator? discharge if multiple hand wash basins are
a Always use smooth bends connected together?
b Remember to re-burr any cut edges a 32 mm
c Gravity fall fills the macerator unit b 40 mm
d Only copper pipe is used for the discharge c 50 mm
d 100 mm
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
25 What is the formula for working out the effective 30 List and describe the four types of sanitation
roof area when designing a rainwater system? systems outlined in BS EN 12056.
H 31 List the regulative and guidance documentation
a �W + � × L
2 that would need to be referenced when
W designing and installing a soil stack at a
b �L + � × H
2 domestic property.
L
c �H + � × W 32 State the advantages of a reed bed if connected
2
to a septic tank.
W
d (H + L) × + 33 Describe why a macerator might be installed
2
behind a WC in a bathroom.
26 Which Building Regulation Approved Document
outlines foul water drainage? 34 Describe the use and function of an
intumescent collar.
27 Which pipe on a primary ventilated stack
system acts as the vent? Answers can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
28 Describe the function of a permanent level
control in a lifting unit.
29 When designing a primary ventilated stack for a
domestic property, the installation must always
be designed to operate at what pressure?
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CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
Plumbing is a very diverse craft which often awareness of some of the electrical equipment and
encompasses electrical applications. For example, circuits you will be working on. It will show you how
a plumber’s work could include the installation to connect electrical equipment to circuits and check
of an immersion heater for a hot water cylinder, the connections are safe.
a central heating control system, fitting electric
By the end of this chapter, you will have a knowledge
showers or checking bonding to gas or water
and understanding of:
systems. Many components or equipment used for
l the principles of electricity
plumbing installations require an electrical supply
l the legislation relating to electrical work and the
or control circuit.
control of plumbing and domestic heating systems
In addition, working in the building services industry l the types of electrical system and layouts
requires the use of electrical plant and machinery, l performing pre-installation activity prior to
which can also involve risk. Whether you are undertaking electrical work on plumbing and
installing electrical equipment or not, you will be domestic heating
working on or around electricity and the purpose l safe isolation procedures
of this chapter is to give you an understanding of l safe installation and testing of electrical equipment
the risks involved as well as an understanding and l diagnosing faults and safe repair of electrical work.
Remember, some of the basic electrical safety ● components used in electrical installations and
and principles were covered in Book 1, Chapter basic electrical tasks
11, Electrical principles and processes for building ● electrical tests and procedures for safely isolating
services engineering. This covered: supplies
● electrical supplies used in domestic plumbing ● identifying critical safety faults on electrical
systems components.
KEY POINT
It is important to note that the knowledge gained
1 THE PRINCIPLES OF
from this chapter does not make you a qualified
electrician, but opportunities do exist for you to
ELECTRICITY
take further training in your career to enable you Electricity is a flow of electrons that cannot be seen or
to install and commission a defined scope of
smelt. It flows around a circuit where its energy makes
electrical systems and circuits.
things work. When electricity is simply quantified, we
use a number of terms, represented by certain symbols
(see Table 5.1).
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Table 5.1 Common electrical terms
Term Unit of Symbol What it is
measurement used
Current amperes or I In simple terms, it is the quantity of electricity. To use a simple analogy, if two litres of
amps for short water was to flow through a pipe, that is the quantity of water. If two amps was to flow
(A) in a circuit, this is the quantity of electricity.
The quantity of electricity has an impact on the size of cables needed, as cables that
are too small for the intended current may get too hot, which in turn will result in
damage and potential fire risks.
Resistance ohms (Ω) R It is an opposition to current flow which can impede the current. If a pipe was kinked,
water would be restricted and less water flows. If a circuit has too much resistance,
this too can resist current flow which causes heat. Resistance may also be present in
appliances that use or consume the electrical energy, such as immersed water heater
elements that have a set resistance and when the current passes through the element,
creates heat. Anything carrying electricity has resistance such as cables, etc. but the idea
is to keep the resistance low in cables so current can flow without creating too much heat.
Voltage volts (V) V Voltage is, in simple terms, the pressure that pushes current around a circuit. If a
circuit has too much resistance, perhaps due to length or cable size, voltage will be
lost in the circuit which could result in equipment not working correctly. In the UK,
the standard supply voltage for most dwellings is 230 V. In reality, if the voltage was
measured in many dwellings, it could be anywhere between 217 V and 253 V. Another
term used to describe voltage is potential.
Potential volts (V) V This is the difference in voltages between two conductive points. As an example,
difference parts connected to the electrical earth in a building, such as metal gas pipes, would
in normal circumstances be at 0 volts. A live connection on a 230 V circuit would
have a voltage of 230 V. If the voltage was measured between the two parts using a
volt meter, the meter would read the potential (voltage) difference which is 230 V. If,
however, the pipe became live due to a fault and had a voltage present of 220 V, the
potential difference the meter would actually read is 10 V.
Power watts (W) P Most electrical equipment will have a power rating based on the voltage it is intended to
be connected to. This would in turn dictate the amount of current needed from the supply.
Energy kilowatt hours kWh This is the unit used to measure the amount of electricity consumed by an electrical
installation and used to bill the consumer for what they have used. Although energy is
generally measured in joules, one joule is one watt of power in one second. If joules
were used to bill the quantity of electricity used, most electricity bills would have
usage as millions of joules. To make this much easier to understand, energy usage is
measured in kilowatts used per hour.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS KEY TERMS
How many watts of power are consumed by an electric Line: the conductor, having brown coloured
water heater using 90,000 joules in 30 seconds? insulation, which is normally connected to
terminals marked L.
KEY POINT Neutral: the conductor, having blue coloured
insulation, which is normally connected to
Both line and neutral conductors are live as they
terminals marked N.
both carry current.
Conductor: this is the part of a cable which current
passes through. In most cables, this is made of
Basic circuit principles copper and should have a low resistance.
In simple terms, current flows from a source of energy, Insulation: the material that covers the conductor,
such as a battery or transformer, around a circuit, and should have a high resistance stopping
current flow. Insulation is intended to stop current
through a load, such as a heater element and back to from leaking from one conductor into another
its source. The current passes through a line conductor conductor or person which could in turn cause
up to the load and through the neutral as a return an electric shock.
path back to the source.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
HEALTH AND SAFETY INDUSTRY TIP
Voltmeters measure potential difference. Just
because a meter gives a voltage reading of 2 V There is a vast range of electrical equipment you will
between two points, it doesn’t mean there is only install in your career from thermostats to central heating
2 volts present. One part could be at a voltage of controllers, showers to macerators. Always remember
230 V and the other at 228 V. that essentially, there are only two types of electrical
components:
l loads, that consume power and make electricity do
INDUSTRY TIP something such as heat water
l switches, that control current by diverting current (such
You will often hear the brown conductor called live, but it as a relay) or switching current off (such as a time clock
should actually be called line. or thermostat).
The load will normally cause the voltage to be
consumed so the line conductor has a voltage of Ohm’s law and power
230 V and the neutral 0 V, giving a measured potential
Having an understanding of Ohm’s law and how power
difference across the load of 230 V when measured on
is calculated will help when considering cable size,
the load L and N terminals.
checking circuits or undertaking fault diagnosis. Ohm’s
law and power were introduced in Book 1, Chapter 3,
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Scientific principles.
In older buildings the line conductor may be
coloured red and the neutral black. In 2004, UK
cable colours were harmonised with Europe, and Ohm’s law
line became brown and neutral blue. If you are The relationship between voltage, current and
connecting equipment where a mixture of colours resistance can be demonstrated using Ohm’s law
is present always seek advice from an electrician
where:
as black cables became line conductors in more
complex, three-phase buildings or in some single- Voltage = current × resistance
phase installations where three or four-core cables
are used. If you make a mistake with the colours, or
the result could be potentially fatal.
V = I × R or I = V or R = V
R I
So, if a circuit had a voltage of 230 V and a connected
load having a resistance of 120 Ω, the current drawn
by the load would be:
SW/L Loop N
To other as I = V
L EN
light R
points
Supply
Ceiling rose then:
230 = 1.92 A
120
E
Alternatively, Ohm’s law could be used to work out
voltage loss due to cable conductor resistance.
One-way
switch
Figure 5.1 A basic electrical circuit
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS ACTIVITY
Worked example: calculating Ohm’s law Using a catalogue, find the electrical power rating
for the items listed below then calculate the amount
Let’s assume a line conductor was connected to a of current they would draw from a 230 V supply:
230 V supply and the conductor had a resistance of
l central heating circulating pump
3 Ω. If the load draws a current of 2 A, how much
l electric shower
voltage would be lost by the conductor resistance?
l electric instantaneous water boiler
As:
V = I×R l motorised valve.
then:
V = 2× 3 = 6 V
Electric shock
So, if the supply was 230 V and 6 V was lost due Very small current values can cause electric shock,
to the conductor resistance, only 224 V would be and values around 0.05 A (50 mA) can cause death.
present on the load line terminal.
The human body responds to different current values
as the body uses electrical signals to make muscles
Power move. Coming into contact with external currents can
override the body signals causing involuntary operation
The power of a load is measured in watts. This value
of muscles. If the current is an alternating current (AC),
dictates the amount of current drawn by the load
this could cause parts of the body, such as the heart
depending on the circuit or supply voltage as:
muscle, to operate at speeds equal to the electrical
Power (P) = voltage (V) × current (I) supply frequency.
or: KEY TERM
I= P
V
Electric shock: where a current flows through the
human body and causes an accident or injury as
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS a result.
Worked example: calculating power
So, if an immersion heater element has a power The electrical supply frequency for AC in the UK is
rating of 3 kW and is connected to a 230 V supply, 50 hertz, meaning the current alternates direction
how much current is drawn by the element? 50 times in one second. An alternating current is
As a kilowatt is 1000 watts then 3 kW is 3000 W so: effectively switching on and off twice in one alternation
or cycle so this has the effect of turning the current on
I = P so 3000 = 13.04 A and off twice in one cycle or 100 times a second.
V 230
180° 360°
0°
So, the immersion heater circuit conductors would + V
need to carry 13.04 A.
I
KEY POINT
It is always a good exercise to know how much
current certain loads draw as this has an impact
on the switches or devices selected to control
them. For example, if the immersion heater above
needed to be controlled by a time clock switch,
the switch must be capable of switching at least
13.04 A. If the time clock switch selected was
only capable of switching 10 A, the switch would –
burn out very quickly. 1 cycle or period
Figure 5.2 Alternating current sine wave
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
If an AC current exceeding 0.05 A was able to flow There are two ways a person can receive an electric
through the heart, this could cause the heart to shock:
pump 100 times a second and it will not take long for l directly, by touching a part which is meant to be
the heart to stop functioning in a short time period live such as a live conductor
causing arrest. l indirectly, by touching a metallic part which isn’t
normally live but has become live due to a fault in
If a person was to come into contact with direct
the system.
current (DC), which flows in one direction only,
this would cause muscles to contract and stop. If
someone came into contact with a direct current of
Protection against direct contact
approximately 0.02 A, this could cause arm muscles In order to protect persons against electric shock by
to lock making it impossible to let go of the live part. direct contact with live parts, two methods are used in
There is a saying that ‘you stick to DC.’ all common electrical installations:
l Insulation of live parts, such as the insulations
The body responds in various ways to an electrical around a copper conductor – as insulation must
current flowing through it as shown in Table 5.2. have a high resistance to stop current from
Table 5.2 How current affects the body leaking, the insulation must be suitable for the
intended voltage. If the insulation isn’t suitable
Current in Effect on the body
milliamperes (mA)
for the intended voltage, the voltage will break
10–12 A slight tingling sensation is
down the resistance allowing current to flow. If
experienced insulation is damaged or deteriorating, this too
15 Pain increases rapidly above this could cause electric shock as live parts may be
current exposed to touch.
20–25 Hard to let go (DC) or the hand can l Barriers and enclosures, such as junction boxes,
be knocked away from the point of socket-outlet fronts and boxes or switch fronts and
contact (AC)
boxes – the rule is that all barriers and enclosures
50 Death has been recorded at this
current must only be accessible by the use of a tool or key,
Above 120 Rapid and irregular beats of heart such as a screwdriver. One exception to this rule
muscles. Breathing may be paralysed. is a ceiling rose type light point and a lampholder.
Fatal effects are likely This is because the lampholder would normally
have a lamp inserted giving protection and a
In order for current to enter the body, a voltage is
ceiling rose is installed on a ceiling which is a
required to break down skin resistance. For an average
generally inaccessible position.
person in average conditions the voltage is typically
In addition, all barriers and enclosures housing live
50 V AC or 120 V DC.
electrical parts must have suitable IP protection
Changing conditions can reduce the body resistance, such as IP2X for all surfaces and IP4X for all
meaning lower voltages can cause current to enter accessible horizontal top surfaces.
the body causing electric shock. These changes in
conditions could be: KEY TERMS
l humid locations such as bathrooms causing the
IP2X: meaning that there is no hole in the barrier
body to sweat lowering skin resistance or enclosure greater than 12.5 mm in diameter,
l being outdoors standing on the earth, meaning which provides ‘finger protection’, meaning no
more points of contact with earth – more contact person can insert their finger and touch live parts.
points lower body resistance as there are more IP4X: meaning that there is no hole in the barrier
paths for current to take or enclosure greater than 1 mm in diameter
l confined conducting locations, such as laying on
stopping parts from falling into the enclosure.
a metal duct, as the multiple points of contact
with earthed parts completely reduces body
resistance.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
2 THE LEGISLATION RELATING TO ELECTRICAL
WORK AND THE CONTROL OF PLUMBING AND
DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEMS
Although working on electrical systems is not anything that influences them, equipment, isolation
restricted by a licence to practise, there are many and safety systems, and the competency of those
statutory and non-statutory regulations which address working with electricity.
the dangers of working on, or installing electrical
components and systems. As soon as somebody KEY TERMS
decides to work on or install electrical equipment Duty holder: any person or organisation holding a
or components, they are duty-bound to work in legal duty under the Health and Safety at Work
accordance with all electrical related regulations etc. Act 1974.
regardless of the nature of the work. Failure to Competency: the degree to which a person has the
comply with any of the regulations could lead to, ability to complete something.
as a minimum, prosecution. Failure to comply with
regulatory procedures could result in death. The EAWR apply beyond those situations that we
traditionally associate with the dangers of electricity,
Legislation and information including voltages outside the scope of BS 7671 The IET
Under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, many Wiring Regulations. The EAWR cover battery operated
statutory regulations have been created by HSE to systems to extra high voltage transmission supplies.
promote electrical safety. These are described below. The HSE produces a memorandum of guidance
Remember, when working on or around electricity, (HSR25), which is free and provides guidance on how
ignorance to the law is not a defence. each regulation should be interpreted. Each regulation
covers a specific topic, as follows:
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 l Regulation 4 – systems, work activities and
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (EAWR) are protective equipment
made under the HSW Act. This means that breaches l Regulation 5 – strength and capability of electrical
in the EAWR will result in action being taken under equipment
the HSW Act. l Regulation 6 – adverse or hazardous environments
l Regulation 7 – insulation, protection and placing of
INDUSTRY TIP conductors
l Regulation 8 – earthing or other suitable precautions
You can access the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 at: l Regulation 9 – integrity of referenced conductors
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635/contents/made l Regulation 10 – connections
l Regulation 11 – means for protecting from
In addition to the duties imposed by the HSW Act, overcurrent
the EAWR impose duties on duty holders in respect l Regulation 12 – means for cutting off the supply
of systems, electrical equipment and conductors, and and for isolation
work activities on or near electrical equipment under l Regulation 13 – precautions for work on equipment
their control. Managers of mines and quarries are also made dead
included, despite mines and quarries having other l Regulation 14 – work on or near live conductors
special regulations. l Regulation 15 – working space, access and lighting
The EAWR cover the principles of electrical safety l Regulation 16 – persons to be competent to prevent
that apply to work activities and systems, including danger and injury.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
a wide range of weather conditions including wet
INDUSTRY TIP weather. Equipment also needs to be robust enough
and sufficiently protected to withstand mechanical
The HSE memorandum of guidance for HSR25 is freely
impact or abrasion.
available at: www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/priced/hsr25.pdf
It should help to reduce to as low a level as possible,
the risk of electric shock through external influences,
Electricity Safety, Quality and including from reduced low voltage systems such
Continuity Regulations 2002 as the 110 V system used on UK construction sites.
The Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations This may mean that additional protection must be
2002 (ESQCR) impose requirements regarding the provided.
installation and use of electric lines and the apparatus of
electricity suppliers, including provisions for connection Non-statutory regulations,
with earth. The safety aspects of these regulations
are administered by the HSE. All other aspects are published guidance and
administered by government and the industry. codes of practice
Guidance on the legal requirements of certain statutory
INDUSTRY TIP regulations and how to interpret them, and approved
codes of practice (ACoPs), are published or approved
The ESQCR can be accessed here: www.legislation.gov.uk/ by the HSE and the relevant secretary of state. These
uksi/2002/2665/contents/made documents often contain a copy of the legislation
they are giving guidance on. They have a special legal
The ESQCR may impose requirements, usually on status in law. Where a duty holder does not follow the
supply companies or those associated with the supply guidance or code of practice, they must show that their
of electricity, in addition to those of the EAWR. course of action or omission is no less safe.
Designers of installations have a responsibility to
ensure they meet the ESQCR. INDUSTRY TIP
Provision and Use of Work The HSE website contains many guidance documents which are
Equipment Regulations 1998 free to download here: www.hse.gov.uk/guidance/index.htm
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
1998 (PUWER) ensure that work equipment, such as Not all documents using the term ‘regulations’ are
electric drills and cutters, as constructed or adapted, is statutory instruments. For example, BS 7671 The
suitable for the task and safe to use, taking into account IET Wiring Regulations are non-statutory. They form
all the risks of using it in a specific work environment. the national standard in the UK for low voltage
This applies to any equipment, machinery, appliance, electrical installations. They deal with the design,
apparatus or tool for use at work. selection, erection, inspection and testing of electrical
installations operating at a voltage up to 1000 V
INDUSTRY TIP AC. Work undertaken in accordance with BS 7671
is almost certain to meet the requirements of the
The PUWER can be downloaded free of charge at: Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. BS 7671 is
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1998/2306/contents/made supported by a number of guidance notes published
by the Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET).
For example, in order to be fit for purpose,
construction site equipment needs to cope with
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Part 4 − Protection for safety, which provides
KEY TERMS
l
detail on methods which may or must be used for
National standard: based on International protecting against particular risks electricity may
Standards produced by the International
pose such as electric shock, fire or overcurrent.
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), member
nations create their own versions specific to their l Part 5 − Selection and erection gives detail on
needs. Other CENELEC countries use the term what particular equipment can be used and how it
‘rules’ rather than ‘regulations’. For example, the should be installed.
national wiring standard in the Republic of Ireland l Part 6 − Inspection and testing, which gives criteria
is the National Rules for Electrical Installations for what should be inspected and tested for every
(ET101).
new or existing electrical installation.
CENELEC: commonly used to refer to Comité l Part 7 − Special installations or locations sets out
Européen de Normalisation Électrotechnique,
which is the European Committee for requirements where a particular location provides
Electrotechnical Standardisation. greater risk. In these locations, all relevant previous
regulations still apply but, because of the risk, some
regulations need changing to overcome the risk.
Other non-statutory rules include the rules and
requirements of regulating bodies such as the NICEIC,
the National Association of Professional Inspectors and
IET On-Site Guide
Testers (NAPIT), the Electrical Contractors’ Association The purpose of the IET On-Site Guide is to provide
(ECA) and trade unions such as Unite. Individuals and guidance on the design, installation and inspection
enterprises that want to belong to these organisations and testing of standard installations such as those
must comply with the relevant organisation’s rules. in dwellings, shops and small offices. By following
In certain circumstances, compliance with such the guidance given, the need for complex design
rules, such as those for competent person schemes calculations is reduced.
(CPSs), assists in compliance with specific statutory
regulations or requirements. INDUSTRY TIP
BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations Although the use of the On-Site Guide will nearly always
BS 7671 is the basis for all other guidance lead to compliance with BS 7671, it may not provide the
documentation, such as the IET On-Site Guide or the most economical design. For example, using tables within
the guide may lead to an electrician installing a particular
eight IET guidance notes (GNs). BS 7671 is broken
size cable for a particular circuit but with more rigorous
down into seven parts with further appendices
design, a smaller cable may be suitable leading to savings
providing information relating to the seven parts. in cost. In many cases in these types of installations
The parts are in a logical order relating to the design however, the cost saving from the cable may be less than
and installation of an electrical installation. They are: the cost for the time designing!
l Part 1 − Scope, object and fundamental principles,
which sets out what the standard covers (scope),
why it is setting out (object) and what risks need KEY TERM
addressing (fundamental principles).
Economical: good value for money.
l Part 2 − Definitions, which provide detailed
descriptions of technical words or phrases, including
abbreviations and symbols, used in the document. IET Student’s Guide to the Wiring
l Part 3 − Assessment of general characteristics,
Regulations
which details what a designer must assess prior to
Whilst this guide is intended for students learning
designing an electrical installation and before any
about electrical installations, the title should not put
equipment is installed.
off electricians from using this guide as it simplifies a
lot of the technical aspects of BS 7671 and provides
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
good guidance on the electrical industry, basic design l plans/layout drawings
procedures, good working practices and common l schematic (block) diagrams
calculations. l wiring diagrams
l circuit diagrams.
IET guidance notes Drawings usually use British Standard symbols.
The IET guidance notes (GNs) are intended to provide However, in order to represent the wide variety of
more detailed guidance on aspects of BS 7671 but materials and equipment available, non-standard
the numbering of the eight GNs does not necessarily symbols may also be used. A legend or key explains
reflect the parts of BS 7671. The eight guidance notes them.
are:
l GN1 − Selection and erection Plans or layout drawings
l GN2 − Isolation and switching Plans or layout drawings are used to locate individual
l GN3 − Inspection and testing systems within the overall project and give an
l GN4 − Protection against fire indication of the scale of the project. In addition, there
l GN5 − Protection against electric shock may be drawings to show specific fixing, assembly
l GN6 − Protection against overcurrent and/or completion details. This is often the case where
l GN7 − Special locations complex construction, lifting or use of a crane is
l GN8 − Earthing and bonding. required. These details may be provided in elevation,
The IET also provide specific guidance documents on plan or both. They will then become part of the
aspects of electrical installation work, such as: contractor’s method statement when the project goes
l Guide to consumer units into the construction phase.
l Considerations for DC installations
l Installation of electric vehicle charging installations
Schematic diagrams
l In-service inspection and testing of electrical Schematic diagrams, sometimes referred to as block
equipment diagrams, can serve many purposes, but are primarily
l Guide to the Building Regulations provided to show the overall functionality of a system,
l Guide to emergency lighting installations. including interfaces and operational requirements.
This means they are intended to show a sequence
INDUSTRY TIP of control and connection but not necessarily scale
or actual positions in the wiring. For example, if a
The IET also publish a comprehensive suite of Codes of three-plate lighting system was drawn as a wiring
Practice known as IET Standards. A full list of these can diagram, the light would be wired before the switch
be found on the IET website: search for ‘IET electrical’. even though the switch controls the light. A schematic
would show the switch before the light as a sequence
of control. Schematic or block diagrams are typically
Diagrams and used to show distribution systems and circuits in large
manufacturers’ documents electrical installations having many remote distribution
boards.
providing electrical
information
Numerous sets of drawings are produced to
communicate information about individual systems
or collections of systems within an electrical project.
They include:
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Figure 5.3 Plan drawing of a building
Figure 5.4 Typical schematic drawing
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Wiring diagrams routing, the length of run and types of systems
Wiring diagrams are generally provided to show cabling. These types of diagram are sometimes
in detail how a system or collection of systems is mistakenly referred to when it is actually a circuit
put together. This type of drawing shows locations, diagram that is required.
6 A lighting 1.5 mm2 6242Y
kWh
25 mm2 tails
6243Y
16 mm2 earthing
conductor
32 A cooker 6 mm2 6242Y
10 mm2 main
protective
bonding
20 A radial 32 A ring final
2.5 mm2 6242Y 2.5 mm2 6242Y 20 A radial
2.5 mm2 6242Y
Branch
Spur
Figure 5.5 Typical wiring drawing
R Y B
Circuit diagrams
Circuit diagrams contain information on how circuits MCCB
and systems operate. They can be provided as detailed Thermal over load relay
layouts, although some information such as length of
run may be omitted for clarity. In most instances, these Delta Star
contactor contactor
diagrams are used for diagnostic purposes so that KM2 KM1
designers, installers and maintainers understand how
1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5
their actions may influence a particular component or
arrangement. 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
KEY TERM Main
contactor
KM3
Diagnostic: concerned with identifying problems.
U1 V1 W1 W2 V2 U2
3-phase
motor
Figure 5.6 Typical circuit diagram
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Manufacturer’s information Typical electrical installation
When installing any electrical equipment or appliances,
the manufacturer’s instructions supersede all other
systems for domestic
requirements. premises
Manufacturer’s information normally comes in two An electrical installation is made up of many parts
forms: and in certain ways to make them safe and functional.
l installation and maintenance information
These include:
l consumers’ control unit (CCU) or distribution
l user information.
board (DB)
Installation and maintenance information contains l protective devices found in the CCU
instructions on how to install and commission the l circuits
equipment. It will normally state what size fuse l earthing and bonding to achieve automatic
is required to protect the equipment, as well as disconnection of the supply (ADS) in the event of
recommended minimum cable size and type. a fault to earth
It is essential for an installer to follow the l current using equipment and specialist controls
manufacturer’s instructions when fitting electrical (many of these components will also be covered
appliances. By reading them in advance it will help in other chapters).
greatly with the selection of the product to ascertain
whether or not it is suitable for a specific application. Consumers’ control unit (CCU)
Generally, the first unit in an installation, where the
Manufacturer’s literature will also give fault-finding
supply is split into circuits, is called the consumers’
flow charts and a spare parts list for anyone trying to
control unit (CCU). This may sometimes be referred to
diagnose a fault with an existing appliance.
as a distribution board, or DB, and sometimes simply
While products must comply with the relevant as a consumer unit (CU). The CCU will have protective
standards of safety and performance, sometimes there devices inside. They control and protect the circuits and
are extraordinary applications or special functions could include:
which are covered solely by a manufacturer, provided l circuit breakers (CB)
the product is installed in accordance with their l residual current breakers with overload (RCBO)
directions, hence the importance of a compliance l fuses.
certificate and benchmark log book.
The CCU will also have a main switch which can be
User information is limited to the daily operation used to isolate the entire installation. In a domestic
of an appliance and the installer during the handover dwelling, the main switch must be double-pole
should give demonstrations and explanations to the meaning it isolates both line and neutral.
customer when commissioning is complete.
INDUSTRY TIP
3 THE TYPES OF You may hear a CCU called many different things such as
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM fuse boards, DBs or distribution boards. Distribution boards
(DB) are often the name given to further units on the end of
AND LAYOUTS a distribution circuit. A distribution circuit is a circuit that
supplies a distribution board whereas a final circuit is one
It is important to understand how electrical systems that supplies current using equipment such as lights and
are arranged in order to safely work on parts of them. heaters or socket outlets.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Arc fault detection devices (AFDDs) N1 2 3 4 5 6
BS 7671 now requires arc fault detection devices
(AFDDs) to be installed to protect circuits supplying 1
2
socket outlets that have a rating up to 32 A in specified 3
buildings. These building are those considered higher 4
5 L N
risk installations such as: 6
6A 6 A 16 A 32 A 32 A 45 A
● purpose-built student accommodation E
● houses of multiple occupation (HMO) 6 5 4 3 2 1
● care homes
● buildings considered higher risk such as high-rise
residential buildings.
Figure 5.8 Six-way DB with eight modules
AFDDs are recommended for other types of premises.
AFDDs monitor the supply to the circuit being Some CCUs/DBs are known as split-way boards. This
protected and can detect both series and parallel means that some of the modules can be protected by
arcing. Series arcing is generally caused by a loose or one residual current device (RCD) or switch and the
failing connection creating an arc where the electricity others by another RCD or switch. Split-way boards
jumps the gap between the connections. Parallel arcing should always have one main switch that can isolate all
is where insulation breaks down or has been damaged, circuits. The advantage of split-way boards is that any
meaning arcing takes place between conductors in a fault on one circuit will only trip part of the installation
circuit. protected by one of the RCDs.
Electrical arcs or sparks can lead to fires if allowed to
KEY TERMS
continue so AFDDs are designed to disconnect the
circuit on detection, reducing the risk of fire. Residual current device (RCD): a sensitive device
which trips, cutting current from a circuit,
AFDDs can be combined as part of a circuit breaker or should a very small fault occur between any live
RCBO, or installed as a standalone device. conductor and earth. They are intended to give
maximum protection against electric shock and
can be identified by the fact they look like circuit
breakers but have a test button located on them.
Series arc
N1 2 3 4 5 6
Parallel arc 1
2
3
Figure 5.7 Types of arc
4
5 6A 6 A 16 A 32 A 32 A 45 A
L N
6
E
6 5 4 3 2 1
Figure 5.9 Split-way board showing three ways protected by one
RCD and three ways protected by another. In total, the DB is
12-module
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Protective devices as electrical installations are updated, the CCU
There are several types of protective devices which are is normally replaced with one capable of having
fitted in CCUs and what is there depends on the age circuit breakers or RCBOs.
of the electrical installation. Older CCUs may contain
fuses but more modern ones will probably have circuit
breakers (CB) or circuit breakers having a combined
RCD (RCBOs).
Table 5.3 Standard ratings for protective devices
Current Device type
rating (A)
5 Rewireable fuse, older cartridge fuses
6 Circuit breakers, RCBOs, cartridge fuses
15 Rewireable fuse, older cartridge fuses
20 Circuit breakers, RCBOs, cartridge fuses,
rewireable fuses
30 Rewireable fuse, older cartridge fuses
32 Circuit breakers, RCBOs, cartridge fuses
40 Circuit breakers, RCBOs, cartridge fuses
45 Rewireable fuse, older cartridge fuses Figure 5.10 Rewireable fuses
Fuses
Fuses have been a tried and tested method of circuit
protection for many years. A fuse is a very basic
protection device where a high enough fault current
causes the fuse element to heat up to the point where
the element is destroyed and cuts the current from the
circuit. Once the fuse has ‘blown’ (when the element of
the fuse has melted or ruptured), the fuse needs to be
replaced.
l BS 3036 semi-enclosed rewireable fuses – in
older equipment, the fuse may be just a length
of appropriate fuse wire fixed between two
terminals. These devices are now becoming
uncommon as electrical installations are rewired
or updated. One of the main problems associated
Figure 5.11 Cartridge fuse
with rewireable fuses is the overall lack of
protection and, in some cases, the presence of
Circuit breakers and RCBOs
asbestos in the fuse carrier.
l BS 88 cartridge fuses – these are barrel shaped
These devices are much more user friendly as they
fuses which have metallic ends, like a plug fuse, and have the ability to be reset if tripped. These devices
normally clip into a carrier. Like rewireable fuses, work on a magnetic effect where a high enough
once these blow, they need to be replaced, which current causes an electromagnetism to automatically
is done in a very user-friendly way. As a result, and switch off the device in event of a predetermined fault
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
current. Overload currents, which are smaller than fault l Power circuits, which are provided for socket-outlet
currents, are detected by a thermal trip, such as a bi- circuits or other appliances such as immersion water
metallic strip, which causes the device to trip. heaters or showers. They require larger protective
devices due to the demand for current and, in
The difference between a circuit breaker and RCBO
most instances, require RCD protection due to the
is that an RCBO also incorporates a residual current
additional risk presented by the portable equipment
device (RCD) which will cause disconnection if a fault
connected to the socket outlets.
to earth is detected as small as 30 mA, in the case
of an RCBO having a residual trip setting of 30 mA,
Lighting circuits
which is the most common setting for domestic type
Lighting circuits are generally rated at 6 A but can, in
installations.
some installations, be rated at 10 A or 16 A. As the
The physical difference between a CB and RCBO is an name suggests, lighting circuits are intended to supply
RCBO has a test button incorporated on it. It is very lighting points, but in some cases they may also supply
important that this test button is pushed at least once some very small power equipment such as bathroom
every six months as this keeps the tripping mechanism fans or shaver supply units.
free from sticking and that means the device will trip
quickly should very small fault currents occur to earth. Power circuits
With only one or two rare exceptions, all circuits in Power circuits generally supply socket outlets, but may
domestic type electrical installations must have RCD also supply individual appliances. Power circuits may be
protection and this is either provided with individual wired in two ways: ring-final and radial.
RSBOs protecting each circuit or the use of split-way
CCUs where RCDs protect several circuits. Ring-final circuits
N1 2 3 4 5 6 Ring-final circuits are the traditional means of wiring
socket-outlet circuits within the UK and are rated at
32 A. The reason for their use was to provide a high
1
2 number of conveniently placed outlets adjacent to the
3 loads. The circuit load is shared by two sets of cables
4
5 6A 6 A 16 A 32 A 32 A 45 A
L N run in a ring formation. This also assists in improving
6
E
voltage drop as the conductors being in parallel reduce
the overall resistance.
6 5 4 3 2 1
Ring-final circuits are able to supply an unlimited
number of outlets serving a maximum floor area of
100 m2. Permanent loads, such as immersion heaters,
Figure 5.12 Split-way CCU with RCDs protecting a group of should NOT be connected to a ring-final circuit. Ring-
circuits final circuits supplying kitchens should be arranged to
have the loads equally distributed around the circuit.
Circuits The plugs and fused connection units, commonly called
Circuits can be categorised in the following ways: fused spur units, are normally fitted with 3 A or 13 A
l Lighting circuits, which are relatively low power fuses.
circuits with an almost constant load when lights
are operating.
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L E N L E N L E N L E N
L E N L E N
L E N
Supply
L E N
Fused spur
L E N L E N L E N
L E N
Spur
Ring-final circuit showing spurs
L E N L E N L E N L E N
L E N
Supply
Branch
L E N
Radial circuit showing branch
Figure 5.13 Ring-final circuit showing spurs and radial circuit showing branch
With technology reducing the consumption of l 20 A for socket-outlet circuits
appliances and equipment, the need for a ring-final l 32 A for cookers and showers rated up to 7 kW
circuit is being questioned as they do have several l 40 A for showers rated up to 9 kW.
disadvantages. If a ring-final circuit becomes open
circuit, this may not necessarily be detected by the user Earthing and bonding and automatic
as power will still be distributed to all socket outlets. disconnection of supply
Circuit conductors may then become overloaded There are many green and yellow protective
leading to the possibility of fire. As a result, more and conductors within an electrical system, but they have
more electricians are wiring socket-outlet circuits as different purposes such as earthing or bonding. They
radial type circuits to avoid the risk of unidentified open play a major part in achieving ADS in the event of a
ring circuits. fault to earth. If a fault exists between line and earth,
there is a major risk of electric shock as someone
Radial circuits
may be in contact with metallic parts. In order to
Radial circuits may be selected to supply multiple reduce the risk of electric shock, circuits are protected
socket outlets and they are also chosen as a means using a system called automatic disconnection of
of supplying individual appliances or dedicated fixed supply (ADS).
appliance circuits such as circuits to supply showers
or immersion water heaters. Radial circuits can be Automatic disconnection of supply
any rating depending on the cable size. Typical ratings In order for ADS to protect persons against the
include: risk of electric shock circuits must have protective
l 16 A for immersion heaters, dedicated boiler circuits
devices, such as a fuse, circuit breakers or RCBO, and
or single appliances such as dishwashers
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
protective conductors such as earthing and, where Table 5.4 Current causing effective disconnection of type B
necessary, bonding. These conductors must provide a circuit breakers
low resistance path to earth so should any metal part Device rating Current needed to cause automatic
become live due to a fault, Ohm’s law dictates that (A) disconnection to occur in 0.4 seconds (A)
the low resistance path provided by the protective 6 30
conductors will ensure there is a high fault current. The 10 50
high fault current will disconnect the device protecting 16 80
the circuit very quickly; hopefully before anyone
20 100
touches the part and gets an electric shock.
32 160
Regulations for electrical circuits, known as BS 7671
(which will be covered later in this chapter), state that
KEY TERM
most low power circuits, such as those in domestic
installations, must disconnect within 0.4 seconds. Type B circuit breakers: the most sensitive type
of CB and should be the types used to protect
As currents as low as 0.05 A can cause electric shock circuits in domestic type installations. Other types
(as discussed earlier in this chapter) fault currents may are type C intended for motors and transformers
as well be hundreds of amperes as they are likely to kill and type D for very specialised machines such as
anyway. What saves a person’s life is the disconnection welding equipment or medical equipment.
of the circuit’s supply in a very quick time and this will
only happen with high fault currents. As the current needed to cause disconnection of a
To give an illustration of this, Table 5.4 shows the amount protective device is high, the resistance of the whole
of current needed under fault conditions to disconnect fault circuit needs to be low. This resistance is known as
the various ratings of type B circuit breakers in the the total earth fault loop impedance (Zs). The diagram
specified disconnection time of 0.4 seconds. in Figure 5.14 shows the total earth fault current path
THE EARTHING SYSTEM
Earth fault loop path Protective device
L
Fault current
Transformer Exposed conductive part
winding Fault
TN-C-S (Ze=0.35 Ω)
N
Earth neutral
Pen conductor MET
TN-S (Ze=0.8 Ω) Link
cpc
Metallic return path E
Cable sheath The earthing conductor
Mass of earth
TT (Ze-21Ω)
Return path
The values of ohms shown are maximum values the electrical distribution network operator tries to
achieve for the supply impedance.
Figure 5.14 The total earth fault current path
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for the three common earthing arrangements, which reduced in csa. In these situations the length of the
starts at the sub-station transformer, through the supply circuit should be restricted as the smaller csa cpc may
network line conductor, into the electrical installation end up having a resistance too high. The Institute of
and through the circuit line conductor. The current then Engineering Technology (IET) produce a publication
flows through the fault onto earthed parts and back called the IET On-Site Guide, and Table 7.1 in the guide
through the cpc (circuit protective conductor) to the main gives maximum circuit lengths based on the type and
earthing terminal (MET). From this point, it flows through rating of protective device, how the cable is installed
the installation earthing conductor which then connects and csa of the circuit line and cpc.
to the supply network earth back to the transformer.
ACTIVITY
KEY TERM Have a look at Table 7.1 in the IET On-Site Guide and
Sub-station transformer: a piece of equipment see the vast range of cable sizes used depending on
which is owned by the electricity distribution the circuit rating and protective device.
network operator (DNO) and is used to step down Using the table, determine the smallest cable
large distribution voltages of 11000 V to 230 V for combination (line/cpc) permitted for circuits
supplies into houses. Sub-stations are sometimes protected by:
located behind panel fences and can serve up a 20 A circuit breakers
to 100 houses or more depending on its size. b 32 A RCBO
Sometimes they are located on poles where they
serve one or two houses in more rural locations. In c 6 A BS 3036 fuses.
cities and large towns, they are normally located in
brick or concrete structures.
Bonding
Main protective bonding conductors (MPB), sized in
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS accordance with Section 4 of the IET On-Site Guide
Use Ohm’s law and values from Table 5.4 to work must be installed connecting the MET and:
out what the earth fault impedance needs to be to l metallic installation service pipes such as gas,
cause the following circuit breakers to disconnect water, oil
when the voltage is 230 V: l metallic exposed structural steelwork of a building
l 10 A rising from the ground
l 20 A l other extraneous conductive parts.
l 32 A.
KEY TERM
Extraneous conductive parts: metallic parts of
Earthing a building structure or services that have a low
The green and yellow earthing conductors in each resistance path to the general mass of earth but
circuit are called circuit protective conductors (cpc) and do not form part of the electrical system.
must be present in all parts of a circuit. Every exposed
metallic part in an electrical circuit must be connected
to the cpc to ensure the metal part is connected to INDUSTRY TIP
the earth path should a fault occur. This will ensure the
Although various sizes of MBP conductor are required
low resistance earth path creates a high fault current
depending on the type of supply and installation, most
causing quick disconnection.
domestic dwellings will be protected using 10 mm2
As a general rule, the cpc should ideally be the same conductors.
cross-sectional area (csa) as the circuit line conductor.
This however isn’t always the case, and cables such
Where the MPB conductor is connected to the
as the flat PVC twin and cpc cables commonly used
incoming service pipework, the connection must be
in domestic electrical circuits in the UK have a cpc
made within 600 mm of any stop valve or meter or
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point of entry to the building but before any branch In some situations, supplementary bonding may need
pipe is installed. to be installed, but this is not normally needed where
circuits have RCD or RCBO protection.
Connection is made to the pipework using a specific
bonding clamp which complies with BS 951, Electrical The purpose of MPB is to ensure equal potential.
earthing. Clamps for earthing and bonding. Different Should a fault occur in an electrical installation, the
clamps have colour coding on them for installing in cpc for the circuit will become live to 230 V, as will
different conditions. They may be: the MET and any services or parts connected by MPB.
l red for dry conditions If equal potential is present between the electrical
l blue for damp locations. installation and extraneous parts, current cannot flow
between, especially through a person, meaning the
HEALTH AND SAFETY risk of electrocution is reduced.
Each bonding clamp must have a label fitted which
states the words ‘Safety electrical connection – do KEY TERMS
not remove’.
Supplementary bonding: where a bonding
conductor is installed either between pipes or from
a socket outlet or other accessory to a pipe. Unlike
INDUSTRY TIP MPB, supplementary bonding doesn’t come from
the MET. The minimum csa of cable permitted for
BS 7671 does state that services entering a building supplementary bonding is 4 mm2 where the cable
having an insulated section do not require the is in free air. Supplementary bonding is sometimes
connection of a main protective bonding conductor, so also called cross-bonding.
always seek the advice of an electrician as connecting a Equal potential: where the voltage between any two
bond to a part that is not extraneous may create a danger parts is within safe touch voltage levels, usually
that wasn’t there. 50 V AC but dependent on the location.
Circuit protective
conductors
Electrical accessories
There are several types of electrical accessories or
Main protective
bonding conductors junctions that are commonly used to connect electrical
equipment used in the plumbing industry. These can be:
Gas l socket outlets
Other installation l fused connection units
extraneous pipe
conductive part l double pole switches
l junction boxes
Water l wiring centres.
installation
pipe
Socket outlets
Although socket outlets are common place in all
Earthing
conductor buildings, they are normally provided for portable
appliances. It is not good practice to use a socket
outlet to connect permanently fixed equipment
such as boiler systems, immersion heaters or other
equipment but that doesn’t mean you will not see it
Means of earthing
sometimes.
Figure 5.15 Protective conductor arrangement for earthing and
bonding
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Fused connection units
It is far better practice to use fused connection units
(FCU) to supply permanently fitted appliances and
systems providing they have a total current demand
below 13 A as this is the maximum fuse size that can
be fitted to a fused connection unit.
There are several common types, those that have
a flexible cable outlet on the front plate or those
that do not. FCUs can be switched or unswitched
and some have indicators on them to show they are
switched on.
FCUs are the most common method of providing
an electrical supply to a boiler system from a main
electrical circuit.
Figure 5.17 A joint box
Wiring centre
Wiring centres are normally manufacturers specific
boxes having terminals inside that are specifically
labelled for certain equipment such as boiler circulating
pumps, boilers or programmers.
Motor control equipment
It would be rare for a plumber to work on motor control
equipment such as a direct-on-line (DOL) starter unit.
Figure 5.16 Typical FCU showing a flex outlet You may come across one controlling swimming pool
pumps as these larger pumps may require specific
Double pole switches overload protection which is incorporated in the DOL
Double pole switches are not fused so they should only unit. The purpose of the starter is to provide:
be fitted on specifically rated and designated circuits l a means of starting the motor
such as those supplying immersion heaters. Some can l a means of stopping the motor, especially in the
have flexible cable outlets as well as indicator lights to case of an emergency
show when they are on. l undervoltage protection, which means, in the event
of a power cut, the motor does not automatically
Junction boxes restart when the power comes back on; this could
Junction boxes are not used to supply equipment cause a risk of injury to anybody working on or near
directly from an electrical main circuit but could be the motor should it unexpectedly restart
used to connect equipment to the control wiring of a l overload protection should the motor jam – if this
boiler control circuit providing the circuit already has happens, the overload will trip the power to the
adequate fused protection such as an FCU. motor protecting the motor from overheating.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
which requires connection to a fused spur connection
unit giving the pump a permanent electrical supply.
The pump is controlled with an internal flow switch
which switches on the pump when somebody turns
on the shower tap, creating water flow. When the tap
is turned off, this stops the water flow and the pump
switches off.
Instantaneous showers
As these appliances heat up the cold water to produce
hot water, they usually require a large electrical supply
direct from the consumer unit.
Most electric showers are rated between 7 and 10 kW.
This means that a 10.5 kW shower requires a 45 A
electrical circuit to supply it which in turn will likely
need a large 10 mm2 cable to supply it, depending on
the cable installation conditions. These circuits should
be installed by an electrician. To allow mechanical
works to be carried out on the shower, the circuit
should contain a local switch such as a pull cord switch
located in the bathroom.
Jacuzzi baths or hot tubs
Jacuzzi type whirlpool baths, like shower pumps,
normally come with a flexible cable for termination
Figure 5.18 DOL starter
into a local switch fused spur connection unit as these
normally only contain a small powered pump. Hot
Current using equipment and tubs however heat the water as well as pump it around
specialist controls the tub and as a result, may require a larger electrical
When working on plumbing systems, there are a supply. Always consult the manufacturer’s information
number of electrically powered items of equipment for further detail and where a supply larger than 13 A
or control devices that you may need to install and is required, a special dedicated circuit would need
connect to an electrical supply. These include: installing by an electrician.
l shower pumps
l instantaneous showers
Macerators
l jacuzzi bath or hot tubs A macerator is a device that compacts and pumps waste
l macerators water or black water (toilet waste) where no natural
l boiler control devices waste fall exists such as in basement toilets where the
l optimisers building’s waste pipes are higher than the toilet.
l home automation (Wi-Fi enabled equipment).
These devices are usually quite low in power ratings
and are typically around 5 A. They normally come
Shower pumps
fitted with a flexible cable requiring a permanent
These are normally installed under a bath or in a connection to a local fused spur connection unit.
void. They usually come fitted with a flexible cable
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Boiler/heating controls
GREY permanent live
Micro-switch
There are a large number of devices used to control
heating and hot water systems which require an WHITE room stat on C Plan
electrical connection, these include:
l Programmers – these are dual zone time clocks ORANGE switched live to boiler
and pump (boiler only on C Plan
that turn on the central heating or hot water at BROWN motor from thermostat
varying times of the day. These are normally wired BLUE neutral
GREEN/YELLOW earth
to a wiring centre to control the room thermostat
Motor
or cylinder thermostat.
l Room thermostats – these are used to monitor Valve closed
the room temperature and control the zone Figure 5.19 A 2-port zone valve showing the cable connection
valve for the heating system should the room colours
temperature fall below that set by the thermostat.
Older thermostats used bimetal strips, but Optimisers
modern ones use electronic sensors to monitor the These are more sophisticated forms of time-clock
temperature. switches or programmers. They are used to control
l Cylinder thermostats – on a cylinder thermostat heating or hot water systems but may incorporate
there is a calibrated bimetallic strip positioned at the thermostats within them. Other forms use radio
back of the thermostat, which is firmly positioned connections for remote thermostats or temperature
against the bare surface of a cylinder with the aid monitors which can monitor internal and external
of a tensioned wire. Once the thermostat senses temperatures ensuring the heating system maintains a
the pre-set temperature it turns off the electrical desired temperature efficiently.
supply to a zone valve. A cylinder thermostat should
be installed approximately one third the distance Home automation and Wi-Fi devices
from the base of the cylinder and be set to operate With huge advances in the internet of things (IoT),
between 60 and 65 °C. home automation devices advance just as quickly. It is
l Zone valves – these are electrically controlled
now very common to control all central heating and
valves which are supplied using a 5-core flexible hot water systems using a smartphone connection
cable which connects to a wiring centre. The valve anywhere in the world. As long as the system is able
has a small motor in it which opens and closes the to connect to the internet using a Wi-Fi or Bluetooth
valve as well as a small micro-switch which is used connection, it can ‘talk’ to other devices removing the
to control the boiler and pump when the valve need for any control wiring. In some situations, where
opens and closes. the devices are battery powered, the need for any
wiring is completely removed.
4 PERFORMING PRE-INSTALLATION ACTIVITY
PRIOR TO UNDERTAKING ELECTRICAL WORK
ON PLUMBING AND DOMESTIC HEATING
Modern living is shaped by electricity. It is a safe, clean
and immensely powerful source of energy and is in
Electrical safety on site
use in every factory, office, workshop and home in The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 were made
the country. However, this energy source also has the under the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974
potential to be very hazardous, with a possibility of (HSW Act) and came into force on 1 April 1990.
death, if it is not handled with care.
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one hand is in contact with an exposed conductive part
INDUSTRY TIP (for example, an earthed metal equipment case), while
the other simultaneously touches a live part. In this case
Access Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 at: www.
the current will be limited only by the body impedance
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635/contents/made
and shock currents will flow directly through the heart.
As the voltage increases, so the body impedance
Common electrical dangers decreases, which increases the shock current. When
on site the voltage decreases, the body impedance increases,
which reduces the shock current. This has important
Electrical injuries can be caused by a wide range
implications concerning the voltage levels that are
of voltages, and are dependent upon individual
used in work situations and highlights the advantage of
circumstances, but the risk of injury is generally greater
working with reduced low voltage (110 V) systems or
with higher voltages. Alternating current (AC) and
battery-operated hand tools.
direct current (DC) electrical supplies can cause a range
of injuries including: At 230 V, the average person has a body impedance of
l electric shock approximately 1300 Ω. At mains voltage and frequency
l electrical burns (230 V–50 Hz), currents as low as 50 milliamps (0.05 A)
l loss of muscle control can prove fatal, particularly if flowing through the body
l fires arising from electrical causes for a few seconds.
l arcing and explosion.
Electrical burns
Electric shock Burns may arise due to:
It is worth remembering that electric shocks may arise l the passage of shock current through the body,
either by direct contact with a live part or indirectly by particularly if at high voltage
contact with an exposed conductive part (for example, l exposure to high-frequency radiation (e.g. from
a metal equipment case) that has become live as a radio transmission antennas).
result of a fault condition.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Faults can arise from a variety of sources:
Accidents do happen even when you put measures
l broken equipment case exposing internal bare live
in place to remove all risks. Electricity cannot
connections be seen, and working on a busy site could lead
l cracked equipment case causing ‘tracking’ from to exposure to electricity if others do not work
internal live parts to the external surface safely such as an electrician not placing covers
l damaged supply cord insulation, exposing bare live over potentially live parts. Always be familiar with
conductors the emergency procedures and accident reporting
covered in Book 1, Chapter 1.
l broken plug, exposing bare live connections.
The magnitude (size) and duration of the shock current
are the two most significant factors determining the
Loss of muscle control
severity of an electric shock. The magnitude of the People who experience an electric shock often get
shock current will depend on the contact voltage and painful muscle spasms that can be strong enough to
impedance (electrical resistance) of the shock path. break bones or dislocate joints. This loss of muscle
A possible shock path always exists through ground control often means the person cannot ‘let go’ or
contact (for example, hand-to-feet). In this case: escape the electric shock. The person may fall if
they are working at height or be thrown into nearby
Shock path impedance = body impedance + any
external impedance machinery and structures.
A more dangerous situation is a hand-to-hand shock path,
where the current flow is through the heart. This is when
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Fire Electrical supply for tools
Electricity is believed to be a factor in the cause of
many fires in domestic and commercial premises in
and equipment
Britain each year. One of the principal causes of such Portable electric tools can provide valuable assistance
fires is wiring with defects such as insulation failure, the with much of the physical effort required in
overloading of conductors, lack of electrical protection, electrotechnical activities. These tools can use different
poor connections. sources of electrical supply (mains or battery) and
different means of maintaining safety in relation to that
Arcing electrical supply.
Arcing frequently occurs due to short circuit (conductive Basic equipment constructions are aimed at preventing
bridge between live parts) accidentally caused while the risk of electric shock and are summarised below.
working on live equipment (either intentionally or
unintentionally). Arcing generates UV radiation, causing Class I
severe sunburn. Molten metal particles are also likely to The basic insulation may be an air gap and/or some
be deposited on exposed skin surfaces. form of insulating material. External conductive
parts (for example, the metal case) must be earthed
Explosion by providing the supply through a three-core supply
There are two main electrical causes of explosion: lead incorporating a protective conductor. The most
l short circuit due to an equipment fault important aspect of any periodic inspection/testing
l ignition of flammable vapours or liquids caused by of Class I equipment is to check the integrity of this
sparks or high surface temperatures. protective conductor. There is no recognised symbol for
Class I equipment, though some appliances may show
Controlling current flow the symbol in Figure 5.20.
It is necessary to include devices in circuits to control
current flow, that is, to switch the current on or
off by making or breaking the circuit. This may be
required:
l for functional purposes (to switch equipment on
or off)
l for use in an emergency (switching in the event of
an accident)
l so that equipment can be switched off to prevent its
use and allow maintenance work to be done safely Figure 5.20 This symbol may appear on Class I items
on the mechanical parts
l to isolate a circuit, installation or piece of
Class II
equipment to prevent the risk of shock where
Class II equipment has either no external conductive
exposure to electrical parts and connections is likely
parts apart from fixing screws (insulation-encased
for maintenance purposes.
equipment) or there is adequate insulation between
The preparation of electrical equipment for maintenance any external conductive parts and the internal live
purposes requires effective disconnection from all live parts to prevent the former becoming live as a result of
supplies and the means for securing that disconnection an internal fault (metal-encased equipment). Periodic
(by locking off). inspection or testing needs to focus on the integrity of
the insulation. Class II equipment is identified by the
symbol shown in Figure 5.21.
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can be dangerous in certain circumstances, if the
system voltage can be reduced to around this level,
then the magnitude (size) of any current flow through
the body will be significantly reduced.
The most common low voltage system of this type
in use in the UK uses a 230/110 V double-wound
step-down transformer with the secondary winding
centre-tapped and connected to earth (CTE). While
the supply voltage for equipment supplied from such
Figure 5.21 This symbol may appear on Class II items
a transformer is 110 V, the maximum voltage to earth
is 55 V (63.5 V for a 110 V three-phase system). This
Class III is covered in BS 7671 (Regulation 411.8 Reduced
This method of protection is not designed to prevent low voltage systems). Overcurrent protection for
shock but to reduce its severity and therefore make the 110 V supply may be provided by fuses at the
the shock more survivable. The supply (no greater than transformer’s 110 V output terminals or by a thermal
50 V AC) must be provided from a separated extra- trip to detect excessive temperature rise in the
low voltage (SELV) source such as a safety isolating secondary winding. The latter method is generally
transformer or a battery. Class III equipment is identified employed for portable units. Such reduced voltage
by the diamond symbol and the safety isolating symbol supplies may be provided:
by two interlinked circles, as shown in Figure 5.22. l through fixed installations (workshops, plant rooms,
Another way of reducing the risk of electric shock is lift rooms or other areas where portable electrical
by using a reduced low voltage system. This is not a equipment is in frequent use)
Class III system but is a safer arrangement than using l through small portable transformers designed to
mains-operated (230 V) equipment because of the lower supply individual portable tools known as 110 V
potential shock voltage. Supply is provided via a mains- Centre Tapped Earth (CTE) transformers.
powered (230 V) step-down transformer with the centre
point of the secondary winding connected to earth.
III
Figure 5.22 This symbol may appear on Class III items Figure 5.23 Portable CTE transformer and drill
One additional advantage of using a reduced low
Low voltage electrical voltage system is that this safeguard applies to all parts
supplies for tools and of the system on the load side of the transformer,
equipment including the flexible leads, as well as the tools, hand
lamps, etc.
The human body’s impedance increases with lower
touch voltages, particularly below 50 V. Although 50 V
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L l cutting off the supply of electrical energy to any
electrical equipment
l the isolation of any electrical equipment.
55 V
Mains 230 V
supply
110 V output
HEALTH AND SAFETY
NEVER rely on a standard local switch for isolation
55 V where you will be working on electrical terminals
unless it can be secured in the open/off position. If
the device cannot be secured as open/off, isolate the
N entire circuit.
You should also isolate the whole circuit when you
E E
are making a connection into a fused connection
Figure 5.24 Circuit diagram for a 110/55 V CTE transformer unit (or similar) and the incoming supply terminals
are live.
Alternatively, cordless or battery-powered tools offer
a convenient way of providing a powered hand tool
without the inconvenience of using a mains supply and
without the hazard of trailing power leads.
INDUSTRY TIP
Access Regulation 12 and 13 of the Electricity at
KEY POINT Work Regulations 1989 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/
PAT testing was covered in detail in Book 1, uksi/1989/635/made
Chapter 1.
The aim of Regulation 12 is to ensure that work
can be undertaken on an electrical system without
5 SAFE ISOLATION danger. Terms used in Regulation 12 are defined in the
following key terms box.
PROCEDURES
Isolation can be very complex due to the differing KEY TERMS
industrial, commercial and domestic working Isolation: this means the disconnection and
environments, some of which require experience and separation of the electrical equipment from every
source of electrical energy in such a way that this
knowledge of the system processes. This section deals
disconnection and separation is secure.
with a basic practical procedure for isolation and for
Cutting off the supply: depending on the equipment
the securing of isolation. It also looks at the reasons for and the circumstances, this may be no more than
safe isolation and the potential risks involved during the normal functional switching (on/off) or emergency
isolation process. switching by means of a stop button or a trip switch.
Safe operating procedures for the isolation of plant From every source of electrical energy: many
accidents occur due to a failure to isolate all sources
and machinery during both electrical and mechanical
of supply to or within equipment (for example,
maintenance must be prepared and followed. Wherever control and auxiliary supplies, uninterruptable
possible, electrical isolators should be fitted with power supply (UPS) systems or parallel circuit
a means by which the isolating mechanism can be arrangements giving rise to back feeds).
locked in the open/off position. If this is not possible, an Secure: security can best be achieved by locking
agreed procedure must be followed for the removal and off with a safety lock (such as a lock with a unique
storage of fuse links. Regulation 12 of the Electricity at key). The posting of a warning notice also serves to
Work Regulations 1989 requires that, where necessary alert others to the isolation.
to prevent danger, suitable means (including, where
appropriate, methods of identifying circuits) must be
available for:
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How to undertake a basic l a lock and/or multi-lock system (there are many
types of lock available)
practical procedure for l warning notices which identify the work being
isolation carried out
l relevant personal protective equipment (PPE) that
Being able to perform safe isolation is a key skill every
adheres to all site PPE rules – this may include
person working with electricity needs. It is always a
gloves to assist grip, hard hats due to the location
good idea to practise this procedure, so be sure to do
and eye protection due to the risk of arcing.
this under supervision by a skilled person such as your
tutor.
INDUSTRY TIP
Gather together all of the equipment Return to Book 1, Chapter 1, to remind yourself of the
required for this task relevant PPE.
You will need the following equipment:
l a voltage indicator which has been manufactured The equipment shown in Figure 5.25 can be used to
and maintained in accordance with Health and isolate various main switches and isolators. To isolate
Safety Executive (HSE) Guidance Note GS38 individual circuit breakers with suitable locks and
l a proving unit compatible with the voltage indicator locking aids, you should consult the manufacturer’s
guidance.
Figure 5.25 Equipment used for secure isolation
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KEY TERM IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
Guidance Note GS38: electrical test equipment for Communication is key when isolating a circuit
use by electricians (published by the Health and or system. You need to be clear and precise in
Safety Executive, HSE) was written as a guideline explaining to a client what exactly is being switched
to good practice when using test equipment off and what implications the power loss will create.
on circuits operating at voltages >50 V AC or As well as verbal communication, written advice
>120 V DC or where tests use these voltages. before work starts is a good way to communicate to
It is intended to be followed, in order to reduce a client that disruption is likely.
the risk of danger and injury when performing
electrical tests.
ACTIVITY
The GS38 information listed below relates to the design Check your test instruments for any damage and for
and maintenance of approved electrical test equipment compliance with GS38.
for use on electrical systems.
Probes should have:
Carry out the practical isolation
l finger barriers
l an exposed metal tip not exceeding 4 mm; however,
The method of isolation is outlined below.
it is strongly recommended that this is reduced to 1 Identify – identify equipment or circuit to be
2 mm or less worked on and point(s) of isolation.
l fuse, or fuses, with a low current rating (usually not
2 Isolate – switch off, isolate and lock off (secure)
exceeding 500 mA), or a current-limiting resistor equipment or circuit in an appropriate manner.
and a fuse. Retain the key and post caution signs with details of
work being carried out.
Leads should be: 3 Check – check the condition of the voltage indicator
l adequately insulated leads and probes. Confirm that the voltage indicator
l colour coded is functioning correctly by using a proving unit.
l flexible and of sufficient capacity 4 Test – using a voltage indicator, test the outgoing
l protected against mechanical damage terminals of the isolation switch. Take precautions
l long enough against adjacent live parts where necessary.
l sealed into the body of the voltage detector and 5 Prove – using a voltage indicator and proving unit,
should not have accessible exposed conductors, prove that the voltage indicator is still functioning
other than the probe tips. correctly.
When working on or near electrical equipment and 6 Confirm – confirm that the isolation is secure and
circuits, it is important to ensure that: the correct equipment has been isolated. This can
l the correct point of isolation is identified be achieved by operating functional switching for
l an appropriate means of isolation is used the isolated circuit(s). The relevant inspection and
l the supply cannot inadvertently be reinstated while testing can now be carried out.
the work is in progress
l caution notices are applied at the point(s) of INDUSTRY TIP
isolation
l conductors are proved to be dead at the point of During single-phase isolation, there are three tests to be
work before they are touched carried out:
l L–N
l safety barriers are erected as appropriate when
l L–E
working in an area that is open to other people.
l N–E
(L = line, N = neutral, E = earth)
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ACTIVITY l How can an isolation affect systems? For
Discuss why the N or E probe is connected before example, IT programs and data systems could
the line when carrying out a test involving the line be affected; timing devices could be disrupted.
conductor. In this scenario, you must make the employers,
employees, clients, residents and members of
the public aware of the planned isolation.
Reinstate the supply
When the ‘dead’ electrical work is completed, you must Alternative electrical back-up supplies may
ensure that all electrical barriers and enclosures are in be required in the form of generators or
uninterruptable power supply systems.
place and that it is safe to switch on the isolated circuit.
1 Remove the locking device and danger/warning Always discuss the implications of isolation and
signs. subsequent loss of supply with the client. Good
2 Reinstate the supply. communication is key. It is best practice to talk
3 Carry out system checks to ensure that the first rather than having to argue afterwards when
equipment is working correctly. someone lost all their data or became stranded in
a lift.
Implications of safe isolation
When you isolate an electricity supply, there will be Before any isolation is carried out, you must assess
disruption. So, careful planning should precede isolation the risks involved. This section deals with the practical
of circuits. Consider isolating a section of a nursing implications and the risks involved during the isolation
home where elderly residents live. You will need to procedure, if risk assessment and method statements
consult the nursing home staff, to consider all the are not followed.
possible consequences of isolation and to prepare a
procedure. KEY POINT
Refer back to Book 1, Chapter 4 Planning and
supervision for more on risk assessments.
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
Conducting an isolation procedure can have an
Risk assessments: who is at risk and
effect on those in the vicinity. It is good practice
to consider any potential impact and how you
why?
might minimise or mitigate it. The following If isolation is not carried out safely, what are the possible
questions are useful: risks when performing inspection and testing tasks?
l How will the isolation affect the staff and
other personnel? For example, think about loss Risks to you
of power to lifts, heating and other essential Risks to you might include:
systems. l shock – touching a line conductor, e.g. if isolation is
l How could the isolation affect the residents not secure
and clients? For example, some residents l burns – resulting from touching a line conductor and
may rely on oxygen, medical drips and ripple earth, or arcing
beds to aid circulation. These critical systems l arcing – due to a short circuit between live
usually have battery back-up facilities for short conductors, or an earth fault between a line
durations. conductor and earth
l How could the isolation affect the members
l explosion – arcing in certain environmental
of the public? For example, fire alarms, nurse conditions, for example, in the presence of airborne
call systems, emergency lighting and other dust particles or gases, may cause an explosion.
systems may stop working.
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Things that can cause risk to you include: Risks to buildings and systems within
l inadequate information to enable safe or effective buildings
installation, such as no diagrams, legends or charts Risks to buildings and systems within buildings might
l poor knowledge of the system you are working on involve applying excessive voltages to sensitive
(and so not meeting the competence requirements electronic equipment, for example:
of Regulation 16 of EAWR) l computers and associated IT equipment
l insufficient risk assessment l residual current devices (RCDs) and residual current
l inadequate test instruments (not manufactured or operated circuit breakers with integral overcurrent
maintained to the standards of GS38). protection (RCBOs)
Even tasks that seem low risk, such as removing a l heating controls
bonding clamp from a water pipe, can be high risk if l surge protection devices.
isolation has not been undertaken. If dangerous potentials There might also be risk of loss of data and
exist between the electrical system and the water pipe, communications systems.
you will become the bridge between these potentials
as soon as you remove the clamp. NEVER REMOVE ACTIVITY
BONDING UNLESS THE WHOLE SYSTEM IS ISOLATED.
Write down a list of the risks associated with
isolation and the effects isolation can have on
Risks to other tradespersons, customers people, livestock, systems and buildings. You could
and clients think about:
Risks to other tradespersons, customers and clients 1 Who is at risk if isolation is not carried out
might include: correctly?
l switching off electrical circuits – for example, 2 What might happen if you need to switch off
switching off a heating system might cause a socket-outlet circuit? For example, in a care
hypothermia (resulting from being too cold); if lifts home?
stop, people may be trapped 3 What must you do if you encounter a computer
server that requires a permanent supply and you
l applying potentially dangerous test voltages and
need to switch off the main supply to enable safe
currents working?
l access to open distribution boards and consumer
units
l loss of service or equipment, for example:
l loss of essential supplies
l loss of lights for access
6 SAFE INSTALLATION
l loss of production. AND TESTING
Risks to members of the public OF ELECTRICAL
Risks to members of the public might include prolonged
loss of essential power supply, causing problems, for
EQUIPMENT
example, with safety and evacuation systems, such as: When installing electrical systems, sound knowledge of
l fire alarms the correct practices and procedures is required; these
l emergency exit and corridor lighting. include an understanding of:
l specific electrical tools
HEALTH AND SAFETY l the risk assessment
Although safety services usually have back-up l materials
supplies such as batteries, these may only last for a l installing wiring systems
few hours. Other safety or standby systems may have l terminating conductors.
generator back-up, but this will also require isolation,
leaving the building without any safety systems.
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Electrical tools
There are a wide range of tools you will use when
working on electromechanical systems. This section
will look at the ones specifically used when working on
electrical systems.
Wire strippers
Wire strippers provide a safe and reliable method of
removing the insulation from a wire or cable without
damaging the conductor. Wire strippers come in Figure 5.27 Side cutters
various designs, but the common principle is that the
Depending on the size of the cutters, cable sizes up
cutting jaws only cut into the insulating material and
to 16 mm2 can be cut easily. However, larger cables
not into the conductor.
require larger types of cutters. These range from cable
Wire strippers can be either manually set (by a screw or loppers, up to hydraulic, manual pump cutters for
dial) or automatically set. Side cutters can also be used cables up to 300 mm2.
but these often damage the conductor.
Screwdrivers
An electrician will use a selection of different sized
screwdrivers. They will all have one thing in common
in that they will all be of approved standards. The most
common screwdrivers used include:
l terminal (3–3.5 mm)
l large flat (4–5 mm)
l pozidriv (PZ2)
l and, more recently, a consumer unit screwdriver.
Figure 5.26 Wire strippers
Cable cutters
There are a variety of different tools that can be used
to cut cables, the most common being side cutters.
Side cutters are probably one of the most important
tools that electricians have in their tool kit. These are
used for cutting cables to length, cutting sleeving and
cutting nylon tie-wraps, for example. They work on a
compression-force basis and are shaped so that the
cutting point is along one side.
Figure 5.28 Electrician’s screwdrivers
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Electrician’s knife The drawings often include plans showing the
The electrician’s knife is available in various positioning of components and accessories, as well
arrangements but usually has a folding blade. The most as the routes to be followed when the wiring is being
common use of the electrician’s knife is for stripping installed. This is important as none of the services
the outer sheaths of some cables; the blade generally being run through the installation must cause problems
has a shaped section to aid the removal of certain for other systems and services.
cable sheaths, such as on armoured or some types of
mineral-insulated (MI) cables. Installing wiring systems
There are many types of wiring systems used. A wiring
system could be a cable on its own or a means of
containing or managing the cable. Some of the terms
you may hear include the following:
l Wiring system – this is the term used to
describe the type of cable used and the method
of supporting it. For example, single-core cable in
Figure 5.29 Electrician’s knives
conduit is a wiring system but, equally, so is a twin
An electrician’s knife should never be used for stripping and cpc cable clipped to a wall.
the insulation from cables or for cutting cables to l Support system – this is the method of supporting
length. It should always be used pointing away from a cable and could include systems such as cable
the body. tray, basket or simply clips or cleats.
l Cable management system or cable containment
HEALTH AND SAFETY system – this is a method of supporting and
It is dangerous to use a disposable knife blade when protecting cables, usually by enclosing the cables in
stripping cables as the blade can break, creating conduit, trunking or ducting, for example.
sharp shards.
For the purpose of this chapter, we will only be
covering the installation of cables commonly used for
the installation of wiring systems commonly used in
INDUSTRY TIP
domestic environments for the supply and control of
Remember that all work, including electrical work, requires electro-mechanical systems.
a risk assessment to be carried out before the work begins.
Whether installing a new electric circulation pump or the Thermoplastic (PVC) cables
wiring for a thermostat, the work involves risks. Refer back Thermoplastic cables are commonly referred to as PVC
to Book 1, Chapter 4 for more detail on risk assessments. (polyvinyl chloride) cables and they come in various
shapes, sizes and forms, including:
l single-core cable
Materials l twin and cpc flat-profile cable
l three-core and cpc flat-profile cable
When starting a task, it is important to be able to
l multi-core flexible cable.
identify the materials that will be required to complete
the work. As well as using your previous experience, In domestic installations, the most common cables
you should be able to identify the components that are are the twin and cpc, and the three-core and cpc flat-
required by looking at the drawings and specifications. profile cables.
The project specification contains information
Cables have three main parts:
about the type of finish that is required for the
l Sheath – this is on the outside and holds the
installation work and may include details of preferred
conductors in one cable, as well as providing minor
manufacturers.
mechanical protection to the inner conductors.
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l Insulation – this is on the live conductors only and
is used to provide basic protection against electric
shock, as well as being a means to identify the
conductors.
l Conductor – this is what carries the current and is
commonly made from copper but may be made out
of other materials such as aluminium.
Figure 5.31 Cable stripper jaws
Manual wire strippers all have two blades that cross
Figure 5.30 Flat-profile cables one another like scissors.
Conductors can be formed in several ways. Conductors The blades each have a notch so that they cut around
with a cross-sectional area (csa) up to and including the conductor in the middle. They also all have a means
2.5 mm2 can be formed out of a single piece of copper. of adjustment so that different sizes of conductor can
Above 2.5 mm2 csa, conductors tend to be made out be stripped (Figure 5.31).
of multiple strands of copper. It is important to be able
Before using wire strippers, they must be set to the
to bend the cable and a solid piece of copper would
correct size. This can be done using a scrap or off-cut
be hard to bend. However, for conductors of 300 mm2
piece of wire of the correct size. With the jaws of the
csa and over, the conductors tend to be solid again;
wire strippers together, turn the adjustment screw until
bending is not normally required. If a cable is to be
the hole in the jaws is just bigger than the size of the
bent a lot in use, for example in the flex connecting a
conductor to be stripped. Test the setting on the off-
vacuum cleaner to a plug, the conductor is normally
cut piece of wire by placing the wire strippers over the
made of many fine strands of copper, each no thicker
wire and squeezing the handles to close the jaws. Then
than a hair. The reason for this is that as the conductors
slightly release the jaws and try to slide the insulation
keep getting bent, they will eventually break. In a solid
off using the wire strippers to assist.
conductor, the circuit would be broken. In a conductor
consisting of many strands, if one breaks, it will not If the wire strippers are correctly set, the insulation
significantly change the amount of current the cable will come off easily and there will be no damage to the
can carry. copper conductor. If the aperture is set too small, the
insulation will slide off easily but the conductor may be
Stripping single-core thermoplastic damaged. If set too large, the insulation will not come
cables off easily. A simple adjustment of the adjusting screw
Removal of the thermoplastic sheath, or insulation, is will correct these problems. Now, with the correct
relatively easy with thermoplastic cables. setting, the wires can be stripped safely.
Use of wire strippers is recommended for single-core Stripping flat-profile thermoplastic cable
conductors. Automatic wire strippers tend to rip the
Flat-profile cable is stripped in the same way as single-
insulation from the conductor and can damage the
core cables, once the sheath has been removed. There
insulation. Manual wire strippers are preferred and
are several ways to do this, but some methods can
these come in various forms, but all work on a similar
damage the cables.
principle.
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First, identify how much cable is required within the
accessory. A conductor should terminate with ease at
any termination point within the accessory. As a rule of
thumb, measure the diagonal size of the accessory and
then add 10 per cent to allow for termination. However,
if the accessory is a distribution panel, wires must be
able to reach not just the required position, but also
any point on the panel if the sequence of the board
were to be changed.
Next, identify how much of the sheath should be
removed from the cable. The purpose of the sheath
is to provide some mechanical protection for the
insulation on the conductors. However, too much Figure 5.32 Flexible cable sheath-stripping tool
sheath within the accessory takes up space and will
put excess strain on the conductors. The sheath should The outer sheath can be removed with the use of a
be stripped back almost to where the cable enters the ringing tool, which comes in various shapes and forms,
accessory, leaving only 10–15 mm, a thumb’s width, of the most basic of which is shown in Figure 5.32. This
sheath within the accessory. tool slides over the end of the cable, to the required
position, and is then rotated around the cable, cutting it
Having decided on the length of sheath required and slightly. The ringing tool is removed, the cable is bent to
with the cable in place, score round the sheath so that finish the cut and the sheath is then pulled off.
it can be removed. This can be done with a scriber
or, preferably, with an electrician’s knife. Care should There may be times when a ringing tool is not available,
be taken not to cut into the wires. Use a pair of side so it is important to know how to do this without a
cutters to snip down the centre of the cable, splitting special tool. Thermoplastic has a tendency to split
the line to one side and the neutral to the other. when it is damaged and stretched, and this feature can
be used to help strip the sheath.
Pull the live conductor and sheath apart, tearing the
sheath as far as the score mark. Once at the score mark, Bend the cable tightly at the point where the sheath
bend the sheath back and snap it off, leaving a clean is to be removed. Using a sharp knife gently score the
finish. Now the inner wires can be stripped in the same top of the bend, noticing the thermoplastic split open
manner as single-core wires, making sure that green and like a little mouth. Gently work the split until the inner
yellow sleeving is applied to the bare copper cpc. cables are visible and then unbend, rotate and re-bend
the cable at about 90° from the first point. Repeat
An alternative – but less safe – method of removing the the score until, again, the wires become visible. Taking
sheath is to score round the sheath with an electrician’s care not to cut into the wires, repeat the bend and cut
knife, then to split the sheath by running a knife along until the sheath can be removed. Once the sheath has
the route of the protective conductor. The risk with this been removed, the wires can be stripped as mentioned
method is of damaging the cpc or even the insulation previously.
of the conductors.
Stripping thermoplastic flexible cables Terminating cables and
Stripping the actual wires of flexible cables is done in BS 7671
the same way as stripping single-core wires. However, Section 526 of BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations
the sheath is stripped in a different way from the other is the key section relating to the terminating and
cables already mentioned here.
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connection of conductors. Below is a regulation-
KEY TERM
by-regulation discussion of the requirements.
Solder creep: sometimes called ‘cold flow’,
526.1 ‘solder creep’ can occur when the termination is
under constant mechanical stress and the solder
This requires that all connections shall provide ‘durable can literally move or ‘creep’. Incidence of creep
electrical continuity and adequate mechanical strength increases with temperature.
and protection’. This is a general requirement and
is in keeping with requirements of the EAWR. The
The material of the conductor and its
subsequent regulations give further information on how
insulation
this can be achieved.
Different metals or, more correctly, dissimilar metals
526.2 may react with each other, resulting in corrosion of the
termination. It is therefore important to make sure that
This requires that:
compatible materials are used when terminating cables
The means of connection shall take account of, as
and conductors. A further discussion of corrosion takes
appropriate:
place later in the book.
i the material of the conductor and its
insulation The number and shape of the wires
ii the number and shape of the wires forming forming the conductor
the conductor Conductors come in many formats, round or triangular,
iii the cross-sectional area of the conductor solid or stranded. It is important to select terminations
iv the number of conductors to be connected that are compatible with the cable and/or conductor.
together Failure to use compatible parts may result in the
v the temperature attained at the terminals in conductor becoming loose within the termination.
normal service, such that the effectiveness When crimping lugs onto cables, it is important that
of the insulation of the conductors the correct size lugs and crimp dies are used, to ensure
connected to them is not impaired that a sound mechanical and electrical connection is
vi the provision of adequate locking made. Shaped lugs are available to use with triangular
arrangements in situations subject to and half-round conductors used in some two-, three-
vibration or thermal cycling. and four-core cables. Where flex is being terminated,
it is important that the ends are treated, for example,
fitting ferrules to ensure that the individual strands
INDUSTRY TIP
are not spread and are all contained within the
The requirement for connections is that they are electrically termination.
continuous and mechanically strong. Many purists do not
like the use of strip connectors (chocolate blocks) but, like
anything else, used correctly they are fine. Given the very
large numbers in use, they must have something going
for them.
Where a soldered connection is used, the design
shall take account of creep, mechanical stress
and temperature rise under fault conditions.
There are a large number of considerations covered by
p Figure 5.33 Tube lug and bell mouth lug designed to capture all
this regulation. Take each of these points in turn. strands of conductor
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The cross-sectional area of the conductor The temperature attained at the
The cross-sectional area (csa) of the cable was carefully terminals in normal service, such that
selected at the design stage, to ensure that the current- the effectiveness of the insulation of the
carrying capacity of the conductor was adequate conductors connected to them is not
for the circuit load. When terminating the cable, it is impaired
important to ensure that all strands of the conductor The maximum operating temperature of conductors
are contained within the terminal, to ensure that the with thermoplastic insulation (usually PVC) is 70 °C,
current-carrying capacity is maintained. Terminals need whilst the maximum operating temperature of
to be large enough to house the conductor and to be thermosetting cables (XLPE) is 90 °C. When using
suitably rated to carry the circuit load. Failure to meet thermosetting cables at 90 °C, it is important to make
either of these requirements could result in overheating sure that the terminals are capable of withstanding
at the termination that, in turn, may cause damage to this temperature, as the majority of electrical
the equipment and/or the insulation of the cable. This accessories are designed to operate at 70 °C. Other
in turn may pose a fire risk. specialist cables may operate at higher temperatures,
so it is important to check the maximum operating
temperature of the terminals.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The correctly sized terminal is critical as ill-fitted
examples can cause a fire risk.
The provision of adequate locking
arrangements in situations subject to
vibration or thermal cycling
Where conductors are terminated into machinery,
this can cause vibration and may adversely affect the
p Figure 5.34 Terminals that are not large enough to
terminations. In such cases, it is common practice to
accommodate all the strands are problematic
use, for the final connection, one of these options:
l a flexible cable – where added mechanical
The number of conductors to be
protection is required, braided flex such as SY flex
connected together
can replace standard flex
The termination must be suitable for the number of l a flexible conduit – where unsheathed cables make
conductors to be connected together. Attempting the final connection or where additional mechanical
to fit more conductors into a terminal than it is protection is required, the cables can be housed
designed to hold will invariably result in one or more within flexible conduit
of those conductors not being properly connected and l an anti-vibration loop in the cable – with cables
becoming loose over time. In the case of accessories, such as MICC, or other cable types which are not
where more than one conductor is intended to be flexible, a loop is included in the cable to allow the
connected, manufacturers will provide a number of cable to absorb any vibration.
linked terminals to house all of the conductors so that a
sound mechanical and electrical connection is made.
INDUSTRY TIP
The use of a flexible connection will also allow the motor to
be moved when adjustment or alignment is required.
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Thermal cycling can also harm the terminations. It is 526.4
greatest when cables are run at or near their maximum This requires that the insulation of the cable must not
operating temperature. The effects can be reduced be adversely affected by the temperature attained
by ensuring that terminations and connections are at a connection. An example of this may be where a
kept tight. cable with an insulation temperature rating of 70 °C
is connected to a bus-bar which has been designed to
KEY TERM run at a higher temperature. In this case the insulation
Thermal cycling: heating and cooling of metal (in on the cable would be removed from the cable to a
this case) which causes expansion and contraction suitable distance and replaced with insulation capable
and, eventually, the loosening of terminals. of withstanding the higher temperature.
526.5
526.3
All terminations and joints in live conductors must
Poor and loose terminations cause many fires of be enclosed within a suitable enclosure or accessory.
electrical origin. Regulation 526.3 requires every There are no exceptions. This requirement applies to
connection or joint to be accessible for inspection, both low-voltage and extra-low voltage connections,
testing and maintenance, with the exception of: but sadly it is not uncommon to see poor examples
l joints designed to buried in the ground
of connections, especially where down-lighters are
l a compound-filled joint
fitted.
l an encapsulated joint
l a cold tail of a floor or ceiling heating system
l a joint made by welding or soldering
KEY TERM
l a joint made with an appropriate compression tool Live conductor: a conductor intended to be
l spring-loaded terminals complying with BS 5733 energised in normal service, and therefore
and marked with the symbol MF . includes a neutral conductor.
INDUSTRY TIP
From this regulation it is clear that the practice of using
screw terminal junction boxes and placing these in
inaccessible places, such as ceiling or floor voids, is not in
compliance with BS 7671.
p Figure 5.36 Example of an acceptable connection
In harmony with Regulation 526.5 is Regulation
421.1.6, which requires that all enclosures have suitable
mechanical and fire-resistant properties.
526.6
This requires that there is ‘no appreciable mechanical
strain in the connections of conductors.’ Mechanical
strain may come about due to:
p Figure 5.35 Types of connection not required to be accessible
l the conductor bending too tightly before entering
the terminal, causing the termination to be
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under constant stress. Cables must be installed in protection against relevant external influences. The
accordance with the minimum bend radii, as given minimum requirements for an enclosure to meet the
in the IET On-Site Guide or IET Guidance Note 1 requirements for basic protection are that:
(GN1). l the bottom sides and face meet at least IP2X or IPXXB
l cables having no form of strain relief fitted. This can l for the top surface, the enclosure must meet IP4X or
exert mechanical forces on the termination, due to IPXXD.
the weight of the cable pulling on the termination.
However it may also be necessary to take into account
Cables should be fixed at the maximum distances
external influences such as water ingress or dust
given in the IET On-Site Guide or IET GN1. The
ingress, depending on the location.
fitting of suitable cable glands, where cables
enter enclosures, provides strain relief on the The IP Code
terminations.
The IP Code is an international code specifically aimed
l cables terminated without any slack. Under faulty
at manufacturers of enclosures and equipment. It
conditions large electromagnetic forces, due to high
applies to degrees of protection provided by electrical
fault currents, are exerted on the cables, with the
equipment enclosures with rated voltages not
highest forces being exerted at the ‘crutch point’,
exceeding 72.5 kV. The abbreviation ‘IP’ stands for
where cables come together at the outer sheath. If
International Protection, so the full title is International
there is little slack in the cables, the forces will be
Protection Code (IP). The code is defined in IEC 60529
transferred to the terminal.
(BS EN 60529).
The three general categories of protection given in the
standard are:
1 the ingress of solid foreign objects (first digit)
2 the ingress of water (second digit)
3 the access of persons to harmful electrical or
mechanical parts.
When referring to the IP code in wiring regulations,
‘X’ is used in place of the first or second numeral, to
indicate that:
1 the test is not applicable to that enclosure or
2 in the case of standards, the classification of
p Figure 5.37 Using a gland to provide strain relief protection is not applicable to this standard.
For example, IP2X means that protection against the
526.7 ingress of solid objects must meet at least IP2 but
This requires that, where a joint in a conductor the requirement for water ingress protection is not
is made within an enclosure, the enclosure must applicable in this case. Manufacturers will provide a full
provide adequate mechanical protection as well as code, such as IP44, for the enclosure.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
IP 4 3 D
Code letters
International protection
First numeral 0–6 or letter X
Protection of persons by prevention
or limiting ingress of parts of the
body
Limitation of the ingress of solid
objects
Second numeral 0–8 or letter X
Resistance to the ingress of water
p Figure 5.38 How the IP Coding system works
q First numeral 0–6: Ingress of solid objects
IP Requirement Example
0 No protection
1 Full penetration of 50.0 mm diameter sphere not allowed and shall have Back of the hand
adequate clearance from hazardous parts. Contact with hazardous parts
not permitted.
2 Full penetration of 12.5 mm diameter sphere not allowed. The jointed test A finger
finger shall have adequate clearance from hazardous parts.
3 The access probe of 2.5 mm diameter shall not penetrate. A tool such as a screwdriver
4 The access probe of 1.0 mm diameter shall not penetrate. A wire
5 Limited ingress of dust permitted. No harmful deposit. Close fitting
6 Totally protected against ingress of dust. Dust-tight
INDUSTRY TIP
Do not use your own finger to test equipment. Use a proper
test finger.
q Second numeral 0–8: Ingress of water
IP Requirement Example
0 No protection
1 Protected against vertically falling Drips from
drops of water condensation or
similar
p Figure 5.39 The first digit of the IP code shown relates to the 2 Protected against vertically falling
ingress of solid objects and the second digit relates to the drops of water with enclosure
ingress of liquids tilted 15° from the vertical
➜
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q Second numeral 0–8: Ingress of water (continued)
3 Protected against sprays to 60º Rainproof
from the vertical
4 Protected against water splashed Outdoor electrical
from all directions equipment
5 Protected against low-pressure Where hoses are
jets of water from all directions used for cleaning p Figure 5.40 Cable entry at p Figure 5.41 Non-sheathed
purposes
electrical accessory not cables outside of an
6 Protected against strong jets of Where waves meeting the IP code enclosure
water are likely to be
present
7 Protected against the effects of Inside a bath tub INDUSTRY TIP
immersion between 15.0 cm and
1.0 m You will find that over the years, many creatures find their
8 Protected against submersion Inside a swimming way into enclosures. This might seem impossible, but
or longer periods of immersion pool insects are common and mice not unknown.
under pressure
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
When removing knockouts from a plastic box the
What is meant by the code IP44?
slot should be as tight to the cable as possible. What
tool should be used to cut the slot?
q Additional letter A–D: Enhanced protection of persons
IP Requirement Example
INDUSTRY TIP
A Penetration of 50.0 mm diameter The back of
sphere up to guard face must not the hand
contact hazardous parts When cables enter the top of an enclosure, IP4X must be
maintained, meaning there should be no gap larger than 1 mm.
B Test finger penetration to a maximum A finger
of 80.0 mm must not contact
hazardous parts
526.8
C Wire of 2.5 mm diameter × 100.0 mm A screwdriver
long must not contact hazardous parts Where the sheath of a cable has been removed the
D Wire of 1.0 mm diameter × 100.0 A wire cores of the cable must be enclosed within an enclosure
mm long must not contact hazardous as detailed in 526.5. This also applies to non-sheathed
parts may be protected by an internal cables, contained within trunking or conduit.
barrier
The IP codes that you are most likely to come across 526.9
are: The group of regulations designated 526.9 relates to
1 For protection against the ingress of solid the connection of multi-wire, fine-wire and very-fine
objects and protection to persons. The codes are wire conductors.
IP2X and IP4X used in relation to barriers and
enclosures. 526.9.1
2 For protection against the ingress of water the codes To stop the ends of multi-wire, fine-wire and very-fine
are IPX4, IPX5, IPX6, IPX7 and IPX8. wire conductors from spreading or separating, this
3 For enhanced personal protection IPXXB and regulation requires that suitable terminals, such as plate
IPXXD again used in relation to barriers and terminals, or suitable treating of the ends be undertaken.
enclosures. One suitable method is to fit ferrules on the ends of
the conductor. Manufacturers will almost always fit
some form of ferrule to the ends of flexes so that the
conductor can be terminated in a screw terminal.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
down onto the conductor to ensure it is retained in
place. Problems arise, however, when the terminal
is designed to take more than one conductor, or a
conductor of a larger csa than the one being installed.
The common types of screw terminal used in the
accessories within electrical installations are:
l square
l circular
l moving-plate
l insulation-displacement
l pillar.
p Figure 5.42 Ferrule fitted to pendant flex Square base terminal
The use of square terminals can be seen in accessories
INDUSTRY TIP such as socket-outlet face-plates, where two or even
three cables can be terminated in the same terminal.
Soldering flex forms a hard mass that, when subjected to These terminals are designed to accept up to three
vibration, may work loose. Most appliances come fitted with cables and, where a single conductor is used, the screw
a 13A plug but occasionally, a flex with soldered ends is can miss or damage the conductor. To minimise the
supplied. In this situation, advice from the manufacturer potential for problems, the end of the conductor is
should be followed. bent over to increase the contact area available for the
screw of the terminal.
526.9.2
Soldering or tinning of the ends of multi-wire, fine-wire
and very-fine wire conductors is not permitted if screw
terminals are used.
526.9.3
The connection of soldered and non-soldered ends on
multi-wire, fine-wire and very-fine wire conductors
is not permitted where there is relative movement
p Figure 5.43 Square terminal showing possible problems if
between the two conductors. conductor is not doubled over
Connection methods To bend over the end of the conductor, it is necessary
to remove twice the normal amount of insulation from
Allowable connection methods include:
the cable. Then a pair of long-nosed pliers is used to
l screw
fold the exposed conductor in half. It is important to
l crimped
make sure that both sides of the bend are the same
l soldered
length, as shown in the centre diagram of Figure 5.44.
l non-screw compression.
If the return edge is too long, as shown in the left
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. diagram of Figure 5.44 the conductor may protrude
from the terminal, causing a shock hazard. If it is too
Screw terminals short, as shown on the right diagram of Figure 5.44 the
When cables are terminated into electrical equipment, bend will be redundant.
the type of terminal used must be taken into account.
Most accessories use a grub screw, which is screwed
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the bottom of the terminal as the screw is tightened,
small conductors should be doubled over. If there is any
doubt, refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
No matter what type of terminal is being used, different
conductor types should never be mixed within the
same terminal. If flexible cable is terminated within the
same terminal as solid or stranded cable, the screw may
fail to clamp on the flexible cable and only a few of the
fine strands may be secured. This could result in a poor
p Figure 5.44 Bending over the end of a conductor: bend is too
big, correct and too small electrical connection and the wire might come loose.
Circular terminal
Circular terminals can be seen in accessories such as
light switches and ceiling roses, where single cables or
small cables are terminated. They are also commonly
found in consumer units and distribution boards on
both the neutral and earth bars.
Circular bottom terminals are designed to ensure
that the conductor is positioned directly beneath the
terminal screw, so there is no need to bend the end of
p Figure 5.46 Two types of moving-plate terminal
the conductor over.
If there is no option other than to mix flexible cable and
solid or stranded conductors in the same terminal, the
flexible conductor must be fitted with a ferrule. This is
a small, metal tube that is crimped onto the end of a
flexible conductor to hold the strands together.
Terminating copper and aluminium conductors within
the same terminal should also be avoided due to
the electrolytic reaction between the two different
metals.
Whatever types of terminal and conductor are being
p Figure 5.45 Circular base terminal used, always make sure that the screw tightens on the
conductor and not the insulation. To ensure this, the
Moving-plate terminal insulation should stop at the opening of the terminal.
Moving plate terminals are often used on protective Take care not to stop the insulation too early, leaving
devices, such as circuit breakers and fuse holders that the conductor exposed, with the possibility of faults
are mounted in consumer units and distribution boards. occurring.
The option of bending over the end of the conductor
INDUSTRY TIP
depends not only on the size of the conductor, but also
on the size and type of the terminal. If the terminal is Common faults with terminations are exposed conductors or
the type where the bottom moves up towards the top screwing down onto the insulation.
when the screw is tightened, it is not necessary to bend
over the conductor, as the terminal tightens evenly. If,
however, the terminal has a plate that moves towards
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Advantages and disadvantages of screw The jaws of the crimping tool are shaped to apply a
terminals different crimp style and pressure to the conductor and
The advantages of screw terminals are: insulation sides of the connection. The crimping tool
l they are cheap to produce applies the correct amount of pressure through a ratchet
l they are reliable that cannot be defeated unless the correct amount of
l they are easily terminated, with basic tools pressure is used, or the release button is pressed.
l the terminals are reusable. Once a crimp has been installed, it must be checked to
The disadvantage of screw terminals are that: ensure that the conductor of the wire protrudes from
l over-tightening could result in damage to the the crimped part of the lug and that the insulation has
terminal or the conductor been trapped on the other end, so that no exposed
l under-tightening of the terminals can result in conductor is showing. Bearing in mind that crimps are
overheating and arcing used in applications where vibration occurs, they should
l terminals can become loose, due to movement of never be used on solid conductors.
the conductor in use or due to mechanical vibration
l terminations need to be accessible for inspection. ACTIVITY
It is not unknown for pliers to be used for fitting
Crimps crimps, instead of the correct crimping tool. List two
possible faults that could occur.
Crimps and crimp lugs come in two basic forms,
insulated and uninsulated.
Uninsulated crimps
Insulated crimps Uninsulated crimps are used on conductors with cross-
When using a cable crimp lug, the wire’s insulation must sectional areas from 6 mm2 upwards. It is important
be stripped back about 5 mm. This enables the crimp that the crimp is sized in accordance with the cross-
to be installed with the correct amount of conductor sectional area of the conductors and is compatible with
within the crimp and with the insulating section being the conductor material being terminated.
sealed down onto the insulation of the wire.
Whilst a hand crimper may be suitable for smaller-sized
conductors, on larger conductors a hydraulic crimper
will be required. Battery-operated crimp tools are
available that take all of the hard work out of crimping
a lug onto a conductor.
p Figure 5.47 Insulated crimps
Crimp lugs come in three colours for the different sizes
of wires:
l red – 1 to 1.5 mm2 wires
l blue – 1.5 to 2.5 mm2 wires
l yellow – 4 to 6 mm2 wires. p Figure 5.48 Uninsulated crimps
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Crimped connection method, step-by-step
STEP 4 The cable lug is then crimped to the cable, using a proprietary
cable crimper that suits the size of the lug.
STEP 1 Select the correct size cable lug for the conductor. Cable lugs with
different-sized holes are available, so be sure to always choose one that
has the correct-sized hole for the connection bolt or screw.
STEP 5 The conductor is now ready to be connected.
STEP 2 Strip enough insulation from the cable so that the copper
Advantages and disadvantages of
conductor meets the end of the cable lug, while the sheath of the cable crimped connections
fits tight to the base of the lug. The advantages of crimped connections are that they:
l are quick and convenient to install
l provide a secure termination
l do not need to be accessible for inspection.
The disadvantages of crimped connections are that:
l special tools are required
l tools for larger sizes are expensive to purchase
l crimps cannot be reused.
INDUSTRY TIP
Crimped connections are far quicker and cleaner to make
than soldered joints. They also avoid the risk of the heat
source damaging the insulation or setting fire to the
building.
STEP 3 Ensure that the cable reaches right to the end of the lug tube.
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Soldered terminations l solid conductors to solid conductors
In the past, lugs were soldered to cables, but this has l flexible conductors to solid conductors
mainly been replaced by the use of crimp lugs. l flexible conductors to flexible conductors.
Soldering is mainly used in the assembly of electronic
components and equipment.
p Figure 5.50 A wide range of push fit connectors is available, to
cope with various cable types
Manufacturers make a range of accessories to go
alongside these connectors that ensure the termination
of cables can be both speedy and reliable.
p Figure 5.49 Soldering is mainly used with electronic equipment
Advantages and disadvantages of
soldered terminations
The advantages of soldered terminations are that:
l they provide a good electrical connection
l they offer good mechanical strength
l large numbers of connections can be made within a
small area as the joint area is very small.
The disadvantages of soldered terminations are that:
l a heat source is required
l there are hazards associated with molten metals p Figure 5.51 Termination of PVC cables into purpose-designed box
l there may be damage to conductor insulation
l there may be damage to components. Advantages and disadvantages of non-
screw compression terminations
ACTIVITY The advantages of non-screw compression
What action should be taken if insulation is terminations are that:
damaged during the soldering process?
l they are quick and convenient to install
l they provide a secure termination
Non-screw compression l they are not affected by vibration
l no special tools are required
Non-screw compression connectors, including push-fit
l they are reusable
connectors, have been used in many associated industries
l they are maintenance free.
such as lighting manufacturing for a number of years and
have proved to be robust and reliable, both electrically The disadvantage of non-screw terminations is that:
and mechanically. In recent years these have been used
l they are generally not available for cable sizes
more and more in electrical installations and, depending
exceeding 6 mm2.
on choice of connector, can be used for joining:
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Proving that terminations The consequences
and connections of terminations not
are electrically and being electrically and
mechanically sound mechanically sound
It is important that when terminations are complete, If the termination of cables and conductors is not
they are verified to be both electrically and electrically or mechanically sound, the consequences
mechanically sound. The procedures to follow will can be disastrous. The cause of terminations not being
include both inspection and testing. electrically and mechanically sound is usually high-
resistance joints or corrosion.
Inspection will include checks such as:
l making sure that all terminations are tight. This
includes both live and protective conductors and
The effects of high-resistance joints
can be accomplished by both careful scrutiny and The most common cause of high-resistance joints is a
by ‘tugging’ the conductor to ensure it is securely loose connection. When current is passed across such
fastened in the termination a joint, it heats up. This is likely to cause damage to
l checking visually that the electrical connection the cable insulation and/or the connected electrical
is made to the conductor rather than the equipment. In the worst case, this may result in
insulation the overheating of adjacent material, resulting in a
l checking visually that conductive parts are not possible fire. It is important to make sure that cables
accessible to touch are seated properly in the terminals and that the
terminals are correctly tightened. Manufacturer’s
l checking that the correct termination methods have
instructions need to be consulted to check whether
been used and that they are suitable for:
a torque setting is given for connections, which must
l the type of conductors being terminated then be complied with.
l the environment in which the termination is to
be used. It should be remembered that, even with a sound
connection, when current is flowing, the conductors
INDUSTRY TIP and terminations will heat up, resulting in expansion of
the metal, which can lead to loosening of the terminal.
Careful and thorough inspection will identify the majority of This is why terminals, apart from those exempted by
faults with terminations. Regulation 526.3, must be accessible for maintenance
and inspection.
Testing will need to be carried out to ensure that:
Another cause of loose terminations is vibration from
l conductors are continuous
such things as machinery. It is important that initial
l there are no shorts in the conductors
terminations are correctly made and tightened and that
l conductors are connected to the correct points.
regular maintenance is carried out to ensure that loose
The appropriate tests would be: connections cannot occur.
l continuity, including that of the cpc and ring final
The corrosion of terminals will also result in high-
circuit conductors
resistance joints.
l insulation resistance
l polarity and phase rotation.
KEY TERM
It is important that correct inspection and testing
procedures are followed. Corrosion: the breaking down or destruction of
a material, especially a metal, through chemical
reactions.
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q First letter
Code Definition
A1 For unarmoured cable with an elastomeric or plastic
outer sheath, with sealing function between the
cable sheath and the sealing ring of the cable gland.
A2 As type A1, but with seal protection degree IP66 –
means 30 bar pressure
B No seal
C Single outer seal
E Double (inner & outer) seal
q Second letter
Code Designation of cable armouring
W Single wire armour
Y Strip armour used
X Braid
T Pliable wire armour
p Figure 5.52 Lug bolted to casing of equipment
From the tables, these meanings can be gathered.
Techniques and methods BW A gland without seals suitable for single wire
for the safe and effective armour cable. SWA for indoor use.
termination and connection CW A gland with a single outer seal for single wire
armour cable. SWA for outdoor use.
of cables
The following section will describe and illustrate the CX A gland with a single outer seal for braided
preparation of cables for connection. Various methods cables such as SY flex for outdoor use.
will be illustrated. The health and safety requirements
What is the purpose of a cable gland?
for each method and the tools required to terminate
will be discussed for each type of cable. The cables A gland can be used to:
l maintain the IP rating of an enclosure
covered in this section are:
l provide continuity of earth
l thermosetting insulated cables, including flexes
l provide strain relief to terminations.
l single and multicore thermoplastic (PVC) and
thermosetting insulated cables A gland is an integral part of the termination of a cable
l PVC/PVC flat profile cable. and so must be fitted correctly. Incorrect fitting could
Terminating some of these cables requires the use of result in:
l water being allowed to enter an enclosure
glands and shrouds as described below.
l the connection to earth not being adequate and
Cable glands posing a shock risk in the event of an earth fault
l strain being placed on cables and the cables pulling
Cable glands are available in a range of sizes and
out of terminals, creating either a short-circuit fault
formats and with a bewildering array of designatory
or an earth fault.
letters and numbers: BW, CW, CX, CXT to name but a
few. So what do all these letters mean? These tables
provide the answers.
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Shrouds How to fit a shroud to ensure a tight fit to
the cable sheath
The same method of fitting a shroud can be used with
all cables.
p Figure 5.53 A range of shrouds
What does a cable shroud do? A cable shroud can
aid the process of keeping the surface of the gland
clean and free from the build-up of dirt. It does not,
however, necessarily improve the ingress protection
(IP) rating of the cable gland. In fact, the gland will STEP 1 Push the shroud lightly on to the cable so that a small bulge
appears where the cable end is. Do not push too hard, as this will stretch
invariably have been tested and rated without the
the shroud and you will end up cutting in the wrong place.
installation of a cable shroud. The shroud may provide
corrosion protection to cable armour or the sheath,
but it must be installed in such a way as not to trap
moisture under itself and thus increase the corrosion
potential. If the shroud is too loose on the cable
sheath, moisture may enter the assembly and, as the
fit with the gland is going to be tight, the moisture will
be trapped.
Shrouds generally come in PVC or LSF (low smoke and
fume) varieties, in a range of sizes to match the gland,
and in a range of colours to match the sheath colour of
STEP 2 Cut the shroud at the bulge, with a pair of side cutters or, better
the cable, with black being the most common. still, a pair of cable croppers.
STEP 3 Push the shroud onto the cable. The top of the shroud should
now be a snug fit to the outer sheath of the cable. Remember, when
assembling the gland and shroud combination, the shroud goes on before
the gland.
p Figure 5.54 A badly fitted shroud could trap moisture
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INDUSTRY TIP
While a plumber wouldn’t generally need to install shrouding, you
should be aware of it as some less common installations require
it, e.g. jacuzzis. If in any doubt, refer to a qualified electrician.
The next section describes the common methods of
terminating cables.
Cable entry to an enclosure
When a cable enters an enclosure, the integrity of the
enclosure should not be compromised. The entry may
have to meet one or more of these criteria. p Figure 5.56 Non-compliance on cable entry
l The point of entry must not cause damage to the l There may be IP ratings that are applicable for the
cable. Rough edges should be removed and, as a ingress of water:
minimum, rubber grommets should be used on all l for an enclosure outside a building, it is likely to
cable entries. Cable glands are a better alternative. be IPX4 splash proof
l for an enclosure where water jets are used, the
rating should be IPX5.
ACTIVITY
Use the internet to find a cable coupler suitable for
outside use.
There may be requirements for fire protection. Where
there is a fire risk due to powders or dust being present
in locations such as a carpenter’s workshop, the
minimum IP rating is IP5X.
p Figure 5.55 Rubber grommet to enclosure. Grommets protect
cables from rough edges
INDUSTRY TIP
Grommets are available as open or blind. An open grommet has
a hole in the middle. A blind grommet has a thin membrane,
through which the cable is pushed, and provides a better seal.
Grommet strip is also available for irregular-shaped holes.
l The entry of the cable should not compromise the IP
rating of the enclosure. For basic protection this is:
l top surface IP4X – a 1 mm diameter wire will not
enter
l front, sides and bottom, a 12.5 mm diameter
object will not enter. p Figure 5.57 Splash proof socket
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Terminating flexes The ringing tool is removed, the cable is bent to finish
Tools required the cut and the sheath is then pulled off.
l Ringing tool (Method 1)
l Stripping knife (Method 2)
p Figure 5.60 Outer sheath being removed
p Figure 5.58 Ringing tool (Method 1); stripping knife (Method 2)
Method 2
Safety considerations There may be times when a ringing tool is not available,
so it is important to know how to remove the outer
There is a risk of cutting your hands from use of knife.
sheath without this tool. Thermoplastic has a tendency
The use of gloves and eye protection is recommended.
to split when it is damaged and pressure is applied, and
Method this can be used to help strip the sheath.
Before the flex can be terminated, the outer sheath Bend the cable into a tight bend at the point where
must be removed. the sheath is to be removed. Using a sharp knife, gently
score the top of the bend. The thermoplastic will split
Two methods of removing the outer sheath are
open like a little mouth (Figure 5.61).
outlined here.
Method 1
The outer sheath can be removed with the use of a
ringing tool. These come in various shapes and forms,
the most basic of which is shown in the diagram. This
tool slides over the end of the cable to the required
stripping position, and is then rotated around the cable,
cutting it slightly.
p Figure 5.61 Bending cable to cause split in sheath
p Figure 5.59 Flexible cable sheath stripping tool for use on flex
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Terminating single-core cables Manual wire strippers have two blades that cross one
Tools required another, like scissors. Each blade has a notch so that
together they cut around the conductor in the middle.
l Cable strippers.
In addition, wire strippers also have some means of
adjustment so that different sizes of conductor can be
stripped.
Before wire strippers can be used, they must be set
to the correct size. This can be done using a scrap or
off-cut of wire of the correct size. With the jaws of the
wire strippers together, turn the adjustment screw until
the hole in the jaws is just bigger than the conductor to
be stripped. Test the setting on the off-cut of wire, by
placing the wire strippers over the wire and squeezing
the handles to close the jaws. Then slightly release the
jaws and try to slide the insulation off, using the wire
p Figure 5.62 Different types of cable strippers are available strippers.
Safety considerations
There is a risk of injury from slipping with cutters
or pliers. The use of gloves and eye protection is
recommended.
p Figure 5.64 Cable strippers with pre-set holes
p Figure 5.63 Cable stripper jaws If the wire strippers are correctly set, the insulation
will come off easily and there will be no damage to
Method the copper conductor. If the aperture is set too small,
the insulation will slide off easily but the conductor
As single-core cables do not have outer sheaths to
may be damaged. If it is set too large, the insulation
remove because they are intended to be installed
will not come off easily. A simple adjustment of the
within trunking or conduit, the termination method
adjusting screw will correct these problems. Now,
is straightforward and requires the minimum of tools.
with the correct setting, the wires can be stripped
This termination method will therefore also apply to
safely.
the final connection of other cable types.
Other types of wire stripper will have pre-set stripping
Use of wire strippers is recommended for single-core
holes so that selecting the correct hole will ensure that
conductors. Automatic wire strippers tend to rip the
the depth of cut is correct every time.
insulation from the conductor and can damage it.
Manual wire strippers are preferred and these come in Once the conductors are stripped they are ready to be
various forms, but all work on a similar principle. connected to the electrical equipment.
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Terminating PVC/PVC flat profile cable
Tools required
Dependent on method used:
l electrician’s knife
l side cutters
l pliers.
p Figure 5.66 Determining the point to which to strip the sheath
Method 1
Having decided on the length of sheath required, and
with the cable in place, score the sheath at the point to
which it is to be removed. This can be performed with
an electrician’s knife. Care should be taken not to cut
into the cable.
p Figure 5.65 Pliers, side cutters, electrician’s knife (from left
to right)
Safety considerations
l Cuts to hands from use of knife
l Injury from slipping with cutters or pliers
The use of gloves and eye protection is recommended.
p Figure 5.67 Scoring the outer sheath
Method
From the end of the cable, snip down the centre of the
Before the conductors can be connected, the outer
cable, using a pair of side cutters. Split the line to one
sheath of the cable must be removed.
side and the neutral to the other.
First, identify how much of the sheath should be
removed from the cable. The purpose of the sheath
is to provide some mechanical protection for the
insulation on the conductors. Too much sheath,
however, takes up space within the accessory and
will put excess strain on the conductors. The sheath
should, therefore, be stripped back almost to where the
cable enters the accessory, leaving only 10–15 mm, a
thumb’s width, of sheath within the accessory.
There is more than one way to remove the outer
sheath. Each has its advantages and disadvantages
but, whichever method is used, care must be taken to
avoid damage occurring to either the conductors or the
insulation around the conductors. p Figure 5.68 Snipping the end of the cable
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p Figure 5.69 Tearing down to the score mark (left) and removing the outer sheath (right)
Grip each piece of split cable, conductor and sheath Method 3
and pull them apart, tearing any uncut sheath as you Snip down the end of the cable and gently pull the cpc
go. Continue up to the score mark. with pliers, almost like a cheese wire, to tear the outer
Once the score mark is reached, the sheath can be sheath as far as the point to which it is to be stripped.
removed from the wires. Then, holding the cable in one Take care not to apply too much force or to damage
hand and with the thumb of the other hand placed on the cpc, nor to strip too far.
the sheath behind the score, jerk the torn sheath to make
it break along the score mark, leaving a clean finish.
Method 2
Snip down the end of the cable with the side cutters,
then use a sharp electrician’s knife to slice down the
cable. To do this, run the blade along the protective
conductor. Note that this can damage the protective
conductor or, even worse, the insulation of one of the
live conductors if it is not done carefully.
p Figure 5.70 Running an electrician’s knife along the cpc
p Figure 5.71 Using the cpc to ‘cut’ the outer sheath
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Once you have reached the desired strip position in the protective bonding conductor. An understanding of the
outer sheath, use side cutters to cut away the outer term ‘extraneous conductive part’ helps when deciding
sheath. whether an item requires bonding or not.
KEY TERMS
Bonding: a term used to describe the connection
of extraneous conductive parts to the earthing
system.
Earth: earth with a capital E represents the
potential of the ground we stand on.
An extraneous conductive part is defined in
BS 7671 as:
l a conductive part
l liable to introduce a potential, generally Earth
potential, and
p Figure 5.72 Using side cutters to cut away the outer sheath
l not forming part of the electrical installation.
Termination By breaking down the definition in this way, it helps us
Now the inner wires can be stripped in the same come to a conclusion as to whether or not something
manner as for single-core wires, making sure that requires bonding.
green and yellow sleeving is applied to the bare copper l A conductive part is generally metallic.
cpc. The sleeving must cover all of the bare cpc, apart l The potential is usually taken as the mass of Earth,
from a small amount at the end, enough to go into the hence the capital E in ‘Earth potential’.
terminal. Extraneous conductive parts would include such items
as:
l metallic water installation pipes
l metallic gas installation pipes
l other metallic installation pipework and ducting
l exposed structural metalwork
l central heating and air-conditioning systems.
When considering items on the list above, always use
the criteria that define an extraneous conductive part
to decide whether or not the item is an extraneous
conductive part in a particular situation. For example,
a structural steel beam supported on brick piers would
not be regarded as an extraneous conductive part and
p Figure 5.73 Applying sleeving to bare cpc ready for final would not require bonding, but a structural steel beam
termination in contact with the ground is an extraneous conductive
part that would require bonding. Where plastic pipes
The conductors can now be terminated into the
enter a building, or metal pipes have insulated sections,
electrical equipment, as described previously.
the metallic installation pipes will not require bonding
as these are not extraneous.
What needs bonding? Metallic parts of the electrical installation are exposed
BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations requires that an
conductive parts rather than extraneous conductive
extraneous conductive part be connected to the main
parts and these require earthing.
earthing terminal (MET) by means of a suitably sized
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HEALTH AND SAFETY Installation of main protective
Metal parts that are not in contact with earth cannot bonding conductors
become live or create a circuit so they are safe. If A main protective bonding conductor of the correct size
they are bonded, this can introduce a risk that did should be run from the MET to the point of connection
not exist before. to the service to be bonded. The conductor used must
be of the correct colour: green and yellow.
Support of main protective bonding
conductors
Section 522 of BS 7671 requires that all cables
are correctly supported throughout their length to
avoid mechanical stresses on both the cable and the
terminations. Gas, water and other service pipework
should not be used as a method of support. Consideration
needs to be given to this aspect, especially where the
bonding cable is terminated to the service pipework to
ensure that the protective bonding conductor does not
become disconnected from the pipe clamp.
p Figure 5.74 A clamp used for bonding extraneous conductive
parts such as pipework
Installing protective bonding
When installing protective bonding to mains services,
the following steps should be taken.
1 Select the correct size of protective bonding
conductor.
2 Install the protective bonding conductor.
3 Make the correct choice of bonding clamp.
4 Install the bonding clamp.
5 Terminate the cable. p Figure 5.75 Clipped bonding conductor
Cable sizes Point of connection
The size of bonding conductor depends on the type The connection of the bonding conductor to the service
of earthing system used and the electrical system to pipes should be:
be worked on, including the type of electrical supply l as near as practicable to the point of entry of the
earthing arrangement and length of the cable run. In service into the building
the majority of domestic type installations, a 10 mm2 l where practicable, within 600 mm of the service
conductor would normally be suitable. meter or at the point of entry if the service meter is
external
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l to the consumer’s pipework – in the case of a water l 12–32 mm
service, after the stopcock l 32–50 mm
l to hard metal pipework, not soft or flexible pipe l 50–75 mm.
l before any branch pipework BS 951 clamps are available to suit different
l after any insulating sections. environments and manufacturers have adopted a
The connection point is required to be accessible for three-colour coding system to make selection easier:
future inspection and testing. l red for dry, non-corrosive atmospheres
l blue for corrosive or humid conditions
l green for corrosive or humid conditions, and for
larger sizes of conductor.
p Figure 5.77 Colour-coded BS 951 bonding clamps
p Figure 5.76 Bonding to gas supply Some extraneous parts, such as steelwork, are of an
irregular shape but still require bonding. Various clamps
Choice of bonding clamps are available from suppliers and these must be:
l electrically durable
Bonding clamps must:
l of adequate mechanical strength
l meet the requirements of BS 951
l suitable for the environment where they are to be
l be suitable for the environment in which they are to
installed
be installed
l labelled in accordance with Regulation 514.13.1 of
l be labelled in accordance with Regulation 514.13.1
BS 7671.
of BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations.
BS 951 clamps are designed only to fit circular pipes Labels for bonding clamps
or rods. They are not designed to fit objects of irregular BS 7671 requires that the point of connection of every
shape, to be attached to steel wire armoured cable bonding conductor to an extraneous conductive part
or lead-sheathed cable. They are available in different has a permanent and durable label fixed in a visible
lengths and different materials to suit different pipe position stating ‘safety electrical connection – do not
sizes and different installation environments. remove’ (Figure 5.78).
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Always make sure all connections are electrically and
mechanically sound. Bad joints are dangerous.
BS 951 clamps are designed for connection of bonding
conductors of between 2.5 and 70 mm2. They also
come in three standard band lengths, to suit pipes with p Figure 5.78 BS 7671 permanent label
diameters of:
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Installation of bonding clamps Step 2 – preparing the pipe for
The photograph in Figure 5.79 shows a bonding clamp installation of the bonding clamp
as it appears when it first arrives. Note that the label is It is vitally important that the connection between the
fitted this way for packaging; the slots in the label are bonding clamp and the pipework is electrically sound.
only there for this purpose. Tarnished pipework can be cleaned using wire wool;
paint must be removed from painted pipework and the
4 56
metal should be cleaned with wire wool.
1 2 3
INDUSTRY TIP
Even if the pipe looks clean there may be an oxide on the
surface. Make sure you clean the pipe before fixing the
p Figure 5.79 A bonding clamp as supplied
clamp to it.
The six parts of the bonding clamp are:
1 strap
2 label
3 bonding clamp body
4 cable termination point and screw p Figure 5.81 Preparing the pipe for installation of the bonding
5 locking nut clamp (Step 2)
6 tightening screw.
Step 3 – installation of bonding clamp to
Step-by-step instructions for fitting a pipe
BS 951 clamp
Step 1 – preparing the bonding clamp for
installation
l Remove the label from the strap.
l Remove the tightening screw and locking nut from
the body of the clamp.
l Pass the tightening screw through the hole in the
label and fit the locking nut.
l Refit the assembly to the clamp body, but leave the
screw so that it is not protruding into the slot of the p Figure 5.82 Place the body of the clamp against the cleaned
body. section of pipework
l The clamp is now ready for installation.
p Figure 5.80 Preparing the bonding clamp for installation (Step 1)
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p Figure 5.83 Pass the strap around the pipe and through the slot
in the body of the bonding clamp
p Figure 5.86 The bonding clamp is now installed ready for
Pull the strap tight with one hand and, with the other connection of the protective bonding
hand, tighten the screw with a screwdriver.
Make sure that the locking nut is far enough up the Termination of bonding
tightening screw to prevent it locking against the body
of the clamp.
conductors
Regulation 526.1 of BS 7671 The IET Wiring
Regulations requires that all electrical connections are:
l electrically durable
l of adequate mechanical strength.
The ideal method of terminating the bonding conductor
is by means of a cable lug of the correct size for the cable.
p Figure 5.84 The bonding clamp should now be tight against the
pipe
p Figure 5.87 Cable to be terminated and correct size lug
Strip enough insulation from the cable so that the
p Figure 5.85 The locking nut is now tightened against the body copper conductor meets the end of the cable lug, while
of the clamp the sheath of the cable fits tight to the base of the lug.
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INDUSTRY TIP
Be careful not to over-tighten the screws and strip the
thread. This can be very time wasting as you remove the
damaged clamp and search for a new one.
p Figure 5.88 Fitting the lug to the cable
The cable lug is then crimped to the cable using a
proprietary cable crimper that suits the size of the lug.
p Figure 5.90 Connecting the bonding conductor to the bonding
clamp
p Figure 5.89 Crimped lug
p Figure 5.91 The finished connection
Connection of bonding
conductor to bonding clamp Some of the larger bonding clamps are designed so
that the cable can be terminated without the use of
Remove the cable termination screw. a cable lug. In this case, the cable is stripped back far
Align the cable lug hole and reinsert the cable enough to allow good metal-to-metal contact; the
termination screw. Tighten with a screwdriver. stripped end is inserted between the two connection
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screws and the screws are tightened equally to give a
sound electrical connection.
p Figure 5.95 Passing the screw through the hole created
7 DIAGNOSING FAULTS
AND SAFE REPAIR OF
ELECTRICAL WORK
p Figure 5.92 Bonding clamp for use without cable lug
Communication and
Termination of more than one cable regulations
to a bonding clamp
There are many faults that can occur in electrical
Where two services are in close proximity to one circuits that include component failure as well as errors
another, it is acceptable to run one bonding cable to in design and poor workmanship in the installation of
serve both services. If the bonding cable loops from electrical systems.
one bonding clamp to another, the bonding conductor
should be unbroken. Before any work begins on investigating an electrical
problem it is essential that a conversation with the
INDUSTRY TIP client is carried out as this will help in identifying
the problem and enable effective faulting finding to
There is a risk that if another trade removes a bonding be applied in conjunction with the manufacturer’s
conductor they may not bother to replace it. By using an instructions. Reference to the IET On-Site Guide may
unjointed bonding conductor for two services at least the often be required and the systems and processes of
end service is still bonded. testing electrical circuits can be found in Section 9. In
Section 10 of the IET On-Site Guide, it states that:
As shown in Figure 5.93, strip off enough insulation It is the test operative’s duty to ensure their own
from the bonding cable to enable the cable to make safety and the safety of others whilst working
metal-to-metal contact with the bonding clamp. A through the test procedures.
stripping knife would be the ideal tool to accomplish
this task. The guide goes on to emphasise the importance of
having a good working knowledge and experience
of the correct electrical application and use of the
test instruments that includes the leads, probes and
accessories. It goes on to say check to ensure any
test equipment is safe and suitable. It is important to
p Figure 5.93 Preparing cable to loop from one bonding clamp to check the accuracy and calibration of such devices
another and to make sure they are in good working order.
Testing equipment
Before any testing begins the plumber must ensure
p Figure 5.94 Parting the strands of the cable so that the that all leads, probes and instruments are in good
connection screw of the bonding clamp can be fitted condition, undamaged and that they function properly.
HSE Guidance Note GS38 for electrical test equipment
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gives guidance on safe and suitable use of electrical test
equipment. The document goes on to advise that the
test probe of any instrument should not in itself be a
hazard to the user. The leads should be robust and have
a barrier to prevent access to terminals. In addition the
connectors to the instrument should be shrouded.
p Figure 5.98 HTC fuse 500 mA max.
It is recommended that the types of testing equipment
you will use, like test lamps and voltage indicators, are
marked clearly with the maximum voltage that may be
tested by the device and any short time rating for the
device where applicable. The rating is the maximum
recommended current which should pass through the
device for a few seconds. Generally these devices are not
designed to be connected for more than a few seconds.
KEY POINT
p Figure 5.96 HSE GS38 Guidance Note
HSE Document GS38 advises that the test probe of
It is important that test equipment is calibrated in any instrument should not exceed 4 mm, and where
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. practicable be reduced to 2 mm. The leads should
also be insulated and each be a different colour.
Test lamp
Test lamp detectors rely on an illuminated bulb to
indicate the voltage. The robust leads are well insulated
and the probe has a HBC fuse not exceeding 500 mA.
They are fitted with glass bulbs which should not cause
any danger if the bulb is broken and the bulb can be
protected by a guard.
Lamp
p Figure 5.97 Metallic tips on test instrument probes
(min. 2 mm; max. 4 mm; exposed conductors)
HSE Document GS38 also advises that the leads on test Minimum of exposed metal
equipment should be suitably fused. Robust, flexible well
insulated leads
HBC fuse and/or current limitation
Barrier to prevent
access to live terminals
p Figure 5.99 Test lamp
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Barrier to
prevent
HBC fuse
Robust, flexible
Voltage tester
and/or current
access to limitation well insulated leads A voltage tester enables AC and DC voltage indication
live terminals
and measurement on the model shown in Figure 5.101 is
between 6–1,000 volts. They often have other features
incorporated into their design, such as an acoustic
sounder and a visual continuity function. They can also
test the function of 30 mA RCD, RCBO and MCBs.
KEY TERMS
Alternating current: flows in both directions
Minimum of Shrouded or firmly
Direct current: an electrical current in which
exposed metal attached connectors electrons flow in a single direction.
p Figure 5.100 Approved test leads
p Figure 5.101 Voltage testers
Digital clampmeter
A digital clampmeter will give readings not only of
current and voltage but of power quantities too.
They are ideal for use in the installation, maintenance,
monitoring or for the checking of AC or DC electrical
systems and equipment. It is also useful for testing
applications, as they are typically on electrical systems
and equipment where there is a need to measure
current, volts, resistance and frequency.
The digital clampmeter is therefore intended for use
while installing, maintaining, fault finding or monitoring
those systems. One of their features includes being able
to detect the load currents from equipment and identify
a range of load currents and start-up currents to motors
on pumps for heating systems. Information from tests
p Figure 5.102 Digital multimeter
can be transferred to a PC which can be convenient
when storing and producing maintenance reports.
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To carry out the test, first isolate the supply by following
the safe isolation procedure and then position the clamp
on the live wire only. Then, if safe to do so, turn on the
supply and make a note of the reading. The meter reads
and interprets the magnetic field that is being produced
by the flow of current in the live conductor that is
supplying the resistive component, i.e. the pump motor.
KEY POINT
If a customer reported a problem with nuisance
tripping of a CB when the heating was on, a
clampmeter could confirm a measurement of
the current drawn from the pump motor to help
the engineer ascertain if that component was p Figure 5.105 Reading with Power on shows 0.24 A being drawn,
the cause of the problem. The advantage of this which equates to circa 60 W which is normal for a pump of this size
method means that testing can occur without
disconnection of the supply.
LOAD
Path of current
flow
The current is
being measured in
series with the
load.
This means the
current will travel
through the meter
on its route to the
load.
p Figure 5.106 Multimeters should never be used to measure
current in electrical systems as this involves placing the meter
p Figure 5.103 Digital clampmeter into the circuit meaning exposure to live parts
Using a clampmeter is a safer way to test current flow
as there is no connection in series to the load and as a KEY POINT
result the risk of electric shock is reduced. Remember from earlier in this chapter, if the earth
fault loop impedance is low, the fault current will
be high enough to disconnect the circuit quickly in
the event of an earth fault.
Socket testers
Socket testers are very useful additions to a working
plumber’s tool kit as they can be used for initial
identification of faults following socket replacement or
re-wire work of any kind. Simple miss-wires or missing
connections can be quickly identified prior to full
BS 7671 electrical test and inspection, which saves
time during the testing and certification process. They
p Figure 5.104 Clampmeter with no reading as power is off may also be used during installation or commissioning
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of electrical equipment connected to 13 mA sockets. isolation. When the probe tips are applied to the proving
By simply plugging the device into a socket outlet, the unit, it automatically begins in auto-test mode. The
polarity of the connections can be identified as any output voltage from the device will increase from 50 V up
faults are signalled by three bright LEDs on the front of to around 690 V and then gradually return back to 50 V
the unit and a simple diagnosis chart for typical errors is and then OFF. The voltage output is clearly indicated on
included on the label next to the LED display, as shown the five LED indicators on the front of the unit.
on the Megger. A typical use of a socket tester would
be when a boiler or other electrical appliance requires
servicing or replacing as the plumber will be aware of
the existing wiring at the point where the tester is fitted.
p Figure 5.109 Proving unit p Figure 5.110 Voltage
indicating device in test
position on a proving unit
Always ensure a good connection is made when
inserting probes into a proving device.
Types of testing – dead and
p Figure 5.107 Socket tester
live
There are two types of testing, dead and live. Although
most of the electrical tests that are carried out are
dead tests because the electrical power is off during
testing. BS 7671 specifies some examples of when live
tests must be carried out on electrical installations, but
these should only be carried out by competent persons
who are electrically skilled.
KEY TERMS
Dead testing: testing is carried out on electrical
components or parts of an installation when the
electrical supply is disconnected.
Live testing: a test is carried out when components
p Figure 5.108 A common socket tester used in situation are live.
Proving unit A visual inspection must be done by the plumber
As with any gas or water testing apparatus, it is very before testing can begin and is done at any point of an
important that the accuracy of any such testing installation when connecting to an electrical supply.
equipment is verified before and during use. Working on A visual inspection should ensure that the system is
the same principle, a proving unit provides a convenient installed in accordance with the appropriate standards
way of verifying or proving the safe operation of any two and that there are no visible signs of damage. In addition,
pole electrical voltage tester which is to be used for safe a check should be made to ensure that conductors are
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
securely fitted and located in the correct terminals, also testing is the only practical way to carry out this type
referred to as checking for correct polarity. of work then the person must be competent and fully
trained to work in such a high risk environment. In
Incorrect polarity would be easily identified during a
addition they must only use approved testing equipment
simple visual inspection where wiring problems such
not neon screwdrivers or homemade test lamps. Finally,
as neutral and earth conductors were in the wrong
they must let others in the vicinity know what they are
connections. The correct way to put this problem right
doing and protect the area with barriers and notices.
would be to safely isolate the electrical supply, verify
the supply was the correct polarity and then refit the q Table 5.6 Sequence of live testing on an electrical installation
conductors into the proper terminals as indicated on Live test sequence Instrument
the connection terminal.
Polarity GS38 approved test leads
If any damage, installation errors or defects are discovered Earth electrode resistance Earth loop impedance tester
during a visual inspection they must be made good before Earth fault loop impedance Earth loop impedance tester
any electrical installation certificate can be issued. Prospective fault current Prospective fault current tester
Quite often during a visual inspection a plumber can Functional testing RCD tester
come across burnt or scorched connections. If a conductor
Once it is confirmed that it is safe to work on an
and its insulation have been scorched, this must be
installation, a live test can be carried out.
remedied before any certification is produced. The cause
of the problem must be identified and often both the All types of electrical testing come with an element of
conductor and component will need to be replaced. risk to the person carrying it out. They must be aware
that they are responsible for their own safety and for the
Loose wiring or reduction of conductor csa could cause
safety of others who could be affected by their actions.
high resistance at this point. However, if the inspection
and testing of an installation prove to be satisfactory On heating circuits, the control system should have only
then a signed installation certificate, together with a one means of isolation but quite often it is assumed
schedule of inspections and a schedule of test results, that a circuit is dead because isolation has been carried
should be given to the person ordering the electrical work out from the fused switched spur connection unit.
(IET On-Site Guide). This person is often the customer After the safe isolation of gas supply for example, an
but could be an agent, landlord or site representative. engineer could open the case of a boiler and expect all
Any visual inspection must always come before tests of the terminals to be dead. At this stage it is essential to
of electrical installations using instruments. A dead test carry out a dead test to establish that there is no current
should always be carried out before a live test therefore present using a commonly used instrument known as a
all tests should be carried out in their correct sequence. voltage indicating device. Sometimes there are surprise
readings showing that there is a current present because
q Table 5.5 Sequence of dead testing on an electrical installation
there has been a rogue supply installed, such as a remote
Sequence of dead testing Test instrument frost thermostat with its supply taken from a different
Continuity of earth conductors Low reading ohmmeter circuit from that serving the heating system.
Continuity of final ring Low reading ohmmeter This stresses the importance of a visual inspection of
conductors
wiring arrangements and of dead testing. To remedy
Insulation resistance Insulation resistance tester
this situation the frost thermostat would have to be
Polarity Low reading ohmmeter
re-installed as part of a fully controlled system with
According to the Regulation 4(3) of the Electricity at a single point of isolation in accordance with the
Works Regulations 1989, it is preferable that electrical manufacturer’s instructions.
supplies should be made dead before any work begins. It is worth noting that the control systems within a
The regulations do also mention that some work such boiler vary and the manufacturer’s instructions and
as fault finding and testing may require the electrical the boiler labels will indicate if the AC supply has been
equipment to be energised. It is essential that if live transformed to DC.
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Routine checks and diagnostics
Does the pilot
Check that all external Does the pilot ignite? remain lit when
START Yes Yes
controls are calling for heat the grey button
is released?
No
No
Correct the Is the spark Is there a spark
spark gap No gap correct ? Yes at the electrode ?
Correct the Is the thermocouple
position No
in the right position?
Yes No
Wait three
minutes then Yes
Is the ignition restart Is the piezo
re-run the Yes
interlock still engaged? igniter firing?
ignition cycle Replace Is the thermocouple
thermocouple No output correct?
No No Yes
Turn on Replace Yes
the gas No Is the gas supply
turned on? igniter
supply Make good the Is the thermocouple
connection No in good condition?
Yes Check electrode,
Check the electrode lead and
meter and Yes
Is the inlet insulation. Clean
supply for No pressure correct? and replace if Clean and
faults necessary replace as Is the thermocouple
Yes damaged or dirty?
Yes necessary
Is the pilot and No
Adjust the No adjusting screw
screw fully open? Replace the Is the thermocouple
gas valve No sleeve cracked or broken?
Yes
Yes
Is the pilot or Clear the
pilot feed pipe Yes obstruction Replace if necessary
obstructed?
Does the
Yes main burner
ignite?
No
Does the Turn the thermostat Is the boiler
main burner on so that it Yes thermostat turned off?
respond to can call for heat
external
controls? No
No Is there a faulty or
Replace as necessary Yes blown fuse?
Has there has
been a short No
Replace if Yes circuit on the
necessary external controls Is the main injector
or wiring? Clean the injector Yes blocked?
No No
Is the boiler Check the continuity Is the solenoid
thermostat of solenoid terminals Yes open circuited?
faulty? replace if necessary
No
Yes
Operate the adjusting Natural gas only
Replace the screw to release the spring Yes Is the governor stuck in
thermostat (return to correct position) the closed position?
p Figure 5.111 Fault-finding flow chart
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Basic sequence of operation for a
central heating control system
Typically plumbers and heating engineers will work on
domestic heating installations controlled by electrically
controlled components designed to be operated by a
programmer. In order to effectively diagnose problems
and faults, it is important to be aware of the function
of each component, so that the most common p Figure 5.113 A typical p Figure 5.114 A typical wiring
faults and problems on heating systems can often be example of an exposed centre is where all the
remedied by following manufacturer’s fault-finding backplate connection block conductors of a central heating
sequences and flow charts. The simple sequence of for a programmer control system meet. By
operation follows a logical flow pattern once the following the manufacturer’s
programmer has been switched on. At each stage the wiring instructions, efficient
fault finding can be carried out
component should be visually and manually checked
and this will help with basic fault diagnosis. When a programmer is calling for heat then the boiler
should fire and the heating cycle should begin.
By following this basic sequence of operation of
control, fault finding can be carried out on most In Figure 5.115 the wires enter from the rear of the
heating installations. recessed metal box and are eventually connected to the
terminals shown at the top of the thermostat. A rubber
One of the most common problems found is errors in
grommet should be fitted to the metal casing which
wiring, therefore it is advisable to always double check
houses the thermostat. This will prevent the abrasion of
your work during electrical installation.
the cable insulation. Ensure that the earth wire is only
used on the earth terminal and not as a conductor.
2 channel programmer with L-N-E (3 core) Double pole switch
or fused connection unit
coming into the terminal strip. (Live link to 5
& 8 to power the switch) N L
L = permanent live
Connections are wired into the wiring centre
to provide power to other controls
HW HW CH CH
OFF ON OFF ON
Fused to 3 amp
Permanent live to other
controls connected here
HW switch CH switch
Clock
p Figure 5.112 Programmer
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p Figure 5.115
Thermostat thermostat has failed or the servo motor on the zone
If the boiler does not fire, the first place to check valve has burnt out. If it is a new installation and the
would be the thermostat to ensure that it is set problem existed from the beginning then it could be a
above the existing ambient temperature of the wiring problem.
room. A thermostat sensing element is comprised of Once a visual inspection of the wiring arrangements
two circular, flexible, metal plates which are welded in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
together at the rims and encapsulate a liquid whose has been confirmed then the next step is to check for
pressure changes greatly in response to small variations power to the zone valve and this could involve live
in temperature. In effect this dual diaphragm forms testing with a voltage indicator or test lamp. However,
a ‘bellow’ which expands and contracts in sympathy only fully trained and qualified persons can carry out
with the ambient temperature changes. This movement such testing. A dead test using Ω resistance will also
then operates a snap action electrical switch which in confirm if the motor has burnt out and an ohmmeter or
turn controls the heating. calibrated multimeter could suffice for this task.
The operation of the thermostat can be checked when
the circuit is isolated by attaching probes between the
switching terminals of the thermostat and then moving
the control dial on and off. By using an ohmmeter or
multimeter set to ohms the switching process can be
verified.
Zone valve
A typical problem with a heating system is the failure CLOSED OPEN
of a zone valve to operate. This will result in either no
heating or no hot water. The first test is visual. If a zone
valve does not open the lever mechanism will not move
p Figure 5.116 Zone valve
and the two most likely reasons are either the control
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Testing the resistance of a synchronous motor from a zone valve step-by-step
STEP 1 A synchronous motor is removed from a STEP 2 Motor showing a resistance reading. STEP 3 Motor showing an infinity reading.
zone valve and tested with a multimeter set to Ω.
Because the motor is a resistive component there An example of the sequence of switching which can be
should be a reading when probes are connected to the found in a Honeywell S-plan is shown in Figure 5.118
leads attached to the motor. and works in the following way.
If there is an infinity (OL) reading it means that the V4043H V4043H
ZONE VALVE ZONE VALVE
motor is no longer operational and should be replaced. HTG HW
The manufacturer’s instructions provide expected Ωs GREY
BLUE
BLUE GREY
readings for a working component. MOTOR MOTOR
230 V BROWN
KEY TERM 50 Hz
3 A RATED
G/YELLOW
Resistance testing: the Ω scale is used for
G/YELLOW
LNE
ORANGE
ORANGE
example to find out the level resistance of a coil in L641A
CYLINDER
BROWN
a motor, to ascertain whether it works or not, e.g. STAT.
testing a motor on a zone valve.
1 C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LOAD
N L
NEL
Resistance is measured HWHTG PUMP
L
across the load. E
ST9420 N
PROGRAMMER
Note: the load must be
BOILER
isolated and disconnected
from the supply.
p Figure 5.118 Honeywell S-plan system
The heating circuit and the zone valve
The switched live (SL) from the room thermostat
connects at the wiring centre with the brown wire to
the zone valve. The signal from the brown wire will
energise the motor, which in turn opens the valve and
p Figure 5.117 Resistance testing will rest when the lever arm makes contact with the
micro-switch.
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When open the micro-switch activates the permanent Micro-
live grey wire and allows the permanent live to go Motor switch
down the orange wire where it connects at the wiring
centre to send the signal to pump and boiler. The Actuator
process is reversed when the room thermostat reaches
the temperature set by the customer.
Therefore when the room thermostat reaches
temperature the brown live supply to the motorised p Figure 5.120 Motorised zone valve
valve is cut. The valve then closes, due to a specially
designed spring returning the mechanism, to the closed Boiler
position. The switched live orange is then cut because
The boiler display panel should indicate its mode of
the micro-switch is deactivated, as it is released by the
operation. For example, the boiler could have locked
returning lever arm. As a result the boiler and pump
out and the reset button will have to be activated. As
are turned off, but the grey wire still remains as the
with all fault finding it is advisable to check the obvious
permanent live.
first such as fuel and electrical supply or if the boiler
There are a range of zone valves available and thermostat is calling for heat.
some are power on types and others the power
If all the components are functioning correctly and the
off type, and do not include a spring to return the
boiler still does not operate then another sequence
mechanism to the OFF position. This type should
of operations can be followed to help find out any
not be fitted to an unvented cylinder flow pipe
problems occurring in the boiler.
as isolation of the energy source must be the
mechanical spring return type. A typical gas fired, fanned flued boiler has a range of
electrical components, which often require testing and
If the zone valve is open then a signal should be sent
fault diagnosing during the course of a maintenance
to the pump to operate it. If it is not working then it
schedule. There are a range of test instruments required
could be that the motor is defective or if the pump has
to safely and effectively enable accurate testing.
not been in use for some time it may be jammed and
this can be remedied by manual rotation of the rotation For example an ohmmeter could be used to
shaft. In the event that the pump is working then the determine the condition of a motor in a fan or in a
last appliance to check will be the boiler. motorised valve and by checking the results against
manufacturer’s instructions and standard testing
Brown procedures, accurate diagnosis can be achieved.
Blue Motor
This is an example of a basic sequence of operation on
Micro-switch
Orange a gas fired fanned flued boiler.
Grey ● Signal to boiler control panel from zone valve.
● Boiler thermostat calling for heat.
● Fan operates.
Earth
● Pressure switch senses pressure changes through the
movement of the fan.
● Ignition process begins via control panel.
● Flame verified.
p Figure 5.119 2-port zone valve ● Gas valve solenoid opens.
● Main burner ignites.
Plumbers install a range of heating appliances and most
of them require connection to an electrical supply. There are variations of sequences depending on the
flame supervision system and this one can be applied
to an appliance with flame rectification.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Boiler control panel
Many modern boilers have fault indicating panels
which display a code which when used in conjunction
Fan with the manufacturer’s fault-finding flow charts will
identify the source of the fault.
Thermistor
Flame sensing
probes
Gas valve
Pump
Boiler control Pressure switch
panel
p Figure 5.121 A standard gas fired fanned flued boiler with key p Figure 5.122 External boiler control section with operating
components identified temperature and fault displays to be used in conjunction with
the manufacturer’s fault-finding flow charts
Switches and resistors This is the first step to assess the operation of the
The sequence of operations here represents a series appliance as it is always good practice to operate an
of switches and resistors. A switch controls the flow appliance within an installed system to evaluate if
of a current through a circuit or to a resistor and will all the components are working properly before any
be in either an open or closed position. A resistor work begins. Any problems should be reported and
converts electrical current into a form of energy. documented then discussed with your supervisor or if
The energy could be heat, movement, magnetism or you have been authorised to do so, directly with the
even light. A circulating pump is in fact a resistor as customer. Listening for excessive noise from components
current is used to induce movement into a circulating during operation such as humming, chattering or
impeller. With this information the fault-finding grinding will give some indication of the condition of the
sequence can be identified as switches and resistors. moving parts. Sometimes poor electrical connections
For example the boiler thermostat is a switch while will produce scorch marks and if the problem is not
the fan motor is a resistor and the gas valve solenoid visible the fault can be identified by the smell of burning.
also a resistor. By referring to the manufacturer’s instruction each
LED light on the panel of a modern boiler will reveal
KEY TERMS its functional stage during operation. Often there is a
Switch: component that breaks an electrical circuit digital display on the front of the boiler showing any
by interrupting or diverting current. fault or operational codes. If any faults are evident then
Resistor: a passive thru-terminal electrical direct reference to the manufacturer’s fault-finding flow
component that resists electrical current. chart is required.
By following the basic sequence of operation for ACTIVITY
a boiler as shown above most basic faults can be During routine maintenance of a heating installation
detected. During the analysis of component specific listen to the boiler sequence of operation when
faults, dead testing is recommended although there is a call for heat or hot water. Each sound
will determine which component is operating.
sometimes live testing may be the only option. A visual
Use the manufacturer’s flowchart to follow and
survey will help detect some faults at the outset such confirm the sequences. After an initial discussion
as non-operational lights on the control panel or leads with a customer, it is good practice to operate the
and hoses disconnected and scorch marks. appliance before carrying out maintenance.
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Working on an electrical Before carrying out any work on an electrical appliance
it is important to read the manufacturer’s instructions.
appliance The customer or the person ordering the work can
impart only so much information to the engineer about
the operation of the appliance.
It is essential that preliminary safety checks are carried
out before checking the components on an electrical
appliance as shown in the section on safe isolation.
Boiler thermostat
A boiler thermostat typically consists of a liquid filled
phial which is inserted into a socket on the boiler. This
liquid in this phial expands and contracts in relation to
the ambient heat. The capillary wire is connected onto
liquid bellows which will open or close a switch when
the liquid expands or contracts. The liquid is usually
ethanol based but it used to be mercury on older
appliances.
A dead test can be used to check if a boiler thermostat
switch is functioning. Ensure safe isolation and
disconnect the boiler thermostat from the circuit. By
using the Ω scale, a test can be carried out to check
operation of the thermostat switch.
p Figure 5.123 An engineer referring to manufacturer’s flow charts
Carrying out a dead test step-by-step
STEP 1 The switch is in the closed position as STEP 2 The switch is now in the open position STEP 3 The testing of an overheat thermostat
there is an Ω reading. Sometimes an audible as the meter is displaying the infinity (OL) sign. can be carried out to check if the switch is
buzzer is provided on meters to confirm the operating correctly. Because there is an infinity
By moving the thermostat dial and testing
continuity of a circuit. reading (OL) it means that the switch is open
as shown above, the operation of the boiler
and will require resetting to complete any circuit.
thermostat switch can be verified.
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Once the signal from the zone valve is received and the
boiler thermostat calls for heat, the electrical signal is
then relayed in conjunction with the control panel, to
operate the fan.
The fan
As an advanced plumber you will invariably be involved
in dealing with problems associated with appliance fans,
and when qualified to do so you will need to be able to
competently fault-find and repair them. In the illustration
shown, the customer has reported that the boiler did
not operate when they turned on the programmer. After
carrying out safe electrical and fuel isolation, a basic
p Figure 5.124 visual inspection and referencing the manufacturer’s flow
A similar test can be carried out on an unvented chart, you could be led to the possible conclusion that
cylinder temperature control which incorporates two the problem is a fan operational failure.
phials, one for the standard operating thermostat and A continuity test while the appliance is safely isolated,
the other for the overheat thermostat. known as a dead test, would confirm whether a wire
The process of dead testing of a switch is shown in or cable had integrity throughout is length. By using
Figure 5.125. an ohmmeter or a multimeter, used on the ohms
setting, the continuity of the wire can be tested. Often
SWITCH
instruments have audible tone when used on the ohms
Switch open circuit, setting and this is very useful when testing.
then infinity (OL) will
show on display. The fan is an essential part of the process of removal of
products of combustion. If it does not operate because of
Note: the load must be
isolated and disconnected poor electrical connections or motor failure, its operation
from the supply. will not be detected on the PCB and the ignition cycle
OPEN will break down. When the fan operates the new
movement of air is sensed by pulse tubes which are
connected to a pressure operated switch. It is important
that those hoses are properly connected and not kinked.
A continuity reading (closed circuit 0Ω) means that
there is a short circuit and if the fan was connected it
SWITCH would blow a fuse.
Switch closed circuit, When checking the performance of the fan motor,
then continuity (c0.00Ω) which is a resistive component, the meter should be set
will show on display.
to the Ω scale. The test leads should then be connected
Note: the load must be across the live and neutral connections.
isolated and disconnected
from the supply. If there is a resistance recorded it would indicate that
CLOSED the component was operating satisfactorily.
When there is an open line (OL) infinity reading it
means that the fan motor resistance winding is broken
and therefore it will not turn the fan.
After confirming safe isolation, the switching function
p Figure 5.125 Dead testing of an air pressure switch can be verified.
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STEP 1 With appliance safely isolated STEP 2 Resistance displayed on meter STEP 3
remove the connection from the boiler indicates that the fan motor is satisfactory.
circuit.
STEP 4 STEP 5
Air pressure switch The connections of the pulse tubes must be properly
An air pressure switch serves a range of functions as fitted and the electrical connections from the pressure
its ON/OFF action sends signals to the PCB to indicate operated switch should be checked for their condition
whether the fan is running or not. The action of the and continuity.
pressure switch can also prevent the boiler from firing There are two types of pressure switching methods,
if the heat exchanger primary flue way is blocked or one which includes three wires and the other
obstructed. Therefore, it is essential it is tested as part two. The process begins when the PCB checks the
of a boiler safety check. operation status of the switch to see if it is in the
This component consists of a diaphragm which normally closed (NC) position which means that the
responds to the pressure applied to its surface by the fan is not running. A signal is then sent from the PCB
positive and negative movement of air generated by to operate the fan and then it checks that the switch
the fan via the pulse tubes. There the switch is fitted has moved to the normally open (NO) position and
within the component which becomes activated the boiler ignition process begins. The purpose of the
when the diaphragm moves. This then sends a signal sequence is to prevent the boiler from firing when the
to the control panel to begin the ignition process. fan is not running.
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NO NO LOAD Switch open
C C
pcb pcb
230
NC 3 wire NC 3 wire Voltage is measured
from the supply into
the switch across to a
suitable neutral
NO NO connection.
C C
pcb pcb With the switch open
NC 2 wire NC 2 wire the voltage will read
230 V on one side
Fan not running Fan running
and 0 V on the other.
p Figure 5.126 Pressure switching methods
Hose connections Electrical connections
NO LOAD Switch open
NC
Voltage is measured
from the supply into
C the switch across to a
suitable neutral
connection.
With the switch open
the voltage will read
230 V on one side
and 0 V on the other.
p Figure 5.127 Pressure switch, front and rear view
Sometimes engineers blow down one of the hoses
and attach a multimeter across the terminals to test
the operation of the switch. This is a logical approach LOAD Switch closed
but is not considered good practice as damage such 230
as stretching the delicate diaphragm can occur. Voltage is measured
The pressure switch is only designed to deal with a from the closed side
of the switch across
limited range of pressures, typically 1 millibar. Some to a suitable neutral
commercial pressure switches can be adjusted to connection.
perform in response to a wider range of pressures With the switch
generated from a fan and this can be tested by closed the voltage
attaching a monometer to the tube connection and will change from
0 V to 230 V.
then reading the pressure produced.
Electrical testing of the switch is therefore the correct
way to proceed.
Sometimes live testing of a switch is necessary and the p Figure 5.128 Live testing
following drawings show the testing process.
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Printed circuit boards (PCB) lead to an electrode situated on the burner. Providing
The control panel of a boiler is linked to the printed there is a gap of about 3–5 mm between the nearest
circuit board and is often a very expensive component. metal components which is usually the gas pilot
Therefore, great care should be taken when inspecting shroud, a spark will travel from the electrode to the
them. There are many components fitted to the shroud, then back to earth. Often the spark rate can be
PCB such as relays, rectifiers and transformers. Safe as high as eight sparks per second.
isolation is imperative and a visual inspection should
precede any physical testing to check for obvious
signs of distress such as scorching or burn marks. The
receiving and sending of signals for components to
operate a boiler mainly come from the PCB. Typical
faults include loose connections and corrosion on the
board. Sometimes the control panel can malfunction
because of component failure on the board itself. This
usually means that the whole unit must be replaced
as modifications are not permitted. However PCBs
are sometimes changed in error because the logical
fault-finding sequence found in the manufacturer’s
instructions has not been followed and individual
components remotely attached to the board have not
been properly tested. Testing of the PCB is often limited
p Figure 5.130 A continuity test on a high tension lead from an
to a continuity test on leads or removable fuses on the electrode to the boiler PCB
circuit board. Manufacturer’s flow charts will help with
diagnosing common problems on printed circuit boards
KEY TERM
and offer a parts list, with specific product reference
numbers to enable accurate replacement. Continuity test: a test to ensure that a conductor
has integrity along its whole length. For example it
could be used to test a high tension lead to ensure
its connection from the spark generator to the
probe on the boiler burner bar is sound.
In this test the Ω range is used and there is a reading
shown. Often multimeters have an audible device
which indicates that there is continuity.
Problems and solutions
Sometimes a high tension lead can fail to send a high
voltage signal to an electrode and the ignition sequence
will fail because of this. The reason for such failure
could include a poor connection on the printed board
p Figure 5.129 Printed circuit board
or at the electrode located on the burner manifold,
where a part from a poor connection to the ceramic
Ignition leads and probes electrode casing caused itself to crack and arcing could
Once the control panel receives the signal from the occur at that point. Quite often a damaged or broken
pressure switch a spark generator on the printed lead can fail to carry the signal along its whole length
circuit board will begin to send a high voltage signal, because it is arcing on another part of the boiler such
sometimes 15,000 V, through an insulated high tension as a damp area on the case.
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A visual inspection of the lead and the connections can
often reveal the problem. A continuity test to check the
integrity of the lead can help diagnose the problem and
a replacement lead can often provide a simple solution.
ACTIVITY
Inspect your test equipment to ensure that it is
calibrated then carry out a simple continuity test while
at work. Set your meter to Ω and see if your instrument
has a continuity buzzer. Select a scrap piece of cable
and apply the tips of your tester at each end. First of p Figure 5.132 A solenoid on p Figure 5.133 A side view of a
all take a Ω reading then try with the buzzer function. a gas valve Honeywell multifunctional valve
Once a system has been made electrically safe try
the same test on either side of a fitted pump. If there A multimeter for example could be used to carry out a
are any brass push fitting connectors installed on the dead test on a solenoid with the meter set to read Ω.
copper pipework, carry out the same test again and
make a note of the readings.
p Figure 5.131 Spark ignition in action; the spark can be seen p Figure 5.134 A multimeter
travelling from the tip of the electrode probe to the gas burner
A multifunctional gas valve will incorporate a solenoid
valve, a flame supervision device and a pressure
Gas solenoid regulator. Once the solenoid is activated it will open
Often there are two solenoids fitted on a and gas will flow to the burner. A solenoid can be
multifunctional gas valve and during the ignition tested when in the dead mode by checking the
process which is generated from the control panel, a resistance on the coil to ensure it is operating properly.
simultaneous signal is sent to open the pilot solenoid.
When the pilot flame is ignited the conductance
of the flame enables an electrical signal from the
rectification device to travel back to the control panel,
which in turn allows the main solenoid to open and
the full flow of gas to travel to the burner and ignite.
There are several variations on the ignition process
and the one mentioned incorporates the intermittent
pilot method.
p Figure 5.135 Solenoid check
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AC current DC current
Flame ground/earth Flame ground/earth
(smaller) larger
Pilot/burner
Earth
p Figure 5.136 Flame rectification
Valve operator terminals Transformer
M C P
24 V 230 V
Fan control NO
High
limit
Ignition
control Fan motor
module Pilot and
Pilot line electrode
sensor
p Figure 5.137 Pilot ignition system
Flame rectification ● Thermostat calls for heat.
Flame rectification is used as a flame supervision ● An ignition controller sends spark to electrode to
on many boiler designs. It works on the principle of ignite gas.
utilising a flame as a conductor and passing a current ● A controller utilises flame rectification to verify
through it. If there is a flame present then a signal can presence of the flame at pilot.
pass through it and back to a control box, which is ● An ignition controller sends signal to open gas valve
when the boiler ignition sequence can begin. Therefore, solenoid.
no flame = no ignition. ● When room thermostat is satisfied the signal to the
gas valve is terminated and the flame on the burner
The sequence of operation for the system shown in goes out.
Figure 5.137:
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Hot junction
Copper-nickel Copper-iron
alloy alloy
Cold junction
Insulated
copper
wire Copper sheath
Contact Fitting nut
button
Load Contact button
(safety magnet)
p Figure 5.139 Thermocouple
p Figure 5.138 Flame rectification on a modern boiler Testing a thermocouple
The pilot flame produces a heat temperature of 650 ±
A thermocouple 50 °C at the hot junction. This in turn creates a small
A thermocouple is a component often found on a DC voltage across the hot and cold junction. The
multifunctional gas valve and is located at the point minimum voltage required to energise the magnet
where the pilot flame emerges from the outlet which in the flame supervision device is 15 mV DC, which
is positioned next to a burner. From when the pilot means gas can flow via the solenoid to the burner when
flame initially envelopes the tip (12 mm area) of the energised by a signal from the appliance thermostat. If
thermocouple (hot junction), it takes about 20 seconds the pilot flame is interrupted the magnet in the flame
maximum to energise the contact button which is supervision device is de-energised and no gas can flow
attached to the magnetic part of the flame supervision to the burner. The maximum time it takes to stop
device, located on the gas valve. This sequence is the flow of gas is 60 seconds maximum on domestic
known as the thermocouple pull in time. boilers and this is known as the drop out time.
Contact button Open circuit typically
20 to 25 millivolts
Hot
junction
30 mV
Cold junction
Multivolt
meter
p Figure 5.140 Testing a thermocouple
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Thermistors open or close the gas valve to increase or decrease the
Figure 5.142 shows an engineer testing a thermistor heat input into the appliance. The type of thermistors
to see if the component is functioning. The space can which are often found on combination boilers are
be quite tight on a modern boiler but a well-designed called negative temperature co-efficient (NTC). The
appliance will always allow adequate access. higher the temperature the lower the resistance that is
created. By looking at a thermistor, it is impossible to
Many boilers use liquid expansion devices which know whether it is operating so a basic electrical test is
respond to the temperature rise and fall of a boiler carried out to confirm it is operating correctly.
to operate control switches. The phial is located in
a special pocket in a heat exchanger and is directly To test this, use a multimeter or ohmmeter and set
connected via a capillary tube to bellows which the instrument to the Ω scale. Carry out a dead
expand and contract to operate a calibrated electric test by attaching the probe to the two terminals of
thermostat switch which turns the gas solenoid on the component. There should be a reading showing
or off. resistance and by applying even a small amount of
heat which can be generated from the fingers which
are holding the thermistor, a change in the resistance
reading should be evident. This indicates that it is
working normally. If the reading remains constant then
there is a possibility that it is defective and if there is an
infinity reading this means that thermistor should be
replaced.
Electrical resistance testing for a thermistor in this
situation is usually at ambient room temperature, i.e.
25 °C, and at this temperature a common NTC may
p Figure 5.141 Thermistors p Figure 5.142 Testing read 10,000 Ω.
located on boiler pipework thermistors in situation
A thermistor does a similar job to a thermostat but it
works on a different principle. A thermistor is a variable
resistor. The resistance of this component varies in
relation to the rise and fall of temperature which
makes it ideal for the efficient control of a modern
boiler. Figure 5.141 shows the location of a thermistor
on boiler pipework. It works in the following way: a
low current of about 5 volts DC is sent from the PCB
to the thermistor. This current then travels through
the component and returns back to the PCB where
the temperature of the resistance is measured. The
resistance of the component relates to the temperature
of the pipework where it is fitted. Depending on the p Figure 5.143 Resistances p Figure 5.144 OL on this test
amount of current that returns, the PCB can either shown on meter
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Power to appliance
(230 V live to neutral)
Illuminate power on neon
Does boiler have a low
Yes
water pressure switch?
Pressure greater Stop boiler and No
than setting No illuminate low
water pressure
Yes
No Demand for CH? Demand for DHW?
Demand from
No
frost stat?
No Yes
Yes Start pump Yes
Yes Time limit
expired?
Time limit for
No Yes
pump direction?
No Yes
No Pump detected Pump detected No
Yes Read thermistors Yes Stop pump and
illuminate pump
failure neon
DHW temp Main circuit water
No below requested Yes Yes below requested No
or pre-set level? or pre-set level?
Air pressure switch
No
in rest mode (C-NC)?
Yes
Go to next stage
p Figure 5.145 A sample of a generic chart to show a logical sequence of typical faults on a combi boiler
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Advise user appliance limitations
Domestic water supply pressure
Gas supply/meter governor
Full sequence/ignition PCB
Secondary heat exchanger
Air pressure sensing tubes
Primary heat exchanger
Flue route/termination
System water quality
Detection electrodes
Heating flow switch
Pressure relief valve
Air pressure switch
Items to check
Ignition electrodes
Power supply/fuse
DHW flow switch
External controls
Expansion vessel
System pressure
Regulation PCB
Internal wiring
Diverter valve
Internal fuses
Fan venture
Thermistors
Filling loop
Gas valve
Modureg
Polarity
Pump
Fan
No power light
Boiler does not start when tap turned on
Boiler does not start when heating turned on
Pump does not run
Poor hot water
Poor central heating
Noisy ignition
No ignition
No spark
No modulation
Ignition lockout
Fan not detected
DHW overheats
CH overheats
Burner cycles on/off
Flame lifts from burner
Boiler makes groaning sound when tap turned off
Noisy boiler when flame on maximum gas rate
Pump not detected
Boiler runs continually
Rads warm up when running hot water
DHW only available when CH is on
Pressure loss overnight
Pilot out overnight
Ignition lockout first thing in morning
Water leaks from boiler
Low water pressure light on
Safety discharge runs continually
Pressure drops to zero when hot tap turned on
Blowing fuses
p Figure 5.146 Fault-finding checklist
When the chart in Figure 5.146 is used in conjunction part of a normal service by a suitably qualified plumber.
with the manufacturer’s flow chart then accurate fault- In addition, it requires a connection to a special feed-in
finding can take place and the correct component can tariff (FiT) meter or smart meter to supply the energy
be replaced or repaired. generated from the stirling engine back into the
electrical grid, which only a fully qualified electrician
The flow chart logic sequence is used for a combination
should undertake (PART P level A).
boiler and will help an engineer identify any faults. This
type of chart is commonly used on many appliances; These appliances provide heating and hot water for a
logical sequences will be added or removed depending domestic dwelling and are controlled in the same way as
on the type of appliance. a standard boiler but with the bonus of the production of
about 3 kW of electrical energy. It is now quite common
New and alternative heat sources for new energy efficient appliances to incorporate more
The appliance in Figure 5.147 is a micro-combined heat advanced electrical controlled systems, hence the need
and power unit and requires an electrical supply to for the modern plumber to improve their knowledge and
energise the controls and pump which can be tested as understanding of electrical installation, testing and fault
finding.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
p Figure 5.147 There is a Stirling engine located beneath the heat
exchanger
Other appliances such as biomass boilers are emerging with fuel they are electrically controlled in much the
on the market and even though some are manually fed same way as an oil or gas boiler.
p Figure 5.148 Biomass boiler
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Functional testing of an immersion
heater installation using an
insulation resistance tester
The functional testing of components typically
includes the testing of an immersion heater which
can fail due to the corrosive effects of electrolytic
action. While in the operation mode and immersed in
the water of the cylinder, such a failure can cause the
RCBO on the radial circuit to trip out. These type of
faults can be detected and diagnosed by the functional
testing of components.
p Figure 5.149 Electrical immersion damaged by corrosion
KEY TERM
Immersion faults such as corrosion due to electrolytic
Functional testing: a process carried out to check action or work hardening will cause electrical failure
that components within an installation operate
and of course cannot be seen. This is why functional
correctly. For example an immersion heater should
be tested to ensure safe operation of heating testing is important when examining the integrity of an
element and thermostat. immersed electrical element.
STEP 1 After safely isolating the supply to the STEP 2 Carefully remove the phase (line) STEP 3 Connect one test lead from an insulation
immersion, remove the protective cover on and neutral conductors from the immersion resistance tester to a suitable earth point on the
the cylinder and proceed while referring to the connection using an appropriate tool such as appliance.
manufacturer’s instructions. insulated long nose pliers. Always safely isolate
before beginning any electrical testing.
➜
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STEP 4 Connect the next test lead to one of the STEP 5 Turn on the tester and set to 500 V. STEP 6 Push the test button and hold for
element connections on the immersion. approximately three seconds.
ACTIVITY
When involved in carrying out a functional test on
a hot water cylinder immersion installation, check
the fuse size in the spur and calculate if it is correct
by using the power triangle equation. Inspect the
consumer unit to ensure that it can be isolated by an
individual MCB which provides a dedicated radial
circuit supply to the fused spur serving the immersion
heater. If a visual test reveals that it is connected to a
ring circuit inform your supervisor.
STEP 7 There will be no fault if the reading shows OL (above 0.5 MΩ is also
acceptable). Any reading below 0.5 MΩ should be investigated further.
Relays – switching and connections
When the test is finished turn off the tester and remove the leads.
Electrical relays are often found in heating components
such as boilers and they are used for the remote control
An immersion removed from a cylinder was tested of switches and frequently for switching on a mains
and the reading was below 0.5 MΩ. voltage circuit by means of a low voltage control.
Both are comprised from an electromagnet and an
armature which moves and in turn operates a switch.
The armature is held away from the magnet by a
spring when the current is off but when energised the
armature is drawn onto the coil and the switch is then
moved to the other position.
Many modern boilers use a solid state relay (SSR) or
semiconductor switches, which have no moving parts
p Figure 5.150 The reading on p Figure 5.151 After a close
and reduce the risk of sparks being created.
this immersion is 0.002 MΩ visual inspection the fault When a relay on a boiler receives a signal from a zone
shown above was found valve micro-switch the ignition sequence will then
begin.
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Isolation components for electrical
appliances
Rocker switches
Sometimes there are very basic problems associated
with a rocker plate (with or without CPC) with both
single and double poles, which include incorrect
polarity or loose connections. The rocking part of the
switch can also fail. In addition, often when a switch is
tightened onto a pattress that has not been fixed on a
square surface then either part of the fitting can crack
and this then creates the risk of exposed conductors.
p Figure 5.154 Pull cord switches are typically used in bathrooms
to avoid contact with electrical connections
INDUSTRY TIP
Where a pull cord switch fitted to a shower shows signs of
burning insulation or terminals, it is likely that the wrong
p Figure 5.152 Lockable socket p Figure 5.153 100 A device has been installed and the pull cord is not correctly
outlet main switch rated to switch the load correctly. Switches capable of
switching the full load current must be installed, not
isolators which are not switch rated.
Lockable socket outlets are often found in situations
where tampering with the supply could cause nuisance
and unauthorised access is thereby prevented. Methods of correcting deficiencies
Pull cord switches
in electrical components
Pull cord switches located on the ceiling are suitable for Defective cables and broken connections
use within a bathroom zone. Their typical applications
For example a plumber working on a gas appliance
include electric showers and gas boiler installation with-
may find that the fan is not operating and as a result
in compartments that are located in restricted zones.
the ignition sequence is halted. The fan may not be
Common problems associated with pull cord switches operating because it is not receiving a signal from the
are failing switching mechanisms and cord breakage. boiler control box and this could be because there is a
It is essential when installing one of these switches fault in that component but it could be because there
that sufficient slack is allowed in the length of the is a broken conductor at the connection, which receives
conductors for the components as any remedial or the signal to power the fan. The fan could be exposed
inspection work would prove difficult at a later date to heat as well as movement and vibration when
owing to the restriction of not being able to open the operating. Broken conductors could occur because of
fitting fully. This is especially important when working work hardening and even thermal movements or if
on fittings located at a high level. there is a very tight radius on the cable or flex where it
makes its connection.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
p Figure 5.158 Cartridge fuses of different ratings (2)
p Figure 5.155 Electrical connections of a fan located on a gas boiler
While safely isolating a system it is possible that re-
The connections from the control box to junction box wireable fuses can be discovered in older installations.
located at the fan are damaged. Although the white They are slower to respond to overcurrent than MCBs
wire appears to be connected, it is in fact broken and as the weakest link is determined by the size of the
therefore the fan cannot receive a signal to operate. fuse wire fitted. Although each fuse holder is colour
coded and the amp limit visible, it is still possible to
install the wrong fuse wire and put the safety of the
circuit at risk.
A re-wireable fuse would be installed in an older
consumer unit such as that shown in Figure 5.159.
On some units MCBs can be installed instead or
sometimes it is the engineer’s decision to upgrade the
consumer unit and only a fully qualified electrician
should carry out this type of work.
Another example of broken connections in electrical
systems is when an earth conductor is incorrectly
used to carry a switched load as part of the control
p Figure 5.156 The effects of a loose connection within a fused
spur outlet installation such as a Honeywell S- or Y-plan.
Sometimes the wiring required for a room thermostat
Although the cartridge fuse, found in some older will require more than two conductors to operate the
consumer units could protect the circuit, it is possible respective zone valves and often there is only PVC
to replace the wrong value cartridge fuse creating a twin and earth available which is not suitable for this
dangerous situation and circuit protection could be application and the earth conductor is incorrectly used.
compromised. It has a smaller csa than the line and neutral conductor
and although it could carry the load, it is bad practice
and in any event is more susceptible to breaking
because of over tightening. The loose sheath which
should cover the exposed earth conductor can often
hide the integrity and soundness of the connection.
p Figure 5.157 Cartridge fuses of different ratings (1)
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Fuse carrier
Fuse element
Screw securing
fuse element
Fuse element
Screw securing
fuse element
Re-wireable fuse
p Figure 5.159 Semi enclosed fuse to BS 3036
If electrical connections are properly fitted with the Loose connections where conductors are fitted cause
appropriate conductors in place, for example a power high resistance and localised heat can occur. Extreme
supply to an electric shower, and during the course scorching or even fire can result when a high current
of its operation one of those conductors is broken, it circuit produces unwanted resistance at a loose
would follow that if this occurred to either the line or connection resulting in a dissipation of hundreds of
the neutral conductor the circuit would stop. If this watts at that weak point. Components, cable and
happened to an earth conductor then a higher risk flex damage can also occur, which could result in the
could be presented as the operation of the system operation of the conductive protective device owing to
protective devices such as MCBs could be compromised the failure of the insulation, creating a short circuit. Fire
which could expose someone to a serious shock hazard. is the worst outcome.
Another effect of loose connections can result in
Loose connections
performance drop in different parts of the circuit with
High resistance faults often occur where conductors
the outcome of appliance damage and even protective
are connected in junction boxes or switches and
devices failing to operate.
connection itself is not tight. The reason for this
could include poor workmanship, dirt or debris in the Loose wiring caused this extreme effect on an unvented
connection itself or the thermal movement of the hot water cylinder immersion. There were also exposed
conductor during its working cycle has resulted in it conductors at the connector on the immersion heater.
working loose. Vibration could also cause the loosening Note: Once the thermostat was removed, the location
of conductors in a cold water booster pump installation of the fault is clear, with the damage originating from
during its working cycle or even acoustic transmissions either a bad wiring connection to the thermostat and/
from percussive water outlets creating water hammer. or incorrect alignment of the thermostat to immersion
Good clipping and effective cable support will help element fasten connection. Both would cause a high
reduce or eliminate these problems. resistance connection.
The effect of high resistance on a loose connection
can lead to localised heating around a connection.
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
Inadequate earthing provision Figure 5.162 shows an unorthodox and inadequate
Metal pipework on heating systems no longer way to apply earth bonding to a gas pipe at a meter.
requires bonding if the electrical system complies The earth conductor shown is 10 mm² while the earth
with current regulations. Older installations may conductor on a 2.5 mm² twin and earth cable which
have supplementary bonding. A typical example of supplies a socket outlet is circa 1.5 mm².
supplementary bonding is shown in Figure 5.160.
p Figure 5.162 Unorthodox and inadequate way to apply earth
bonding to a gas pipe at a meter
p Figure 5.160 6 mm² earth bonding conductor installed to
pipework from a combination boiler on a central heating circuit In any event equipotential bonding at a gas meter
While working in installation it is possible to come should be connected not more than 600 mm from the
across installations with no pipework earth bonding and outlet pipework and before the first tee of the metal
exposed conductors. A qualified electrician can advise pipework – whichever is closer.
on the bonding required.
SUMMARY
Electrical test equipment should become a standard
part of the modern fully qualified plumber’s tool kit
as new technologies and renewable energies emerge
and develop. Continued professional development
will help to create a world class workforce capable
of providing excellence in installation, servicing and
fault finding within the diverse and evolving craft of
plumbing. However, never carry out any electrical
p Figure 5.161 Poor installation practice work which is beyond your level of competency
and always leave installation work which requires
certification to an electrician.
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Test your knowledge
1 How much current would flow in a circuit having 7 What is a proving unit used for when
10 Ω resistance and a 230 V supply? undertaking safe and secure isolation of an
a 2.3 A electrical supply?
b 23 A a It proves the circuit is no longer live.
c 230 A b It proves the voltage indicator works.
d 2300 A c It proves the circuit breaker is locked.
2 How much current would be drawn by a 3 kW, d It proves the voltage is disconnected.
230 V water heater? 8 What wording should be on the label attached
a 0.07 A to a bonding clamp?
b 0.76 A a Live part: do not touch
c 1.30 A b Live connection: do not remove
d 13.0 A c Safety electrical connection: do not remove
3 Which non-statutory document give d Safety bonding connection: do not connect
‘Requirements for Electrical Installations’? 9 What are the identification colours of the two
a GS38 conductors connected to the micro-switch
within a zone valve?
b BS 7671
a Orange and grey
c HSWA
b Blue and brown
d EWR
c Blue and orange
4 What does RCD stand for?
d Brown and grey
a Reacting circuit device
10 What device is used to monitor ambient air
b Resistive current deactivator
temperatures in a heating system?
c Residual current device
a Cylinder thermostat
d Remote circuit deactivator
b Zone valve
5 What is a common rating of circuit breaker used
c Room thermostat
to protect a 230 V, 3 kW immersion heater
radial circuit? d Circulating pump
a 3A 11 What colour conductors are classed as live?
b 13 A a Green
c 16 A b Yellow
d 32 A c Blue and brown
6 What class of electrical power tools require a d Green and yellow
connection to the earth of a socket outlet?
a Class I
b Class II
c Class III
d Class 0
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Chapter 5 Electrical principles
12 One conductor has a voltage of 100 V and 17 What is the maximum fuse rating that can be
another has a voltage of 400 V. used in a fused connection unit?
What reading would a voltmeter give if a 1A
the meter probes were connected to each b 3A
conductor?
c 5A
a 100 V
d 13 A
b 200 V
18 What is the purpose of a proving unit when
c 300 V undertaking the safe isolation procedure?
d 400 V a To check the lock is fixed and secure
13 What is the frequency of the electrical supply in b To ensure the supply to the circuit is dead
the UK?
c To enable the use of multiple padlocks
a 20 Hz
d To verify the function of the voltage indicator
b 50 Hz
19 Describe the safe isolation process.
c 60 Hz
20 Describe the three parts of a cable.
d 100 Hz
21 Explain what is meant by IP54 when
14 What is the value of IP protection that is considering the ingress protection of electrical
regarded as finger protection? equipment.
a IP2X 22 Describe a non-electrical method of testing if a
b IPX2 zone valve operates correctly.
c IP4X 23 Explain what is meant by ‘flame rectification’.
d IPX4 24 Explain the purpose of a split-way consumer
15 What type of drawing shows the location of unit.
electrical accessories in a building? 25 Describe situations where it would not be
a Plan drawing appropriate to bond a metal water pipe using a
main protective bonding conductor.
b Wiring diagram
26 Describe the general requirements of HSE
c Circuit diagram
document GS38.
d Schematic drawing
27 Describe what a motorised zone valve does in a
16 What rating of circuit breaker should be used to central heating control system.
protect a 230 V, 9 kW shower circuit?
Answers can be found online at
a 20 A www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
b 32 A
c 40 A
d 50 A
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CHAPTER 6
ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL
TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS
Wherever you seem to look these days there are l the operating principles of micro-renewable
environmental technologies being installed and energy and water conservation technology
used commercially and in domestic properties. l the installation requirements of micro-renewable
Governments and house builders are under pressure energy and water conservation technologies
to include a variety of systems to help cut back carbon l the benefits and limitations of micro-renewable
emissions that are contributing to the greenhouse energy and water conservation technologies.
effect, and therefore climate change. As plumbers we
All of these learning outcomes will be addressed for
are looking to install systems that offer practical and
each environmental technology system in turn as
sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels, systems that
follows:
potentially offer heat and power to the property.
l solar thermal (hot water)
This is a growing market area that is here to l ground source heat pumps
stay. Plumbers need to have a good working l air source heat pumps
understanding along with specialist training in l biomass systems
these areas to offer the customer suitable ‘green l combined heat and power (CHP)
technology’ solutions within a domestic property. l rainwater harvesting
l grey water reuse
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge
l solar photovoltaic
and understanding of the following:
l micro-wind
l the legislation relating to micro-renewable
l micro-hydro.
energy
1 THE LEGISLATION RELATING TO
MICRO-RENEWABLE ENERGY AND WATER
CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES
Any environmental technology system comes under
a number of Acts, Building Regulations and British
Town and Country Planning
Standards. These are in place so that manufacturers Act 1990
and installers make sure the systems are safe, work Before any work that increases the size of a property,
efficiently and are maintained to the correct standards. changes the use of a property or sometimes installing
Building Regulations form part of the law in the UK items externally you will need to apply for planning
so must be followed, whereas British Standards offer permission.
more practical guidance on how to conform with the
regulations.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Building Regulations are a statutory requirement
KEY TERM
and therefore must be followed. Each regulation is a
Planning permission: official permission from the relatively brief document and are currently divided
local authority allowing a new build, alteration or
into 14 sections, each accompanied by an Approved
addition to an existing building to be made.
Document which offers guidance on complying with
the regulation.
However certain work can be carried out to a property
that does not require planning permission, but this is KEY TERM
quite often concerning minor or internal work. This is
Statutory: the law, and therefore there are serious
known as permitted development and typically comes consequences if they are not followed.
with some criteria that must be met. Special care needs
to be taken over properties that are ‘listed’ buildings.
Table 6.1 The 14 parts of the Building Regulations
So, it is always worth checking with the local authority
prior to any work starting. England and Wales Northern Ireland
A Structure D
INDUSTRY TIP B Fire safety E
Further information regarding planning permission is C Site preparation and resistance to C
contaminants and moisture
available via the following links:
D Toxic substances None
www.gov.uk/planning-permission-england-wales
E Resistance to the passage of G
www.planningportal.co.uk/info sound
F Ventilation K
G Sanitation, hot water safety and P
Building Regulations water efficiency
The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act H Drainage and waste disposal J&N
2006 bought micro-renewable energy systems under J Combustion appliances and fuel L
the requirements of the Building Regulations. Even storage systems
if planning permission is not required because the K Protection for falling, collision H
and impact
installation comes under the ‘permitted development’,
there are still requirements to comply with the relevant L Conservation of fuel and power F1 & F2
Building Regulations as shown below. M Access to and use of buildings R
N Glazing – safety in relation to V
impact, opening and cleaning
INDUSTRY TIP
P Electrical safety None
The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 can be
accessed at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/19/contents Compliance with the Building Regulations is required
when installing renewable technologies, but not all will
be applicable and different installations will have to
INDUSTRY TIP comply with different Building Regulations. These are
indicated in each section.
Local Authority Building Control (LABC) is the body
It should be noted that due to devolution of
responsible for checking that Building Regulations have
government in the UK, each country’s government
been met and the person carrying out the installation is
responsible for ensuring that approval has been obtained. takes responsibility for Building Regulations, so there
are differences between each country.
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Table 6.2 Building Regulations in England and Wales l solar collector
l differential temperature controller
Status Source l circulating pump
Primary legislation Building Act 1984 l hot water storage cylinder
Secondary legislation Building Regulations 2010 l auxiliary heat source.
Guidance Approved codes of practice Solar collector
Table 6.3 Building Regulations in Scotland
Status Source
Primary legislation Building (Scotland) Act 1984
Secondary legislation Building (Scotland) Regulations
2004 (amended 2009)
Guidance Technical guide books
To hot
Differential
Table 6.4 Building Regulations in Northern Ireland taps
temperature
controller
Hot water
Status Source storage cylinder
Primary legislation Building Regulations (Northern Auxiliary
Ireland) 1979 (amended 2009) heat source
Secondary legislation The Building Regulations
(Northern Ireland) 2012
Guidance Technical booklets Cold
Circulating water in
pump
2 HEAT-PRODUCING Figure 6.1 Solar thermal system components
MICRO-RENEWABLE KEY TERM
ENERGY Solar radiation: radiant energy emitted by the Sun.
Micro-renewable energy systems have become more Solar collector
popular in recent times in an effort to cut domestic
A solar thermal collector is designed to collect heat by
carbon footprints. If energy can be produced without
absorbing heat radiation from the Sun. The heat energy
having to burn fossil fuels and discharge carbon
from the Sun heats the heat transfer fluid contained in
dioxide into the atmosphere, it will only help to slow
the system.
down global warming. Renewable energy systems
tend to be installed into new build properties or There are two types of solar thermal collectors that
properties undergoing a full renovation; this is due heat the collection fluid slightly differently.
to the disruption that is caused whilst installation l Flat plate collectors – these are less efficient, but
takes place. also cheaper. The heat transfer fluid circulates around
the collectors and is directly heated by the Sun. The
Solar thermal (hot water) collectors need to be well insulated to avoid heat loss.
l Evacuated tube collector – an evacuated tube is
systems more efficient, but also more expensive. It consists of
Solar thermal hot water systems use solar radiation a specially coated, pressure-resistant, double-walled
to heat water, either directly or indirectly. Key glass tube. The air is evacuated from the tube to aid
components of these systems include the following: the transfer of heat from the Sun to the pipe housed
inside the tube. The pipe contains a heat-sensitive
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
liquid which vaporises. The warmed gas rises Differential temperature controller
in the tube and the heat is focused on a small The differential temperature controller (DTC) has
heat exchanger, which is plugged into the header sensors connected to the solar collector (high level)
tube. The header tube contains the heat transfer and the hot water cylinder (low level). It monitors
liquid which absorbs the heat from the evacuated the temperature at both points of the system. The
tube. As the gas cools so the heat sensitive liquid DTC switches the circulating pump on when there is
condenses and runs down to the bottom of the enough solar energy available and there is a demand
evacuated tube, ready for the process to start again. for water to be heated. Once the hot water cylinder
The collectors must be mounted at a suitable angle reaches the required temperature the DTC switches
to allow the vapour to rise and condense. the circulating pump off.
Inlet connection Cover: protecting the absorber plate
and preventing loss of heat
Outlet connection
Collector housing: made from
aluminium alloy or galvanised steel
– fixes and protects the absorber
plate
Flow tubes
Insulation: to the bottom and sides of Absorber plate: usually black chrome absorbing
the collector to reduce the loss of heat coating to maximise heat-collecting efficiency
Figure 6.2 Cutaway diagram of a flat plate collector
Heat transfer
m
tto
o p bo
Solar energy o t to
absorbed by s t rns
r ise retu
evacuated tube ur d
po ui
Va d liq
e
ns
n de Copper header
C o
Heat absorbed He
by heat pipe at
tr
an
sf
er
Figure 6.3 Cutaway diagram of an evacuated tube collector
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Circulating pump
This is controlled by the DTC and circulates the
system’s heat transfer liquid around the solar hot water Solar
circuit. The circuit is a closed loop system between collector
the solar collector and the hot water cylinder coil. The
heat transfer fluid is normally water based and would
normally contain glycol so that at night or during Boiler
cold periods the system will not freeze. The circulating
pump should operate only when there is either solar
energy available or when there is demand for water to
be heated.
KEY TERM
Figure 6.4 Twin coil cylinder
Glycol: a liquid anti-freeze which is odourless and
colourless in its raw state.
Solar
INDUSTRY TIP collector
Boiler
Always read the manufacturer’s instructions regarding the
percentage of glycol that is required in the system. If they
are not followed the efficiency, performance and longevity
of the system can be affected.
Figure 6.5 Using two separate cylinders
Hot water storage cylinder
This enables the transfer of heat from the solar
Direct system
collector circuit to the stored water. There are different
configurations for the hot water cylinder: This is an alternative to the indirect system, where the
l Twin or multi-coil cylinder – has at least two
domestic hot water that is stored in the cylinder is
heat exchanger coils. The lower (primary) coil directly circulated through the solar collectors and is
is for the solar heating circuit and the higher the same water that can be drawn off at the outlets. As
(secondary) coil for the auxiliary heating circuit. this water is being drawn off, glycol cannot be used in
Cold water enters the base of the cylinder and is the system, so these units can only be used where low
heated by the coils. If the solar coil cannot meet temperatures will not affect the system.
the demand for hot water then the boiler will
heat the secondary coil.
Auxiliary heat source
l Alternative use of one cylinder as a solar pre- Generally speaking, in the UK there will be times in
heat cylinder – the output which feeds a primary the year when there will be insufficient solar energy
hot water cylinder. available to provide adequate hot water to the
property. On these occasions an auxiliary heat source
The two arrangements that have been described are will be required; this will normally be from a boiler. If
indirect systems, with the solar heating circuit forming a boiler is not present in the property, the use of an
a closed loop. electric immersion heater is acceptable.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Location of solar thermal systems The space or area needed to mount the collectors
and building requirements will be dependent on the demand for hot water. The
number of outlets and people living in the property
When deciding to install a solar thermal hot water
determines the demand.
system and whether a particular property is suitable it
l Compatibility with the existing hot water
is important to consider several factors:
system – solar thermal systems provide stored hot
l Orientation of the solar collectors – the best
water and do not provide instant hot water:
direction for a solar collector to face is due south.
l Properties using an under the sink or over the
However, as the Sun rises in the east and sets in the
sink water heater and electric showers will not
west, any location that has a roof facing east, south
be suitable for a solar thermal system.
or west is suitable for mounting these collector
l Properties using a combination boiler to provide
panels on, although the efficiency of the system is
hot water will not be suitable for a solar thermal
reduced for any system not facing due south.
system, unless substantial alterations are made
l Tilt angle of the solar collectors – at different
to the existing system.
times of the year, the elevation or height of the
Sun relative to the horizon does vary – summer
time being the highest and winter time being the VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
lowest. Ideally, solar collectors should always be
Always read the manufacturer’s instructions
perpendicular to the path of the Sun’s rays.
concerning the installation factors for their system
It is generally not practical to change the tilt angle
and discuss these with the customer to ensure they
of the solar collector. A compromise angle has to be
are clear on the proper operation of their system.
used. In the UK the angle is 35°. However, collectors
will work, but less efficiently, from a vertical to
horizontal position.
KEY TERM
l Shading of the solar collectors – when positioning
collectors, you must be aware of any structure, tree, Perpendicular: at an angle of 90° to a certain
chimney, aerial or other objects that could stand plane. In other words, the Sun’s rays need to be at
90° to the collector where possible for maximum
between the collector and the Sun’s rays. This could efficiency.
mean a visit to the property at different times of
the day to note any potential shadows. The Sun
Table 6.5 The effect of shading on collectors
shines for a limited time each day, so any reduction
in the amount of heat energy reaching the collector Shading % of sky Reduction in
will reduce its ability to provide hot water to meet blocked by output
the demand. obstacles
l The suitability of the structure for mounting Heavy Up to 80% 50%
the solar panel – the structure, quite often the Significant 60–80% 35%
roof area, will need to be surveyed for the chosen Modest 20–60% 20%
mounting system for the collectors. Consideration Little Up to 20% No real reduction
will need to be given to the strength and condition
of the structure and its suitability to the fixing type.
The effect of wind and location must also be taken IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
into consideration. The force exerted by the wind A customer lives in a semi-detached property where
on the collectors can be quite noticeable which will the front of the house is north-east facing. It is very
close to the coast line and has a roof angle of 45°. It
affect the collectors and the fixings. is an older style property with slate tiles on the roof.
If the installation is on a property which is jointly Outline the discussion points that need to be raised
owned, such as flats, maisonettes and semi-detached, with the customer.
the ownership of the structure will need to be
carefully considered and discussed with the customer.
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Planning permission required for In every other case planning permission will be required.
solar thermal systems
Permitted development applies where a solar thermal INDUSTRY TIP
system is installed:
It is always worth asking the local authority about the
l on a property or block of flats
restrictions for these installations in your area.
l on a building within the grounds of a property or
block of flats
l as a standalone system in the grounds of a property
or block of flats. ACTIVITY
Consider why is it important to consider the ‘uplift
However, there are criteria to be met in each case. forces’ that wind can create before an installation
l For a building mounted system: takes place.
l the solar system must not protrude more than
200 mm above a wall or roof line
l the solar system must not protrude above the Compliance with Building
highest point of the roof line (ridge), excluding Regulations
the chimney. The Building Regulations that apply to solar thermal
l For a standalone system:
installations are listed in Table 6.6.
l only one standalone system is allowed in the
grounds
l it must not exceed 4.0 m in height
Other regulatory requirements
l it must not be installed within 5.0 m of the applicable for solar thermal systems
property boundary l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations – this will
l it must not be more than 9.0 m2 in area cover the installation and maintenance of controls
l no dimension can exceed 3.0 m in length. and circulators.
l For both standalone and building mounted systems: l Approved Document Part G3 Unvented hot water
l the system cannot be installed in the grounds of systems – this will cover the installation of the hot
or be installed on a listed building or monument water cylinder and the temperature at which hot
l if the system is to be installed within a water must be stored.
conservation area or world heritage site then the l Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 – this
system cannot be installed closer to a highway will mainly cover the prevention of contamination
than the property is located. where wholesome water is concerned.
Table 6.6 Building Regulations applicable for solar thermal heating systems
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure These systems put extra load forces on the structure, particularly
the roof structure.
Not only downward load from the weight but also uplift from the
wind must be considered.
B Fire safety Where holes for pipes are made, this could reduce the fire
resistance of the building fabric.
C Resistance to contaminants Where holes for pipes and fixings for collectors are made, this
and moisture may reduce the moisture resistance of the building and allow the
ingress of water (rainwater).
G Sanitation, hot water safety Hot water safety and water efficiency of the system installed.
and water efficiency
L Conservation of fuel and power Energy efficiency of the system and the building it is installed in.
P Electrical safety The installation and testing of electrical controls and components.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Benefits and limitations of solar General working principle
thermal systems A water pump moves water from a lower level to a
There are both advantages and disadvantages to using higher level through the application of energy. As the
solar thermal systems. Advantages include: name suggests, a heat pump moves heat from one
l These systems reduce CO2 emissions into the location to another by the application of energy – in
environment. most cases electrical energy. Heat energy from the Sun
l They reduce energy costs for the customer. exists in the air that surrounds us and in the ground
l They are low-maintenance systems. below us – heat pumps extract this energy.
l They improve the energy rating of the building.
At absolute zero or 0 K (kelvin), there is no heat at all.
Disadvantages are as follows: This temperature equates to −273 °C, so even with an
l The system may not be compatible with the outside temperature of −10 °C there is a vast amount
existing hot water system. of free heat energy available.
l The system may not meet the demand for hot
–273 –10 0 20
water in the winter period.
l There are high initial installation costs. Figure 6.6 Heat energy exists down to absolute zero or 0 K
l The system requires an auxiliary heat source.
Using a relatively small amount of energy that is stored
in the air or the ground, this energy can be used to heat
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH up our living accommodation, especially if linked to an
Having an understanding of the advantages and underfloor heating system.
disadvantages of available systems is necessary in
order to adequately communicate these and offer The general rule that must be understood with heat
professional advice to the customer so they can transfer is that heat moves from the warmer spaces to
make an informed decision. Remember, you will the cooler spaces.
need to be mindful of the technical terms you use
which the customer may be unfamiliar with. A heat pump contains a refrigerant. The external air or
ground is the heat source that gives up the heat energy.
When the refrigerant is passed through the heat source
ACTIVITY it is cooler than the surroundings so it absorbs the heat.
Use the internet to research the differences between
a pressurised and a fully filled solar system.
KEY TERM
Refrigerant: a substance or mixture, usually a
Heat pumps fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle.
In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from
Heat pumps are now commonly being installed on to a liquid to a gas and back again.
new build properties to increase the energy rating of
the property. This again aligns with the reduction of the
domestic carbon footprint. The pumps produce heat that The compressor on the heat pump then compresses
can be effectively used within the property, which means the refrigerant causing the gas to heat up. When the
less gas and electricity will be demanded by the property. refrigerant is passed into the interior of the heat pump
it is now hotter than the surroundings and gives up its
There are two main types of heat pump: heat to the cooler surrounding. The refrigerant is then
l ground source heat pump (GSHP)
allowed to expand, where it once again turns into a
l air source heat pump (ASHP).
liquid; as it expands so it cools down and the cycle
They either extract the heat energy from the air or the starts over again.
ground which is replaced by the action of the Sun.
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ACTIVITY IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
At home, inspect your fridge carefully and note how For an electrical input of 2.2 kW, what should be the
the tubes inside the fridge at the back are cold, but the expected return in heat output be?
tubes on the outside of the fridge at the back are hot.
To compare the heat savings of other appliances, see
Heating system Figures 6.8–6.10.
Electricity Heat output
input 1 kW 1 kW (100%
Condenser efficiency)
Figure 6.8 The efficiency of an electrical panel heater
Expansion valve
Compressor
Heat
Gas output
input 0.95 kW
Evaporator 1 kW (95%
efficiency)
Outside air
Figure 6.7 The refrigeration process
The only energy that is required to drive the system
is what is required for the compressor. The greater Figure 6.9 The efficiency of an A rated condensing gas boiler
the difference in temperature between the refrigerant
and the heat source (ground or air) the greater the
efficiency of the heat pump.
Electricity
Heat output
KEY POINT input 1kW
3 kW
The greater the difference in temperature between (+ 2 kW
(equates
the refrigerant and the heat source (ground or air) free heat
to 300%
the greater the efficiency of the heat pump. extracted
efficiency)
from air)
If the temperature difference between the heat source
and the refrigerant is small, then the compressor will
have to work much harder, making the system less Figure 6.10 The efficiency of an air source heat pump
efficient.
It is not uncommon for heat pumps to have efficiencies
up to 300 per cent. For example, for an electrical input
of 3 kW, the heat output should be around 9 kW.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
The efficiency of a heat pump is measured in terms of
the coefficient of performance (CoP). The coefficient
Ground source heat pumps
A ground source heat pump (GSHP) extracts low
of performance (CoP) is a ratio between the heat
temperature free heat from the ground, magnifying
delivered and the power input of the compressor:
it to a higher temperature and then releasing it when
CoP = Heat delivered required for space heating and water heating.
Compressor power
Key components of GSHPs include:
KEY POINT l heat collection loop and circulating pump
l heat pump
The higher the CoP value, the greater the efficiency.
l heating system.
The higher CoP values are generally achieved in the The collection of heat from the ground is accomplished
milder weather, because in the colder weather the by means of a pipe run containing a mixture of water
compressor has to work harder to extract the heat. and antifreeze, which is buried in the ground. This type
of system is known as a ‘closed loop system’ There are
Storing excess heat produced three methods of burying the pipe used to collect the
heat, each having advantages and disadvantages:
Heat pumps are not able to provide instant heat, so
l horizontal loops
therefore work better when run continuously. Start-
l vertical loops
stop operations will shorten the lifespan of the heat
l slinkies.
pump. A buffer tank is incorporated into the system so
that when heat is not required in the system, the heat
Horizontal loops
pump can ‘dump’ the heat into the vessel and thus
keep running. When heat is needed, it can be drawn Piping is installed in horizontal trenches that are
from the buffer tank. These buffer tanks can be used about 1.5–2.0 m deep. Horizontal loops require more
with both ground source and air source heat pumps. piping than vertical loops (around 200 m of pipe for
an average house), although a proper calculation will
be required for every installation. This installation will
Buffer tank require a large area to sink the pipework in.
(accumulator)
Heat pump
To
heating
system Ground source to water
heat pump with horizontal
closed-loop collector
Figure 6.11 Storing heat in a buffer tank
Heat
pump
KEY TERM Building foundations
omitted for clarity
Buffer tank: a large white storage vessel used for
storing excess hot water until demanded.
Figure 6.12 Horizontal ground loops
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Vertical loops
Most commercial installations use vertical loops. Holes
are bored to a depth of 15–60 m deep, depending
on soil conditions. Pipes are then inserted into the
boreholes. This style of system needs far less land area,
but the deeper the hole the greater the pump force
required to circulate the system fluid. Access will need
to be available for the drilling rigs.
Ground source to water
heat pump with vertical
closed-loop (borehole)
collector
Heat
pump
Building foundations
omitted for clarity
Borehole
Figure 6.15 Slinkies installed in a trench
Figure 6.13 Vertical ground loops
INDUSTRY TIP
Slinkies
These coils are flattened, overlapping coils that are It is obvious from Figure 6.15 that digging a trench creates
spread out in shallow trenches and then buried. a major disruption to existing properties, so they are best
They are able to concentrate the heat transfer in to installed during the original build.
a smaller area of land, which reduces the trench size
required. A 10.0 m slinky trench will produce around The water and antifreeze fluid is circulated around the
1 kW of heating load. pipework sunk in the ground by means of a circulating
pump. The low-grade heat from the ground is passed
over the heat exchanger which transfers the heat
to the refrigerant gas. The refrigerant gas is then
Distribution system compressed (temperature increased) after which
it passes over a second heat exchanger where the
Heat exchanger heat is transferred to the heating loop that feeds the
radiators or underfloor heating.
Heat pump
Figure 6.14 Slinkies
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Heat pump Provision for machinery to access the property to either
dig a trench or drill the borehole needs to be a major
5.5 bar 17 bar
consideration and an important discussion point with
Circulating pump the customer if the property is occupied.
Heating cycle
Planning permission
The installation of a ground source heat pump is
Evaporator Condenser
5.5 bar 17 bar Circulating pump usually considered to be a permitted development
and therefore will not require a planning application
to be made. It is always worth checking with the local
authority to find out if they have any criteria that need
Heat source to be adhered to.
Earth
Figure 6.16 Ground source heat pump operating principle
Compliance with Building
Regulations
The final heat output from a GSHP is lower than that The Building Regulations that apply to the installation
of a standard gas boiler. A GSHP output temperature of a GSHP are listed in Table 6.7.
would normally be around 40 °C, whereas a gas boiler
output temperature would be around 70–80 °C. This
makes a GSHP very suitable to be installed on an
Other regulatory requirements
underfloor heating system. applicable for GSHPs
l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations – this will
By reversing the refrigeration process, a GSHP could be
cover the installation and maintenance of controls
used to provide cooling during the summer period.
and circulators.
F gas (fluorinated) requirements if working on
Location and building requirements l
refrigeration pipework – these are the refrigerant
The building that a GSHP supplies heat to will need gases used in GSHPs which come under strict
to be well insulated; this will allow the GSHP to work laws.
effectively due to the low output temperatures.
Table 6.7 Building Regulations applicable for GSHPs
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure Where heat pumps and components put additional load on
the building and where holes are drilled to allow pipework
to pass from outside to inside the property
B Fire safety Where holes for pipework may reduce the fire-resistant
integrity of the building
C Resistance to contaminants and Where holes for pipework may reduce the moisture
moisture resistant integrity of the building
E Resistance to the passage of sound Where holes for pipework may reduce the soundproof integrity
of the building or cause a nuisance to nearby buildings
G Sanitation, hot water safety and water Hot water safety and water efficiency within the system
efficiency
L Conservation of fuel and power Energy efficiency of the system and the building
P Electrical safety The installation and testing of electrical controls and
components in the system
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Benefits and limitations of GSHPs An ASHP works in a similar way to a refrigerator, but
As with solar thermal systems, there are both benefits the cooled area becomes the outside of the property
and drawbacks to using GSHPs. Advantages include: and the heat is released inside the property.
l The pipework of the pump contains refrigerant that
l high efficiency
l reduction in energy bills
can be a liquid or gas depending on the stage of the
l reduction in CO2 emissions
cycle. The refrigerant as a gas passes through the
l safer appliance as there is no combustion
heat exchanger (evaporator), where the low outside
l lower maintenance costs compared to combustion
temperature is drawn across the heat exchanger
appliances using a fan. The heat warms the refrigerant – the
l long life span
liquid refrigerant boils and turns into a gas.
l The warmed refrigerant vapour flows to the
l no requirement for any fuel storage
l offer cooling in the summer period
compressor, where it is compressed, causing its
l more efficient than an air source heat pump.
temperature to rise.
l Following the compressor, the refrigerant passes
Disadvantages are as follows: through a second heat exchanger (condenser),
l initial high installation costs where the refrigerant loses its heat to the heating
l potential large land areas required system water, because at this stage the refrigerant
l design and installation are complex is hotter than the system water. The heating system
l unlikely to work efficiently with an existing heating carries the heat away to heat the building.
system l The cooled refrigerant has started to turn back into
l refrigerants could be harmful to the environment a liquid as it passes the expansion valve, where its
l more expensive to install than an air source heat pump. temperature drops suddenly and completely turns
into a liquid. It flows back to the evaporator heat
Air source heat pumps exchanger to start the cycle once again.
An air source heat pump (ASHP) extracts the free heat There are two common types of ASHP in use today:
from low temperature air and releases it where required l Air-to-water – the type described above, which can
for space heating and water heating. provide both space heating and water heating.
l Air-to-air – this type is only suitable for space
heating.
The final heat output from an ASHP is lower than that
of a standard gas boiler. Ideally, an ASHP should be
used in conjunction with an underfloor heating system
or low temperature radiators.
Location and building requirements
for ASHPs
When deciding whether an ASHP is suitable you must
consider the following:
l The property must be well insulated.
l There must be space on the ground or on an outside
Figure 6.17 Air source heat pump wall to mount the unit.
l There will need to be space around the unit to allow
Key components include: good air flow.
l heat pump containing a heat exchanger, compressor l The ideal system to link an ASHP up to is an
and expansion valve underfloor heating system.
l heating system.
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Compressor
Compression – the gaseous Flow
refrigerant is compressed and
Outside its temperature increases Heating
air system
Sudden drop in refrigerant
pressure – remaining gas Return
Fan cools to liquid
Refrigerant liquid is Expansion Gas cools and begins
warmed by heat from outside to condense to liquid
air and evaporates to gas
Figure 6.18 Air source heat pump operating principle
l The payback period for an ASHP is shorter if it l The ASHP cannot be installed within 1.0 m of the
replaces an electric, coal or oil system, rather than a property boundary.
gas boiler. l The ASHP cannot be installed on a pitched roof.
l If the unit is installed on a flat roof, it must not be
INDUSTRY TIP within 1.0 m of the edge of the flat roof.
l If the unit faces a highway, it cannot be mounted
ASHPs are ideal for new builds where the insulative value of above ground level.
the property is greater and the likelihood of an underfloor l The unit cannot be installed on a designated
heating system being installed is greater. monument.
l The unit cannot be installed on or in the grounds of
a listed building.
Planning permission required for l An ASHP cannot be installed within a conservation
ASHPs area or a world heritage site.
A permitted development applies to an ASHP when:
l it is installed on a house or block of flats ACTIVITY
l it is installed on a building within the grounds of a Use the internet to look up and detail the
house or block of flats Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS)
l it is installed within the grounds of a house or block planning standards and what they outline by visiting:
of flats. www.microgenerationcertification.org
There are however criteria to be met, mainly due to
noise levels:
l The ASHP must comply with Microgeneration
INDUSTRY TIP
Certification Scheme (MCS) planning standards. Older houses in the UK are generally not well insulated.
l Only one ASHP can be installed on the building or in
Those with solid walls obviously cannot have cavity
the grounds. insulation, but internal insulation could be used. Loft
l The volume of the outdoor compressor must not insulation is important and there are government grants
exceed 0.6 m3. available.
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Compliance with Building Regulations
Table 6.8 Building Regulations applicable for ASHPs
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure Where heat pumps and components put
additional load on the roof and walls of the
property
B Fire safety Where holes for pipework may reduce the fire-
resistant integrity of the building
C Resistance to contaminants and moisture Where holes for pipework may reduce the
moisture resistant integrity of the building
E Resistance to the passage of sound Where holes for pipework may reduce the
soundproof integrity of the building or cause a
nuisance to nearby buildings
G Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency Hot water safety and water efficiency within the
system
L Conservation of fuel and power Energy efficiency of the system and the building
P Electrical safety The installation and testing of electrical controls
and components in the system
Other regulations applicable for l less efficient than a GSHP
ASHPs l high initial costs
l less efficient in winter
l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations – this will
l the fans are noisy
cover the installation and maintenance of controls
l need to incorporate a defrost cycle to stop the heat
and circulators.
exchanger freezing in winter.
l F gas (fluorinated) requirements if working on
refrigeration pipework – these are the refrigerant
gases used in ASHPs which come under strict laws. Biomass systems
Biomass systems have actually been used for many
Benefits and limitations of ASHPs years. Biomass is biological material that can be burnt
Again, there are both advantages and disadvantages to and used to create heat. Biomass material can come
using ASHP systems. Advantages include: from animal matter or plants that have recently been
l high efficiency sourced, whereas fossil fuels have taken millions of
l reduction in energy bills years to source.
l reduction in CO2 emissions Both fossil fuels and biomass have to be burnt to
l the units are safe as no combustion takes place produce heat which is used within the system, and
l low maintenance compared to combustion both produce carbon dioxide. This is a greenhouse gas
appliances that is linked with global warming. The difference is
l no requirement for fuel storage that biomass material absorbs carbon dioxide when it
l provide cooling in the summer period grows, reducing the current carbon dioxide levels in the
l cheaper and easier to install than a GSHP. atmosphere. When burnt, the carbon dioxide is released
Disadvantages are as follows: into the atmosphere, the net result being no overall
l less efficient with existing heating systems increase in carbon dioxide levels – carbon neutral.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
l small logs
CO2 l wood chips – mechanically shredded trees and
CO2 absorbed
released to branches
atmosphere from atmosphere
l wood pellets – formed from sawdust and shavings
that are compressed into pellets.
The calorific value of woody biomass material is
generally low. The greener (wetter) the wood, the lower
the calorific value.
Plants and trees
Biomass
fuel burnt
grow, absorbing INDUSTRY TIP
carbon
(photosynthesis) Calorific value is the energy given off by burning. The drier
the wood, the higher the value, and therefore the hotter the
flame.
Biomass
harvested
A woody biomass boiler can be as simple as a wood
burner heating a room, which is manually fed wood
No increase in CO2
by opening the doors; to an automated boiler which
Figure 6.19 The carbon cycle is fed pellets constantly. The feed to an automated
boiler is done either by an auger drive (cork screw) or
Biomass fuel does not achieve the same heat output as
by suction. The boiler is monitored very carefully by the
fossil fuels, as fossil fuels are far more dense. However,
use of thermostats which balance the feed of biomass
biomass, if managed correctly, is sustainable, whereas
material, the air intake and the fan speed.
fossil fuels are not.
Materials that can be turned into biomass: Location and building requirements
l wood Whenever installing a biomass boiler, the following
l crops, such as elephant grass, reed grass and oil seed considerations must be made:
rape l space for the storage of biomass material
l by-products – agricultural by-products like straw, l good access for biomass deliveries
grain husks and animal waste l biomass boiler may not be permitted in smokeless
l food waste – an estimated 35 per cent of food in zones.
the UK is wasted
l industrial waste.
ACTIVITY
A barn conversion is to have a biomass boiler
KEY POINT
installed. The property is remote and is accessed
These materials require a large storage facility, via narrow country lanes. The deliveries are made
which has cost implications. by heavy goods vehicles. Outline the considerations
that will need to be made before the installation
takes place.
Wood-related biomass material is the most popular and
primary domestic biomass fuel. Wood is a sustainable
material and trees that are managed correctly can be In the past it has been commonplace to burn coal and
relatively fast growing. These can be managed on a wood as a domestic heat source, but this caused many
3–5-year crop rotation. cities to have poor air quality and created smogs (fog
and smoke). There were public outcries regarding air
Woody biomass material is supplied in three different
forms:
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quality, so in 1956 the Clean Air Act was formed. It Other regulations applicable for
was subsequently replaced by the Clean Air Act 1993, biomass systems
which made it illegal to sell or burn unauthorised fuel
l The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
in a smoke-controlled area, unless it was burnt in an
apply. The main area of concern is the avoidance
‘exempt appliance’.
of cross contamination between system water
and wholesome water; this is known as backflow
INDUSTRY TIP prevention.
Exempt appliances are able to burn smoky fuel without l BS 7671 will apply to the installation’s electrical
emitting smoke into the atmosphere. supplies and controls.
Benefits and limitations of biomass
Planning permission systems
Planning permission is not normally required to install The advantages of installing a biomass system include:
a biomass boiler in a domestic property, if all the work l It is a carbon neutral system.
is internal. If the installation requires external flues to l It is a sustainable fuel source.
be installed, it will normally be classed as permitted l When burnt the waste gases are low in nitrous
development as long as the flue is to the rear or side oxide, with no sulphur dioxide.
elevation and is not higher than 1.0 m above the roof
ridge. INDUSTRY TIP
If the property is a listed building, checks will need to
Nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide are both greenhouse
be made with the local authority for both internal and gases which are linked to global warming.
external work.
If the property is within a conservation area or in a The disadvantages of installing a biomass system include:
world heritage site, checks will need to be made with l Transportation of the biomass fuel is expensive.
the local authority for internal work, external work and l Storage space is required for the fuel. (Pellets and
any additional construction for storage. chips are bulk delivered.)
l Control of heat is not instant (as it would be for a
Compliance with Building gas boiler). The fuel cannot be instantly removed to
Regulations stop combustion.
The Building Regulations that apply to a biomass l It requires a suitable flue system.
installation are given in Table 6.9.
Table 6.9 Building Regulations applicable for biomass installations
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure Where components affect the load placed on the structure of
the building or excavations are close to the building
B Fire safety Where holes for pipework reduce the fire-resisting integrity of
the structure
C Resistance to contaminants and Where holes for pipework reduce the moisture-resisting
moisture integrity of the structure
E Resistance to the passage of sound Where holes for pipework reduce the sound-resisting integrity
of the structure
G Sanitation, hot water safety and Water efficiency
water efficiency
L Conservation of fuel and power The efficiency of the appliance and system including insulation
P Electrical safety Installation of supply and control wiring for the system
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Micro-combined heat and ACTIVITY
power systems Research an alternative name for a Stirling engine
and how it works.
These systems are installed so that the fuel source used
to supply heat and hot water to the property is also
used to supply electricity at the same time. Generally, Flue gases
the fuel source is natural gas or LPG, but could also
be biomass. The diagrams illustrate an old inefficient Heating
flow
boiler, a new condensing boiler and a micro-combined
4
heat and power (mCHP) unit.
Figure 6.20 shows that the old inefficient boiler is
only 65 per cent efficient, as 35 per cent of the heat
3
is lost out of the flue. The condensing boiler is a lot
more efficient at 95 per cent. The mCHP unit will Gas supply
achieve the same efficiencies as the condensing boiler 1
but in a different way. 80 per cent of the heat is used Helium
to provide heat and 15 per cent is used to generate
Heating
power. return
Stirling
This type of system is known as ‘heat-led’, as the engine 2
primary function (80 per cent) is to provide heat to
Magnet
the property, whilst the power generation is secondary
a.c.
(15 per cent). The unit will only produce electricity supply
if there is a demand for heat. Most mCHP units can Generator coils
produce between 1 kW and 1.5 kW of electricity. Figure 6.21 Component parts of the micro-CHP boiler
These units are known as a carbon-reducing
Key components of the mCHP boiler:
technology rather than a carbon-free technology.
l the engine burner
l the Stirling engine generator
Working principle of a mCHP
l the supplementary burner
CHP units have been around for several years now,
l the heat exchanger.
but more recently domestic versions have become
available. The domestic versions are gas fired and use a When there is a call for heat, the engine burner fires
Stirling engine to produce electricity. and starts the Stirling generator. The engine burner
produces about 25 per cent of the full heat output.
35% Flue 5% Flue 5% Flue
Heat
Heat Heat
80%
65% 95%
15%
Electricity
Old boiler Condensing boiler Micro-CHP
Figure 6.20 The efficiency of different boilers
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The burner preheats the heating system return water l The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations will
before it passes on to the main heat exchanger. Hot need to be referenced to avoid any contamination
flue gases from the engine burner are passed across the of wholesome water.
heat exchanger to heat the heating system water even l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations will apply to
more. If there is more demand than supply, then the the electrical supply and controls.
supplementary burner operates. l G83 requirements will have to be followed when
connecting the generator to the system.
The Stirling engine within the unit uses the expansion
l Microgeneration Certification Scheme will need to
and contraction of internal gases to operate the piston.
be referred to when electricity is generated.
The gases do not leave the engine and no explosive
combustion takes place. Helium is often used as the Benefits and limitations of mCHP
internal gas. When the engine burner fires, the helium The advantages of installing an mCHP system include:
expands, forcing the piston downwards. The return water l It has the ability to produce electricity and not be
from the heating system passes across the engine causing dependent on building direction or weather conditions.
the gas to contract. A spring mechanism in the engine l The system generates electricity while there is
returns the piston to the stop and the process starts again. demand for heat.
l A feed in tariff is available (but there are limitations).
INDUSTRY TIP l It saves carbon over centrally generated electricity.
l It reduces the building’s carbon footprint.
When considering an mCHP installation it is important
to consider the purchase costs, but also the running and The disadvantages of installing an mCHP system include:
l The initial installation costs are high.
maintenance costs of these systems.
l It is not suitable for all properties (low demand for
heat/well insulated).
Location and building requirements l It has limited capacity for electrical generation.
To make an mCHP system viable the following criteria
should be met:
l The building should have a high demand for space
3 WATER
heating. The larger the building the greater the
carbon savings.
CONSERVATION
l A building with good insulation is not normally TECHNOLOGIES
suitable, as a well-insulated building is unlikely to
have a high demand for space heating. The population of the UK (and the world) is expanding
and thus the demands on the water supply systems
If these criteria are not met the system will be inefficient.
are increasing. In the UK, unlike many other countries,
the water supplied to properties is suitable for drinking
Planning permission
straight from the tap – potable water.
The same planning permissions for mCHP apply as with
the biomass boiler discussed above. We use this water not only for drinking, but also for
washing, bathing and watering our gardens.
Compliance with Building Regulations Even in the UK, fresh water is a limited resource.
The same Building Regulations will apply to mCHP Alongside the increase in demand, there is a great deal
systems as to a biomass installation as discussed above. of pressure on this vital resource. Water conservation
is one way of making sure demand does not exceed
Other regulations applicable to mCHP supply and shortages are avoided.
l The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations will The two methods of water conservation that are
apply to these installations, so a Gas Safe engineer commonly used in the UK are:
must carry out the installation of the gas supply. l rainwater harvesting
l grey water reuse.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
The Code for Sustainable Homes sets a target for Looking at how water is used, you can see that on
reducing average drinking water consumption from average the amount of water used for drinking or
150 litres per person per day to an optimum of 80 litres. food preparation (potable) is estimated to be around
3.4 per cent of the total consumption. This outlines
ACTIVITY that there are obvious opportunities for water savings.
Access ‘The Code for Sustainable Homes’ and list
Table 6.10 Types of water
the areas being highlighted for new builds.
www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/ Terminology Meaning
UK-housing-Fit-for-the-future-CCC-2019.pdf Wholesome, potable water Water that is suitable for
human consumption. The
water supplied from the local
At present the adopted target is 103 litres; Part G water authority to properties
sets the level at 125 l. Whichever target is used, the in the UK is known as
conclusion is that a reduction in consumption from WHOLESOME or POTABLE
150 litres is vital. Rainwater Water captured from the roof
line of a property when it
rains, flowing into the gutter
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS Grey water
and downpipe to be collected
Waste water from wash
Given the demands for water and the problems basins, showers, baths and
water extraction from rivers and lakes causes, washing machines
it is essential that better use is made of the Blackwater Sewage
available water. More houses are being built and
the people living in those houses are putting
a demand on the water supply. This increased Rainwater harvesting
demand affects water levels in rivers and Rainwater harvesting refers to the process of capturing
reservoirs and therefore puts pressure on the and storing rainwater from the surface it falls on, rather
natural environment around them. Customers than letting it run off into the drains. The harvesting
are becoming well informed about water of rainwater can result in sizeable reductions in
conservation, so it is important to be able to wholesome water usage. Instead of refilling the WC
discuss these technologies with them. with wholesome water, the WC could be refilled with
rainwater. Every time a WC is fully flushed it uses 6
litres of water. Water authorities claim 1 litre of tap
Clothes washing 13%
water costs around 1p. Over a period of time this adds
Washing up and
up. This offers financial savings for the customer and
cleaning 8.6%
Toilet
carbon reductions in the environment.
flushing
28.1% If harvested water is correctly filtered, stored and used
regularly, it will not remain in the storage tank for
Other 6.1%
excessive periods of time. It can be used for:
l flushing toilets
Garden l car washing
watering 6.6%
l garden watering
Drinking and l supplying washing machines.
cooking 3.4% Personal washing
Car washing 33.7% Harvested rainwater CANNOT be used for:
0.5% l drinking water
l washing dishes
Figure 6.22 How water is used
l food preparation
l personal hygiene (baths and showers).
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Rainwater is classified as fluid category 5, which is Step 1: collection of rainwater
the highest risk category (see Book 1, Chapter 5 for (harvesting)
coverage of this topic). Rainwater can be collected from the roof line or from
hard standing surfaces. From the roof line it flows
ACTIVITY off the tiles into the gutter and down the downpipe
Refer to the Water Supply (Water Fittings) towards the storage tank. The amount of water
Regulations 1999 and remind yourself of all five harvested is governed by:
categories of water: www.legislation.gov.uk/ l the size of the roof area (or hard standing)
uksi/1999/1148/contents/made
l annual rainfall for the area.
The roof material must be taken in to account when
The process of rainwater harvesting installing a harvesting system. Roofs covered in copper,
step-by-step lead, asbestos or bitumen may not be suitable to have
a rainwater harvesting system installed due to the
The harvesting of rainwater follows the process of:
potential health risk. Also, rainwater that is harvested
1 collection
from hard standing, such as a driveway, could
2 filtration
potentially be contaminated with oil.
3 storage
4 reuse.
Collection
Reuse
Filtration
Storage
Figure 6.23 The rainwater harvesting cycle
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Step 2: filtration The storage cistern in the loft MUST incorporate
As the rainwater passes down the system towards the a backflow prevention air gap to meet with Water
storage tank, it passes through an in-line filter to remove Regulations.
debris such as leaves; this is known as a mechanical filter. The arrangement of water control and overflow
These are flushed out. The efficiency of the filter will will ensure the air gap is maintained. The rainwater
determine how much of the captured water ends up in level control connects to the main control unit that
storage. There may well be microscopic or even carbon operates the submersible pump, so that water is
filters to remove suspended particles. Manufacturers will drawn from the main storage tank when required.
normally expect over 90 per cent of captured water to At times, mainly in the summer period, when there
enter the storage tank through the filters. is less rainfall, fresh water is introduced into the
system via a wholesome water inlet controlled by
Step 3: storage means of a float operated valve.
The storage tanks can be installed above ground or l Direct distribution – in this system the reuse
below ground and can vary in size from a small ‘next rainwater is pumped directly to the outlets on
to the house’ tank to a large buried tank holding demand. At times of low rainwater, the control
thousands of litres. Below-the-ground tanks will need unit will introduce wholesome water to supply the
excavation work carried out, which is disruptive, whilst outlets. The backflow prevention to meet the Water
above-the-ground tanks will need an area of ground Regulations is incorporated in the control unit. This
to be sited. Whichever tank is used, it will need to be type of system uses more energy than the indirect
protected against freezing in winter time, heating up distribution, but does not require the storage space.
in summer which allows bacteria to grow, and direct
sunlight which allows algae to grow. It will also need
protection against contamination. Wholesome water inlet
The size of the tank will be determined by the rainwater Rainwater inlet
available and the demand for the harvested water. Air gap for Water
Regulations compliance
Different manufacturers offer various calculators to size Rainwater level control
the tank effectively. Wholesome water level control
A submersible pump is used to transport the water Overflow
from the storage tank to the point of demand. The tank
will also incorporate an overflow pipe which leads to Figure 6.24 Header tank with backflow protection
the drainage system.
KEY POINT
INDUSTRY TIP Remember, the term backflow refers to the flow
of water in a direction it is not intended to flow.
If the property has a garden, a suggestion could be made to the Refer back to Book 1, Chapter 8.
customer to install a basic water butt fed from a downpipe.
Location and building requirements
Step 4: reuse of rainwater When deciding on the suitability of a location for the
Once the rainwater is stored in the tank, there are two installation, the following points will need to be considered:
types of system options available for the distribution of l if there is enough rainfall in the area to meet the
this reuse water within the property: demand of the property
l Indirect distribution – in this system the reuse l if a suitable supply of wholesome water will be
water is pumped to a storage cistern (header tank) required for back up
at high level within the property, quite often in l above ground tanks must avoid the risk of freezing,
the loft. This in turn feeds the outlets under low warming and sunlight
pressure within the property. l if below ground, tanks need excavation work.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS KEY POINT
Use the internet to locate current data about the Rainwater is classified a category 5 risk – severe.
average annual rainfall in your area along with the
rainfall intensity.
The usual method of preventing backflow between
For example, the Met Office provides maps
of average annual rainfall across the UK:
rainwater and wholesome water is by the use of an AA
www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/ air gap.
metofficegovuk/pdf/research/library-and-archive/
library/publications/factsheets/factsheet_4-climate- ACTIVITY
of-the-british-isles.pdf Refer to the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Using your findings, work out approximately how much Regulations 1999 and use internet research to
rain could be collected from a 15 m2 roof area. identify different types of air gaps.
Any pipework used to supply outlets with rainwater
Planning permission will need to be labelled to identify it from wholesome
Generally, planning permission is not required for water. The outlets will also need to be labelled
the installation of a rainwater harvesting system if it ‘unsuitable for drinking’ as displayed in Figure 6.25.
does not alter the outside appearance of the property.
However, it is always worth consulting with the local
authority, especially if the system uses an above-the- Rainwater
ground tank or the property is listed.
Compliance with Building Regulations
The regulations outlined in Table 6.11 will apply.
Other regulations applicable for
rainwater harvesting
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 Not Suitable
apply to rainwater harvesting systems. The key area of for Drinking
concern is the potential cross contamination between
rainwater and wholesome water. This is known as
Figure 6.25 Outlet label
backflow prevention.
Table 6.11 Building Regulations applicable for rainwater harvesting systems
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure Where the components affect the loadings placed on the structure or
excavations are close to the building
B Fire safety Where holes for pipework reduce the fire-resisting integrity of the structure
C Resistance to contaminants Where holes for pipework reduce the moisture-resisting integrity
and moisture of the structure
E Resistance to the passage Where holes for pipework reduce the sound-resisting integrity of
of sound the structure
G Sanitation, hot water safety Water efficiency
and water efficiency
H Drainage and waste disposal Where gutter and rainwater pipes are connected to the system
P Electrical safety Installation of supply and control wiring for electrical components
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
You must also adhere to the following regulations for
rainwater harvesting:
Grey water reuse
Grey water is the waste water from baths, showers,
l BS 7671 will apply to the electrical wiring and
basins and washing machines. It gets its name from the
controls – this will cover the installation and
cloudy grey appearance of the waste water. Capturing
maintenance of controls and circulators.
and reusing this water for permitted uses, like flushing a
l BS 8515:2009 is the Code of Practice for rainwater
WC, reduces the consumption of wholesome water.
harvesting systems – this outlines key design,
installation and maintenance criteria for these systems.
KEY POINT
Benefits and limitations of rainwater Whilst the waste from a kitchen sink can be
classed as grey water, the waste from a kitchen
harvesting systems sink is not often used because of the fats, oils,
The advantages of using rainwater harvesting systems greases and food particles that it will contain.
include:
l a reduction in the use of wholesome water
The grey water collected will have the potential of
l a reduction in water bills
being contaminated with human intestinal bacteria and
l the water does not require any treatment prior to use
viruses, skin particles and hair. It will also contain soap,
l rainwater harvesting is less complicated than grey
detergents and cosmetic particles which could cause
water reuse.
bacterial growth. Add to this the warm temperature
Disadvantages are as follows: of the grey water waste, it is the ideal conditions to
l The quantity of water is limited to the collection area. encourage the growth of bacteria.
l The quantity of water is limited to the rainfall in the
For these reasons grey water cannot be stored for more
area.
than a few hours. The less-polluted water from basins,
l Initial installation costs are high.
showers and baths is favoured for grey water collection.
l A water meter should be fitted.
Where greater supply of grey water is required, washing
machine water can be collected.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
High level rainwater
storage cistern The capacity for storing grey water, a category 5
(high risk) water, is limited to a few hours given the
pathogen content and potential for rapid growth of
bacteria. Remember, some sources of grey water,
Rainwater such as basins and showers, are safer to harvest
Rainwater is collected supply from than others, such as washing machines.
from the roof by the
guttering system
where it flows down
the rainwater pipe, Grey water is classified as category 5 water, which is the
through a rainwater high-risk category, under the Water Regulations. Grey
filter and into an
underground storage
water can pose a severe health risk due to the pathogen
cistern content. Untreated grey water deteriorates rapidly
Rainwater feed
to cistern in the when stored, so all systems that store grey water will
Rain- roof space
water
incorporate the appropriate level of treatment.
filter
Underground If grey water is filtered and stored correctly then it can
storage cistern be used for:
l flushing toilets
Submersible
pump l car washing
l garden watering
Figure 6.26 Rainwater harvesting l washing clothes (after additional treatment).
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Recycled water to house
Garden and car
washing
Process lines from control box
Grey water from bathroom and laundry
Overflow to sewer
Toilet and kitchen to sewer
Figure 6.27 Grey water reuse system
Grey water cannot be used for: Direct reuse system
l drinking water The grey water is collected from appliances and directly
l washing dishes reused without treatment or storage and could be
l food preparation or washing used to water the garden. Even so, grey water is not
l personal hygiene (baths and showers). considered suitable for watering fruit or vegetables
as there is a possibility of passing on pathogen and
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH bacterial content.
Normally, grey water would be discharged into the
drainage system of the house and then on to the Short retention system
water treatment plant via the main sewage system. Grey water from baths and showers is collected in
Consider the important points you would need to a cleaning tank where it is treated; basic debris is
explain and discuss with a customer considering
removed and heavier particles are allowed to settle. The
the installation of a grey water reuse system in their
new property. remaining water is transferred to a storage tank. The
storage tanks are relatively small, being around 100
litres, which would be enough water for 18–20 flushes.
Types of grey water reuse systems If the stored water is not used within a short period,
normally around 24 hours, the water is purged and the
There are several differing types of grey water reuse
system cleaned, leaving a small amount of water for
systems that are available in the UK, but they all have
toilet flushing. This avoids the grey water deteriorating
similar features:
and beginning to smell. This type of system can result
l storage tank for treated water
in water savings of 30 per cent.
l pump
l distribution system (moving the stored water to the This type of system would normally be fitted in a new
point of use) build as it is more difficult to retrofit. This system is
l some form of treatment.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
best suited for a self-contained bathroom and toilet, thrive in water logged conditions, transfer oxygen
collecting and serving the water within the same room. to their roots. The grey water is allowed to infiltrate
through the reed bed. The added oxygen from the
Physical and chemical system roots of the reeds and the naturally occurring bacteria
This system uses a filter to remove the physical debris remove the organic matter contained in the grey water.
from the collected water. After the water has been The disadvantage of reed beds is the land area required
filtered, chemical disinfectants such as chlorine or and the expertise required.
bromine are added to prevent any bacterial growth
There are companies that make and offer smaller-
whilst the water is stored.
scale systems, such as the green roof recycling system
(GROW).
Biomechanical system
This type of system is the most advanced of the
ACTIVITY
grey water reuse systems. It uses both biological and
Research reed bed filtration systems to assess the
physical methods to treat the collected grey water.
range of systems available in the UK.
These systems vary in size, but on average are a similar
size to a large refrigerator.
Grey water enters the system through the filter, where Location and building requirements
particles like hair and textiles are filtered out. The When considering the installation of a grey water reuse
filter is monitored electronically and is flushed out system, the following should be taken into account:
periodically. The water then enters the main recycling l a suitable supply of grey water to meet the demand
chamber where organic matter is decomposed using l suitability of location and availability of space to
bio-cultures. The grey water remains in this chamber store the grey water
for three hours before being pumped into the second l storage tanks need to be located away from heat
chamber for further bio-culture treatment. Biological and direct sunlight to avoid algae growth
sediment settles at the bottom of both these l location or storage needs to be protected from
chambers, which is removed. After a further three freezing
hours the grey water passes through a UV filter and l supply of wholesome water is required
into the final storage tank where it is ready for use. l access for excavation equipment may be required
l a water meter will need to be fitted on incoming
When there is a demand for grey water, it is pumped
mains.
to the point of use. At times when treated water
availability is low, fresh water can be introduced into
the system.
Planning permission
Planning permission on the whole is not required for a
The grey water from this system can be used to wash grey water reuse system, although it is always worth
clothing as well. checking with the local authority, especially if the
system is above ground, in a designated area or the
Biological system
building is listed. If a building is required to house the
This system uses some of the principles used by sewage grey water storage system, then planning permission
treatment works. In this system, biological growth is will be required.
encouraged rather than inhibited, by the introduction of
oxygen into the waste water. The oxygen is introduced Compliance with Building
by means of a pump into the storage tank. Bacteria
Regulations
then ‘digest’ the organic matter contained in the grey
water. The Building Regulations that apply to grey water reuse
systems are given in Table 6.12.
A more natural method of introducing oxygen is
through the use of reed beds. In nature, reeds, which
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Other regulations applicable for grey
Grey water
water reuse systems
l The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
apply. The main area of concern is the avoidance
of cross contamination between grey water and
wholesome water; this is known as backflow
prevention. Grey water is classified as category 5,
which is a high health risk. The usual method is by
use of an air gap.
l Any pipework used to supply outlets and any outlet
using grey water needs to be labelled to avoid any
mistakes.
l The local authority must be informed prior to
installing a grey water system.
BS 7671 will apply to the installation’s electrical
Not Suitable
l
supplies and controls.
INDUSTRY TIP for Drinking
Traditionally, water charges were based on the rateable
value of the property. Nowadays a water meter monitors the
use of water and will identify the reduction in wholesome Figure 6.28 Grey water warning label
water use.
Table 6.12 Building Regulations applicable for grey water reuse systems
Building Regulation Title Relevance
A Structure Where components affect the loading placed on the structure of
the building or excavations are close to the building
B Fire safety Where holes for pipework reduce the fire-resisting integrity of
the structure
C Resistance to contaminants and Where holes for pipework reduce the moisture-resisting integrity
moisture of the structure
E Resistance to the passage of sound Where holes for pipework reduce the sound-resisting integrity of
the structure
G Sanitation, hot water safety and Water efficiency
water efficiency
H Drainage and waste disposal Where waste pipes are connected to the drainage system
P Electrical safety Installation of supply and control wiring for the system
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Benefits and limitations of grey
water reuse systems
4 ELECTRICITY-
The advantages of using grey water reuse systems PRODUCING MICRO-
include:
l a reduction in water bills
RENEWABLE ENERGY
l a reduction on the demand for wholesome water
l a wide range of system designs
TECHNOLOGIES
l potential to provide more reusable water than The electricity-producing micro-renewable energy
rainwater harvesting. technologies that will be discussed in this section are:
l solar photovoltaic
Disadvantages are as follows:
l micro-wind
l long payback period
l micro-hydro.
l difficult to integrate into an existing system
l only certain appliances can be supplied by grey The major advantages of these technologies are that
water reuse they do not use any of the planet’s dwindling fossil fuel
l potential cross contamination risk resources. They also do not produce any carbon dioxide
l water meter will need to be fitted on the property (CO2) when running.
supply
With each of the electricity-producing micro-renewable
l the need for filtering and pumping contributes to
energy technologies, two types of connection exist:
the property carbon footprint.
l on-grid or grid-tied – where the system is
connected in parallel with the grid-supplied
electricity
l off-grid – where the system is not connected to the
grid but supplies electricity directly to current-using
High level grey water equipment or is used to charge batteries and then
storage cistern
supplies electrical equipment via an inverter.
The batteries required for off-grid systems need to
be deep-cycle type batteries, which are expensive to
Grey water purchase. The other downside of using batteries to
supply
store electricity is that the batteries’ life span may be
as short as five years, after which the battery bank will
require replacing.
Demand 2 kW
Grey water feed
Grey water collection to cistern in the
roof space Generation 3 kW
Grey water
filter
Underground
storage
cistern Grid supply 1 kW
exported
Submersible
pump
Figure 6.30 Generation exceeds demand
Figure 6.29 Grey water reuse
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(an impurity) to the silicon, a process known as ‘doping’,
Demand 3 kW produces n-type or p-type semiconductor material.
Whether it is n-type (negative) or p-type (positive)
semiconductor material is dependent on the element
Generation 2 kW used to dope the silicon. Placing an n-type and a p-type
semiconductor material together creates a p-n junction.
This forms the basis of all semiconductors used in
Grid supply 1 kW
electronics.
imported
When photons, which are particles of energy from the
Sun, hit the surface of the PV cell they are absorbed by
Figure 6.31 Demand exceeds generation
the p-type material. The additional energy provided by
these photons allows electrons to overcome the bonds
With on-grid systems, any excess electricity generated
holding them and move within the semiconductor
is exported back to the grid. At times when the
material, thus creating a potential difference or – in
generation output is not sufficient to meet the demand,
other words – generating a voltage.
electricity is imported from the grid.
Photovoltaic cells have an output voltage of 0.5 V, so a
While the following sections will be focused primarily
number of these are linked together to form modules
on on-grid or grid-tied systems, which are the most
with resulting higher voltage and power outputs.
common type in use, an overview of the components
Modules are connected together in series to increase
required for off-grid systems is included to provide a
voltage. These are known as ‘strings’. All the modules
complete explanation of the technology.
together are known as an ‘array’. An array therefore
can comprise a single string or multiple strings. The
Solar photovoltaic (PV) connection arrangements are determined by the size
Solar photovoltaic (PV) is the conversion of light into of the system and the choice of inverter. It should be
electricity. Light is electromagnetic energy and, in the noted that PV arrays can attain d.c. voltages of many
case of visible light, is electromagnetic energy that is hundreds of volts.
visible to the human eye. The electromagnetic energy
released by the Sun consists of a wide spectrum, most ACTIVITY
of which is not visible to the human eye and cannot be What is one danger associated with photovoltaic
converted into electricity by PV modules. systems?
INDUSTRY TIP There are many arrangements for PV systems but they
can be divided into two categories:
Photovoltaic is probably the most common system being l off-grid systems, where the PV modules are used to
installed. It is fairly simple to install and requires minimum charge batteries
disruption when connecting the system to the meter l on-grid systems, where the PV modules are
position.
connected to the grid supply via an inverter.
The key components of an off-grid PV system are:
Working principles l PV modules
The basic element of photovoltaic energy production l a PV module mounting system
is the PV cell, which is made from semiconductor l d.c. cabling
material. A semiconductor is a material with resistivity l a charge controller
that sits between that of an insulator and a conductor. l a deep-discharge battery bank
Whilst various semiconductor materials can be used in l an inverter.
the making of PV cells, the most common material is Other components, such as isolators, will also be
silicon. Adding a small quantity of a different element required.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
PV Charge a.c.
Batteries Inverter
module controller equipment
Figure 6.32 Off-grid system components
On-grid systems where the PV modules PV module mounting system
are connected to the grid supply via an Photovoltaic modules can be fitted as on-roof systems,
inverter in-roof systems or ground-mount systems.
The key components of an on-grid PV system are: l On-roof systems are the common method employed
l PV modules for retrofit systems. Various different mounting
l a PV module mounting system systems exist for securing the modules to the roof
l d.c. cabling structure. Most consist of aluminium rails, which are
l an inverter fixed to the roof structure by means of roof hooks.
l a.c. cabling Mounting systems also exist for fitting PV modules
l metering to flat roofs. Checks will need to be made to ensure
l a connection to the grid. that the existing roof structure can withstand the
additional weight and also the uplift forces that will
Other components such as isolators will also be
be exerted on the PV array by the wind.
required.
l In in-roof systems the modules replace the roof tiles.
The modules used are specially designed to interlock,
PV Consumer
module
Inverter
unit
Grid to ensure that the roof structure is watertight. The
modules are fixed directly to the roof structure.
Several different systems are on the market, from
a.c. single-tile size to large panels that replace a whole
equipment
section of roof tiles. In-roof systems cost more than
on-roof systems but are more aesthetically pleasing.
Figure 6.33 On-grid system components
In-roof systems are generally only suitable for new-
build projects or where the roof is to be retiled.
PV modules l Ground-mount systems and pole-mount systems
A range of different types of module, of various are available for free-standing PV arrays.
efficiencies, is available. The performance of a PV
module is expressed as an efficiency percentage: the
higher the percentage the greater the efficiency.
l Monocrystalline modules range in efficiency, from
15 to 20 per cent.
l Polycrystalline modules range in efficiency, from
13 to 16 per cent, but are cheaper to purchase than
monocrystalline modules.
l Amorphous film ranges in efficiency, from 5 to 7
per cent. Amorphous film is low efficiency but is
flexible, so it can be formed into curves and is ideal
for surfaces that are not flat.
Whilst efficiencies may appear low, the maximum
theoretical efficiency that can be obtained with a single
junction silicon cell is only 34 per cent.
Figure 6.34 In-roof mounting system
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Connection to the grid
INDUSTRY TIP
Connection to the grid within domestic premises is
It is essential that the integrity of the roof is maintained made via a spare way in the consumer unit and a 16 A
and that no leaks occur due to the installation. Only overcurrent protective device. An isolator is fitted at
approved contractors with the relevant insurance should be the intake position to provide emergency switching, so
employed. that the PV system can easily be isolated from the grid.
Location and building requirements
ACTIVITY When deciding on the suitability of a location or
With regards to a PV installation, who would building for the installation of PV, the following
normally be responsible for mounting the roof considerations should be taken into account.
brackets and panels and testing and connecting the
electrical system? Adequate roof space available
The roof space available determines the maximum
Tracking systems are the ultimate in PV mounting size of PV array that can be installed. In the UK, all
systems. They are computer-controlled motorised calculations are based on 1,000 Wp (watts peak) of the
mounting systems that change both azimuth and tilt Sun’s radiation on 1 m2 so, if the array uses modules
to track the Sun as it passes across the sky. Ideally with a 15 per cent efficiency, each 1 kWp of array will
the modules should face due south, but any direction require approximately 7 m2 of roof space. The greater
between east and west will give acceptable outputs. the efficiency of the modules, the less roof space that is
required.
KEY TERM
Azimuth: refers to the angle that the panel
The orientation (azimuth) of the PV array
direction diverges from facing due south. The optimum direction for the solar collectors to face
is due south; however, as the Sun rises in the east and
sets in the west, any location with a roof facing east,
Inverter south or west is suitable for mounting a PV array, but
The inverter’s primary function is to convert the d.c. the efficiency of the system will be reduced for any
input to a 230 V a.c. 50 Hz output, and synchronise system not facing due south.
it with the mains supply frequency. The inverter also
ensures that, in the event of mains supply failure, the
PV system does not create a danger by continuing
to feed power onto the grid. The inverter must be
matched to the PV array with regard to power and
d.c. input voltage, to avoid damage to the inverter and
to ensure that it works efficiently. Both d.c. and a.c.
isolators will be fitted to the inverter, to allow it to be
isolated for maintenance purposes.
ACTIVITY
What is the purpose of an inverter?
Metering
A generation meter is installed on the system to record
the number of units generated, so that the feed-in tariff
can be claimed. Figure 6.35 Ideal orientation is south
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
The tilt of the PV array
Throughout the year, the height of the Sun relative
to the horizon changes from its lowest in December
through to its highest in June. As it is generally not
practical to vary the tilt angle throughout the year, the
optimum tilt for the PV array in the UK is between 30
and 40°; however, the modules will work outside the
optimum tilt range and will even work if vertical or
horizontal, but they will be less efficient.
W
Figure 6.37 Shading of PV system
Tilt
30º to 40º Location within the UK
N
The location within the UK will determine how much
sunshine will fall, annually, on the PV array and, in turn,
this will determine the amount of electricity that can
PV array facing south at fixed tilt be generated. For example, a location in Brighton will
generate more electricity than one in Newcastle, purely
because Brighton receives more sunshine.
Azimuth
S
E The suitability of the structure for
Figure 6.36 Ideal tilt is 30–40° mounting the solar collector
The structure has to be assessed for its suitability for
Shading of the PV array fixing the chosen mounting system. Consideration
needs to be given to the strength of the structure, the
Any structure, tree, chimney, aerial or other object
suitability of fixings and the condition of the structure.
that stands between the PV array (collector) and
Consideration also needs to be given to the effect
the Sun will prevent some of the Sun’s energy from
known as ‘wind uplift’, an upward force exerted by
reaching the collector. The Sun shines for a limited
the wind on the module and mounting system. The
time and any reduction in the amount of sunlight
strength of the PV array fixings and the fixings holding
landing on the collector will reduces its ability to
the roof members to the building structure must be
produce electricity.
great enough to allow for wind uplift.
In the case of roof-mounted systems on flats and other
shared properties, consideration must also be given to
the ownership of the structure on which the proposed
system is to be installed.
A suitable place to mount the inverter
The inverter is usually mounted either in the loft space
or at the mains position.
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Connection to the grid Table 6.13 Building Regulations applicable for solar
photovoltaic systems
A spare way within the consumer unit will need to be
available for connection of the PV system. If one is Building Title Relevance
not available then the consumer unit may need to be Regulation
changed. A Structure The PV modules will impose
both downward force and
Planning permission wind uplift stresses on the
roof structure
Permitted development applies where a PV system is
B Fire safety The passage of cables through
installed: the building fabric could
l on a dwelling house or block of flats reduce the fire-resisting
l on a building within the grounds of a dwelling house integrity of the structure
or block of flats C Resistance to The fixing brackets for on-roof
contaminants systems and the passage of
l as a stand-alone system in the grounds of a dwelling
and moisture cables through the building
house or block of flats. fabric could reduce the moisture-
resisting integrity of the structure
However, there are criteria to be met in each case.
E Resistance to The passage of cables through
For building-mounted systems: the passage of the building fabric could
l the PV system must not protrude more than sound reduce the sound-resisting
properties of the structure
200mm from the wall or the roof slope
L Conservation of The efficiency of the system
l the PV system must not protrude past the highest
fuel and power and the building overall
point of the roof (the ridgeline), excluding the
P Electrical The installation of the
chimney. safety components and wiring system
For stand-alone systems the following criteria must be
met. Compliance with Building
l Only one stand-alone system is allowed in the
Regulations
grounds.
l The array must not exceed 4 m in height.
The regulations outlined in Table 6.13 will apply.
l The array must not be installed within 5 m of the
Other regulatory requirements
boundary of the grounds.
l The array must not exceed 9 m2 in area.
applicable for solar photovoltaic systems
l No dimension of the array may exceed 3 m in
l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations will apply to
length. the PV installation.
l G83 requirements will apply to on-grid systems
For both stand-alone and building-mounted systems up to 3.68 kW per phase; above this size the
the following criteria must be met. requirements of G59 will need to be complied
l The system must not be installed in the grounds or
with. (G83 and G59 are both specific Engineering
on a building within the grounds of a listed building Recommendations that cover part of the installation
or a scheduled monument. and commissioning of PV systems.)
l If the dwelling is in a conservation area or a World
l Microgeneration Certification Scheme requirements
Heritage Site, then the array must not be closer to a will apply.
highway than the house or block of flats.
l In every other case, planning permission will be
INDUSTRY TIP
required.
All systems will require some penetration of the building
ACTIVITY fabric, be it the roof or walls, depending on the building
What documentation should be completed by the type and construction. You should be able to describe the
electrical installer after testing the new PV installation? methods of making good for all building fabrics.
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Benefits and limitations of solar A HAWT has a tailfin to turn the turbine so that it is
photovoltaic systems facing in the correct direction to make the most of the
available wind. The gearbox and generator will also be
Advantages of solar photovoltaic systems include the
mounted in the horizontal plane.
following:
l They can be fitted to most buildings. Vertical-axis wind turbines, of which there are many
l There is a feed-in tariff available for electricity different designs, will work with wind blowing from any
generated, regardless of whether it is used on site or direction and therefore do not require a tailfin. A VAWT
exported to the grid. also has a gearbox and generator.
l Excess electricity can be sold back to the
distribution network operator (DNO).
l There is a reduction in electricity imported.
l It uses zero carbon technology.
l It improves energy performance certificate ratings. Tailfin
Nacelle
l There is a reasonable payback period on the initial
investment. Rotor Hub
blades
Disadvantages include the following:
l Initial cost is high. Gearbox Generator
l The system size is dependent on available, suitable
roof area.
l It requires a relatively large array to offset
installation costs.
l It gives variable output that is dependent on the
Figure 6.38 Horizontal-axis wind turbine
amount of sunshine available. Lowest output is at
times of greatest requirement, such as at night and Rotor
in the winter. Savings need to be considered over diameter
the whole year.
l There is an aesthetic impact (on the appearance of
the building).
Micro-wind
Wind turbines harness energy from the wind and turn
it into electricity. The UK is an ideal location for the
installation of wind turbines, as about 40 per cent of
Europe’s wind energy passes over the UK. A micro-wind
turbine installed on a suitable site could easily generate Rotor
blade
more power than would be consumed on site.
Working principles
Generator
The wind passing the rotor blades of a turbine causes Gearbox
it to turn. The hub is connected by a low-speed shaft
to a gearbox. The gearbox output is connected to a
high-speed shaft that drives a generator which, in turn, Vertical axis
produces electricity. Turbines are available as either Figure 6.39 Vertical-axis wind turbine
horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) or vertical-axis
wind turbines (VAWT).
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The two types of micro-wind turbines suitable for the output varies in both voltage and frequency. The
domestic installation are: output is connected to a system controller, which
l pole-mounted, free-standing wind turbines rectifies the output to d.c.
l building-mounted wind turbines, which are generally
In the case of an on-grid system the d.c. output from
smaller than pole-mounted turbines.
the system controller is connected to an inverter which
Micro-wind generation systems fall into two basic converts d.c. to a.c. at 230 V 50 Hz, for connection
categories: to the grid supply via a generation meter and the
l on-grid (grid-tied), which is connected in parallel consumer unit.
with the grid supply via an inverter
With off-grid systems the output from the controller is
l off-grid, which charge batteries to store electricity
used to charge batteries so that the output is stored for
for later use.
when it is needed. The output from the batteries then
The output from a micro-wind turbine is wild feeds an inverter so that 230 V a.c. equipment can be
alternating current (a.c.). ‘Wild’ refers to the fact that connected.
Grid
Controller Inverter
connection
Figure 6.40 Block diagram of an on-grid micro-wind system
Controller Batteries Inverter Equipment
Figure 6.41 Block diagram of an off-grid micro-wind system
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Obstructions and turbulence
ACTIVITY
The first wind turbine is believed to have been
For a wind turbine to work efficiently, a smooth flow of
installed in Scotland in July 1887 by James Blythe. air needs to pass across the turbine blades.
Find out what he used it for. The ideal site for a wind turbine would be at the top of
a gentle slope. As the wind passes up the slope it gains
speed, resulting in a higher output from the turbine.
Location and building requirements
When considering the installation of a micro-wind
turbine, it is important to consider the location or
building requirements, including:
l the average wind speed on the site
l any obstructions and turbulence
l the height at which the turbine can be mounted
l turbine noise, vibration, flicker. Figure 6.42 A suitable site for a micro-wind turbine
Figure 6.43 illustrates the effect on the wind when a
Wind speed
wind turbine is poorly sited. The wind passing over the
Wind is not constant, so the average wind speed on a
turbine blades is disturbed and thus the efficiency is
site, measured in metres per second (m/s), is a prime
reduced.
consideration when deciding on a location’s suitability
for the installation of a micro-wind turbine.
Wind speed needs to be a minimum of 5 m/s for a
wind turbine to generate electricity. Manufacturers of
wind turbines provide power curves for their turbines,
which show the output of the turbine at different wind
speeds. Most micro-wind turbines will achieve their
Figure 6.43 An unsuitable site for a micro-wind turbine
maximum output when the wind speed is around 10
m/s. Any obstacles, such as trees or tall buildings, will affect
the wind passing over the turbine blades.
INDUSTRY TIP Where an obstacle is upwind of the wind turbine, in
the direction of the prevailing wind, the wind turbine
There is plenty of wind in the UK for wind generators.
should be sited at a minimum distance of 10 × the
Surrounding buildings, other structures and trees can cut
down the effectiveness of micro-wind systems. height of the obstacle away from the obstacle. In the
case of an obstacle that is 10 m in height, this would
mean that the wind turbine should be sited a minimum
of 10 × 10 m away, which is 100 m from the obstacle.
Prevailing wind
h Zone of maximum turbulent flow h
10 h+
Figure 6.44 Placement of micro-wind turbine to avoid obstacles
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Turbine mounting height Planning permission
Generally, the higher a wind turbine is mounted, the Whilst permitted development exists for the
better. The minimum recommended height is 6–7 m installation of wind turbines, it is severely restricted, so,
but, ideally, it should be mounted at a height of 9–12 in the majority of installations, a planning application
m. As a wind turbine has moving parts, consideration will be required. The permitted development criteria are
needs to be given to access for maintenance. Where an detailed below.
obstacle lies upwind of the turbine, the bottom edge of
Permitted development applies where a wind turbine is
the blade should be above the height of the obstacle.
installed:
l on a detached dwelling house
Turbine noise
l on a detached building within the grounds of a
Consideration needs to be given to buildings sited close
dwelling house or block of flats
to the wind turbine as the turbine will generate noise in
l as a stand-alone system in the grounds of a dwelling
use.
house or block of flats.
Turbine vibration It is important to note that permitted development
Consideration needs to be given to vibration when the for building-mounted wind turbines only applies to
wind turbine is building mounted. It may be necessary detached premises. It does not apply to semi-detached
to consult a structural engineer. houses or flats.
Even with detached buildings or stand-alone turbines
Shadow flicker
there are criteria to be met.
Shadow flicker is the result of the rotating blades of l The wind turbine must comply with the MCS
a turbine passing between a viewer and the Sun. It planning standards, or equivalent.
is important to ensure that shadow flicker does not l Only one wind turbine may be installed on the
unduly affect a building sited in the shadow-flicker zone building or within the grounds of the building.
of the wind turbine. l An air source heat pump may not be installed on
The distance of the shadow-flicker zone from the the building or within the grounds of the building.
turbine will be at its greatest when the Sun is at its l The highest part of the wind turbine (normally the
lowest in the sky. blades) must not protrude more than 3 m above the
ridge line of the building or be more than 15 m in
height.
l The lowest part of the blades of the wind turbine
must be a minimum of 5 m from ground level.
l The wind turbine must be a minimum of 5 m from
the boundary of the premises.
l The wind turbine cannot be installed on or within:
l land that is safeguarded land (usually designated
for military or aeronautical reasons)
l a site that is designated as a scheduled
monument
l a listed building
l the grounds of a listed building
l land within a national park
l an area of outstanding natural beauty
l the Broads (wetlands and inland waterways in
Norfolk and Suffolk).
Figure 6.45 The area affected by shadow flicker
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l The wind turbine cannot be installed on the roof Benefits and limitations of
or wall of a building that fronts a highway, if that micro-wind turbines
building is within a conservation area.
Advantages of micro-wind turbines include the
The following conditions also apply. following:
l The blades must be made of non-reflective material. l They can be very effective on a suitable site as the
l The wind turbine should be sited so as to minimise UK has 40 per cent of Europe’s wind resources.
its effect on the external appearance of the building. l There are no carbon dioxide emissions.
l They produce most energy in winter, when
Compliance with Building consumer demand is at its maximum.
Regulations l A feed-in tariff is available.
The regulations outlined in Table 6.14 will apply. l This can be a very effective technology where mains
electricity does not exist.
Table 6.14 Building Regulations applicable for micro-wind
systems Disadvantages include the following:
l Initial costs are high.
Building Title Relevance l The requirements of the site are onerous.
Regulation
l Planning can be onerous.
A Structure A wind turbine mounted on a
l Performance is variable and is dependent on wind
building will exert additional
structural load, as well as availability.
forces, due to its operation l Micro-wind turbines cause noise, vibration and
B Fire safety Cable entries and fixings flicker.
may reduce the fire-resisting
integrity of the building
structure Micro-hydro-electric
C Resistance to Cable entries and fixings may All rivers flow downhill. This movement of water from
contaminants reduce the moisture-resisting a higher level to a lower level is a source of free kinetic
and moisture integrity of the building fabric
energy that hydro-electric generation harnesses.
E Resistance to Cable entries may reduce the
Water passing across or through a turbine can be
the passage sound-resisting integrity of
of sound the building fabric used to turn a generator and thus produce electricity.
L Conservation The efficiency of the system Given the right location, micro-hydro-electric is the
of fuel and and the building most constant and reliable source of all the micro-
power generation technologies and is the most likely of the
P Electrical Installation of wiring and technologies to meet all of the energy needs of the
safety components consumer.
As with the other micro-generation technologies, there
Other regulatory requirements are two possible system arrangements for micro-hydro
applicable for micro-wind systems schemes: on-grid and off-grid systems.
l For on-grid systems, the requirements of the
Distribution Network Operator (DNO) will apply. Working principles
l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations will apply to Whilst it is possible to place generators directly into
the installation of micro-wind turbines. the water stream, it is more likely that the water will
be diverted from the main stream or river, through the
ACTIVITY turbine, and back into the stream or river at a lower
What is meant by a ‘feed-in tariff’? level. Apart from the work involved with the turbines
and generators, there is also a large amount of civil
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engineering and construction work to be carried out to Head
route the water to where it is needed. The head is the vertical height difference between the
The main components of the water course construction proposed inlet position and the proposed outlet. This
are: measurement is known as ‘gross head’.
l intake – the point where a portion of the river’s Head height is generally classified as:
water is diverted from the main stream l low head – below 10 m
l the canal that connects the intake to the forebay l medium head – 10–50 m
l the forebay, which holds a reservoir of water that l high head – above 50 m.
ensures that the penstock is pressurised at all times
and allows surges in demand to be catered for There is no absolute definition for each classification.
l the penstock, which is pipework taking water from
The Environment Agency, for example, classifies low
the forebay to the turbines head as below 4 m. Some manufacturers specify high
l the powerhouse, which is the building housing the
head as above 300 m.
turbine and the generator
Net head
l the tailrace, which is the outlet that takes the water
exiting the turbines and returns it to the main This is used in calculations of potential power
stream of the river. generation and takes into account losses due to friction,
as the water passes through the penstock.
See Figure 6.46.
Flow
This is the amount of water flowing through the water
course and is measured in cubic metres per second (m3/s).
Intake
Canal
Forebay
Penstock
Head
Powerhouse
Tailrace
Figure 6.46 The component parts of a micro-hydro system Flow
INDUSTRY TIP
The idea of water turbines sounds great but of course
few people live near a water course that is suitable for
this application. PV and solar thermal systems are more
adaptable for different locations.
To ascertain the suitability of the water source for
hydro-electric generation, it is necessary to consider
the head and the flow of the water source. Figure 6.47 The meanings of ‘head’ and ‘flow’
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Turbines
There are many different types of turbine but they fall
into two primary design groups, each of which is better
suited to a particular type of water supply.
Impulse turbine
In an impulse turbine, the turbine wheel or runner
operates in air, with water jets driving the runner. The
water from the penstock is focused on the blades
by means of a nozzle. The velocity of the water is
increased but the water pressure remains the same
so there is no requirement to enclose the runner in a
pressure casing. Impulse turbines are used with high- Figure 6.49 Pelton turbine
head water sources.
Turgo
This is similar to the Pelton but the water jet is
designed to hit the runner at an angle and from one
side of the turbine. The water enters at one side of
the runner and exits at the other, allowing the Turgo
turbine to be smaller than the Pelton for the same
power output. This type of turbine is used with water
sources with medium or high heads of water.
Figure 6.48 Impulse turbine
Examples of impulse turbines are described below.
Pelton
This consists of a wheel with bucket-type vanes set
around the rim. The water jet hits the vane and turns
the runner. The water gives up most of its energy and Figure 6.50 Turgo turbine
falls into a discharge channel below. A multi-jet Pelton
turbine is also available. This type of turbine is used Cross-flow or Banki
with water sources with medium or high heads of With this type of turbine the runner consists of two
water. end-plates with slats, set at an angle, joining the two
discs, much like a water wheel. Water passes through
the slats, turning the runner and then exiting from
below. This type of turbine is used with water sources
with low or medium heads of water.
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Kaplan (propeller)
This works like a boat propeller in reverse. Water
passing the angled blades turns the runner. This type
of turbine is used with water sources with low heads of
water.
Figure 6.51 Cross-flow or Banki turbine
Reaction turbine
In the reaction turbine, the runners are fully immersed
in water and are enclosed in a pressure casing. Water Figure 6.53 Kaplan or propeller turbine
passes through the turbine, causing the runner blades
to turn or react. Reverse Archimedes’ screw
The Archimedes’ screw consists of a helical screw
thread, which was originally designed so that turning
the screw – usually by hand – would draw water up
the thread to a higher level. In the case of hydro-
electric turbines, water flows down the screw, hence
reverse, turning the screw, which is connected to the
generator. This type of turbine is particularly suited
to low-head operations but its major feature is that,
due to its design, it is ‘fish-friendly’ and fish are able
to pass through it, so it may be the only option if a
hydro-electric generator is to be fitted on a river that is
environmentally sensitive.
Figure 6.52 Reaction turbine
Examples of reaction turbines are described below.
Francis wheel
Water enters the turbine housing and passes through
the runner, causing it to turn. This type of turbine is
used with water sources with low heads of water.
Figure 6.54 Reverse Archimedes’ screw
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Location building requirements Compliance with Building
When considering the installation of a micro-hydro Regulations
turbine, the following location or building requirements The regulations outlined in Table 6.15 will apply.
should be taken into account.
Table 6.15 Building Regulations applicable for micro-hydro-
l The location will require a suitable water source
electric systems
with:
l a minimum head of 1.5 m Building Title Relevance
l a minimum flow rate of 100 litres/second. Regulation
A Structure If any part of the system is
The water source should not be subject to seasonal housed in or connected to
variation that will take the water supply outside of the the building, then structural
above parameters. considerations will need to
be taken into account
l The location has to be suitable to allow
construction of: B Fire safety Where cables pass through
the building fabric they may
l the water inlet
reduce the fire-resisting
l the turbine/generator building properties of the building
l the water outlet or tailrace. fabric
C Resistance to Where cables pass through
Planning permission contaminants the building fabric they
and moisture may reduce the moisture-
Planning permission will be required. resisting properties of the
building fabric
A micro-hydro scheme will have an impact on:
E Resistance to Where cables pass through
l the landscape and visual amenity
the passage the building fabric they may
l nature conservation of sound reduce the sound-resisting
l the water regime. properties of the building
fabric
The planning application will need to be accompanied
P Electrical Installation of components
by an environmental statement detailing any safety and cables
environmental impact and what measures will be
taken to minimise these. The environmental statement
typically covers:
Other regulatory requirements
l flora and fauna
applicable for micro-hydro-electric
l noise levels systems
l traffic l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations
l land use l G83 requirements for grid-tied systems
l archaeology l Microgeneration Certification Scheme requirements
l recreation l Environment Agency requirements
l landscape
In England and Wales, all waterways of any size are
l air and water quality.
controlled by the Environment Agency. To remove
water from these waterways, even though it may be
returned – as in the case of a hydro-electric system –
will usually require permission and a licence.
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There are three types of licence that may apply to a l A feed-in tariff is available.
hydro-electric system. l There is a reasonable payback period.
l An abstraction licence will be required if water l It is an excellent system where no mains electricity
is diverted away from the main water course. exists.
The major concern will be the impact that the l It is not dependent on weather conditions or
project has on fish migration, as the majority of building orientation.
turbines are not fish-friendly. This requirement may Disadvantages include the following:
affect the choice of turbine. It may mean that fish l It requires a high head or fast flow of water on the
screens are required over water inlets or, where the property.
turbine is in the main channel of water, a fish pass l It requires planning permission, which can be
around the turbine may need to be constructed. onerous.
l An impoundment licence – an impoundment is any
l Environment Agency permission is required for
construction that changes the flow of water, so if water extraction.
changes or additions are made to sluices, weirs, etc l It may require strengthening of the grid for grid-tied
that control the flow within the main stream of systems.
water, an impoundment licence will be required. l Initial costs are high.
l A land drainage licence will be required for any
changes made to the main channel of water.
An Environment Site Audit (ESA) will be required as SUMMARY
part of the initial assessment process. The ESA covers:
l water resources
With depleting fossil fuel resources and pressure being
l conservation
put on households to reduce their carbon footprint,
l chemical and physical water quality
plumbers have a vital role to play. It is vital that
l biological water quality
you are knowledgeable and up-to-date with current
l fisheries
technologies so you are able to offer a customer sound
l managing flood risk
advice and successfully install their system. You will
l navigation of the waterway.
never be an expert in every renewable technology, but
being aware of each technology and being a specialist
in one or two means that you play an important
INDUSTRY TIP part in this conservation drive being implemented by
Micro-hydro systems are no good on rivers that suffer governments all over the world. This is only going to be
seasonal droughts or are subject to winter flooding or a growing area for plumbers to be trained in.
freezing, unless preventative measures are taken to protect
the generator and control gear.
Benefits and limitations of micro-
hydro-electric systems
Advantages of micro-hydro-electric systems include
the following:
l There are no on-site carbon emissions.
l Large amounts of electricity are output, usually
more than required for a single dwelling. The surplus
can be sold.
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
Test your knowledge
1 A system that uses a fluid to capture the heat 7 Which one of the following is NOT a style of
from the Sun is known as: pipework loop for a ground source heat pump?
a Photovoltaic a Vertical loop c Slinky
b Solar voltaic b Horizontal loop d Rounded loop
c Solar thermal 8 If you work on refrigeration pipework, what
d Solar thermistic regulation must be followed?
2 What is a buffer tank is used for? a F Gas Regulations
a Holding water pressure until demand is b H Gas Regulations
placed in the system c B Gas Regulations
b Holding hot water until there is a demand d M Gas Regulations
c Holding glycol to prevent corrosion 9 Prior to installing a solar thermal system on a
d Holding cold water to replace demanded hot roof line, which one of the following is NOT a
water location consideration that must be considered?
3 Which of the following is a limitation of a a Orientation of collectors
ground source heat pump? b Tilt of collectors
a Can only be used on mains water c Style of the roof tiles
b Only be used on a bungalow d Suitability of structure
c Has potential large land area requirements 10 Which one of the following can grey water be
d Needs to be installed at least 500 m away used for?
from a water source a Food preparation
4 Which one of the following is a benefit of an b Cold water supply to a bath
ASHP? c Hospital cleaning
a Cheap to install d Washing clothes (after additional processes)
b High efficiency 11 Before any micro-renewable and water
c No noise conservation technology is installed, what must
d No restrictions on location be applied for from the local authority?
5 The air source heat pump works on the a Planning permission
principle of: b The Building Control officer to visit the site
a Cold heat change c Detailed plans to be drawn up
b Electromagnetic induction d Recommendations on positioning the
c The refrigeration cycle technology
d The Otto cycle 12 Which Approved Document for England and
Wales covers the ‘Resistance to the passage of
6 Which of the following areas CANNOT be
sound’?
supplied by harvested rainwater?
a K
a Flushing toilets
b E
b Food preparation
c M
c Garden watering
d D
d Supplying washing machines
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13 Which of the following would be a crucial 18 Which item is a central component of a micro-
component in a solar thermal installation? CHP boiler?
a Condenser a Stirling engine
b Ground loop b Compressor
c Water filter c Evaporator
d Evacuated tube d Flat plate collector
14 Which Building Regulation must be complied 19 Approximately what percentage of used water
with when installing a solar PV system? within a domestic property is used to flush
a K toilets and could be saved if a rainwater
harvesting system were installed?
b D
a 12%
c L
b 17%
d M
c 28%
15 Which phrase is correct in relation to a heat
source (air or ground) installation? d 33%
a The smaller the temperature difference 20 Which of the following fuels is carbon neutral?
between the refrigerant and the heat source, a Natural gas
the greater the efficiency b Peat
b The larger the temperature difference c Oil seed rape
between the refrigerant and the heat source,
d Coal
the greater the efficiency
21 Why is it important to have a high coefficient of
c The smaller the temperature difference
performance?
between the refrigerant and the heat source,
22 List and outline the Building Regulations that a
the lower the efficiency
grey water system comes under.
d The larger the temperature difference
between the refrigerant and the heat source, Regulation Title Relevance
the lower the efficiency
16 When installing an air source heat pump, what
item can store additional heat until required by
the system?
a Hot water cylinder
b Expansion vessel
c Accumulator
d Condenser
23 Describe why a twin coil cylinder should be
17 Why is the net result of a biomass system used on a solar thermal system.
‘carbon neutral’?
24 Describe the working principle of a solar
a It does not release any carbon dioxide when thermal collector.
burnt
25 Outline why Building Regulations Part E is
b The carbon dioxide that is produced is important to consider when installing an ASHP.
retained within the system
c The biomass material absorbs carbon dioxide
when it grows
d The carbon (ash) left over is put back into
the ground
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Chapter 6 Advanced environmental technology systems
26 Complete the table below of the Building Heating system
Regulations that need to be followed for the
different environmental technologies.
Regulation for
England and Wales Content
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
Outside air
27 Describe why ‘shading’ is a consideration when
29 State four benefits and four limitations for a
designing a solar system.
grey water reuse system.
28 Complete the following diagram for the
Answers can be found online at
refrigeration process, identifying the following
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
parts:
● Expansion valve
● Compressor
● Condenser
● Evaporator
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CHAPTER 7
DOMESTIC FUEL SYSTEMS
For hundreds of years humans relied on solid fuel in reserves set to last only 50 years and much of the
the form of wood and coal to heat their homes. Then, coal left below the Earth’s surface unreachable, we
in the 1850s, gas in the form of coal gas was used have to look for alternative forms of energy for our
to heat and light dwellings and factories. This was heat and light.
followed soon after by oil.
This chapter will investigate the types of fuels used
These fuels, coal, gas and oil, are known as in the appliances we install and identify the reasons
hydrocarbons and, because of the way they were that certain fuels are chosen. We will also take a look
formed millions of years ago, they are very carbon at how these fuels are supplied and stored, and the
rich. When they are combusted, they produce physics of the combustion of fuels. Finally, we will
copious amounts of CO2 which has systematically study the construction of flues and chimneys and how
altered the Earth’s climate and this has led to the we test them to ensure the safety of the customer.
phenomenon known as global warming.
The learning outcomes for this chapter are:
Now, less than 300 years later, hydrocarbon fuels are l factors affecting fuel selection
all but depleted and the damage to the climate they l combustion processes of fuel supply systems
have caused practically irreparable. With gas and oil l principles of chimney/flue systems.
1 FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL SELECTION
The heating appliances that we install are fuelled by hydrocarbon fuel on Earth. It is colourless and
a selection of energy sources, some that have been odourless in its purest form and, when it is combusted,
around for many years and some that are relatively it releases a vast amount of energy with fewer
new technology. In this first section, we will investigate emissions than many other common fossil fuels.
these fuels both old and new. We will learn where they Natural gas is naturally occurring and is usually
come from and the consequences of using them. found during the extraction of oil from deep below
the Earth’s surface but it can also be found near coal
Identify the types of fuels formations and seams.
used in appliances q Table 7.1 The composition of gas
There are five categories of fuels:
Gas Chemical symbol Percentage (%)
l natural gas
Methane CH4 70–90
l liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
Ethane C2H6 0–5
l oil
Propane C3H8 0–20
l solid fuel
l sustainable, low carbon fuels.
Butane C4H10 0–5
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0–5
Natural gas Nitrogen N2 0–5
Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon Carbon dioxide CO2 0–8
gases and is probably the most widely used Water vapour H2O
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Natural gas is composed primarily of five combustible l butane – four atoms of carbon and 10 atoms of
gases, two inert gases and water vapour. hydrogen (C4H10)
l iso-butane is butane that has the same elements,
The distinctive ‘rotten eggs’ smell that natural gas has but these are connected in a slightly different way.
is added to the gas when it is cleaned of the impurities
q Table 7.2 The composition of LPG fuels
and naphtha it contains at the refinery. The smell is
a chemical called mercaptan and is added to aid the LPG attribute Propane Butane
detection of gas leaks. Chemical formula C3H8 C4H10
Natural gas is lighter than air, having a specific gravity Energy content: MJ/m3 95.8 111.4
of 0.6–0.8. Energy content: MJ/kg 49.58 47.39
Boiling temp: Cº −42 −4
Natural gas is available in most cities, towns and
Pressure @ 21ºC: kPa 858.7 215.1
villages through a national grid of underground pipes,
with only the most isolated of places not connected to Flame temp: Cº 1967 1970
the grid. Gas volume: m3/kg 0.540 0.405
Relative density: H2O 0.51 0.58
The calorific value (CV) of gas is usually 37.8–43 MJ/m3
Relative density: air 1.53 2.00
depending on where the gas was extracted from.
L per kg 1.96 1.724
Most natural gas used in the UK comes from the North kg per L 0.51 0.58
Sea, but other sources include Russia and the Middle Specific gravity @ 25ºC 1.55 2.07
East. Density @ 15ºC: kg/m3 1.899 2.544
KEY TERMS
Both of these compounds are heavier than air in
Naphtha: a waxy oil deposit that is present in
their gaseous form, with propane having a specific
natural gas in its unrefined state. It is removed
and later reused in other products such as gravity of 1.5 and butane having a specific gravity
cosmetics. of 2.0. In liquid form both are thinner than water,
Calorific value: the amount of energy stored in butane having a relative density of 0.58 and
the gas in its uncombusted state. It is the amount propane, 0.51.
of energy released when the gas is combusted.
It is measured in megajoules per cubic metre When LPG gas is subjected to high pressure, it turns
or MJ/m3. into a liquid, but it also takes up less space than
the gas. One litre of LPG in its liquid state makes
274 litres of LPG gas. This means that one cylinder
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) of LPG liquid is equivalent to 274 cylinders of
Liquid petroleum gas, like natural gas, is a fossil LPG gas.
hydrocarbon fuel that is closely linked to oil. About
two thirds of all LPG used is extracted directly from oil
wells; the rest is extracted during the manufacture of
petroleum from crude oil. 274 litres
LPG gas
There are many types of LPG but, generally, only two
types of LPG are used commercially. These are propane
and butane. These gases share common elements but
in different quantities and these are reflected in their 1 litre
LPG liquid
chemical symbols:
p Figure 7.1 Liquid to gas ratio
l propane – three atoms of carbon and eight atoms of
hydrogen (C3H8)
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q Table 7.3 The uses of LPG fuels
Compound Uses
Butane Used for portable supplies, such as camping
(C4H10) equipment, boats and barbecues. Not much
use for plumbing or heating installation as it
boils (turns from a liquid to a gas) at −4 °C.
Propane Has a very low boiling point at −42 °C.
(C3H8) Can be used in domestic situations as an
alternative to natural gas where the mains
gas supply is not available. Many appliances
are available for use with propane, including
boilers, cookers, fires and water heaters.
Iso-butane Used as a refrigerant in domestic p Figure 7.2 A domestic kerosene oil tank for oil fired heating
(C4H10) refrigerators and fridge/freezers.
Environmentally, LPG is relatively clean when compared Solid fuel (coal, coke and peat)
to other fuels such as coal or oil, creating far less air
There are three main types of solid fuel. These are:
pollution in the form of soot and carbon particulates,
l coal
sulphur and carbon dioxide and, therefore, adds less to
l coke
global warming than might be realised.
l peat.
Cost, however, is an issue, since LPG is much more
expensive than conventional natural gas. Coal
This is a fossil fuel created from the remains of plants
Fuel oil (kerosene grade C2, 28 that lived and died between 100 and 400 million years
second viscosity oil to BS 2869:2017) ago when large areas of the Earth were covered with
A simple definition for fuel oil is a liquid by-product of huge swamps and forest bogs.
crude oil, which is produced during petroleum refining.
The energy that we get from coal comes from the
There are two main categories under which it is classified.
energy that the plants absorbed from the Sun millions
One is distillate oils, such as diesel fuel, and the others
of years ago. The process is called photosynthesis.
are residual oils, which includes heating kerosene. It is
When plants die, this stored energy is usually released
distillate fuel oil that is generally used for home heating.
during the decaying process, but when coal is formed
Around 95 per cent of domestic boilers burning fuel the process is interrupted preventing the release of the
oil in domestic properties use kerosene, which is also trapped solar energy.
known generically as C2 grade 28 second viscosity oil.
As the Earth’s climate evolved and the vegetation died,
This is the preferred oil fuel grade for domestic heating,
a thick layer of rotting vegetation built up that was
due to its clean combustion. Modern oil central heating
covered with water, silt and mud, stopping the decaying
boilers only require a single annual service, if being used
process. The weight of the water and the top layer
with an atomising pressure jet burner. It is the only oil
of mud compressed the partially decayed vegetation
grade that can be used with balanced or low-level flues.
under heat and pressure, squeezing out the remaining
Kerosene has very good cold weather characteristics oxygen leaving rich hydrocarbon deposits. What once
and remains fluid beyond minus 40 °C although it does had been plants gradually fossilised into a combustible
tend to thicken slightly during extremely cold weather. carbon-rich rock we call coal.
Kerosene is a high carbon fuel and is clear or very pale
Types of coal
yellow in colour. Newer boilers have a label inside
the casing with information on nozzle size and pump Coal is classified into four main types, depending on
pressure that show that the boiler has been set up to the amount of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present.
use kerosene. It may also reference the British Standard The higher the carbon content, the more energy the
for kerosene BS 2869 grade C2. coal contains.
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q Table 7.4 The different types of commercially available coal
Coal type Heat content Carbon Description
(kWh/Kg) content
(%)
Lignite 2.2–5.5 25–35 The lowest type of coal, lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content. Most
lignite is used to produce electricity.
Sub-bituminous 5.5–8.3 35–45 Typically contains less heating value than bituminous coal but more moisture.
Bituminous 7–10 45–86 Formed by added heat and pressure on lignite. Made of many tiny layers,
bituminous coal looks smooth and sometimes shiny. It has two to three times
the heating value of lignite. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and
is an important fuel for the steel and iron industries.
Anthracite 10 86–97 Created where additional pressure combined with very high temperature inside
the Earth. It is deep black and looks almost metallic due to its glossy surface.
Coal is still used for central heating boilers both domestic absence of oxygen, in boggy waterlogged ground. This
and industrial and for steam and electricity generation. encourages the growth of moss which forms the basis
of the peat. As the plants die, they do not decompose.
Instead, the organic material slowly accumulates as peat
because of the lack of oxygen in the bog. Peat is a poor-
quality fossil fuel which is easily cut and dried.
Peat has a high carbon content, but much less than coal,
with large amounts of ash produced during combustion.
It is used in many domestic fires, room heaters and
peat-burning stoves.
Sustainable, low-carbon fuels
Low carbon can be classified as fuels made from
renewable sources:
p Figure 7.3 Open cast coal mine l Solar thermal – solar thermal technology utilises
the heat from the Sun to generate domestic hot
Coke water supply to offset the water heating demand
Coke is produced by heating coal in coke ovens to from other sources such as electricity or gas.
around 1000 °C. During this process, the coal gives off l Solid fuel (biomass) – the term biomass can be used
methane gas and coal tar, both of which can be cleaned to describe many different types of solid and liquid
and reused. Coke burns cleanly and without a flame fuels. It is defined as any plant or animal matter used
and gives out a lot of heat but it has to be mixed with directly as a fuel or that has been converted into
coal as it will not burn by itself. other fuel types before combustion. When used as
a heating fuel, it is generally solid biomass including
Coke is a smokeless fuel that is valued in industry
wood pellets, vegetal waste (including wood waste
because it has a calorific (heat) value higher than any
and crops used for energy production), animal
form of natural coal. It is widely used in steel making
materials/wastes and other solid biomass.
and in certain chemical processes but can also be used
l Heat pumps – a heat pump is an electrical device
in many domestic boilers and room heaters.
with reversible heating and cooling capability.
Peat It extracts heat from one medium at a low
temperature (the source of heat) and transfers it to
Peat is an organic material that forms over hundreds of
another at a high temperature (called the heat sink),
thousands of years from the decay of plant material in the
cooling the first and warming the second. They
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work in the same way as a refrigerator, moving heat l Combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP) – very
from one place to another. Heat pumps can provide similar to CHP (see above), combined cooling, heat and
space heating, cooling, water heating and air heat power uses the excess heat from electricity generation
recovery. There are several different types: to achieve additional building heating or cooling.
l ground source heat pumps l District heating – this uses the principle of CHP
l air source heat pumps to supply low-carbon, high-efficiency heat to high-
l water source heat pumps density properties, businesses and public buildings. This
l geo-thermal heat pumps. system is used extensively in mainland Europe to good
l Combined heat and power (CHP) – combined heat effect. In the UK, there are more than 17,000 district
and power is a plant where electricity is generated heating systems installed, mainly in city areas. District
and the excess heat generated is used for heating. heating relies on high efficiency and areas with a large
It is used primarily for district heating systems, but and dense population. There is one highly efficient
micro-CHP has also been developed for domestic heat source: heat from this source is transferred
properties. through plate heat exchangers into the primary pipe
Hot water
storage
cylinder
Secondary heat
exchanger Hot water outlet
Expansion
Pressure vessel Expansion
Boiler relief vessel Pressure
relief Solar collector
Control system
(System fill points
omitted for clarity)
Mains cold inlet Primary heat exchanger Circulating pump
p Figure 7.4 Solar thermal system
Vapour Vapour
Compressor
Evaporator Fan Condenser
Liquid & vapour Liquid
Expansion valve
p Figure 7.5 Biomass wood pellets p Figure 7.6 Heat pump theory
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
network, which is highly insulated and transports the
heat to individual properties. Each property has its INDUSTRY TIP
own heat interface unit (HIU). This interface becomes
Look at the following clip to learn more: www.youtube.com/
the ‘boiler’ for each property, which allows the heat to
watch?v=MhJVsSkxg7s
enter the systems within the property.
Services Domestic
distribution properties Flow Return
Stack
Electrical distribution station
Heat exchanger
Power supply
Control
panel
Thermal
store
Gas
turbine
Transformer
Generator
Natural gas supply
p Figure 7.7 A CHP system
Factors that affect the l Appliance type – the type of fuel available will
dictate the type of appliance used and vice-versa.
selection of fuels Some appliances may be duel-fuel types, where two
There are many reasons why the fuels used in domestic types of fuel may be used in the same appliance. It
appliances are chosen: must be remembered that gas appliances must be
l Availability – the availability of fuels plays a big purchased in line with gas type available. A natural
part when choosing the right fuel for an installation. gas appliance CANNOT be used on an LPG supply.
For example, for most of the UK, natural gas is Similarly, a coal fired boiler will have solid fuels
available piped to the home with no interruption recommended by the manufacturer and must not
of supply. However, in many rural areas, piped gas be used with other types of solid fuel.
supply is many miles away. In this instance, like l Fuel storage requirements – with exception of
other fuels such as coal and oil, gas is delivered natural gas, all fuels require storage space within
by suppliers and the customer is dependent on a the boundary of the property. With solid fuels and
regular fuel delivery. Whilst in most cases this does biomass, these can take up considerable space.
not pose a problem, in times of inclement weather, Biomass also needs to be kept reasonably dry.
deliveries may be interrupted or cancelled, leaving Where oil and LPG are concerned, space may not
the customer with no means of heat or cooking. be the issue. However, safe distances from the
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property to store the fuel may be dictated either by
legislation or manufacturer’s instructions. INDUSTRY TIP
l Environmental considerations – most fuels
The Department for the Environment and Rural Affairs
used in hot water and heating systems directly or
website can be accessed by the following link: www.gov.
indirectly create waste products that are harmful to uk/government/organisations/department-for-environment-
the atmosphere. These may be by direct pollution, food-rural-affairs
such as soot and sulphur emissions from coal and
oil combustion, or saturation of the atmosphere by
carbon dioxide (CO2). Some gases released by fossil
fuel combustion, such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
Sources of information for
extremely toxic in large quantities. fuel supply installation
With solid fuels, there is an added environmental Boilers, cookers, room heaters and fires require a supply
problem in the form of ash and clinker left over of fuel, whether that fuel is piped directly to the door
from the combustion process that requires careful or delivered by a tanker. Each fuel has specific supply
consideration and disposal. Consultation and advice and storage requirements that must comply with
should be sought from the fuel supplier and local certain documents:
authority as to the recommended disposal methods. l Regulations – there are certain regulations that
l Smoke control legislation – under the Clean Air fuel supply systems must comply with to maintain
Act of 1993, local authorities may declare that the safety of the property where the appliances are
a district is a smoke control area. It is an offence installed and the safety of the building occupants.
under this Act to emit smoke from a chimney from Solid fuel and oil systems such as coal, coke, biomass
a boiler or furnace located within an area designated and heating oils are simple to understand, since
a smoke control area. In Greater London, this act the fuel is readily visible. However, gaseous fuel
is used to control the emissions, not just from oil systems such as those for natural gas and LPG tend
and solid fuel boilers but also biomass appliances to be much more stringent, since these fuels are at
that may also emit other noxious fumes, fly ash pressure and cannot be seen. Regulations include:
particulates and low levels of ozone gas. l The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
In some instances, certain appliances and smokeless 1998
type fuels may be exempt from the Clean Air Act. l Approved Document J of the Building
In these circumstances, advice should be sought Regulations – Combustion appliances and fuel
from the Department for the Environment and storage systems (2010 edition incorporating
Rural Affairs (DEFRA). 2010 and 2013 amendments)
l Cost – this is a major factor when choosing the l BS 7671 The IET Wiring Regulations.
right fuel. Heating oil prices fluctuate widely, l British Standards – there are many British
depending on the price of crude oil, whilst LPG Standards and European Standards that give
prices remain consistently high. By far the cheapest recommendations when installing fuel systems.
of the fossil fuels is natural gas. There is a comprehensive list of British Standards in
l Client preference – in towns and cities, the choice of Approved Document J of the Building Regulations –
fuel for heating appliances is limited. Natural gas is the Combustion appliances and fuel storage systems.
preferred fuel chosen by customers for both heating l Manufacturers’ instructions – manufacturers of
and cooking appliances simply because it is readily appliances and components will often give advice
available. Solid fuel, in the form of smokeless fuel, about the installation of the fuel system to the
is still used in some areas. In rural settings, heating appliance. These may sometimes conflict with the
oil is preferred. LPG is expensive, and this is often regulations and British Standards. In this instance, the
the reason that this fuel is rejected. Many new build manufacturer’s instructions must always be followed.
properties are actively seeking greener alternatives to l Guidance notes – guidance notes are produced by
fossil fuels, with heat pumps and electric boilers being regulatory bodies and professional associations to
chosen because of their very low carbon emissions.
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
assist in the compliance of the regulations. Many voluntary, but being a member is considered good
guidance notes are produced by the Health and practice. OFTEC registration means that installers
Safety Executive. They should be read in conjunction are able to self-certify installations without the
with the regulations and manufacturer’s instructions. need for local authority intervention and inspection.
OFTEC also administer recognised and authorised
KEY POINT training courses for installers.
There is a comprehensive list of British Standards l HETAS – this is the official body that is recognised
in Approved Document J of the Building by the UK Government for approving solid fuel
Regulations – Combustion appliances and fuel and biomass domestic heating systems, fuels and
storage systems. appliances. HETAS also manage a register of approved,
competent installers and servicing businesses and
oversee HETAS registered training courses.
Regulatory bodies that
govern the installation of INDUSTRY TIP
fuel systems More information can be found at:
Before we investigate the regulatory bodies concerned www.gassaferegister.co.uk
with the installation of fuel systems and appliances, we www.oftec.co.uk/technicians/industry-news-and-training/
must first understand what a regulatory body is. training-for-heating-technicians
A regulatory body is an organisation set up by the www.hetas.co.uk/professionals/training-courses
Government to monitor, control and guide various
sectors within industry. Its aims are to protect
consumers and to educate and guide installers in
the ways of good practice. Occasionally, it may be
necessary for a regulatory body to prosecute, in the
interests of public safety, those installers who refuse to
comply with regulations. In the plumbing and heating
industry, it is compulsory to belong to the regulatory
bodies if you engage in the installation of either gas,
oil or solid fuel appliance and fuel supply systems.
KEY TERM
Regulatory body: an organisation set up by the p Figure 7.8 OFTEC logo
Government to monitor, control and guide various
sectors within industry.
In the plumbing and heating industry, there are three
regulatory bodies:
l Gas Safe – Gas Safe is the UK registration body
for the installation, maintenance and repair of gas
installations and appliances. By law, ALL operatives
engaging in domestic natural gas and LPG installations
MUST be registered with Gas Safe and must hold
various qualifications within the gas industry.
l OFTEC – OFTEC is the registration body for the p Figure 7.9 HETAS logo
installation and maintenance of oil fired heating
appliances and fuel systems. Registration is
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Storage requirements Storing fuel oil
for fuels The following information is intended as a general
guide as the regulations regarding oil storage may vary
In this section, we will investigate the methods of safely slightly, depending on the location of the installation.
storing:
l coal l LPG Oil storage tank specifications
l oil l biomass.
Generally, oil storage tanks up to 3500 litres capacity,
supplying oil to a single domestic property, can be
Storing coal made of either plastic or steel. The actual size for
The Solid Fuel Association recommend that coal should be any given installation will depend on the individual
stored outside of any dwelling in a purpose made bunker requirements. Any tank installed should conform to the
to protect the fuel from damage. There are a number of following specifications:
recommendations of how coal should be stored: l OFS T100 for plastic storage tanks
l Coal may be stored inside or outside the property. l OFS T200 for steel storage tanks
l Coal should be covered to reduce the contaminants l Safety and environmental standards for fuel storage
that can enter the fuel. sites (HSE).
l A smooth, hard floor is important as it allows easy
shovelling of the fuel. Oil tanks should be inspected annually as part of the
l If the fuel is stored in a coal bunker, a slight slope
heating system regular servicing. Oil tanks have a
on the base of a coal bunker prevents water from useful working life of around 20 years and using a tank
collecting inside the bunker. Keeping the fuel dry beyond this time carries the risk of failure.
makes it easier to combust.
Protection of the environment
l The area around the coal bunker should be well lit to
ensure safe bagging and shovelling. Some tank installations require a secondary
l Good ventilation of the bunker helps to prevent a
containment system, known as a bund, to counteract
build of moisture, allowing the fuel to stay dry. the risk of pollution from oil spillage. This may be
achieved by using an integrally bunded oil tank with
secondary oil containment built in or building an
INDUSTRY TIP oil impermeable containment wall around the tank
installation. These are generally required where the
Unlike other fuel sources, there are no special rules,
regulations or restrictions when it comes to storing fuel, other tank is close to a river or water source. The bund must
than storing it away from the heating appliance or boiler. be capable of holding 110 per cent of the oil tank
Over-fill preventation
Contents dial Anti-siphon valve
device
Vent
Oil tank sloping Gate valve
towards drain point
Non-return valve
Fill point
Drain/sludge
Secondary
point
containment (bund)
rendered with oil-
resistant sealant
p Figure 7.10 An oil tank with an oil proof bund wall
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
contents. Usually, a standard risk assessment is required
by a registered oil installer to ascertain if a bunded
installation is required.
Garden shed
Contents gauge
Tank and bund overfill
Anti- siphon valve
alarm probes Fill point
Vent 1.8 m
Boundary of
property
1.8 m
Dwelling
760 mm
Oil storage tank
Terminal of an
oil fired appliance
Bund or secondary
containment
Access for oil tanker
p Figure 7.12 Siting oil tanks
Internal tank
Storage of liquid petroleum gas
p Figure 7.11 Secondary containment tank
It should be remembered that LPG is heavier than air
and will ‘search’ for the lowest position if a leak occurs
The location of fuel oil tanks and, although LPG has a distinctive smell, this will not
The siting of oil tanks must comply with fire separation be apparent until a person is at the same level as the
distances to protect the fuel oil from a fire or heat low-lying gas.
source that may occur within the building itself. It is
very unlikely that any fire would occur within the tank KEY POINT
itself. The regulations state that fuel oil tanks should Above all else, LPG is extremely flammable and
be sited: explosive, and the siting of any LPG storage tanks
l 1.8 m from non-fire rated eaves of a building must comply with certain recommendations and
l 1.8 m from a non-fire rated building or structure any gas installation is subject to the Gas Safety
such as a garden shed (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998.
l 1.8 m from openings such as doors or windows in a
fire rated building or structure such as a brick-built
house or garage Siting the LPG storage tank
l 1.8 m from oil fired appliance flue terminals LPG storage tanks can either be sited above or below
l 760 mm from a non-fire rated boundary such as a ground. Below-ground tanks are subject to ground
wooden boundary fence conditions and the proximity of the water table.
l 600 mm from any trellis or foliage that does not According to Health and Safety Executive
form part of the boundary. recommendations, there should be a minimum
If any of these requirements cannot be met, then a fire separation distance between the LPG storage tank and
protection barrier with at least a 30-minute fire rating any building, boundary line or fixed source of ignition.
must be provided. A minimum separation space of These distances are shown in the table below. There
100 mm is required between the tank and any fire- should be no drains or gullies in the vicinity of the tank,
resistant barrier unless the tank manufacturer specifies unless those drains are protected by a water trap to
a larger distance. prevent the gas from entering the drainage system.
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q Table 7.5 The distances from buildings and structures for LPG storage tanks
Maximum LPG capacity Minimum separation distances
Of any single vessel in a group Of all vessels in a group
LPG capacity Typical water capacity LPG capacity From buildings, boundary, property line Between
(tonnes) (litres) (tonnes) or fixed source of ignition vessels (m)
Without fire wall (m) With a fire wall (m)
0.05 to 0.25 150 to 500 0.8 2.5 0.3 1
> 0.25 to 1.1 > 500 to 2500 3.5 3 1.5 1
> 1.1 to 4 > 2500 to 9000 12.5 7.5 4 1
Ventilation and conditions around the
LPG storage tank
There should be plenty of room around the tank
to allow good air circulation so that pockets of the
heavier-than-air gas cannot build up around it should a
leak occur. The area should also be kept free of rubbish
and weeds and any grass should be kept short.
Protection against impact
Tanks and their associated pipework should not be
located in areas where motor traffic is likely. However,
if this is unavoidable, then a suitable protection barrier
should be installed in the form of either bollards or
crash barriers. A security fence is not suitable since this
is unlikely to offer the required protection.
KEY POINT Figure 7.13 LPG gas cylinder
Further guidance on location and spacing for
vessels and requirements concerning fire wall
provision reference is available in the Liquid Gas Storage requirements for biomass
UK COP 1 Part 1 and buried vessels Liquid Gas fuels
UK COP 1 Part 4: www.liquidgasuk.org/codes/cops
The storage requirements of the various types of
biomass fuels can influence a client’s decision because
key points, such as site access, space requirements and
The LPG gas cylinder option
even aesthetics of the storage vessel itself need careful
It is often a good idea to start using LPG with a consideration before the installation begins. Storage
LPG cylinder installation until the exact usage of considerations for biomass fuels such as wood chips or
the installation is known. Large bulk storage tank pellets should be considered early on in any biomass
installations only become viable when usage exceeds system design.
2000 litres to 2500 litres per year. The average bulk
storage tank user uses around 2300 litres per year. There are many storage options for biomass and
all of them need to be watertight. Water ingress
An LPG gas cylinder installation typically uses 47 kg can severely affect biomass fuel quality and, as a
propane gas cylinders located at the dwelling in a consequence, the operation of the biomass boiler.
lockable cabinet. This type of cylinder installation Wood pellets, for example, that have a low moisture
usually uses either 2 × 47 kg cylinders or 4 × 47 kg content will expand if they get wet and this can also
cylinders. damage the wood store itself.
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
l Container or hook bin – wood chips can be
delivered in a container, often called a hook bin,
where the fuel is delivered in a container that forms
the fuel storage, which connects directly to the
fuel extraction system. However, these are quite
expensive because at least two bins are required.
l Covered shed – these are relatively cheap and easy
to install. Fuel delivery is quite straightforward. For
large stores, the use of manual handling equipment,
such as a front-end loader or mechanical grab, is
recommended.
l Hoppers – the hopper is a chute with extra
storage capacity. They are relatively inexpensive to
install. The hopper has a ‘V’-shaped floor, sloped
at approximately 40°. This allows the fuel to fall
directly onto the boiler feed screw located at the
base of the floor.
l Silos – these are purpose-made rigid structures that Figure 7.15 Biomass silo
are relatively inexpensive to install but may require
special delivery equipment to maintain the biomass
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Safety masks should be worn when moving wood
supply.
chips or wood pellets as the dust can pose a health
l Flexible silos – these are prefabricated, collapsible risk. Dust can also pose a significant explosion risk if
structures designed specifically for smaller the area is not ventilated sufficiently.
installations where access may be restricted, such as
in a confined space or a roof space. The fuel delivery
system is usually where the fuel is blown into the
hopper. This system uses two hoses: one to blow in
Considerations that
the fuel and the other to extract any dust. could affect the storage
l Underground bunker – underground bunkers requirements of fuels
are ideal for larger installations with easy access
When considering the type of fuel system to be used
for tipper-truck delivery. The feasibility of an
in a dwelling, there are several factors that need special
underground bunker will depend upon such factors
consideration:
as ground type, water table and cost.
l space for fuel storage
25 mm flat wooden
boards l delivery requirements
l safety
40º Pressure relief angle
l weather conditions
l distribution
l proximity to dwelling.
Space for fuel storage
Space for fuel storage is a major factor when deciding
which fuel system to use. Most fuels require specific
distances in which to site storage vessels, tanks or silos.
This may take the form of environmental concerns, as
with heating oil, or explosion or fire risks, as with LPG.
Archimedes-type screw feed Where biomass is concerned, it may be the sheer mass
Figure 7.14 A biomass hopper floor of the fuel that is problematic.
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Delivery requirements
The transportation and delivery requirements for
domestic fuels differ according to the fuel, as described
below.
l Heating oil – most oil tankers carrying domestic
heating oil carry 45 m of hose. This is suitable for
most installations. However, extra-long hoses can
be requested. Consumers should remember to
measure around any corners or obstacles when
stipulating the oil tank distance from the access
point.
l LPG – LPG bulk deliveries are usually delivered in Figure 7.16 A typical small LPG tanker for domestic deliveries
mini-LPG tankers. These are 2.6 m wide and require
access 2.75 m wide with a minimum access road Safety
width of at least 3 m. It is a requirement that a line
All fuels, by their very nature, are flammable and some
of sight is maintained between the storage vessel
are even explosive. With this in mind, the storage of
and the tanker, with a maximum hose length of
fuels should be considered with care. Here are some
40 m, to ensure the safe delivery of LPG to the bulk
points to consider:
storage tank.
l Confined spaces – solid fuels, such as biomass and
l Coal/smokeless fuels – solid fuels such as coal and
coal, are kept in confined spaces. There are several
smokeless fuels are delivered in sealed 25 kg bags.
problems with this:
Deliveries are arranged as required.
l Fire – although rare, bunker and fuel store fires
l Biomass – in October 2015, rules to support
can occur, especially where the store is directly
sustainable fuels for the domestic Renewable Heat
connected to the boiler room. Generally, biomass
Initiative (RHI) came into effect for all biomass
wood chips are too wet to ignite but if they
heating systems. The domestic RHI scheme aims
begin to de-compost they can self-ignite.
to support homeowners and landlords who have
Liquid fuels, such as kerosene, do not usually
invested in renewable heating technologies. This
combust unless they are either atomised or
includes biomass, heat pumps and solar thermal
vaporised, but they can become dangerous
panels. The idea behind the RHI scheme is to reward
near excess heat because the vaporisation
those people that stick to the RHI rules regarding
process begins at a relatively low temperature of
sustainable supplies of fuel by paying them a tariff
around 65 °C.
per kWh. Payments are made every three months
l Explosion – LPG, because it is heavier than air,
for a period of seven years.
settles at low level. In the event of a leak, the
l Access for biomass fuel deliveries – biomass
build-up of gas may not be noticed, despite the
pellets can be blown up to 30 m via hoses, but
fact that a chemical called mercaptan is added
this distance often causes problems such as
to make the gas detectable by smell.
clogging of the hose and break-up of the fuel. It is
Some fuels, such as coal and biomass, create
recommended that deliveries of biomass should
dust. Excessive dust in the atmosphere can also
be within a 20 m limit of the fuel store. A lorry of
be extremely explosive. A good air-extraction
around 2 m wide will need to be able to gain access
ventilation system is vital in confined spaces.
to the property.
The HSE recommends building in an ‘explosion
relief’ into any storage space used for solid
fuels that create dust. This can be a plywood
panel in a bunker or silo that creates a weak
spot to release the explosive energy. The HSE
produces a fact sheet, HSG103 Safe handling
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
of combustible dust, which is available from its to the fuel bed of the boiler. Wood chip biomass can
website at: www.hse.gov.uk begin to de-compost if it gets too damp and this,
l Carbon monoxide build-up – for any confined paradoxically, can cause the fuel to heat internally
space close to the place of combustion of a and spontaneously combust.
fossil fuel, combustion problems may lead to
a build-up of carbon monoxide (CO), which is KEY POINT
highly toxic. An audible CO alarm installation is It is vital that fuels are kept dry and that they
recommended in fuel storage facilities. are delivered in good condition for optimum
l Slips, trips and falls – fuel stores of all kinds are combustion efficiency to occur.
dangerous places. Build-up or spillages of fuel
create slip, trip and fall hazards. Some hazards
may be limited by fuel store design. However, Distribution
where solid fuel and biomass are concerned, the The distribution of fuels becomes a vital consideration,
fuel storage space height may be high and so especially the further outside a major town or city
safety nets and harnesses should be considered. you live. Natural gas coverage in the UK through the
l Fuel delivery – fuels are delivered to properties by national grid stands at around 7000 km of pipelines, but
either tanker (heating oil, LPG, biomass) or flat-bed there are still many rural areas that are too far away
truck (solid fuels – coal, coke, etc.). Care should be from the grid for a supply to be economically viable. In
exercised while fuel deliveries are taking place. Follow these cases, other fuel supplies have to be considered.
the recommendations of the fuel delivery driver.
By far the most viable fuel in rural areas is domestic
l Personal hygiene – there should be no reason for
heating oil, otherwise known as C2 grade, 28 second
the fuel itself to be handled. However, in the event
viscosity kerosene. Distribution of this still vital fuel is
that contact with the fuel must be made, always
nationwide. However, kerosene poses an environmental
wear appropriate PPE, such as overalls, gloves, hard
risk if leakage occurs, especially where the installation
hat, goggles and respirator (especially in dusty
lies close to a watercourse, river or stream or where the
environments).
water table is high.
Weather conditions LPG distribution is also very comprehensive, with most
The prevailing weather can have a severe effect on areas in the UK reachable by tanker. However, there
the storage of fuels. Bad weather, such as wind, rain, are certain restrictions with LPG that do not exist with
hail and snow, is often a cause for late deliveries and heating oil, such as that the delivery driver must have
even cancellations of fuel deliveries, especially in line of sight to the LPG storage tank at all times during
rural areas. In almost all cases, fuel is delivered by delivery of the liquid gas. LPG is also very expensive as
large tanker or flat-bed vehicles that find it next to a domestic heating fuel.
impossible to negotiate small, narrow roads when Coal and coke solid fuels continue to be readily
the weather conditions are poor. While the weather available all over the UK, although many areas
can be unpredictable in the UK, good planning of fuel now forbid the use of these fuels because of the
deliveries can reduce the impacts of bad weather. environmental pollution they release. If solid fuel is to
Ordering more when severe weather is forecast can be used, then local authority advice should be sought.
often mean the difference between running out of fuel
The use of biomass in rural and suburban areas is
and keeping the heating on.
permitted under the permitted development legislation,
Similarly, bad weather can render some fuels, such as which came into force in 2008. However, some areas,
wood chip and wood pellet biomass, almost unusable. especially suburban districts, may put restrictions on its
Coal and coke too suffer from the negative effect use if they lie within a smoke control zone. Outside of
of excessive rain, whereby the fuel can become too these zones, there are no major restrictions other than
wet to burn effectively. Wood pellets swell from the a requirement not to emit ‘dark smoke’. In most cases,
effects of the rain and these then clog fuel delivery domestic biomass does not fall into this category.
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INDUSTRY TIP
Access the permitted development legislation 2008 at
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/596/contents
N
INDUSTRY TIP
HE
E
YG
AT
Biomass fuel sources are available the length and breadth
of the UK with many companies supplying a wide variety of
OX
biomass pellets and chips, as well as liquid biofuels, such
as biodiesel. A list of local biomass suppliers is available at:
www.hetas.co.uk
FUEL
Proximity to dwelling
Figure 7.17 The fire triangle
The installation of fuel storage and its requirements
with regard to the proximity of the dwelling are
covered elsewhere in this chapter. The main constituents of complete
and incomplete combustion
2 COMBUSTION Combustion can take two forms:
l Complete combustion – complete combustion
PROCESSES OF FUEL occurs when there is enough oxygen for the
maximum heat to be produced during the
SUPPLY SYSTEMS combustion process. Complete combustion of
hydrocarbons produces CO2 and water vapour.
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction in This can be expressed as follows:
which a fuel reacts violently with oxygen to produce
CH4 + 2O2 → 2H2O + CO2, or
heat and light.
hydrocarbon + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide
The combustion processes l Incomplete combustion – incomplete combustion
For the combustion process to take place, there must occurs when there is not enough oxygen present
be fuel, oxygen and ignition present. The fuel can be to allow the combustion process to turn all of the
a solid such as wood, a liquid such as petrol, or a gas carbon present in the gas into CO2. When this
such as propane. Oxygen is known as an oxidiser or occurs, the products of combustion are different
an oxidising agent. To create combustion or fire, we a than those produced for complete combustion:
need third element in the form of heat or an ignition O2 + CH4 → H2O + CO
source. These three elements, fuel, oxygen and ignition
In this instance, there is not enough oxygen (O2) to
combine into what is known as the fire triangle.
allow proper combustion to take place and so carbon
KEY POINT monoxide (CO) is produced.
All three elements, fuel, oxygen and ignition, need
to be in place for combustion to happen. Take any Flame picture
of the three away and combustion will not occur. The flames produced by appliances can be a good
indication of whether complete combustion is taking
place within the appliance and at the burner:
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l Complete combustion – produces a stable blue
flame with a bright blue inner cone and a darker
blue outer cone. The flame is attached to the burner
Secondary Secondary
and is stable. It can also be called a neutral flame. air air
l Incomplete combustion – largely due to lack of
combustion air supply, incomplete combustion Flame front
produces an overly large flame that has no form or
Inner cone
shape that is predominantly yellow in colour. The
flame appears to be without direction and floppy. It
is also known as a carburising flame as it produces Burner port
large amounts of carbon soot.
Air–gas mixture tube
Flame pictures
When gas and oxygen are burned in a mixture, a
chemical reaction takes place and a flame is produced.
This happens when a mixture of gas and air is heated Primary air port
Primary air
to its ignition temperature.
Gas
There are two main types of flame relevant to the
combustion process and they are pre-aerated and Pre-aerated flame
post-aerated. Figure 7.18 Four major components make up a pre-aerated
burner. They are the primary air port, injector, mixing tube and
KEY TERMS the burner incorporating the flame ports
Pre: means ‘before’.
Pre-aerated flame: air is entrained in the mixing
tube before ignition.
Post: means ‘after’.
Post-aerated flame: air is drawn for combustion Combustion air
from the surrounding air once the flame is lit, (Secondary air)
often resulting in a loose yellow, floppy flame.
A pre-aerated flame is the most common type used in
Luminous flame
domestic gas appliances. This is where some of the air
required for combustion is pre-mixed in a tube before it
is ignited at the outlet such as the burner. The air that
is provided is called primary air.
A pre-aerated flame is smaller than a post-aerated
flame but both give off the same amount of heat. The
pre-aerated flame burns with a well-defined inner cone Gas
inside the outer mantle.
A post-aerated flame takes its air for combustion from
the surrounding atmosphere after the gas leaves a pipe Post-aerated flame
or tube and has a luminous appearance. In other words,
Figure 7.19 The post-aerated flame which receives secondary
all of the air for the combustion process is provided
air only for combustion will result in a loose yellow, floppy
once a gas leaves the burner ports. flame. Similarly, a pre-aerated flame with the primary air port
blocked will also produce the same result
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Causes of incomplete INDUSTRY TIP
combustion
Flame impingement is also known as flame chilling.
Incomplete combustion can be catastrophic for
the appliance. Incomplete combustion can lead to
an appliance sooting up, causing restricted flow of
the products of combustion through the appliance
The signs of incomplete
combustion chamber. This can lead to the appliance combustion
overheating and scorching taking place with the When complete combustion occurs, the flame picture
result that carbon monoxide (CO) is released into the (or the colour of the flame) indicates the state of
room where the appliance is installed. Incomplete the flame. There are many signs that incomplete
combustion is caused by: combustion of a fuel is occurring within an appliance.
l Lack of oxygen – fossil fuels require oxygen at If any of the below are detected, they should be
specific ratios for complete combustion to take investigated and rectified as a matter of urgency:
place. For natural gas, for instance, this ratio is 2:1 l Yellow, floppy flame – these are usually much
or 2 atoms of oxygen for every atom of natural larger than normal burner flames and appear
gas. If there is not enough oxygen for complete to be without direction. In effect, the flame is
combustion, then incomplete combustion occurs searching for oxygen with which to combust. The
with the result that carbon monoxide (CO) is flame produced is yellow because the CO2 within
produced. the flame is being combusted with the fuel in
l Too much fuel – appliances are designed to burn a the absence of oxygen. This effectively reacts to
specific quantity of fuel for the given supply of air. produce carbon monoxide and carbon soot deposits.
If there is more fuel than there is air supply, then l Sooting – occurs because of the lack of oxygen
incomplete combustion will occur because the air in the combustion process. The soot produced is
supply available is inadequate to combust all of the black carbon soot that has a powdery quality. It
fuel completely. will quickly coat the inside of a heat exchanger,
l Vitiated air – the phrase vitiated air simply means affecting the burner and further restricting air
air that has been made impure. This can occur when supply. This leads to further sooting. Eventually the
there are many people in a room all breathing out heat exchanger will become blocked, preventing the
carbon dioxide. If the supply of fresh air entering combustion gases from escaping out of the building
the room is insufficient to maintain the O2/CO2 through the flue or chimney.
balance, then the air is made impure by the extra l Staining around the appliance – in many
amount of CO2 being exhaled. Vitiated air is usually instances, staining occurs around the appliance
a problem with open flued appliances where the when incomplete combustion takes place. This
combustion air is taken from the room where the appears as a dark brown scorch or stain on the
appliance is installed. appliance and/or the wall or fireplace where the
l Flame impingement – usually occurs when the appliance is installed. Any evidence of staining must
flames inside an appliance touch a colder surface, be investigated and the cause identified.
such as the heat exchanger in the combustion
chamber. The cold surface causes the flame to Carbon monoxide: its effects
momentarily cool down and this prevents complete
combustion of the fuel. and how to prevent CO
poisoning
KEY TERM Carbon monoxide is a silent killer. It has no smell and
Vitiated air: the word ‘vitiated’ simply means ‘to be gives no sign or warning that it is present. Less than
made impure’, so ‘vitiated air’ is air that has been 1 per cent of carbon monoxide within a room or space
made impure. is enough to kill everyone in it. Yet it is preventable.
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By using correct installation practices and regular
KEY TERM
appliance service and maintenance, CO poisoning due
to faulty appliances can be prevented and eliminated. Vertigo: the feeling that the sufferer or objects
around them are moving when they are not; feels
In this section, we will investigate carbon monoxide like a spinning or swaying movement.
poisoning, its effects on humans, the symptoms and
the ways of warning of its presence.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
What is carbon monoxide The best way of treating someone who is suspected
of having CO poisoning is to remove them to clean
poisoning? oxygenated air as soon as possible. However,
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. It has no smell, it this may present problems if the room is full of
has no taste. Breathing in carbon monoxide enables the CO. The overriding concern is not to become a
gas to enter the bloodstream, where it mixes with the victim yourself. If a high concentration of CO is
present, then the time that can be spent within
body’s haemoglobin.
the environment is very limited indeed. In heavily
saturated areas death can occur in a matter of
KEY TERM minutes.
Haemoglobin: the part of the red blood cell that Remember! Around 10–15 per cent of people who
carries vital oxygen to the brain. When CO enters have survived CO poisoning suffer long-term health
the bloodstream, the haemoglobin becomes issues as a result.
carboxyhaemoglobin, which effectively blocks the
red blood cells from carrying the oxygen to the
brain and this causes the body’s cells and tissue
to fail and die.
The purpose of CO
detectors (to BS EN 50291:
The symptoms of CO poisoning 2018 Gas detectors.
The symptoms of CO poisoning are often mistaken for Electrical apparatus for
flu and even food poisoning, especially at low exposure
levels. Symptoms typically include:
the detection of carbon
l a tension-type headache monoxide in domestic
l a redness to the cheeks – the look of being flushed
(without the fever)
premises)
l dizziness
The purpose of a CO detector is to warn of the
l nausea and sickness
presence of small amounts of carbon monoxide in a
l tiredness and confusion
space or room. Different types of CO alarm work by
l severe stomach cramp
different methods:
l Biometric sensor – a gel changes its colour when
l shortness of breath.
it absorbs carbon monoxide. The colour change
In most cases, the symptoms become progressively triggers the alarm.
worse with prolonged exposure. If the exposure is severe, l Metal oxide semiconductor – this is based on a
then further symptoms may present themselves: silica chip detecting carbon monoxide. When CO is
l impaired mental state or personality changes detected, the chip’s electrical resistance is lowered,
l vertigo and this sounds the alarm.
l ataxia, or loss of physical co-ordination caused by l Electrochemical sensor – here, electrodes are
the underlying damage being caused to the brain immersed in a chemical. Changes in electrical
l chest pain current are detected when CO is present, which
l seizures activates the alarm.
l eventually, loss of consciousness
l death.
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The requirements The methods of supplying
for ventilation ventilation
Ventilation is necessary to remove stale air from
Combustion air requirement buildings and replace it with fresh air. Ventilation
Oxygen is required for the combustion process. The in buildings helps to:
amount of oxygen needed for complete combustion l moderate internal temperatures
depends on the type of fuel. For natural gas (CH4), l control internal humidity
the oxygen to fuel ratio for complete combustion l replenish necessary oxygen
to occur is 2:1. l reduce condensation, odours, dust, bacteria and
carbon dioxide
Since the atmosphere of Earth is not 100 per cent
l create air movement – this improves thermal
oxygen, the actual amount of air needed for complete
comfort.
combustion of natural gas is much more than the
2:1 ratio. The atmosphere of Earth consists of: There are two methods of supplying ventilation:
l nitrogen: 78.08 per cent l natural
l oxygen: 20.95 per cent l mechanical.
l argon: 0.93 per cent
l carbon dioxide: 0.04 per cent. INDUSTRY TIP
For calculation purposes, we can say that our
Ventilation of a building is subject of Building Regulations
atmosphere is only 20 per cent oxygen. Since a ratio
Approved Document F – Ventilation 2010 with 2013
of 2:1 of oxygen is required and oxygen makes up only amendments.
one fifth of the atmosphere, for complete combustion
of natural gas to occur, the ratio of air to natural gas for
complete combustion is 10:1. Natural ventilation for
A ratio of 2:1 can be expressed as follows: combustion air
All open-flued appliances that burn fossil fuels
2O2 + CH4
will need to replace the air in the room where the
This means two atoms of O2 plus one atom of CH4. appliance is installed, simply because it is the air in
This combination when combusted produces: the room that is used during the combustion process.
CO2 + 2H2O In many cases this means the installation of air vents/
grills direct to the outside air.
Or one atom of CO2 and two atoms of H2O.
So, complete combustion can be expressed as the Where an appliance is fitted in a cupboard or
following: compartment, then air vents/grilles are required to be
fitted either direct to the outside air or to the inside
2O2 + CH4 → CO2 + 2H2O
room where the cupboard or compartment is located.
However, if air vents draw air from another room, then
Cooling air requirement the room must draw air direct from the outside.
Some appliances, such as room sealed, or balanced
The air provided through grilles and air vents performs
flue appliances do not require a separate provision for
two tasks:
combustion air. The combustion air is taken directly
l It provides air needed for the combustion of the
from outside via the flue arrangement. However, some
fossil fuel.
cooling air may be required to prevent overheating
l Ventilation is required for the correct operation of
of the appliance or the space where the appliance
the flue.
is installed. This can either be taken directly to the
outside via airbricks and ventilators or to another In some cases, where the appliance is fuelled by
suitable internal space via unrestricted grilles. natural gas and is below 7 kW input, an air vent may
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
not be required. In this instance, the air is provided by Mechanical ventilation for
‘adventitious air’ where the air that naturally infiltrates combustion air
the room through draughts, under doors and through
Combustion air can be provided mechanically through
cracks is sufficient to allow replacement of the air used
the use of fans, provided a positive pressure zone is
for combustion.
maintained in the room where the boiler is installed.
Locating air vents and grilles It is the operation of the fan blowing combustion air
into the room that creates a positive pressure which is
These should be placed where the occupants are not
necessary to ensure that the products of combustion
tempted to cover them due to noise or draughts.
do not back spill into the room. Negative pressure zones
Draught discomfort can be avoided by placing the air
must be avoided. Generally, mechanical ventilation
vents close to the appliance, such as floor vents or by
methods require the use of an interlock, which is an
drawing supplementary air from intermediate spaces
electrical switch that shuts down the gas appliance
such as halls, or by ensuring a good mix of incoming
should the ventilation fan fail. These systems are not
air. Air vents MUST NOT be placed within a fireplace
usually specified for domestic properties and are more
opening.
likely to be installed in commercial boiler rooms.
When installing air vents, it must be remembered that
the cavity in the wall must be sealed to the air vent Installation practices for
opening and any fly/insect screens must be removed
from the grille. It must also be remembered that air ventilation
vents need to be properly sized in accordance with the Ventilation is required to provide combustion air where
input rating of the appliance and the type of fuel being open flued and flueless appliances, such as open fires,
combusted to give the correct amount of air required. gas fires, gas boilers and gas cookers are installed. It
should be remembered that ventilation needs to be:
l Adequately sized – ventilation should be sized to
Supply of air for combustion to gas fired
provide sufficient replacement air to supplement the
appliances
air used during the combustion process.
An air supply for gas fired appliances should be l Continuous size – it should be of continuous size
provided in accordance with the following British throughout the thickness of the wall.
Standards: l Sleeved – it must be sleeved through the wall
l BS 5871.3:2005 Specification for the installation
so that any cavities in the wall construction are
and maintenance of gas fires, convector heaters, sealed off from the ventilation opening. This is to
fire/back boilers and decorative fuel effect gas prevent gas entering the cavity in the event of a
appliances. Decorative fuel effect gas appliances of gas escape.
heat input not exceeding 20 kW (second and third l Permanently open – ventilation openings must be
family gases) permanently open to the outside and must not be
l BS 5871.2:2005 Specification for the installation
open/closed type vents.
and maintenance of gas fires, convector heaters, l Fly screen removed – fly screens must be removed
fire/back boilers and decorative fuel effect gas to prevent them from becoming blocked with dust,
appliances. Inset live fuel effect gas fires of heat spiders’ webs, etc.
input not exceeding 15 kW, and fire/back boilers l Correctly positioned – ventilation must be
(second and third family gases) correctly positioned in accordance with the
l BS 5440.2:2009 Flueing and ventilation for gas
appliance manufacturer’s instructions, Building
appliances of rated input not exceeding 70 kW net Regulations Approved Document F – Ventilation
(first, second and third family gases). Specification 2010 with 2013 amendments and British Standard
for the installation and maintenance of ventilation BS 5440 Part 2 Specification for the installation
provision for gas appliances. and maintenance of ventilation provision for gas
appliances.
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Ventilation categories If an open-flued appliance is installed in a compartment
then adventitious air is never deducted from the
Ventilation is required for all the categories below but is calculation.
calculated in a different way for each individual situation:
l flueless appliances
Similarly the same rule applies to flueless appliances
l open-flued appliances
such as cookers or to open-flued decorative fuel effect
l open-flued appliances located in a compartment
(DFE) gas fires, unless the DFE manufacturer states
l room-sealed appliances located in a compartment.
otherwise.
Decorative fuel effect gas appliances are covered
Adventitious ventilation in BS 5871 Part 3 which states that they require
100 cm2 of ventilation unless manufacturers’
Buildings admit draughts from the outside and this
instructions differ.
is called ‘adventitious ventilation’ which equates to
about 35 cm2 of free air. When air for combustion is A tumble dryer also usually requires 100 cm2 and
calculated, 5 cm2 is required for each kW of gas used, this depends on the room size where it is located. A
which in effect means the first 7 kW of the input rating fire/back boiler unit (BBU) will require a minimum of
of a gas appliance can be deducted. It is worth noting 100 cm2 unless the manufacturer’s instructions state
that because of the advancement of draught reduction otherwise.
in many new buildings, adventitious allowance may be
reduced because of highly effective draught proofing Gross and net
incorporated into the building structure or design.
When working out your ventilation requirements,
calculate either in gross or net. Gross is the higher
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
heating value which takes into account the latent heat
A 16 kW open-flued boiler is installed in a room.
of the vaporisation of the water in the combustion
16 kW – 7 kW = 9 kW process, whereas net assumes that the latent heat
Ventilation for 9 kW = 9 kW × 5 cm2 = 45 cm2 of the water in the fuel has not been recovered.
Therefore, when calculating in net, allow 5 cm2
A vent providing 45 cm² of free air should therefore
be located on an outside wall to provide air supply
per kilowatt input and for gross, allow 4.5 cm2 per
for combustion. kilowatt input.
l To convert gross to net, divide by 1.11.
l To convert net to gross, multiply by 1.11.
KEY POINT
A vent designed to provide air for combustion
should be marked with the amount of free air it
provides.
A
B
In a room
One vent required in either position
1 A, B, C or D direct to outside air.
(5 cm2/kW of rated heat input above
7 kW)
C
D
Figure 7.20 Ventilation options for open-flued appliances in a room or internal space
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Compartment ventilation them must be added together when calculating vent
sizes.
A compartment is an enclosure designed to house a l Range-rated appliances must be calculated using
gas appliance. This will require high- and low-level their maximum input rating.
ventilation unless the manufacturer’s instructions l There should be 75 mm clearances around
state otherwise. The purpose of vents located on an the front, the sides, and above and below an
appliance compartment is to provide air for complete appliance situated in a compartment unless the
combustion, to enable the correct operation of the flue manufacturer’s instructions state otherwise.
and for appliance cooling. There is no adventitious air l An appliance compartment should never be used
allowance in compartments. for storage purposes because of the risk of fire and
blocking of air vents.
KEY TERM Small rooms such as cloakrooms and WCs are not
Appliance compartment: an enclosure specifically usually considered as compartments but just like small
designed or adapted to house one or more gas appliance compartments they can be susceptible to
appliances.
vitiation which is caused by a downdraught. In addition
heat loss from appliances can cause high ambient
If an appliance is to be installed in a compartment then temperatures to occur. Therefore an engineer should
the following rules must be adhered to: carefully assess such installations and decide whether
l Both of the air vents should communicate with the or not to treat them as compartments and install the
same room or space. required ventilation.
l Vents must be located at both the lowest
and highest practicable locations within the
KEY POINT
compartment.
l Both of the air vents must be on the same wall to
If combustion air for open-flued appliances
located in compartments is drawn from two
the outside.
different external walls, cross-flow of ventilation
l If a compartment contains two or more appliances,
can occur which can result in unsatisfactory
the aggregate maximum input rating of both of burner and/or flue performance.
In a compartment
Ventilated direct to outside air
2 10 cm2/kW of rated heat input at low
level and 5 cm2/kW of rated heat
input at high level
In a compartment
Ventilated via a room or internal
space 20 cm2/kW of rated heat input
3 at low level and 10 cm2/kW of rated
heat input at high level. The room is
ventilated as in Figure 7.20
Figure 7.21 Compartment ventilation for open-flued appliances
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ventilation via another wall between the appliance and
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS the outer wall. This method is called installing air vents
If we calculate the ventilation requirement for an
‘in series’ and the following rules must be adhered to.
open-flued appliance of 15 kW input installed in a
l When venting through one wall to an appliance
compartment with vents facing externally, we would
use the formula of multiplying the lower vent by then the internal vent will need to be the same size
10 cm² times the kilowatt input of the appliance and as the one located on the outer wall.
the higher level multiplied by 5 cm². l If venting through more than one room the internal
Therefore: vents need to be 50 per cent bigger than the
10 cm² × 15 kW = 150 cm² at the lower level external vent.
l If air is provided from the outside air as shown in
5 cm² × 15 kW = 75 cm² at the higher level
Figure 7.22 then both internal and external vents
If the vents in the compartment face internally then remain the same size.
the following equation applies: input rating of the
appliance times 20 cm² for the lower vent and KEY POINT
10 cm² for the higher vent.
Therefore: There is never any allowance for adventitious air
for appliances installed in compartments.
20 cm² × 15 kW = 300 cm² at the lower level
10 cm² × 15 kW = 150 cm² at the higher level In Figure 7.23, the external air vent number 1 remains
the same but both internal vents 2 and 3 are 50 per
cent bigger than the external vent.
Ventilation in series for open-flued
In Figure 7.24, vents A and B are sized for the
appliances
compartment as normal in accordance with the
Sometimes open-flued appliances are located some maximum input rating of the appliance. However, both
distance away from an outside wall and in order to internal vents 2 and 3 are still required to be 50 per
provide air for combustion it will be necessary to install cent bigger than vent 1.
ROOM 1 ROOM 2
Figure 7.22 Venting through one internal wall
ROOM 1 ROOM 2 ROOM 3
Vent 1 Vent 2 Vent 3
Figure 7.23 Venting through two internal walls
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A
ROOM 1 ROOM 2 ROOM 3
Vent 1 Vent 2 Vent 3 B
Figure 7.24 Venting through two internal walls and into a compartment
via the special ducts in the flue which are balanced
KEY POINT to atmospheric pressure and the appliance itself is
A low-level vent in an internal wall should be sealed from the effects of the room – hence the term
located no more than 450 mm above floor level in room-sealed. The reason the air is needed is for cooling
order to reduce the spread of smoke in the event
and to keep the appliance operating at its designed
of a fire.
temperature.
When room-sealed appliances are installed in
Ventilation calculations for room- compartments, ventilation is required for cooling only
sealed appliances and is provided from vents located at both high and
low level at the greatest possible vertical distance apart
Room-sealed appliances do not require air for
to encourage a convective flow.
combustion as they receive this air from the outside
Located in a room
1
No vent is required
Figure 7.25 Room-sealed appliances do not require vents
Compartment
2 If the appliance is ventilated direct to
outside air then 5 cm2 kW of free air
ventilation is required both at high
and low level
Figure 7.26 Compartment ventilation for room-sealed appliances to outside air
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Compartment
3 Ventilated via a room or internal
space 10 cm2/kW of rated heat input
at both high and low level
Figure 7.27 Compartment ventilation for room-sealed appliances via room/internal space
Many manufacturers now state that ventilation is An engineer should always verify the free air admitted
not required for compartment installations because through a vent and this should preferably be marked
of the low surface temperature of their room-sealed on the vent. While inspecting a vent it can sometimes
boilers. The correct operating temperature of an be seen that the space between two vents has become
appliance relates directly to its performance and the blocked either by debris or even intentionally by an
following information is essential to maintain optimum owner to prevent unwanted draughts. Therefore the
performance. removal of the outer cover of the vent may be required.
It is important for the purposes of cooling not to As a practical solution to the problem of customers
exceed air temperatures of: blocking vents, an innovative device which incorporates
l 25 °C up to 100 mm from finished floor level (FFL) baffles to reduce the effect of draughts has been
l 32 °C at 1.5 m above FFL developed. However, tests have shown that the vent
l 40 °C at 100 mm below and up to ceiling level. may not always produce the required amount of air for
combustion. Therefore a spillage test should always be
Vents and grilles carried out when one of these devices is installed.
l Ventilation must allow free air to pass and vents The brown plastic terracotta part will be located on
should not be closable. the external wall to blend with brickwork; the free air
l The air cannot be taken from bath or shower rooms. volume of the device is then protected with ducting
l Vents should not incorporate any gauzes or screens. which incorporates a baffle system and the device
l Air vent openings should be not be larger than eventually terminates with a white plastic vent inside
10 mm and no smaller than 5 mm. the building.
l Air vents located externally should be located so
that they will not become blocked.
l Air vents located on internal walls should not be
fitted any higher than 450 mm.
l An air vent should never penetrate a protected shaft
or stairway.
l Vents can be made from a range of materials such
as terracotta, plastic, brass and aluminium.
Plastic vents are installed through a wall using a core
drill. The free area for combustion is printed on the
vent.
Sometimes a more aesthetically pleasing style of Figure 7.28 A circular option incorporating a baffle system to fit
vent may be required to complement a design within a cored hole through a wall
a dwelling, but in any event the free air rating of the High- and low-level vents should be located at the
fitting will still be shown on its surface. greatest vertical distance apart.
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If a duct comes from high level, the duct should
terminate below the level of the burner. It is not KEY POINT
acceptable to duct from low to high level. Ducting runs, where unavoidable, should be kept
to a minimum of not more than 3 m in length.
On louvre doors the total free area should be equal to
that of the calculated high- and low-level vents.
Hit-and-miss type vents should never be used as a
A typical louvre door requires the gap between each of means of ventilation for gas appliances because they
the louvres to be measured individually by the engineer can be adjusted to close all ventilation and, even if
to calculate the free air that can pass through them. it were permanently left open, the gauze, which is
never acceptable as a vent component, could become
Vents for compartments blocked, thereby reducing any air passing through into
the room.
Compartments containing gas appliances should be
labelled accordingly. KEY POINT
Hit-and-miss vents can be opened or closed
IMPORTANT therefore they are not suitable for the combustion
ventilation of gas appliances.
DO NOT BLOCK THIS VENT.
DO NOT USE FOR STORAGE.
Flueless ventilation
Figure 7.29 Typical example of label to be fixed on a cupboard requirements
The purpose of vents located on an appliance When setting up flueless ventilation:
compartment is to provide air for complete l Ventilation must be provided directly from outside
combustion, to enable the correct operation of the flue and it should be possible to open a window or a
and for appliance cooling. hinged panel in the same room in accordance with
External vents need to be more heavy duty than the Building Regulations.
internal vents given that they are for use on exterior l Ventilation can only be conveyed from one room to
walls where strength and security are important. another if it is ducted.
l There must be sufficient room volume and there are
An external vent can be constructed from a range of
restrictions on maximum input ratings of a flueless
materials and be of various sizes which are sufficient
appliance.
for the requirements of the appliance or appliances
l Smaller rooms will need increased purpose-provided
installed in the compartment.
ventilation.
l Manufacturers’ instructions must always be adhered
Ducting requirements to.
l Flueless space heaters are constrained by W/m3 of
A duct which connects two air vents should be no
longer than 3 m in length and should have no more room volume and individual appliance rated input.
than two 90° bends in the design. Ducting size should Manufacturers’ instructions will give guidance on
be increased by 50 per cent for each extra part or specific appliance installation requirements.
section after every 3 m. Flexible ducting should not be
used as this could cause sagging low points and the
potential for condensation to form.
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q Table 7.6 Flueless ventilation guidance (selected section)
Type of appliance Maximum rated Room volume (m3) Permanent vent size (cm3) Openable window or
input limit (net) equivalent also required
Domestic oven, None <5 100 Yes
hotplate, grill or any 5 to 10 50
combination thereof
> 10 Nil
Instantaneous 11 kW <5 Installation not permitted Yes
hot water heater 5 to 10 100
> 10 to 20 50
> 20 Nil
If the room or internal space containing these appliances has a door which opens directly to the outside, then no permanant opening is
required.
The full guide to the minimum permanent opening free KEY TERM
area for flueless appliances can be found on Table 6 of
Intumescent air vents: an intumescent vent
BS 5440 Part 2:2009. contains a substance which swells when exposed
to heat and blocks the free air opening which will
Flueless ventilation calculation help prevent the spread of smoke in a fire.
If, for example, a flueless water heater of 10 kW net
were located in a room measuring 2 m × 2 m × 2.4 m, Multi-appliance installations
the total volume of the room would be 9.6 m3. By
referring to the flueless ventilation guidance it can be Where a room or an internal space contains more
seen that if the room was between 5 and 10 m3, then than one gas appliance then the air vent free airs
100 cm² ventilation would be required, as well as an should be calculated from the greatest of the following:
openable window or equivalent such as a hinged panel. l the aggregate maximum rated heat input of all
If a domestic cooker were located in the same room it flueless space heating appliances
would require a permanent vent and 50 cm² with an l the aggregate maximum rated heat input of all
openable window or equivalent. Details, guidance and open-flue space heating appliances*
ventilation requirements for other flueless appliances l the greatest maximum rated heat input of any other
are given in Table 6 in BS 5440 Part 2:2009. type of appliance in the same area, for example, this
could be an oil boiler.
Intumescent air vents * There is an exception to the second point when there
is a situation where the interconnecting wall between
Intumescent air vents are special types of air vents
two rooms has been removed and, as result, the room
that are designed to close in the event of a fire to stop
contains only two similar chimneys each fitted with a
the spread of smoke and fumes. It is important to check
similar gas fire of an individual rating less than 7 kW. In
the vents to ensure the correct free air space. BS 5440
this situation an air vent may not be required.
Part 2:2009 describes them as an assembly specified
for preventing the spread of fire, consisting of a metal
louvre or grille with an intumescent block secured
KEY TERM
behind it which incorporates a latticework of holes to Internal space: an indoor space not classified as
provide continuous ventilation but which will expand a room because it is either a hall, passageway,
stairway or landing.
and close in the event of extreme heat build-up such as
in a fire. When fitted to doors the assembly usually has
a louvre or grille on both sides.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
A room or an internal space contains: 15.52 × 5 = 77.6 cm2 (multiplying the final figure
l three gas appliances with a volume of 9 m3 by the factor of 5 cm2 to find out air required)
l an open-flued boiler with an input of 25 kW gross By referring to the flueless ventilation guidance it can
l a flueless water heater with an input of 11 kW net be seen that the flueless water heater will require
100 cm² plus an openable window.
l a balanced flue cooker of 28 kW input net.
A balanced flue cooker of 28 kW input will require
We must first work out the individual ventilation
no ventilation.
requirements of each appliance.
Therefore a 100 cm² vent would be the correct size
Open-flued boiler:
with the addition of an openable window in this
25 ÷ 1.11 = 22.52 (converting gross to net) instance.
22.52 – 7 = 15.52 (removing allowance for
adventitious air)
Effects of fans Radon gas
Warm air heater fans, fans in flues of open-flued In areas where radon gas has been identified as a
appliances, ceiling (paddle) fans, room extractor fans, problem, ventilation should not be taken from the
externally ducted tumble dryers, cooker hoods and space below the ground floor level, for example by use
fans used for extracting radon gas all can potentially of a floor vent.
reduce the ambient pressure to an appliance and
No design for ventilation for gas appliances should in
therefore adversely affect the operation of a flue; they
any way interfere with the remedial measures that may
should therefore be operated during spillage testing.
already be in place to prevent radon gas entering the
The spillage test will involve first testing with the fan
habitable part of a building.
off and then testing with any fan on to assess the
performance of the appliance. Where applicable the When testing for spillage, any extraction systems
fan to be tested should operate in both directions. An should be turned on and running.
engineer must make an engineering judgement based
on specific testing procedures. Passive stack ventilation
BS 5440 Part 2 suggests that that 50 cm2 extra free
Passive stack ventilation is a ventilation system using
air space added to the existing air space will usually
ducts from the ceiling of a room to terminals on the
solve any problems with spillage from gas appliances
roof. It operates by incorporating the principles of
that is related to ventilation problems. Once the extra
the natural stack effect. This means movement of air
ventilation has been provided then the appliance should
due to difference in temperature between inside and
be tested again for spillage.
outside and the effect of the wind passing over the roof
of the dwelling. This system is becoming popular in new
KEY POINT dwellings but under no circumstances should it be used
When a fan is deemed to be causing the spillage for ventilating gas appliances.
of an open-flued appliance, BS 5440 Part 2
suggests that an additional 50 cm² be added,
then the system tested again.
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3 PRINCIPLES OF CHIMNEYS AND FLUE SYSTEMS
Flues and chimneys are required to safely remove the Table 7.7 illustrates the relationship between heat and
products of combustion from burning fossil fuels to the height and how they work in conjunction to produce
outside air, where they can do no harm. updraught.
The operating principles of The types of chimney/flue systems
All central heating appliances need a flue to remove the
chimney/flue systems products of combustion safely to the outside. The basic
The operating principles of a flue/chimney are to: concept is to produce an updraught, whether by natural
l remove combustion products to the outside
means or by the use of a fan, to eject the fumes away
l draw in air for combustion
from the building.
Chimney stacks and flues work on the principle that Flue types are divided into three basic categories:
the hot flue gases rise because they are less dense l A – flueless
than the cooler air outside of the stack. This creates a l B – open-flued
pressure difference, which is known as updraught. The l C – room-sealed.
movement within the stack expels the hot flue gases
to the outside whilst drawing in air for combustion These categories are then further divided by the
into the appliance. addition of a second number which identifies if the
flue is natural draught or has a fan, and if the fan is
KEY POINT located upstream or downstream of a heat exchanger.
These two factors affect the amount of updraught Manufacturers’ instructions and appliance data plates
created by the chimney: will give details on what type of flue or flue variations
l the hotter the gases, the stronger the updraught appliances are designed for.
l the taller the chimney, the stronger the
updraught at a given temperature difference.
q Table 7.7 The relationship between heat and height
Chimney height in metres (m)
°C 3 5 6 8 9 10 12
500 26 39 52 65 78 92 105
400 24 36 48 60 73 85 97 The figures in red
This is the average are the pressure
temperature difference 300 21 32 43 54 64 75 86 differences between
between the flue gases 200 18 26 35 44 52 61 70 the inside of the
in the chimney and the 100 11 17 23 28 34 39 45 chimney and the
outside air. outside air measured
50 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 in pascals (Pa).
20 2 2 3 4 5 5 6
q Table 7.8 Flue types
Flue Category Flue of chimney design Natural draught Fan downstream Fan upstream of
type letter with identified by the of heat exchanger heat exchanger
first digit second digit identified by the identified by the
second digit second digit
Flueless A Not applicable A1 A2 A3
Open- B1 With draught diverter B11 B12 B13
flued B2 With draught diverter B21 B22 B23
➜
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
q Table 7.8 Flue types (continued)
Flue Category Flue of chimney design Natural draught Fan downstream Fan upstream of
type letter with identified by the of heat exchanger heat exchanger
first digit second digit identified by the identified by the
second digit second digit
Room- C1 Horizontal balanced flued inlet with C11 C12 C13
sealed air ducts to outside air
C2 Inlet and outlet ducts connect to a C21 C22 C23
common duct system in SE-duct for
multi-appliance connections
C3 Vertical – balanced flue and inlet C31 C32 C33
ducts to outside
C4 Inlet and outlet connections to U-duct C41 C42 C43
system for multi-appliance system
C5 Unbalanced flue or inlet air ducted C51 C52 C53
system
C6 Appliance purchased with a flue or air C61 C62 C63
inlet ducts
C7 Vertical flue to an outlet which takes C71 C72 C73
its air from a loft space
C8 Flue connected to a common duct C81 C82 C83
system which takes an air supply
from outside making it an unbalanced
system
Open flues With a boiler having this type of flue, air for
The open flue is the simplest of all flues. Because heat combustion is taken from the room in which the boiler
rises, it relies on the heat of the flue gases to create an is located. The products of combustion are removed
updraught. There are two different types: by natural draught vertically to atmosphere, through
l natural draught
a suitable terminal. The room must have a route, for
l forced draught.
combustion air, direct from outside. This is usually
supplied through an air brick on an outside wall. All
Products of combustion Terminal natural, draught, open flue appliances work in this way.
escape through the terminal
The material from which the flue is made, however,
will differ depending on the type of fuel used.
Occasionally, an open flue may be forced draught. This
Secondary flue
is where a purpose designed fan is positioned either
before the combustion chamber or close to the primary
flue. The fan helps to create a positive updraught by
Deflector plate blowing the products of combustion up the flue. Forced
Draught diverter draught open flues are not suitable for all open flue
Air drawn in through the types and it will depend upon the boiler manufacturer
draught diverter Primary flue
and the boiler/flue design.
Flow The flue type for an open-flued system can be one of
Return the following:
Combustion chamber
l rigid single-walled
Combustion air l rigid double-walled (twin-walled) with or without
Burner
insulation
Figure 7.30 The operation of an open flue l flexible single- or double-walled (twin-walled).
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Single-walled flues primary flues and secondary flues can be made up with
proprietary components such as heat-resistant rope
Single-walled flues are usually connected by a socket and fire cement, for example, and these should always
and a spigot with the socket facing uppermost. They be checked for integrity when testing and inspecting
can be made from stainless steel or vitreous enamel, the operation of an appliance. Creative ideas can lead
and older flues were made from cement and even to leaks and fires on gas installations.
asbestos. Single-walled flues are not suitable for
external installations or even in uninsulated loft spaces Flexible flue liners
as cold temperatures affect the flue performance.
A flexible flue liner is fitted to the primary flue outlet
KEY POINT of a fire/back boiler unit (BBU) and from there it travels
Any open flue under 10” requires a flue terminal. within an existing chimney to a terminal. At the point
where it enters the base of the chimney a register plate
must be installed to prevent secondary flue pull. In the
Double-walled flues same way, it must be sealed at the top of the chimney
A double-walled or (twin-walled) metal chimney should with a sealing plate where it connects with the
be installed with the internal socket facing uppermost. terminal. A typical way of sealing the annular space
Whenever bayonet joints are utilised then the full twist between the chimney and the flexible flue liner is with
movement process should be applied to ensure that the use of mineral wool.
the joint is complete and secure. They provide thermal
protection during the conveyance of flue gases. This is KEY TERM
achieved by the air gap between the inner and outer Annular space: the required 25 mm gap between
walls. Some flues have insulation in this space. any hot surface of a flue and any combustible
materials when travelling through a floor in a
Whenever a double-walled metal chimney is connected dwelling.
to an appliance or chimney fittings and components,
then an appropriate adaptor should be used. Similarly,
BS 5440 Part 1 states that under normal
when the connection of different makes of metal
operating conditions, a correctly installed metallic
chimneys are carried out, it is recommended that the
liner conforming to BS EN 1856.1:2003, BS EN
chimney manufacturer’s recommended adaptor is used.
1856.2:2004 and BS 715:2005 should operate safely
With all applications of flue connection, it is essential
for at least the operational lifespan of an appliance,
that the appliance manufacturer’s instructions be
which is normally 10 to 15 years.
followed. Double-walled metal chimneys are mainly
made from stainless steel or zalutite outer shells and Half-round terminals are not fit for use as flue
stainless steel or aluminum inner shells. To avoid terminals because they are there purely to ventilate
condensation no external run of twin-walled flue pipe a decommissioned stack in order to prevent
insulated with an air gap should exceed 3 m. condensation. When carrying out a flue flow test, an
engineer should always check to ensure that the flue
When installing flues, fittings and components, unless
terminal is not restricted or impeded by any adjacent
the manufacturer specifically gives permission and
obstruction such as a TV aerial.
details, then metal chimney components or fittings
should not be cut. Each individual section must be
examined before assembly is completed and any KEY POINT
sections that have damaged joints or other internal Aerials can affect the performance of a flue in
damage should not be used. the same way as a tree that is located too close
to a terminal or even a wind turbine that operates
Never improvise a connection or adapt a flue. Always nearby.
consult the manufacturer’s instructions. Connections to
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Terminal
Flue support clamp and
sealing plate
Mortar flaunching
Vermiculite or
rock wool
Sealing plate
Flexible flue liner
Seal on primary flue spigot
Sealing plate
Back boiler in situ
Figure 7.31 A sectional view of a typical back boiler installation in a builder’s opening
Flexible liner Flue terminals
The design of flue terminals has changed over the years
and many of the older styles are no longer fit for use.
Flue support clamp
Terminals should always be fitted to flue outlets up
to 170 mm diameter. Above that dimension they are
not considered necessary unless there is a risk of birds
nesting.
Flue sealing plate Builder’s opening
If a solid fuel appliance was previously installed in a
builder’s opening then the chimney should be cleaned
and inspected by a Gas Safe-registered chimney sweep
and any flue damper removed or permanently fixed in
the fully open position. The base of a traditional class I
chimney is called the builder’s opening and this is where
the products of combustion are discharged via the
Figure 7.32 When installing a flexible flue within a traditional spigot of the space heater as shown in Figure 7.33. There
chimney, the chimney pot must often be removed and a sealing is a lintel at the top of the fireplace and a chairbrick
plate installed to prevent secondary flue pull
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at the rear which sometimes requires removing if it
impedes the flow of the products of combustion from
the spigot, as there should be no obstruction or surface
within 50 mm. The appliance should have a non-
combustible hearth at the base of a thickness no less
than 12 mm.
KEY POINT
Any installation which has previously used a solid
fuel appliance must have the chimney swept
and tested if an open flued space heater is to be
installed. Any obstructions such as flue dampers
Builder’s opening
should be either removed or fixed in the fully open
position.
Figure 7.33 Builder’s opening with a gas fired space heater
installed
If a solid fuel appliance was previously installed then
the chimney should be cleaned and inspected by a Gas
Safe-registered chimney sweep and any flue damper
removed or permanently fixed in the fully open position
Lintel
Chairback
Hearth
(minimum of 12 mm
non-combustible material)
The base of a traditional chimney
is called the builder’s opening
Figure 7.34 Builder’s opening
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Void volume (catchment space) q Table 7.9
At the base of the builder’s opening is the area where Chimney type/ Void volume Spigot height
circumstance (litres) (mm)
the appliance is located known as the ‘void volume’.
Unlined brick 12 250
The dimensions of the area behind the appliance
are critical when determining the suitability of an Lined brick – new/unused/ 2 75
used with gas
installation and Table 7.9 gives guidance on different
Lined brick – previously 12 250
types of application determined on individual type and solid fuel/oil
previous usage of a chimney.
Flue block – new/unused/ 2 75
The void volume is determined by the length × width used with gas
of the opening × the distance below the appliance Flue block – previously 12 250
spigot. The spigot of the appliance must not be less solid fuel/oil
than 50 mm from any obstruction and must protrude
at least 12 mm past the closure plate. In any event
the manufacturer’s instructions will give specific
installation details which could differ from the British
Standard.
The required distance below the spigot and the volume
of the void area will change depending on its previous
use and application
A 50 mm minimum distance is required between the end
of the appliance flue spigot and any obstruction. The
spigot must protrude at least 12 mm past the closure plate
Closure plate
Void volume (catchment space)
Figure 7.35 Catchment area
Terminal guards 50 mm space between the guard and any hot surface of
the flue terminal. The purpose of this guard is to protect
Flue terminal guards should be installed on balanced anyone from coming in contact with the hot surface.
flue appliances if the underside flue is less than 2 m
from the ground. There should be a minimum of a
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BS 5440 Part 1:2008 gives precise information Both of the terminal guards have versions that are
about the location of flues in respect to openings to suitable for gas and are designed to BS 5871:2005
a building. While this installation might have been requirements.
acceptable when it was installed, it may not comply
with the new standard. An engineer must test and
assess the performance of a flue to ensure that it
operates without causing a risk to anyone. If the
appliance operates without POCs entering a building
then it could be considered ‘not to current standard’
(NCS). Engineering judgement is essential and in some
instances this installation could be classified as ‘at risk’
(AR). If POCs did enter the building then the appliance
would be ‘immediately dangerous’ (ID).
KEY TERM
Engineering judgement: this is a technical decision
which is based on the competence of a person
who has an appropriate combination of technical
education, training and practical experience in
the specific field of work. Competence in specific
areas of gas work is verified by assessments of
an engineer’s theoretical and practical knowledge
at an independent nationally approved ACS
gas centre, and then registration with the HSE
Figure 7.36 Brewer Birdguard
approved Gas Safe register.
On open flues where there is evidence that a chimney
is used for nesting by birds, squirrels or other wildlife,
or if any such problem is known of in the vicinity,
then a suitable guard or terminal should be fitted to
the chimney to prevent entry of these creatures. This
is especially important in areas where birds such as
jackdaws are known to roost.
A chimney should be inspected and reinforced if
required before fitting a guard to ensure that it can
support such a fitting. Once a terminal guard has been
installed the appliance should be checked for spillage to
ensure that POCs are being effectively cleared during
the combustion process.
The Brewer Birdguard as shown in Figure 7.36 is suitable
for gas, oil or solid fuel systems. It prevents the entry
of birds and can be installed in chimney pots with a
diameter of 150–250 mm.
Square birdguards are designed to fit an internal pot
size of 6–10 ”square and have a strap fixing suitable for
gas, oil or solid fuel systems. This guard protects from
birds nesting and the entry of rain and other debris. Figure 7.37 Square birdguard
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Flue blocks KEY TERM
As with a conventional flue, there are several Cooler plate: a device used behind an appliance in
components that make up a flue block system. There a flue block installation to prevent the unwanted
are some key points to consider to enable safe and transfer of heat from the appliance.
effective operation of such a flue. For example, the
minimum cross-sectional area of new chimneys should BS 5440 Part 1:2008 explains that flue blocks are
be no less than 16,500 mm2 and any angle build into more resistive to the flow of flue gases than metal
an offset should be no greater than 30°. chimneys of the same cross-sectional area. In addition,
any mortar extrusions where joints are made will
Flue blocks are designed to save space within living increase resistance even more. Internally extruded
areas and are built into the fabric of the building. They mortar should be removed and coring should be carried
form part of the structure and are staggered and out through the erection to remove all extrusions and
bonded into a standard pattern. droppings. Previously engineers used a small canvas bag
When a gas fire or a fire/back boiler unit is to of sand which was lowered on a rope from the top of
be connected to the chimney then the chimney the chimney to remove any excess mortar.
manufacturer’s starter or recess block(s) that are When connecting a metal chimney component to
appropriate for that particular appliance type must be a flue block chimney, the manufacturer’s transfer
fitted at the base of the chimney along with a lintel or block should be used. Any metal chimney component
cover block. Sometimes an engineer must deal with the connected to such a block should not project into the
temperature transfer from an appliance to the building flue such that it restricts the cross-sectional area of the
next to it and a cooler plate located at the rear of the flue. When connecting a gas fire to the base of a flue
appliances could help solve this problem. In addition block chimney there should be a debris collection space
flue block chimneys should not be directly faced with below the spigot.
plaster, or plaster cracking might occur.
Rigid twin-walled flue
(may require support brackets)
Staggered blocks
Starter blocks
located at base of flue
Figure 7.38 Flue blocks
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Ridge terminals sides, it is essential that they should be positioned so that
they are a minimum of 300 mm from other such ridge
Often flues terminate at ridge terminals which are terminals. It is important that ridge terminals are located
located at the highest part of the roof. It is important so that the connected flue pipe will be at least 50 mm
that they are located at 1500 mm away from any from any combustible materials such as roofing timbers.
adjacent structure which is higher than the ridge vent
position. In addition if the vent has openings on all four
Ridge terminals
300 mm 1.5 m
minimum minimum
Figure 7.39 Siting for ridge terminals
Figure 7.40 Ridge terminal
Room sealed (balanced) flues l natural draught
This boiler draws its air for combustion directly from l fan assisted (forced draught).
outside through the same flue assembly used to
Natural draught
discharge the flue products. This boiler is inherently
safer than an ‘open flue’ type, as there is no direct route Natural draught room sealed appliances have been
for flue products to spill back into the room. There are around for many years and there are still many
two basic types: thousands in existence. The basic principle is very
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
simple – both the combustion air (fresh air in) and the l The process is aided by a fan, which ensures the
products of combustion (flue gases out) are situated in positive and safe evacuation of all combustion
the same position outside the building. The products products and any unburnt gas which may escape.
of combustion are evacuated from the boiler through l The flue terminal is circular, much smaller and
a duct that runs through the combustion air duct, one can be positioned in many more places than its
inside the other. predecessors.
Fresh Fresh
air inlet air inlet
Fan
Flue
gases
outlet
Fresh
air inlet
Flue
gases
outlet
Burner
Burner
Room-sealed
boiler casing
Room-sealed
boiler casing
Figure 7.41 The operation of a natural draught room sealed Figure 7.42 The operation of a fan-assisted room sealed boiler
boiler
There are two very different versions of the fan-
assisted room sealed boiler. These are:
INDUSTRY TIP l The fan positioned on the combustion products
outlet from the heat exchanger – creates a negative
The boiler terminals for natural draught room sealed
pressure within the casing.
appliances were either square or rectangular and quite large
l The fan positioned on the fresh air inlet blowing
in size. Terminal position was critical to avoid fumes going
back into the building through windows and doors. a mixture of gas and air to the burner – creates
a positive pressure within the boiler casing. All
modern condensing boilers use this principle.
Fan assisted (forced draught)
Fan-assisted room sealed appliances work in the same The components within
way as their natural draught cousins, with the products chimney/flue systems
of combustion outlet positioned in the same place
Open flues contain several different parts. Each of
(generally) as the combustion air intake but there are
these does a specific job (see Table 7.10).
two distinct differences:
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q Table 7.10 The functions of open flue system components
The section of flue which connects the draught diverter (if fitted) to the appliance. It is here where the
greatest updraught is created. On open flued appliances, the primary flue must be at least 600 mm in
Primary flue
length and have no bends or changes of direction. In some open flue appliances, the primary flue and
draught diverter are integrated into the appliance.
Often called the draught break, it allows pressure fluctuations in the flue system to be moderated.
The draught diverter has several functions:
l It diverts down-draught away from the burner, preventing blow-back across the burner flame. This
Draught diverter can often be a problem in windy conditions or in flues that have excessive height.
l It helps to dilute the flue gases, thus reducing carbon dioxide content.
l It helps to reduce the pull of the secondary flue.
l It helps in preventing the loss of flame stability at the burner.
The part of the flue that carries the products of combustion towards the outside. This can either be
installed outside or inside the property, depending on the position of the appliance within the property.
Secondary flues should:
Secondary flue l be as straight as possible and take the shortest possible route
l must not contain any 90° bends
l changes of direction should be kept to a minimum angle of 45°
l be constructed of twin-wall insulated to reduce heat loss and to prevent condensation within the flue.
The part where the flue gases evacuate the property to the outside. Flues up to 170 mm require a
terminal. The terminal’s job is to:
Terminal
l help the flue gases discharge to atmosphere
l prevent wind, rain, leaves, birds, etc. from penetrating the flue.
The effects of layout on its length. Bends in flues should be avoided as these
have the effect of creating frictional resistance, which
chimney/flue systems slows down the velocity of the flue gases, but where
The way a flue is designed and installed greatly affects this is not possible should be kept to a minimum
its ability to perform the function of dispersing the angle of 45°.
products of combustion safely away from the building
to the outside environment. There are several factors Effective height
that need careful consideration. The effective height of a flue is different than the
physical, measured height of the flue. The effective
Flue route and bends in flues height takes into consideration the frictional resistances
As mentioned earlier, the route a flue takes should be encountered as the products of combustion flow
as straight as possible, travelling vertically throughout upwards through the flue towards the terminal.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Effective height must be calculated using this Ko = outlet resistance from flue
calculation: Ke = resistance factor per m run of selected flue
He = Ha × (Ki + Ko) ÷ [(Ki + Ko) - KeHa + ΣK] ∑K = sum total of resistance due to total pipe
Where: length (including any direction changes) and
He = equivalent height fittings
Ha = vertical height To be able to complete the calculation, reference
Ki = inlet resistance from appliance must be made to the following tables to determine the
resistance factors Ki, Ko and Ke.
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q Table 7.11 Inlet and outlet resistance factors
Appliance Internal resistance (Ki) Flue diameter (mm) External resistance
(Ko)
Appliances excluding gas fires:
100 mm spigot 2.5 100 2.5
125 mm spigot 1.0 125 1.0
150 mm spigot 0.48 150 0.48
Gas fire 3.0
Gas fire and back boiler unit 2.0
q Table 7.12 Chimney components resistance factors
Component Internal Resistance Component Internal Resistance
size (mm) factor (Ke) size (mm) factor (Ke)
100 0.78 100 0.61
Pipe (per metre run) 125 0.25 125 0.25
150 0.12 150 0.12
45° bend
197 × 67 0.3
Brick chimney (per metre run) 213 × 213 0.02 231 × 65 0.22
317 × 63 0.13
317 × 63 0.35 100 2.5
231 × 65 0.65 Terminal at ridge 125 1.0
197 × 67 0.85 150 0.48
Pre-cast blocks (per metre run)
200 × 75 0.6 100 0.6
183 × 90 0.45 Terminal not at ridge 125 0.25
140 × 102 0.6 150 0.12
100 1.22 Raking block (per block) Any 0.3
90° bend 125 0.5
Transfer block Any 0.85
150 0.24
To make the calculation easier, the information is entered into the table below:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ki Ko 1+2 Ke Ha 4×5 3−6 ∑K 7+8 3÷9 5 × 10
l In column 1, enter the internal resistance of the l In column 6, enter the sum of column 4 × column 5.
appliance (Ki) from Table 7.11. l In column 7, enter the sum of column 3 − column 6.
l In column 2, enter the external resistance of the l In column 8, enter the total of all resistance factors
flue (Ko) from Table 7.11. (∑K) due to flue pipe and fittings. These are taken
l In column 3, enter the total of column 1 + from Table 7.12.
column 2. l In column 9, enter the sum of column 7 + column 8.
l In column 4, enter the resistance factor per m run l In column 10, enter the sum of column 3 ÷ column 9.
of flue pipe (Ke) from Table 7.12.
l In column 11, enter the equivalent height. This is
l In column 5, enter the total measured height calculated by entering the sum of column
vertically in metres, above the draught diverter. 5 × column 10.
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So, how does the calculation work? 1 The internal resistance of the appliance from
Look at Figure 7.43. It shows the installation of a Table 7.11 = 1.0 (Ki)
25 kW input open flued gas appliance installed on 2 The external resistance of the flue from Table 7.11
a 125 mm twin wall flue pipe system. Extract the = 1.0 (Ko)
information for the calculation table from the drawing. 3 Column 1 + column 2 = 2
4 The resistance factor of the flue pipe 125 mm dia.
from Table 7.12 = 0.25 (Ke)
5 The height of the flue vertically = 2.5 m (Ha)
1.5 m 6 Column 4 × column 5 = 0.625
7 Column 3 − column 6 = 1.375
8 The total sum of the resistance of pipe and fittings
Ha = vertical height 2.5
0.4 m (∑K) is as follows:
0.6 m
Ki = inlet resistance from
45° 1.0 2 × 45° bends @ 0.25 = 0.5
appliance
0.6 m bends
Ko = outlet resistance from 1 × terminal @ 0.25 = 0.25
Draught diverter 1.0
flue
25 kW Ke = resistance factor per 2.5 m flue pipe @ 0.25/m = 0.625
gas boiler 0.25
m run of selected flue
Total = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.625 = 1.375. This is entered
p Figure 7.43 Installation of a 25 kW input open flued gas in column 8.
appliance installed on a 125 mm twin wall flue pipe system 9 Column 7 + column 8 = 2.75
10 Column 3 ÷ column 9 = 0.727
11 Column 5 × column 10 = 1.817
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ki Ko 1+2 Ke Ha 4×5 3−6 ∑K 7+8 3÷9 5 × 10
1.0 1.0 2 0.25 2.5 0.625 1.375 1.375 2.75 0.727 1.817
The equivalent height in this instance is 1.817 m. minimum height of the flue must be at least 1 m.
To check whether this height is sufficient, it must be Therefore, the calculated flue equivalent height
compared to the figure in Table 7.13. suggests that the flue design equivalent height at
The appliance calculated was an open flue gas 1.817 m is adequate.
boiler of 25 kW input. The table tells us that the
q Table 7.13 Minimum equivalent flue height and size
Appliance Minimum height (m) Minimum diameter (mm) Minimum area (mm2)
Gas fire connected to pre-cast block system 2 125 12,000
Other gas fires and gas fire/back boiler unit 2.4
All other appliances <70 kW net input 1 Same diameter of flue spigot
(excluding DFE and ILFE gas fires)
Appliances of 70 kW–3.5 MW net input 3
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Look at the drawing in Figure 7.44. It shows the
installation of a 35 kW input open flued gas
appliance installed on a 125 mm twin wall flue pipe
system. Extract the information for the calculation Ha = vertical height
table from the drawing. 2m
Ki = inlet resistance from
appliance
Using the formula in the previous example, calculate
the effective height of the flue in the drawing. Enter Ko = outlet resistance from
flue
the information on to the table provided and state
whether the height is sufficient enough to operate Ke = resistance factor per
correctly. m run of selected flue
0.8 m
1m
A blank calculation table is provided below for you
to enter the information. 0.6 m Draught
diverter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ki Ko 1 + 2 Ke Ha 4 × 5 3 – 6 ∑K 7 + 8 3 ÷ 9 5 × 10 35 kW
gas boiler
p Figure 7.44 Installation layout of an open boiler flue
Flue temperature, condensation KEY POINT
and cooling These three factors – frictional resistance,
For a flue to work efficiently, the temperature inside the turbulence and cooling – can result in the loss
flue needs to remain as constant as possible. When a of updraught and the spillage of the products of
flue is cold, the products of combustion move slowly. combustion into the room where the appliance is
installed.
This can create condensation and, frequently, the spillage
of flue gases around the draught diverter until the flue
warms sufficiently for the velocity to increase. It takes Termination
around 5 to 10 minutes after first lighting for the flue The position of the terminal is crucial for the
to warm to a velocity that is adequate to evacuate the efficient evacuation of the products of combustion
products of combustion safely away from the building. from the building. It is vital that the terminal position
As the velocity of the flue increases, frictional resistance does not affect the velocity of the flue. When cooling
inside the flue is created. This leads to turbulence. occurs, the flue gases may be seen as a plume of gas
Frictional resistance and turbulence cause a slowdown slowly discharging from the terminal. A velocity of
in velocity until a maximum velocity is reached. 6 m/s is required for the safe evacuation of
combustion gases.
Once the flue is warmed, the loss of heat from inside
the flue must be kept to a minimum. Loss of heat leads Terminals need to have an opening that is equal to
to cooling of the flue, which creates condensation, a twice the cross-sectional area of the flue itself.
rapid decrease in velocity and a lack of updraught.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
There are two points to remember when positioning There are differences between these types, but
terminals: both share the same basic functions – to remove
l A terminal should not be located where it is likely the products of combustion safely to atmosphere.
to cause a nuisance.
When designing chimneys, the geographical location
l It should be positioned outside of any potential
must be considered. Much of the United Kingdom has
pressure zone that could affect the flue
weather which is classified as severe or very severe
performance.
exposure to wind and driving rain, and the construction
Table 7.14 shows the minimum flue heights required. of the chimney should be such that ensures long-
lasting, trouble-free life, in adverse conditions.
q Table 7.14 Minimum flue heights required for termination
Brick chimneys constructed before 1966 were built
At ridge, or 600 mm
to accept coal fires and were generally 225 mm
above or at least
Pitched × 225 mm (9 in × 9 in) in dimension. Since 1966,
1.5 m measured
roof horizontally to the chimneys were built with a 175 mm diameter or
roof line 200 mm × 200 mm square clay, pumice or concrete
With parapet 600 mm above the flue linings to BS EN 1857:2010. There is a specific
<70 kW or external roof line*
reason for this. Brick chimneys without linings are
net input flue
generally considered too large for gas fires. The size
Flat roof Without 250 mm above the
of the flue means that combustion gases cool rapidly
parapet and roof line*
providing as they reach the top of the chimney, which causes the
internal velocity to slow down to the point where the water
routed flue
vapour in the gas products of combustion condenses
>70 kW 1000 mm above the on to the inside of the chimney. This causes the
Pitched or flat roof line**
net input
chimney to deteriorate at the mortar joints. By the
*If within 1.5 m of a nearby structure the flue must be raised to inclusion of a clay, pumice or concrete flue lining,
600 mm above that point.
chimneys can be used for both solid fuel fires and gas
**If within 2.5 m of a nearby structure the flue must be raised to
1000 mm above that point. fires without deterioration of the chimney structure.
Masonry chimneys should be constructed of frost-
The layout and features resistant bricks above the roof line with sulphur
resistant mortar used in the joints. Below the roof,
of chimney and flue the stack may be constructed of normal bricks and
construction mortar. Several points should be remembered:
Chimney and flue construction depend on the materials l Where chimneys penetrate the roof, weatherings
that they are constructed from. All flues and chimneys will be required to stop the rain from penetrating
are designed to evacuate the products of combustion, the building below.
whether that is coal smoke or gas fumes, to the l Because chimneys are in exposed positions, a
atmosphere. There are many different types. damp-proof course (DPC) may be required to
be built into the brickwork to stop downwards
Brick and masonry chimney saturation of rain.
construction (class 1 flue) l A coping stone made of precast concrete must be
bedded on the top of the chimney to, again, help in
Typically, chimneys can be classified into two
preventing rain penetration of the structure.
categories:
l chimneys designed for use with fireplaces
l chimneys designed for use with appliances.
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Raincap
Chimney pot
Top Ring
Capping for Capping for rendered
brick chimney stack chimney stack
Casing rendered
above roof
Lead flashing
Corbel for
brick stack
Flue blocks
installed with socket 2 × casing
uppermost ties at maximum
intervals of
Staggered joints 1.5 metres
between casing
and flue
block
Outer casings Flue pipe fitted into
dry lined or plastered access casing at 45˚
Support block
and adaptor
for connection
to stove pipe
Free-standing stove in a recess Free-standing stove with external chimney and
pre-formed flue entry kit
Figure 7.45 Cross section of a brick-built chimney
Pre-cast flue blocks (class 2 flue) an external wall. In the roof space, the flue converts
gas flue blocks certified to BS EN to a normal 125 mm twin wall flue pipe. It is usually
distinguishable by either a metal terminal on the roof
1858:2008
or a terminal at the ridge of the roof (known as a ridge
Pre-cast flue blocks are manufactured from pre-cast terminal). The main problem with a pre-cast concrete
concrete and are designed to be built and bonded flue is that the ‘pull’ on the flue can be quite poor
into the house wall construction. This can be either because the flue blocks are very shallow and do not
a party wall between dwellings or the inner leaf of give a good flue combustion products extraction rate.
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Pre-cast flue blocks are designed with a socket and Taper terminal
spigot system, which provides a concrete to concrete
joint that is sealed with a special heat resisting sealant. Storm collar
Early pre-cast concrete flues were jointed using normal
Uniflash
cement mortar, which often squeezed out into the
flue itself. This created a partial blockage in an already Roof support
restricted flue space causing more problems with the
flue extraction rate. Protective wire mesh
(required in loft space)
An important point to remember about this kind of
flue is that not all gas fires can be installed on the flue Firestop plate
system and the fire must be checked to ensure that it
Non-combustible shaft
can be fitted safely to the flue.
Support plate
Non-combustible floor
Rigid metallic flue systems
BS EN 1856.1:2009 Firestop plate
There are two types of rigid metal flue systems: Non-combustible floor
l Single wall flue pipes – in most cases, only suitable
as linings to existing chimneys. However, some Adjustable pipe
single wall flue pipes can be installed directly on to
an appliance, such as Aga cookers and stoves. Anchor plate
Single wall flue pipes are generally made from high
grade stainless steel, especially when used as flue
liners that line existing flues. This is so they do not
corrode in the highly corrosive sulphur-enriched
surroundings of existing chimneys. Flue pipes that
connect to the appliance are usually manufactured
from enamelled steel (usually either coloured black
Figure 7.46 Twin walled flue pipe system
or white).
l Twin wall flue pipes – either made from stainless
steel (for externally installed flues) or galvanised
steel (for internally installed flues). They are twin
walled to create an insulating barrier to guard
against excessive condensation that occurs with
single walled flues.
Twin wall flues have an interlocking socket and spigot
jointing system. Bends are multi-angled that swivel
to the desired angle. Special appliance connectors are
required for connecting to the appliance.
The correct specification of flue pipe must be
installed with the type of fuel used on the appliance.
Different fuels have a different type of twin wall flue. Figure 7.47 Twin walled flue pipe
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
Flexible metallic liners (types and rated input not exceeding 70 kW net (1st,
suitability) BS EN 1856.2 2nd and 3rd family gases). Specification for
installation and maintenance of flues
Flexible flue liners are made from stainless steel. They
l BS 5871.3:2005 Specification for installation of
are used specifically to line existing chimneys. There are
gas fires, convector heaters, fire/back boilers and
two specific types:
decorative fuel effect gas appliances. decorative
l Single skin liners – specifically used for gas
fuel effect gas appliances of heat input not
appliances such as gas fires and gas boilers. They
exceeding 20 kW (2nd and 3rd family gases)
must never be directly connected to the appliance
l BS EN 15287.1:2007+A1:2010 Chimneys.
when the appliance and the flue liner are exposed.
Design, installation and commissioning of
They MUST be connected to a flue pipe. Single skin
chimneys. Chimneys for non-room sealed
flue liners must not be used for solid fuel appliances.
heating appliances
l Double skin liners – manufactured from two layers
l Manufacturer’s instructions – these should
of stainless steel, and specifically manufactured
be consulted when designing and installing
for use on wood and multifuel stoves. Again, these
flues, chimneys and appliances. In some cases,
must not be connected directly to the appliance
manufacturer’s instructions may contradict the
when the appliance and liner are exposed.
regulations or British Standards. In these instances,
Flexible liners are threaded down existing chimneys but the manufacturer’s instructions must take
only after the chimney has been swept to remove any precedence over all other documents.
existing soot and debris. The chimney must be sealed
around the flue liner at the top and bottom effectively Inspection and testing
creating a twin walled flue. This helps prevent excessive
condensation. procedures for chimney/flue
systems
Installation requirements Inspection and testing of flues and chimneys
for chimney/flue systems ensures that they continue to work correctly and
safely. There are several different tests that must be
from relevant documents employed both to the flue/chimney system and the
The construction and installation of flues and chimneys appliance itself.
is covered by several documents:
l Approved Document J of the Building Visual inspection (BS 5440 Part 1)
Regulations – this document covers the application All chimneys and flues should be visually inspected
and construction of chimneys and flues and should before an appliance is installed and during the
be used in conjunction with the relevant British appliance annual service. There are several points to
Standards. Together these documents dictate the remember:
mandatory requirements to work to for a chimney/ l The flue/chimney should have no obstructions and
flue to function safely. only serve one room or appliance.
l British Standards – the following British Standards
l If a gas appliance is fitted, then a terminal should
contain information regarding the design, be fitted that conforms to BS 5440 Part 1. If the
installation and termination methods of chimneys chimney serves a coal/solid fuel fire, a terminal
and flues: is not recommended but an appropriate chimney
l BS EN 13502:2002 Specification for clay flue
pot is.
linings and flue terminals l Dampers and restrictor plates must be removed or
l BS EN 1443:2019 Chimneys. General
fastened in the permanently open position.
Requirements l The catchment space should be of sufficient size
l BS 5440.1:2008 Installation and maintenance
for the appliance installed and be free of debris and
of flues and ventilation for gas appliances of sealed from the surrounding structure.
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l Any staining or signs of spillage around the
opening of the chimney/flue or appliance MUST be INDUSTRY TIP
investigated.
A pair of binoculars are particularly useful when conducting
l The flue/chimney should be inspected outside to
a visual inspection of the results of a smoke test.
ensure that it is in good condition and that there is
no deterioration of the structure. This is especially
important when inspecting brick chimneys. Worn
and deteriorating brickwork can leak fumes.
l Where the chimney/flue passes through a roof
space, it should be inspected to ensure the
structure’s integrity and the condition of the joints.
When a visual inspection has been completed, a flue
flow test (also called a smoke test) can be performed.
Flue flow (BS 5440 Part 1)
A flue flow test shows the ‘pull’ or extraction efficiency
of the flue or chimney. It also highlights any structural
problems that the flue might have. To correctly perform
a flue flow test, the following should be observed:
1 Check that there is adequate combustion air supply
to the room where the appliance is installed in line
with the appliance manufacturer’s instructions.
2 Close all doors and windows in the room where the
appliance is going to be installed.
Figure 7.48 Flue flow smoke pellets
3 If the appliance has a closure plate, such as a gas
fire, the closure plate should be in position while the Chimneys can fail flue flow tests because of weather
flue flow test is carried out. conditions. Severe winds, the proximity of trees and
4 Check the flue flow by lighting a smoke pellet in other buildings can all influence the pressure zones
the chimney opening. These should burn for at around the chimney/flue and affect the results of a
least 30 seconds and produce at least 5 m3. A flue flow test.
successful test will show smoke emerging from
Assuming that the chimney/flue is in good condition the
the chimney stack where the appliance is to be
appliance can be fitted and a spillage test performed.
installed. Check carefully to ensure that the smoke
only emerges from one terminal and that no smoke
Spillage test (BS 5440 Part 1)
is detected emerging from the chimney brickwork
joints. Smoke drift can occur whereby the smoke A spillage test is performed using a smoke match to
emerges from more than one terminal. This means ensure that the products of combustion are evacuating
that the chimney is deteriorating from the inside, the building through the flue/chimney directly to the
which can lead to down draught of fumes into other atmosphere. The manufacturer’s instructions must be
rooms. Any smoke from anywhere other than the consulted to ensure that the smoke match is placed in
correct chimney terminal indicates the chimney has the correct position on the appliance. The procedure,
failed and must be repaired before any appliance is again, depends on the appliance, but generally:
installed. 1 All doors and windows must be closed to the room
5 Check that no smoke enters the room during a where the appliance is installed.
smoke test. This could indicate down draught. If 2 If the property has any extraction fans, such as
smoke is detected, the chimney should be warmed cooker hoods, bathroom fans or tumble dryers,
for 5 to 10 minutes and then retested. these should be put into operation and the doors
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
between the extraction fan and the appliance left
open. If the extraction fan has several settings, it
MUST be operated at full extraction rate.
3 Light the appliance and leave it running for between
5 and 10 minutes.
4 In the position dictated by the manufacturer’s
instructions, place the smoke match and observe
the behaviour of the smoke. The smoke should be
pulled into the appliance and not pushed back into
the room as this would indicate spillage of fumes
into the room. Any spillage detected means that the
test has failed. In this instance, leave the appliance
running for a further 10 minutes and re-test. If
spillage is still obvious, shut the appliance down,
and disconnect until the problem has been cured. A
warning label must be attached until such time as
the appliance is operating correctly.
Figure 7.50 Flue gas analyser
Where a reading is given that shows poor combustion,
this could be the result of a number of problems,
including:
l poor maintenance
l defective combustion surfaces such as burners or
injectors
l incorrectly set gas rate or pressure.
Figure 7.49 Smoke matches for spillage testing
SUMMARY
Flue gas analysis Fossil fuels, and more specifically coal and coal related
Gas Safe recommends that all domestic gas appliances products, have fallen out of favour over recent years
are tested using a flue gas analyser to ensure that because of the damage fossil fuel combustion and the
the appliances are operating safely and to maximum resulting CO2 is causing to the climate of planet Earth.
efficiency. Flue gas analysers are more than capable Yet, as far as the ‘home’ is concerned, natural gas
of detecting many different gases and calculating the continues to be the fuel of choice for home heating and
exact concentrations of elements, such as oxygen, cooking. Similarly, natural gas still has the largest fuel
nitrogen, CO2 and CO, present in the products of usage in the generation of electricity in the UK.
combustion. In both of these uses – electricity generation and
Flue gas analysis is performed by inserting a probe into home heating/cooking – natural gas looks set to be
the flue of the appliance. A sample of the products of the leading fuel for many years to come until a viable
combustion are then taken and the levels of CO, CO2, renewable, cheaper and less polluting alternative
CO/CO2 ratio, oxygen and the flue gas temperature becomes available.
calculated. For most appliances, it is the CO/CO2 ratio
that determines correct combustion of the gas and it
is this that determines whether a service is required
or not.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Test your knowledge
1 What is the typical content of methane within 7 The section of an open flue which provides the
natural gas? initial draught is known as what?
a 5% a Draught diverter
b 20% b Terminal
c 70% c Primary flue
d 95% d Secondary flue
2 What is the calorific value of propane? 8 What is the minimum angle of change in
a 39 MJ/m3 direction within an open flue?
b 58.6 MJ/m3 a 45°
c 95.8 MJ/m3 b 75°
d 111.4 MJ/m3 c 90°
3 Which grade of fuel oil is most suitable for use d 120°
with domestic oil burners? 9 An appliance which takes its air directly from
a C2 outside through the same flue assembly used to
discharge products of combustion and does not
b D2
rely on a fan is known as:
c E2
a Room sealed natural draught
d F2
b Room sealed forced draught
4 Which coal type has the highest heat content
c Open flued natural draught
(kW/kg)?
d Open flued induced draught
a Lignite
10 Which of the following is most likely to indicate
b Anthracite
incomplete combustion of a high efficiency
c Bituminous gas appliance?
d Sub bituminous a Condensation from the drain
5 Referring to section 1 of this chapter, at what b A loose yellow flame
distance should an oil storage tank for a heating
c A smell of gas
appliance be positioned away from a wooden
fence if the tank is not concealed within a fire- d Neat blue flame
rated barrier? 11 Which of the following is an advantage of using
a 600 mm coke as a fuel?
b 760 mm a The carbon content is low
c 1.2 m b The calorific value is high
d 1.8 m c Coke is a sustainable fuel
6 Select the correct formula for the complete d It is easily produced
combustion of natural gas: 12 Which of the following is not a factor that needs
a C4H10 + O2 = CO2 + CO to be considered when selecting a solid fuel type?
b C4H10 + 2O2 = CO2 + CO a Availability
c CH4 + O2 = CO + H2O b Storage requirements
d CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H20 c Cost
d Network connection
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Chapter 7 Domestic fuel systems
13 Which of the following is the regulatory body for 19 When an open flued gas appliance has been
oil fired boiler installation and maintenance? installed, how much ventilation is required
a Gas Safe for each 1 kW rating above the adventitious
ventilation?
b HETAS
a 5 cm3
c OFTEC
b 10 cm3
d NICEIC
c 15 cm3
14 Which of the following fuel types does NOT
require any storage provision? d 20 cm3
a Oil 20 Which test would you use a smoke match on?
b Natural gas a Flue flow test
c LPG b Visual inspection
d Biomass c Spillage test
15 There are three elements to the fire triangle d Flue gas analysis test
to form combustion. If there is fuel and heat 21 What does air consist of? State the percentages
available, what is the third element that is of each part.
required? 22 When mechanical means are used to supply
a Oxygen air for combustion or remove products of
b Nitrogen combustion within a gas fired appliance, what
must be provided should the ventilation fail?
c Hydrogen
23 Describe the purpose of the draught diverter.
d Methane
24 Determine the minimum height of a flue
16 In a natural gas appliance, what colour flame
terminating above a flat roof with a parapet if
proves complete combustion?
the appliance is rated at 28 kW and not within
a Yellow
1.5 m of another structure.
b Red
25 Explain the purpose of a spillage test.
c Orange
26 What are the five categories of domestic fuels?
d Blue
27 Describe how a heat pump works.
17 With a natural gas appliance, what is the oxygen
28 What are the regulatory bodies for the following
to fuel ratio required for complete combustion?
fuel types?
a 4:1 ● Solid fuels
b 3:1 ● Oil
c 2:1 ● Gas
d 1:1 29 Describe how a fan assisted (forced draught)
room sealed appliance works.
18 A building admits draughts from the outside,
which is called ‘adventitious ventilation’. What Answers can be found online at
kilowattage can be deducted for adventitious www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
ventilation?
a 35 kW
b 7 kW
c 5 kW
d 15 kW
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CHAPTER 8
ADDITIONAL TOPICS
In this chapter we will look at the effectiveness of relationships between the plumber and the client, the
plumber and their suppliers and the plumbing team with other on-site trades, to enable systems to be installed
quickly, efficiently and with minimal problems.
We will also look at how you can plan your career development, setting goals to help realise your plans.
1 PLAN WORK Describe effective working
SCHEDULES FOR A relationships between trades
SYSTEM INSTALLATION Communication between the
various trades on site
We have now identified some of the trades that have a
Identify other trades involved direct involvement with plumbing installations whether
in the installation process it is an electrician completing the wiring to a central
l Carpenters/joiners – The wood trades provide heating system or a tiler completing the tiling to a
a vital function on site during the initial building bathroom prior to the installation of a wash basin or WC.
phase, fitting door and window frames, floor joists The diverse nature of the construction industry brings
and roof trusses. During the second phase they will together these individual, very different trades with the
fix internal doors, skirting boards, architraves, etc. sole aim of successfully completing the request of the
l Electricians – Install and test all electrical installation customer, on time and to an acceptable standard.
work on site, including power, lighting, fire and smoke
alarms and security systems, usually running the Plumbing installations on a construction site rely on
cables in trunking or conduits for neatness. the cooperation, communication and coordination
l Gas fitters – Install natural gas lines in domestic between various trades to ensure that the installation
properties and in commercial or industrial buildings. is completed as smoothly as possible. Consideration
On some sites they may also install large appliances of customer requirements is vital and can often
and pipelines. mean that specifications and plans have to be altered
l Plasterers – Responsible for wall and ceiling finishing, and amended to suit their wishes. This can involve
dry lining and external rendering, if required, using a negotiation between the trades to accommodate the
mixture of both modern and traditional techniques. alterations to planned schedules of work and timings.
l Painters and decorators – Responsible for wall and It must be remembered, however, that there are no set
ceiling finishing, including painting skirting boards, rules and different companies and construction sites
architraves and any specialist decorating such as will approach these problems in a number of ways.
murals, frescos, etc. More often than not, a schedule of work will have been
l Tilers – Responsible for internal and external tiling drawn up which highlights the timings of such items like
of walls and floors and specialist tiling such as first fix and second fix operations and the trades that are
swimming pools and wet rooms. involved. Careful planning and verbal communication is
paramount to ensure that the schedules do not go astray.
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Chapter 8 Additional topics
Communication between the l Written communication
l Letters
company and the customer l Emails
Communication between the company and the customer l Faxes
takes place at every stage of the contract from the initial l Text messaging
contact to customer care at the contract completion. l Verbally (should always be backed up with written
Written communication can take the form of: confirmation to prevent confusion)
l Quotations and estimates – Both of these are
l Face to face
written prices as to how much the work will cost to l Via the telephone
complete. A quotation is a fixed price and cannot
vary. An estimate, by comparison, is not a fixed price Written communication
but can go up or down if the estimate is not accurate Letters are an official method of communication
or the work is completed ahead of schedule. Most and are usually easier to understand than verbal
contractors opt for estimates because of this flexibility. communication. Good written communication can
l Invoices/statements – Documents that are issued
help towards the success of any company by portraying
at the end of any contract as a demand for final a professional image and building goodwill. Official
payment. Invoices and statements can be from the company business should always be in written form,
supplier to the contractor for payment for materials usually on company headed paper and should have
supplied or from the contractor to the customer a clear layout. The content of the letter must be well
for services rendered. Usually a period of time is written, using good English, correct grammar and be
allowed for the payment to be made. divided into logical paragraphs. Examples of business
l Statutory cancellation rights – A number of
letters are sales letters, information letters, general
laws give the customer the legal right to cancel enquiry and problem-solving letters.
contracts after the customer signs a contract. There
is usually no penalty for cancellation providing the Emails have emerged as a hugely popular form of
cancellation is confirmed in writing within a specific communication because of the speed with which
timeframe. Most cancellation periods start when information can be transferred. As with letters, they
the customer receives notification of their right to should be well written and laid out, using correct
cancel up to seven days before work commences. grammar and spelling to convey professionalism,
whether the recipient is a client, customer or colleague.
Communication between the Faxes are another useful form of communication
employer and the employee for businesses. They are used mainly for conveying
One of the key points about running a successful documents such as orders, invoices, statements and
business is the relationship between the employer contracts where the recipient may wish to see an
and the employee. Businesses are successful when the authorising signature. Again, the basic rules apply
management and staff work together, are motivated with regard to layout, grammar and content. Remember
and engage in constructive dialogue. always to use a cover page that is appropriate for your
company. This is an external communication that
Whereas in the past, pay and working conditions varied
reflects the business and company image.
from employee to employee and the employer had the
power to ‘hire and fire’ as they saw fit, today employers Messaging is used a lot these days as an easy,
and employees are actively encouraged to engage in convenient and cheap way to pass on information. This
discussions about matters across the whole spectrum is an informal method of communication that may use
of a business including their respective rights. simple text messaging or a smartphone app such as
WhatsApp. This method of communication can be used
Types of communication to update a customer about your potential arrival time
There are a number of ways that companies if you are delayed, for example, but should not be used
communicate with customers, staff and suppliers, for any formal information.
and other companies, such as:
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Oral communication installations and sanitation pipework will include a
The spoken word is, more often than not, our main timeline that the installer will need to work to if the
method of communication, especially in a work company is to make a profit from the installation.
context. In order to present a professional image and In many cases, the installation can be plotted on a
communicate effectively, you must consider what schedule of work or a Gantt chart so that time is
you are saying, your tone of voice, your body language, allotted to each phase of the installation. By using a
and the response of your listener. Gantt chart, material deliveries can be planned for
a certain day and staff loadings for the job can be
calculated.
Describe the elements of a
Staffing an installation is a delicate matter as too few
plumbing system installation plumbers on site will quickly lead to a job falling behind
schedule for a domestic schedule. Similarly, too many plumbers on a job can
dwelling sometimes have the same result as the presence of
more installers leads to greater organisational problems.
Plumbing installations have a finite timescale in which
There is often a fine line between getting enough
they must be completed. An estimate for a complete
people on site and making a profit.
plumbing installation in, say, a new-build property that
includes hot and cold water supplies, central heating
Time
Task Duration Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
(Days) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
03 Aug
10 Aug
17 Aug
25 Aug
06 July
13 July
20 July
27 July
01 Jun
08 Jun
15 Jun
22 Jun
29 Jun
Clear 1
oversite
Excavate 3
foundations
Concrete 1
foundations
Footings 4
to DPC
Drainage/ 4
services
Backfill 2
Ground floor 2
Walls to 14
first floor
First floor 3
carcass
First floor 2
deck
Walls to wall 15
plate
Roof structure 5
Roof covering 10
Rainwater gear 2
Windows 4
External doors 1
p Figure 8.1 A Gantt chart
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Explain the sequence of pipework runs can be installed and a decision made
about the system type and the materials that will be
work in a domestic dwelling used. Many installers now favour polybutylene pipe
plumbing system installation over copper tubes and fittings because of the benefits
it offers in installation time.
A well-functioning plumbing system that meets or
exceeds the customer’s requirements is the result of Once the design is completed, an estimated cost of the
a number of important aspects: installation can be prepared.
l good design
l good planning Ordering and storing the materials
l good installation When a customer has accepted an estimate, ordering
l correct commissioning and setting up procedures. of the materials can take place. Most plumbing
companies shop around for the best deals on boilers
Planning a plumbing installation and radiators and will not be dependent on one
Planning a plumbing installation involves: sole supplier. Alternatively, a company might have
l designing the system favourable contract rates with its supplier which
l coordinating the availability of staff to undertake will supply all the items needed, including tubes
the installation and fittings, at discounted rates.
l ordering and coordinating the delivery of the
The materials, obviously, must arrive early either
materials before the job is started or on the day that the
l installing the first fix
installation is to begin. A phased delivery is often
l installing the second fix
the best method to use, as delivery of key items
l filling and commissioning the system
and appliances can be planned to coincide with the
l completing the benchmarking paperwork
progression of the installation.
l handover to customer
l removing all scrap and unused materials from site. Materials that arrive on site must be stored in a secure
and safe lock-up to prevent theft and to ensure that a
Planning a plumbing installation is often completed check can be made of the materials in stock at any one
using a Gantt chart, as described in the previous section. time. Fragile materials such as sanitary ware should be
kept separate and stored so as to prevent breakages.
Designing a plumbing installation
Designing a plumbing installation will involve taking Installation planning
measurements from site drawings or visiting the site Once the system has been designed in accordance with
in person and taking measurements from the building the customer’s wishes, the installation planning can
so that pipework sizes, heat losses and heat emitter take place. Installation can be divided into five separate
outputs, flow rates, hot water temperatures etc. can and distinct phases:
be calculated. The layout of a building is instrumental l First fix – Usually the first fix phase is where the
in how we design the systems for it. In many cases, installer will get their first look at the property.
the position of appliances, such as bathroom suites, They will walk the job and plan the pipework routes,
has already been dictated by the architect’s drawings marking any floorboards that require lifting. On new
and our job is to design a functioning system based build installations, the plumber will arrive before
upon these predetermined positions. Where central any ceilings are fixed and often before the upper
heating is concerned, positioning components, such as floors are down. Marking and notching/drilling of
radiators, may be a little more flexible and consultation the joists will take place in accordance with the
with the customer is needed to ensure that the position Building Regulations and the pipework for the hot
of radiators, the boiler and so on is satisfactory. It is and cold water, the central heating, any gas pipework
here that the designer/installer will get a feel for where and sanitary pipework, waste pipes and so on will
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be installed. At this stage, because there are no emergency contact details for use in the event of
appliances or components installed, the plumber will a problem. The customer should be instructed in
position the pipework tails to where the appliances the use of all system controls and shown where
will eventually be fitted, using the working drawings isolation points for the water, gas and electricity
of the building to position the pipework correctly. are. Any system servicing requirements, such as
Any pipework that is to be positioned behind annual boiler servicing, should also be pointed out.
plasterboard walls, such as droppers for central
heating behind the dot and dab plasterboards, Describe difficulties that
will be installed. This phase of pipework is often
called ‘carcassing’. Once the carcassing has been may arise when supervising
completed, it must be fully pressure tested according system installations
to BS EN 806, which is 1.1 times the maximum
design pressure. Conflicts in the workplace
l Second fix – The second fix takes place after all of When people work together in groups, there will be
the internal work, such as fitting plastering, skirting occasions when individuals disagree and conflicts occur.
boards and internal doors, has been done. Where Whether these disagreements become full-blown feuds
bathroom suites are installed, the bath is fitted or instead fuel creative problem-solving is, in large
first so that the tiler can tile around the bath and part, up to the person in charge. Conflicts can occur
any areas where the wash basin and WCs are to for many reasons, such as:
be fitted. These can then be completed once the l unfair working conditions
tiler has finished. Boilers, radiators and any central l unfair pay structures
heating electrical controls can be installed and l clash of personalities
any hot water storage vessels, cold water cisterns l language differences
fitted and connected. Once the second fix has been l attitudes towards ethnic differences.
completed, commissioning can begin.
l Commissioning and testing – Commissioning It is important to deal with workplace conflicts quickly
and testing procedures depend upon the system and effectively, as if left unchecked they can affect
being commissioned. It is at this point that the morale, motivation and productivity, and potentially
system is filled up with water to full operating cause stress and even serious accidents. Conflicts may
pressures and the systems are run for the first occur between:
l employer and employee – may need union
time. Any leaks must be cured and flow rates and
pressures checked to ensure that the installation involvement or some form of mediation
l two or more employees – will need employer
meets the design specification. Central heating
systems can be balanced and the temperatures intervention
l customer and employer – may need intervention
checked against the design specification.
Benchmarking the system can take place during by a professional body
l customer and employee – will need employer
this stage of the installation.
l Snagging – Snagging is the term used to describe intervention.
the curing of minor problems that have emerged
Dealing with workplace conflicts
during the commissioning and testing process.
l Signing off – Commonly called ‘handover’, this There are several ways that your employer may deal
is where we present the customer with all of the with disagreements. They should:
l Identify the problem. Make sure everyone involved
system documentation, including benchmarking
certificates, Building Regulation compliance knows exactly what the issue is, and why they
certificates, manufacturers’ instructions and are arguing. Talking through the problem helps
commissioning documentation. This is often everyone to understand that there is a problem,
presented in a system folder together with any and what the issues are.
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l Allow every person involved to clarify their l Employees don’t keep their manager informed
perspectives and opinions about the problem. and avoid talking to management.
They should make sure that everyone has an l Employees do their best to hide their deficiencies
opportunity to express their opinion. They may even or performance problems.
establish a time limit for each person to state their l Employees refuse to take responsibility.
case. All participants should feel safe and supported.
Poor communication in the workplace can disrupt the
l Identify and clarify the ideal end result from each
organisation and cause strained employee relations
person’s point of view.
and lower productivity which can often result in the
l Work out what can reasonably be done to achieve
following issues:
each person’s objectives.
l Time may be lost as instructions may be
l Find an area of compromise to see if there is some
misunderstood and jobs may have to be repeated.
part of the issue on which everyone agrees. If not,
l Frustration may develop, as people are not sure of
they may try to identify long-term goals that mean
what to do or how to carry out a task.
something to all parties.
l Materials may be wasted.
Informal counselling is one method that helps l People may feel left out if communication is not
managers and supervisors to address and manage open and effective.
conflict in the workplace. This may be in the form of: l Messages may be misinterpreted or misunderstood
l meetings causing bad feelings.
l negotiation/mediation sessions l People’s safety may be put at risk.
l other dispute-resolving methods.
All of these problems will eventually filter down to
It is important that employees know that there is existing and potential customers, and when that
someone to go to if a conflict develops. If an employee happens, customer confidence will disappear leading
has a conflict with another member of staff, then they to a possible collapse of the company.
should first discuss the problem with their immediate
supervisor. In extreme cases where the matter cannot Problems arising from the delivery
be resolved, then mediation or union involvement may of materials
be required. Occasionally, problems can arise with the suppliers that
In the plumbing industry, workplace conflicts can deliver plumbing equipment, appliances and materials
usually be resolved by the Joint Industry Board (JIB). to site:
l Resource shortages – Lack of materials is a big
The effects of poor communication contributing factor when jobs and contracts are not
at work completed on time. When delivery dates are missed,
it has a knock-on effect:
The effects of poor communications can be extremely
l Operatives are left standing idle.
harmful to both businesses and personnel. If poor
l Jobs get behind on time.
communication exists then goals will not be achieved
l Completion dates are missed.
and this could develop into problems within the
l Customers become annoyed at the lack of
company. It can lead to demotivation of the workforce
progress.
and the business will not function as a cohesive unit.
l Poor quality components – Many of the
The effects are obviously negative:
components, fittings and appliances used in
l Employees become mistrustful of management and,
the plumbing industry are mass-produced.
often, of each other.
Occasionally, fittings and appliances are delivered
l Employees argue and reject their manager’s opinions
to site that have not undergone quality checks
and input.
and arrive not fit for purpose. This can cost time
l Employees file more grievances related to
and money in seeking replacements. Common
performance issues.
problems include the following:
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l Appliances such as boilers arrive with faulty The customer must be shown around the system and
components that are only discovered when the shown the operating principles of any controls, time
appliance is commissioned. clocks and thermostats. Emergency isolation points on
l Delays occur because bathroom suites often the system should be pointed out and a demonstration
arrive with damage that has occurred during of the correct isolation procedure in the event of an
transit or poor quality components or parts emergency. Explain to the customer how the systems
missing. work and ask if they have any questions. Finally, point
l Fittings occasionally arrive either of the wrong out the need for regular servicing of the appliances and
type or the wrong size. leave emergency contact numbers.
There are a number of dos and don’ts to observe when
parts, appliances, components and equipment are
delivered to site:
2 PLAN FOR CAREERS
l DO check all materials that are delivered whilst the
delivery driver is present. Any items that are found
IN BUILDING SERVICES
that are incorrect can be sent back with the driver ENGINEERING
and replacements requested immediately.
l DO check ALL items and not just the large ones. Career planning helps realise your ambitions. A plan
l DO count all items and tick them off against the helps you focus on what you should be doing to start a
delivery note. new career or progress in the career you are in. Planning
l DO check all sanitary items for damage. It is very needs time and careful consideration to make your career
difficult to request replacements after the delivery happen rather than you letting your career happen to you.
driver has left site. In order to plan a career you will need to be able to
l DO keep the delivery note in a safe place. identify the support available to you.
l DO NOT sign for anything that hasn’t been checked
Resources to help you include:
against the delivery note.
l the internet (career guidance sites, and industry
l DO sign the advice note ‘unchecked’ if you do not
sites of employers you might want to apply to)
have the time to check all items whilst the delivery
l professional bodies/organisations such as the
driver is present.
National Careers Service
l educational support and guidance, such as your
Describe handover college careers advisor
procedures l role models – people in the industry that you
When the system has been tested and commissioned, admire and could ask for advice on how they’ve
it can then be handed over to the customer. The got to where they are
l networking – through attending industry events
customer will require all documentation regarding
the installation and this should be presented to the or asking to be introduced to people who might be
customer in a file, which should contain: able to help you through advice or contacts within
l all manufacturers’ installation, operation and
companies that are recruiting
l job centres and recruitment agencies.
servicing manuals for the boilers, heat emitters and
any other external controls such as motorised zone The internet is a logical and easy place to look for sources
valves, pumps and temperature/timing controls of information to support career planning. However,
fitted to the installation resources found on the internet should always be read
l the commissioning records and certificates carefully in the light of the original purpose of the website
l the Building Regulations Compliance certificate or blog and the actual benefit you can glean from them.
l an ‘as fitted’ drawing showing the position of all For example, many websites relate just to overseas
isolation valves, drain-off valves, strainers, etc. employment or specific sectors. Before relying on such
and all electrical controls. information, make sure it is relevant to your needs.
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Chapter 8 Additional topics
The most useful sites for career planning are generally
those provided by UK Government departments or
Elements of career planning
agencies sponsored to promote careerawareness. There is a vast amount of information designed to
The National Careers Service, at http:// support you through the stages of planning your
nationalcareersservice.direct.gov.uk, provides general career and seeking a job. This includes:
advice and career-planning information. l goal setting
l curriculum vitae (CV)
Once you have determined your career path, the
l personal statements
National Careers Service website can provide useful
l covering letters
information in a general context, including information
l SMART targets
on government support and guidance. Depending
l SWOT analysis.
on circumstances, individuals may be able to seek
government funding support for certain retraining.
Goal setting
Specific requirements and qualifications need to A goal is an outcome that an individual or organisation
be researched from relevant trade organisations, is trying to reach. It is likely to be quite general and
competent person registration schemes, etc. There long range; it can look quite idealistic and doesn’t
are many UK Accreditation Service (UKAS) accredited include all the practical details of exactly what is
awarding bodies that provide support and guidance required and when it is required by. An example of a
to trainees and to those already qualified wishing to goal could be to have a complete career change within
keep themselves up to date and maintain their own the next five years. This may be not fully detailed but
continuing professional development (CPD). If you that goal is the starting point in the planning process.
are already qualified in a specific trade or profession,
your professional institution will have a recognised When setting your goal, make sure you can answer
development programme, criteria for meeting their the four questions that begin with W: What, Where,
requirements, a mapping process and access to Who, and When?
l What position do I want?
mentors so you can complete the process.
l Where will I find relevant information?
l Who will I contact?
l When will I make contact?
p Figure 8.2 A candidate in discussion with a career officer
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
You should also know the difference between a specific Personal statement
goal and a vague goal. For example, there is a big A personal statement is a short summary of your key
difference between saying, ‘I would like a job’ and ‘I skills and experience that you should put at the top
would like to be an apprentice plumber’. You may also of your CV. It is vital to spend time getting this right,
like to set a goal of contacting a certain number of as many employers will often use this statement to
companies a week. This is then measurable. decide whether or not to read the rest of your CV. The
So, if you want to attain anything of significance, you best advice is to keep it short: your personal statement
must sit down and define what you really want, put it in should be just a few lines or bullet points, around
writing, develop a real plan, and lay out the guidelines 50–100 words.
for completion. There’s no better way to accomplish a
really strong desire than a well-written plan. Covering letter
A covering letter accompanies a CV (and/or completed
Set out your goals application form). It is an opportunity to highlight
Break your goals into short term, medium term and what is in your CV and to provide any real examples
long term. The short- and medium-term goals can be to support your ability to do the job.
thought of as stepping stones to the long-term goal.
For example: SMART targets
SMART targeting is an acronym for the five steps of
In one year’s time I want to have …
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time-
In five years’ time I want to be … based targets and is one of the most effective tools
In ten years’ time I want to be able to … used to achieve a desired goal.
q Table 8.1 SMART targets can be a useful tool to help you in your
career path
ACTIVITY
Define your own short-, medium- and long-term goals. S Specific What is the task to be done?
What evidence could be used to show if
M Measurable
and how well the task has been done?
Curriculum vitae (CV) A Attainable Is the task possible?
How you write your CV and covering letter is up to you, R Relevant Why is this target important?
but there are some basic rules to follow if you want to Are review dates built in to check
create the best impression. T Time-based
progress?
You should include a summary of your educational
and academic background, and skills you have SWOT analysis
demonstrated. You should also include any interests, When planning your career, the first thing to look
hobbies and work experience. at is what you can already do. Ask yourself, ‘What
am I already good at or do I have an aptitude for?’ It
KEY POINT may be that you already have a number of skills and
A curriculum vitae (CV) can be literally translated qualifications that are transferrable to a new career.
as ‘course of life’. This provides an overview of a A useful self-analysis tool is SWOT analysis.
person’s experience and other qualifications. A CV
is typically the first item that a potential employer SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses,
encounters regarding a job seeker. CVs are often Opportunities, Threats. It is a planning tool used to
used to screen applicants in order to shortlist understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
them for an interview. and threats involved in a project or in a business.
It involves identifying the internal and external
Most employers would expect to receive a CV along factors that are either supportive or unfavourable
with a covering letter outlining your suitability for the to achieving that objective.
position that you are applying for.
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Chapter 8 Additional topics
Different roles in building Heating and ventilation engineer
A heating and ventilation engineer installs complex
services engineering heating equipment and pipework systems to exact
Building services engineering is made up of four key design specifications within large buildings such as
industries: office blocks, hospitals, schools, etc.
l electrotechnical
l plumbing and domestic heating Ductwork installer
l heating and ventilating
A ductwork installer is responsible for the installation
l air conditioning and refrigeration.
of complex ductwork and ventilation systems to exact
There are many optional career pathways within the design specifications within large buildings.
building services engineering sector, including:
l installation electrician
Refrigeration engineer
l heating and ventilation service and maintenance A refrigeration engineer may install, service and
engineer maintain systems and equipment that control and
l plumber maintain the quality, temperature and humidity of air
l heating and ventilation installation engineer within modern buildings. Another aspect of the job
l refrigeration engineer may be to install, service and maintain refrigeration
l maintenance electrician ductwork installer and environmental technology systems throughout
l air-conditioning engineer. the UK in places such as supermarkets, hospitals, food
processing and research establishments.
Typical roles within building These are just a few of the many roles within the
services building services industry which may lead to different
Plumber pathways in your chosen career. For example, you
Plumbing and domestic heating is a responsive and may progress into a supervisory role either within the
continually developing industry. The plumber is same company or a different company. You may wish
responsible for the installation of complex cold and to become involved in the design and estimating of
hot water systems, sanitation, heating systems and large-scale projects. There are many people who have
domestic fuel burning appliances such as gas, oil started apprenticeships and progressed to running their
or solid fuel boilers. In recent years, environmental own businesses or you may wish to go into education
technologies have been integrated within the industry and train others. The opportunities available within the
and the modern tradesperson now undertakes a huge industry are many and varied and all are attainable.
variety of jobs, including:
l installing and maintaining central heating systems, Types of work in building
hot and cold water systems and drainage systems
l installing, commissioning and maintaining solar
services engineering
water heating, rainwater harvesting or grey water The industry itself is also varied in its different forms
recycling systems of work, which include:
l contract work
l installing and maintaining gas, oil and solid fuel
l consultancy
appliances, including biomass.
l subcontraction
Installation electrician l casual labour.
An installation electrician is responsible for the
installation of power, lighting, fire protection, security
Contract work
and structured cabling. They may also maintain This means you are providing a service/labour to
modern electrical systems and the equipment they another company under terms specified within an
serve to ensure effective and efficient operation. agreement. It could mean you don’t work regularly for
an employer but are self-employed.
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Consultancy Subcontractor
Once a lot of experience and qualifications have been A subcontractor is a person or company that is hired
attained, there are opportunities for consulting work. by a main contractor to perform a specific task as
A consultant is a professional who provides expert part of an overall project and is normally paid for the
advice in a particular area, for example, in: services by the main contractor. A building company
l hot water that doesn’t have its own plumber may subcontract
l cold water the plumbing work out.
l central heating
l underfloor heating Casual labour
l renewables. This can be part-time, piece or temporary work, which
means someone looks for and accepts any type of
work within their skill sector. They are not part of the
permanent workforce.
3 THE REQUIREMENTS TO BECOME
A QUALIFIED OPERATIVE IN BUILDING
SERVICES ENGINEERING
Becoming highly skilled in your own craft will be your KEY POINT
first priority but over time you may wish to explore Competent Person Schemes apply the principles
some form of supervisory responsibilities. of self-certification and are based on giving
Opportunities for progression within the sector include: people who are competent in their field the ability
to self-certify that their work complies with the
supervisor, manager, business owner, sideways moves Building Regulations without the need to submit a
to different crafts, assessor/trainer, designer, surveyor, building notice and thus incurring local authority
estimator, apprenticeship, engineer and director. inspection costs or fees.
To progress in any trade you will need to achieve
your qualifications and gain experience alongside the Areas for competency include:
qualification. It is important to have thought about l gas
your career path and to have set yourself attainable l electrics
goals in the short, medium and long term. l unvented water G3
l cold water
As you progress, you may need to become a l oil
‘competent’ person. This means you have been trained, l solid fuel
tested and passed in a certain area of work. A certificate l environmental technologies
is given that states you are competent to carry out l health and safety.
work in that area.
Gas
Competent persons The Gas Safe Register is the official gas registration
Competent Person Schemes were introduced by the body for the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and
Government to enable companies to self-certify Guernsey, appointed by the relevant health and safety
plumbing and heating works that fall under the scope authority for each area. By law, all gas engineers who
of Building Regulations. Self-certification provides a are actively working on gas installations must be on
much more cost-effective route compared with the the Gas Safe Register. Registration must be renewed
alternative of notifying work through local building every five years.
control bodies.
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Chapter 8 Additional topics
Electrics Burner Equipment Testing Association (DOBETA), an
The NICEIC (National Inspection Council for Electrical organisation formed after the enforced split of Shell-
Installation Contracting) Competent Person Scheme Mex and BP in the early 1970s.
(CPS) allows registered installers who are competent in OFTEC also administers a Competent Person Scheme
their field to self-certify certain types of building work and encourages those working in the oil firing industry
as compliant with the requirements of the Building to become registered. Becoming registered with OFTEC
Regulations in England and Wales. allows installers to self-certify installation work without
the need to have it checked by local authority building
Unvented hot water G3 control (where applicable).
The Approved Building Regulations Document G
(Section G3) requires that an unvented hot water Solid fuel
system with a capacity of more than 15 litres should HETAS (the Heating Equipment Testing and Approval
be installed and commissioned by a competent person Scheme) is the official body recognised by the
who is a member of the Competent Person Scheme. Government to approve biomass and solid fuel domestic
This allows the self-certification of certain types of heating appliances, fuels and services including the
work and provides exemption from notification under registration of competent installers. HETAS administers
the Building Regulations. a Competent Person Scheme which will allow competent
persons to self-certify installations work.
KEY POINT
It is a legal requirement to be registered with the Environmental technologies
appropriate body prior to carrying out any work. If Competence in renewable technologies is becoming
the requirements of the scheme are not met the more important as environmental issues come to the
operative may face fines, imprisonment or loss of
licence to practise.
forefront. Training in these areas is offered under the
‘environmental’ heading but more specific training
is offered by independent manufacturers of these
Cold water technologies. These include both environmental care
The approved plumber has been given a very useful and renewable energies.
concession in that he/she may start work without
notification or prior consent on certain types of work, Health and safety
provided he/she issues the customer (and for some The Construction Skills Certification Scheme (and the
types of work the water supplier) with a certificate resultant CSCS card) proves competency in site health
of compliance when the work is completed. This can and safety, and is a requirement for any site work.
save up to ten days of waiting for the water supplier’s Working on a building site requires that an operative
consent and reduces the paperwork of notification. is in possession of a current Competent Person
Scheme card.
Oil
OFTEC (the Oil Firing Technical Association) was
formed in 1991 and replaced the former Domestic Oil
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have investigated the aspects of We have also looked at ways in which you can take the
good system installation that you will need to have at next step towards getting a job in the building services
least a basic knowledge of, as well as discussing good sector.
communication techniques.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Test your knowledge
1 Which three methods of communication are all 9 What are SMART targets?
written forms? 10 Name three job roles in building services
2 What is the difference between a quotation and engineering.
an estimate? 11 What is a subcontractor?
3 What are ‘statutory cancellation rights’? 12 How often must an operative renew their Gas
4 A well-functioning plumbing system that meets Safe registration?
or exceeds the customer’s requirements is the 13 What regulations do people need to comply with
result of a number of important aspects. What under the Competent Person Scheme?
are they?
14 An approved plumber may start work without
5 Identify two sources of information that could notification or prior consent on certain types of
help you with career planning. plumbing systems, provided they issue which
6 What is the purpose of a personal statement? type of certificate?
7 Identify four items that could be included in a Answers can be found online at
CV. www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
8 In SWOT analysis, what do the letters SWOT
stand for?
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Practice synoptic assessments
Practice assessment 1 2 From the diagram of the property and the old
radiator sizes, work out the approximate boiler
A customer requires an upgrade from an old size required.
floor-mounted open-flued boiler to a wall-mounted 3 Complete a method statement for the
room-sealed boiler. installation of the new boiler.
1 Describe to the customer the differences
between the two boilers, and outline any safety
advantages.
1 Ground floor 2 First floor
5645 2650 2645
1.0 kW
1465
1.4 kW
1915
1.2 kW Hot water
3715
3715
cylinder
2100
2850
0.8 kW
1635
1.2 kW
4380
4380
1.2 kW
3150
1.0 kW
2580
1.2 kW
3690 1820 3120 2375
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Practice assessment 2 1 Explain how Building Regulations Part G
outlines safety temperatures for domestic
You are installing a new bathroom in a new build appliances.
house. The owner is looking around and sees that
2 Complete the table by writing in all the correct
you are installing a thermostatic mixing valve under
temperatures next to the descriptions.
the bath. They ask what it is and why you have to
install it.
Situation Temperature
Legionella growth
According to Building Regulations Part G, hot water must never
exceed
Unvented hot water cylinder thermostat
Unvented hot water cylinder high-limit thermostat
Unvented hot water cylinder temperature/pressure release valve
Maximum temperature for domestic water at the outlet of a TMV
to a batch, according to Part G
Domestic bath hot water temperature at the outlet of a TMV
Maximum temperature for communal or public showers, according
to Part G
Commercial basin, according to the code of practice for safe water
temperatures
Commercial bidet, according to the code of practice for safe water
temperatures
Temperature the hot water should reach at an outlet within 30
seconds, according to Part G
Maximum temperature of a cold water storage cistern, according
to the Water Regulations
Maximum temperature of a cold water storage cistern, according
to the BS EN 806
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Glossary
AC: alternating current flows in both Bonding: a term used to describe the Cutting off the supply: depending
directions. connection of extraneous conductive on the equipment and the
Air change rate: a measure of how parts to the earthing system. circumstances, this may be no more
many times the air within a defined Boyle’s law: One of two gas laws that than normal functional switching
space (normally a room or a house) determine the characteristics of a gas. (on/off) or emergency switching
is replaced per hour, usually through by means of a stop button or a trip
Buffer tank: a large white storage
natural ventilation. switch.
vessel used for storing excess hot
Annular space: the required 25 mm water until demanded. DC: direct current is chemically
gap between any hot surface of a flue Calorific value: the amount of energy produced and is an electrical current
and any combustible materials when stored in the gas in its uncombusted in which electrons flow in a single
travelling through a floor in a dwelling. state. It is the amount of energy direction.
Appliance compartment: an released when the gas is combusted. De-zincification resistant (DZR): a
enclosure specifically designed or It is measured in megajoules per cubic type of brass that resists electrolytic
adapted to house one or more gas metre or MJ/m3. corrosion.
appliances. Dead leg: when a hot tap is opened, a
CENELEC: commonly used to
Approved plumber: a plumber refer to Comité Européen de certain amount of cold water is usually
that has undertaken specific Water Normalisation Électrotechnique, drawn off and allowed to run to drain
Regulations training and is recognised which is the European Committee for before hot water arrives at the tap.
as competent by the water undertaker. Electrotechnical Standardisation. This wasted, cold water is known as a
Aquifer: a type of rock that holds dead leg. Under the Water Regulations,
Competency: the degree to which
water like a sponge. dead legs must be restricted (see
a person has the ability to complete
Table 2.3). If this is not possible, then
Azimuth: refers to the angle that the something.
secondary circulation is required.
panel direction diverges from facing
Conductor: this is the part of a cable Diagnostic: concerned with
due south.
which current passes through. In most identifying problems.
Backflow loop: prevents backflow. cables, this is made of copper and
Dead testing: testing carried out on
Bernoulli’s principle: states that when should have a low resistance.
electrical components or parts of an
a pipe is suddenly reduced in size, the Continuity test: a test to ensure that installation when the electrical supply
velocity of the water increases but the a conductor has integrity along its is disconnected.
pressure decreases. The principle can whole length. For example, it could
also work in reverse. If a pipe suddenly Downstream: in water systems,
be used to test a high-tension lead to
increases in size, then the velocity will downstream means travelling away
ensure its connection from the spark
decrease but the pressure will increase from the point of supply.
generator to the probe on the boiler
slightly. burner bar is sound. Duty holder: any person or
Blue water corrosion: occurs in organisation holding a legal duty
Corrosion: the breaking down or
copper plumbing systems causing a under the Health and Safety at Work
destruction of a material, especially
blue-green colouration to the water. etc. Act 1974.
a metal, through chemical
Body language: movements and reactions. Duty of care: in British law, this is a
postures which communicate attitudes moral and legal obligation imposed
Cryptosporidium: a gastrointestinal
and feelings. on an organisation or an individual,
bacteria that affects humans and
Boiler interlock: this is NOT a single which necessitates that a standard of
cattle and presents itself as severe
control. It is a combination of several reasonable care is adhered to. If the
diarrhoea. It usually affects children
controls working in conjunction standard of care is not met, then the
between the ages of 1 and 5, but it
to ensure that the boiler does not acts are considered to be negligent
can affect anyone and the symptoms
fire unless it is required. It is key in and damages may be claimed for in a
can be very severe in people with low
ensuring good system efficiency and court of law.
immune systems.
saving energy.
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Dynamic pressure: also known as but do not form part of the electrical Integral filling loop: a filling loop that
‘running pressure’, this is the water system. is designed and installed as part of the
pressure when outlets are open and From every source of electrical boiler by the manufacturer.
water is flowing. energy: many accidents occur due Interconnected: connected together
Earth: earth with a capital E to a failure to isolate all sources to form one cistern.
represents the potential of the ground of supply to or within equipment Internal space: an indoor space not
we stand on. (for example, control and auxiliary classified as a room because it is
Economical: good value for money. supplies, uninterruptable power supply either a hall, passageway, stairway or
(UPS) systems or parallel circuit landing.
Effective roof area: different to the
arrangements giving rise to back
actual size of the roof area. In effect it Intumescent air vents: an
feeds).
is the plan view area of the roof. intumescent vent contains a substance
Functional testing: a process carried which swells when exposed to heat
Electric shock: where a current flows
out to check that components within and blocks the free air opening which
through the human body and causes
an installation operate correctly. For will help prevent the spread of smoke
an accident or injury as a result.
example, an immersion heater should in a fire.
Electrolytic corrosion: a process of be tested to ensure safe operation of
IP2X: meaning that there is no hole in
accelerated corrosion between two or heating element and thermostat.
the barrier or enclosure greater than
more differing metals when placed in
Glycol: a liquid anti-freeze which is 12.5 mm in diameter, which provides
an electrolytic environment.
odourless and colourless in its raw ‘finger protection’, meaning no person
Engineering judgement: this is a state. can insert their finger and touch live
technical decision which is based parts.
Guidance Note GS38: electrical test
on the competence of a person who
equipment for use by electricians IP4X: meaning that there is no hole in
has an appropriate combination of
(published by the Health and Safety the barrier or enclosure greater than
technical education, training and
Executive, HSE) was written as a 1 mm in diameter stopping parts from
practical experience in the specific field
guideline to good practice when using falling into the enclosure.
of work. Competence in specific areas
test equipment on circuits operating
of gas work is verified by assessments Isolation: this means the
at voltages >50 V AC or >120 V DC
of an engineer’s theoretical and disconnection and separation of the
or where tests use these voltages. It
practical knowledge at an independent electrical equipment from every
is intended to be followed, in order to
nationally approved ACS gas centre, source of electrical energy in such
reduce the risk of danger and injury
and then registration with the HSE a way that this disconnection and
when performing electrical tests.
approved Gas Safe register. separation is secure.
Haemoglobin: the part of the red
Equal potential: where the voltage Legible: readable.
blood cell that carries vital oxygen
between any two parts is within safe Line: the conductor, having brown
to the brain. When CO enters the
touch voltage levels, usually 50 V AC coloured insulation, which is normally
bloodstream, the haemoglobin
but dependent on the location. connected to terminals marked L.
becomes carboxyhaemoglobin, which
Equilibrium: in perfect balance (e.g., effectively blocks the red blood cells Live conductor: a conductor intended
the pressure is balanced both sides of from carrying the oxygen to the brain to be energised in normal service, and
the valve). When referring to drainage and this causes the body’s cells and therefore includes a neutral conductor.
systems this relates to keeping the air tissue to fail and die. Live testing: a test is carried out when
pressure even within the system, so components are live.
Head: the pressure exerted by a
that any negative pressure or pressure
column of water under gravity. Loading unit: a number or a factor,
fluctuation does not cause any trap
Insulation: the material that covers which is allocated to an appliance. It
seal loss and therefore the ingress of
the conductor, and should have a relates to the flow rate at the terminal
foul air into the property.
high resistance stopping current flow. fitting, the length of time in use and
Extraneous conductive parts: the frequency of use.
Insulation is intended to stop current
metallic parts of a building structure
from leaking from one conductor into Mandatory: required by law or
or services that have a low resistance
another conductor or person which regulation.
path to the general mass of earth
could in turn cause an electric shock.
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Glossary
Mass flow rate: the mass of a connected to the same soil stack, the identified by the fact they look like
substance (e.g. kilograms) which trap depths remaining should be at circuit breakers but have a test button
passes in a unit of time. least 25 mm deep. located on them.
Multi-storey building: a building Perpendicular: at an angle of 90° to Resistance testing: the Ω scale is
having more than three floors. a certain plane. In other words, the used, for example, to find out the
Naphtha: a waxy oil deposit that is Sun’s rays need to be at 90° to the level resistance of a coil in a motor, to
present in natural gas in its unrefined collector where possible for maximum ascertain whether it works or not (e.g.
state. It is removed and later reused in efficiency. testing a motor on a zone valve).
other products such as cosmetics. Planning permission: official Resistor: a passive thru-terminal
National standard: based on permission from the local authority electrical component that resists
International Standards produced by allowing a new build, alteration or electrical current.
the International Electrotechnical addition to an existing building to be Reverse osmosis: method of purifying
Commission (IEC), member nations made. water.
create their own versions specific to Post: means ‘after’. Rodding point: a place where the
their needs. Other CENELEC countries Post-aerated flame: air is drawn for drain or section of drain can be
use the term ‘rules’ rather than combustion from the surrounding air accessed to clear any blockages.
‘regulations’. For example, the national once the flame is lit, often resulting in Schmutzdecke: a layer of mud that
wiring standard in the Republic of a loose yellow, floppy flame. is saturated with friendly, water
Ireland is the National Rules for
Potable: pronounced poe-table, from cleansing bacteria.
Electrical Installations (ET101).
the French word ‘potable’ meaning Secure: security can best be achieved
Neutral: the conductor, having blue drinkable. by locking off with a safety lock (such
coloured insulation, which is normally
Pre: means ‘before’. as a lock with a unique key). The
connected to terminals marked N.
Pre-aerated flame: air is entrained in posting of a warning notice also serves
Overheat protection: when water to alert others to the isolation.
the mixing tube before ignition.
cannot circulate or the thermostats
Pryolised: when a material begins Solar radiation: radiant energy
have been satisfied and the motorised
to decompose due to elevated emitted by the Sun.
valves have closed, the boiler will
continue to heat up for a short period temperatures. Standard English: use of English
even though the burner has shut PVCu (unplasticised poly vinyl chloride): following correct spelling and grammar.
down. This is because of the latent a common material used in rainwater Static pressure: this is the water
heat in the boiler casing. If the boiler guttering and pipework systems. pressure when no flow is occurring.
overheats, the high-limit thermostat Ratio: 1:600 means 1 mm fall for This is always greater than the
will activate, and the boiler will fail every 600 mm length of gutter. dynamic pressure.
to operate when it is next required. A Refrigerant: a substance or mixture, Statutory: the law, and therefore
pump-overrun circuit, which is fitted usually a fluid, used in a heat pump there are serious consequences if they
to most modern boilers, will ensure and refrigeration cycle. In most cycles are not followed.
that the pump continues to run when it undergoes phase transitions from a Stratification: describes how the
the boiler has shut down to dissipate liquid to a gas and back again. temperature of the water varies with
any latent heat. If the motorised its depth. The nearer the water is to
Regulatory body: an organisation set
valves are closed, the automatic the top of the cistern, the warmer
up by the Government to monitor,
bypass valve opens from the pump it will be. The deeper the water, the
control and guide various sectors
pressure to allow water circulation, colder it will be. This tends to occur
within industry.
allowing the excess heat to dissipate, in layers, whereby there is a marked
keeping the boiler temperature below Residual current device (RCD): a
temperature difference from one layer
high-limit shut-down. sensitive device which trips, cutting
to the next. The result is that water
current from a circuit, should a
Pathogen: a germ or bacteria. quality can vary, the warmer water
very small fault occur between any
Performance test: carried out on a near the top being more susceptible to
live conductor and earth. They are
sanitary system to ensure that after biological growth such as Legionella
intended to give maximum protection
simultaneous operation of appliances pneumophila (Legionnaires’ disease).
against electric shock and can be
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
Sub-station transformer: a piece of causes expansion and contraction Other types are type C intended for
equipment which is owned by the and, eventually, the loosening of motors and transformers and type D
electricity distribution network operator terminals. for very specialised machines such
(DNO) and is used to step down large Tanking: a process used to ensure as welding equipment or medical
distribution voltages of 11000 V to that a wet room area installation is equipment.
230 V for supplies into houses. Sub- completely leak free. Upstream: in water systems, upstream
stations are sometimes located behind means travelling toward the point of
Thermal shock: the rapid cooling or
panel fences and can serve up to 100 supply.
heating of a substance that can lead to
houses or more depending on its size.
failure of the material. Verbal: the spoken word. Any verbal
Sometimes they are located on poles
Tone of voice: a way of sounding communication should always be
where they serve one or two houses in
to express meaning or emotion. backed up with written confirmation
more rural locations. In cities and large
For example, your tone of voice to verify any agreements and clarify
towns, they are normally located in
can communicate confidence and any details to prevent confusion.
brick or concrete structures.
conviction, assuring customers that Verifiable: able to be checked.
Supplementary bonding: where a
you are knowledgeable and capable. Vertigo: the feeling that the sufferer
bonding conductor is installed either
between pipes or from a socket outlet Transpose: to rearrange the or objects around them are moving
or other accessory to a pipe. Unlike information to determine a different when they are not; feels like a spinning
MPB, supplementary bonding doesn’t part of the formula. or swaying movement.
come from the MET. The minimum csa Turbidity: refers to how clear or cloudy Vitiated air: the word ‘vitiated’
of cable permitted for supplementary the water is due to the amount of simply means ‘to be made impure’, so
bonding is 4 mm2 where the cable is total suspended solids it contains. The ‘vitiated air’ is air that has been made
in free air. Supplementary bonding is greater the amount of total suspended impure.
sometimes also called cross-bonding. solids (TSS) in the water, the cloudier it Water table: the point where the earth
Switch: component that breaks an will appear. Cloudy water can therefore below ground becomes saturated with
electrical circuit by interrupting or be said to be turbid. water causing water to pool.
diverting current. Type B circuit breakers: the most Water undertaker: a water authority
Thermal cycling: heating and sensitive type of CB and should be or company that supplies clean, cold
cooling of metal (in this case) which the types used to protect circuits wholesome water under Section 67 of
in domestic type installations. the Water Act 1991.
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Index
Note: page numbers in bold indicate backflow risks 49, 174 boreholes 22–3, 34–5
location of key term definitions. balanced water pressures 132, Boyle’s law 89, 143
A 134 British Standards
absorption filters 31 balancing of systems central heating 218, 263–4,
AC (alternating current) 340–1, 398 central heating 270–1 266, 267
accumulators 21, 34, 36–7 secondary circulation 177–8 chimney/flue systems 519
capacity, assessing 89–90 underfloor heating 215 cold water systems 69, 91, 97
in unvented hot water systems Bernoulli’s principle 125 fuel systems 480
171–2 bidets 64–5 hot water systems 134, 157
adventitious ventilation 494 biomass 116, 217, 477 buffer tank 437
air admittance valves 298–301 boilers 419 Building Regulations 108
air change rates 225–6 delivery requirements 486 central heating 264, 273
air gaps distribution 487–8 cold water services/systems
for backflow prevention 51–7 storage requirements 484–5 5–6, 97
cisterns 11, 12, 13, 18 systems 442–4 environmental technology 429
air pressure switch 275, 410–11 blockages hot water systems 151–2
air source heat pumps 440–2 drains 298, 299 micro-renewable energy 429
annular space 504 in guttering 333 sanitation 290–1, 292, 319–20
appliance compartment 495 heat emitters 278 solar thermal systems 434
ventilation of 495–8 sanitary systems 332 building services engineering
vents for 499 blue water corrosion 96 career planning 530–2
approved plumber 6 body language 70 competency areas 534–5
aquifer 22 boiler interlock 204 different roles within 533
arc fault detection devices 349 boilers types of work in 533–4
Archimedes’ screw 468 biomass 419 C
architect’s scale drawings 71–2 combi 126, 200, 255, 417–18 cable glands 383
automatic bypass valve 252 components of 274–5 cable/side cutters 367, 388
automatic disconnection of supply electrical fault-finding 402–7 calorific value 443, 475
(ADS) 352–4 ignition of pilot flame 275, 402, cancellation rights 70, 525
azimuth 458 412, 413–15 carbon monoxide 490–1
B management systems 203–4 carbon neutral fuels 217, 442–4
back pressure vs back siphonage multiple 200–1 career planning 530–2
52–3 positioning of 250 CENELEC 343
backflow loop 311 selection criteria 235 central heating systems 193
backflow prevention 46–9 size calculation 241 commissioning 262–75
air gaps 51–7 system 199 control systems for 403–7
central heating systems 253–4 thermostat dead test 408–9 design techniques 216–50
hot water systems 141, 156, bonding 354–5, 390, 391–6 electrical fault-finding 403–7
174 booster/boosting pumps 20–1 electrical testing 261–2
mechanical devices 58–63 shower 41–4 fault diagnosis and repair 275–
point of use protection 50–1 troubleshooting 93–4 85
regulation and guidance 63–7 boosting systems, multi-storey positioning 250–4
testing of devices 94–5 dwellings types and layouts 193–215
whole site protection 50 direct 7–8 wiring diagrams 254–61
zoned protection 50 indirect 8–10 centralised hot water storage 116
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
comparison between open vented servicing and maintenance inhibitors 268–9
and unvented 125 108–10 crimps/crimp lugs 379–80
instantaneous 125–7 specialist components 37–46 cross connections (fluid types) 67–8
open vented systems 117–20 combination boilers 126, 200 cryptosporidium 33
unvented systems 120–5 components of 274–5 current 338
certification 6 fault finding 417–18 curriculum vitae (CV) 532
cesspools 301 pumped heating systems 255 cutting off electricity supply 362
chemical cleansers 268 replacing parts, minimum cylinder thermostats 280, 283,
chimneys 502–21 standards 196 358
chlorination 32 wiring diagram 255 D
circuit boards 412 combined heat and power (CHP) DC (direct current) 341, 398
circuit breakers (CBs) 350–1, system 478, 479 de-zincification resistant (DZR) 61
353–4 micro (mCHP) system 445–6 dead leg 134
circuit diagrams 347 combustion processes 488–90 dead testing 400, 408–9
circuit principles 338–9 ventilation requirements 492– delivery issues 529–30
circuit protective conductors (cpc) 501 fuels 486, 487
354, 368, 389–90 commissioning design techniques
circuit types 351–2 central heating systems 262–75 central heating systems 216–50
circular terminals 378 cold water systems 97–108 cold water systems 68–90
circulating pumps 135, 210, 432 hot water systems 175–80 hot water systems 150–69
positioning of 251 sanitation systems 328–31 rainwater systems 323–8
replacement of 281–2 communication 69–71, 524–6 sanitation systems 317–23
sizing of 162–5, 234, 249–50 effects of poor 529 diagnostic 347
cisterns compartment ventilation 495–6 diagrams
break 18, 92 competency 342 central heating wiring 254–61
capacity/size of 86–7, 102, competent person schemes 6, electrical 345–7
158–9 534–5 scale drawings 71–2, 169, 250
duplicate storage 8 composite valves 145 differential relief valves 58–9
filling methods 13 condense traps 275 differential temperature controller
interconnected 16–17 conductor 338 (DTC) 431
large-scale 8–18 consumers’ control unit (CCU) 348 digital clampmeters 398–9
multiple installations 16–17 contamination of water 24, 26, 28, digital mixer showers 131
overflow/warning pipe 11–13 107 direct-on-line (DOL) starter unit
cleansers, chemical 268 disinfection methods 32–4 356–7
coagulation 29 eliminating risk of 51 discharge pipework
coal 476–7 continuity test 412 from expansion valves 155
storage requirements 482 controls for heating systems 201–2, from safety devices 154
codes of practice 69, 343–5 358, 403–7 layout features 146–7
coke 477 advanced 202–4 sizing 147–8
cold water systems 1 home automation 358 termination of 148–50
backflow protection 46–68 for single family dwellings discharge stacks
commissioning 97–108 204–5 drainage design 291–2
design techniques 68–90 testing of 283–5 layouts 293–301
fault diagnosis and repair 91–6 and zoning 205–6 performance test 329–30
legislation and regulations 1–6 cooler plate 509 size calculations 321–3
multi-storey dwellings 7–21 corrosion 95, 96, 382 waste water lifters 311
private water supply 21–37 immersion heaters 420 WC macerators 306–7
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Index
disinfection systems and layouts 348–58 fill points 251
large cold water systems 101–5 electricity-producing filling loop 200, 253, 282–3
private water supplies 27–8, micro-renewable energy filtration 29–32, 449
32–4 technologies 455–6 fire risks 360, 424, 483, 486
double check valves 61–3, 66 micro-hydro-electric 465–70 fire spread prevention 318–20, 500
downstream 52 micro-wind 461–5 fire triangle 488
ducting requirements 499 solar photovoltaic (PV) 456–61 flame pictures 488–9, 490
duty of care 20 Electricity Safety, Quality and flame rectification 414–15
duty holder 342 Continuity Regulations 2002 float operated valves (FOVs) 13–15
dynamic pressure 171 (ESQCR) 343 float switches 18–19, 35, 186
E electricity supply flocculation 29
Earth 390 automatic disconnection of flow, laminar and turbulent 75–6
earth continuity testing 262 352–4 flow rate 73 see also pipe sizing
earthing 354, 355 low voltage 361–2 assessing anticipated 73–5
and bonding 354–5, 390–1 safe isolation procedures 362–6 checking 92, 105–6, 177
inadequate provision of 425 Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 mass 162–4
total earth fault current path (EAWR) 342 flue systems 502–21
353–4 electrolytic corrosion 95–6 flueless ventilation 499–500
economical 344 engineering judgement 508 fluid categories 47–9
effective roof area 324–6 environmental technology systems fluid hammer 45
efficiency, energy 151, 217 electricity-producing energy flushing
boiler 160, 196, 240–1 systems 455–70 after disinfection 104–5
of heat pumps 436–7 heat-producing systems 430–46 central heating systems 267–70
and product labelling 274 legislation/regulations 428–30 of cold water systems 105–7
PV modules 457 water conservation 446–55 hot water systems 176–7
electric shock 340–1, 359 equal potential 355 fossil fuels 115–16, 475–7
protection against 341, 352–5 equilibrium 13, 291 foul tanks 301–5
electrical equipment/tools 367–8 erroneous 3 frost thermostats 260–1
for isolation procedure 363 expansion vessels 141–3, 183 fuel for domestic systems 474
low voltage supply 361–2 fault-finding and repair 187, and carbon monoxide 490–1
supply for portable 360–1 278, 279, 282 combustion processes 488–90
for terminating flexes/cables positioning of 251 flue and chimney systems
386–90 sealed system 252 502–21
used for testing 396–400 shock arrestors as mini 46 selection of 474–88
electrician’s knife 368, 370, 386, sizing 167–9, 235–7 and ventilation 492–501
388, 389 explosion risks 360, 486–7 fuel oil 476
electricity 337 extraneous conductive part 354 storage of 482–3
common dangers of 359–60 F fuel sources
diagrams and information fans 501 fossil fuels 115–16, 474–7
345–8 continuity testing 409–10 low-carbon 116, 477–9
fault diagnosis and repair 396– fault diagnosis and repair fuel supply/storage
425 central heating systems 275–85 factors affecting 485–8
installation and testing 366–96 cold water systems 91–108 information and regulation
isolation procedures 362–6 electrical work 396–425 sources 480–1
legislation/regulations 342–5 hot water systems 181–8 functional controls, UHWSS 139–
pre-installation activity 358–62 rainwater systems 332–3 45
principles of 337–41 sanitation systems 310, 332 functional testing 420–1
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
fused connection units (FCUs) 356 single-storey dwelling 239–40 insulation and continuity testers 262
fuses 350, 423–4 tabulation method 226–33 insulation, electrical
G heat pumps 435–7, 477–8 insulated crimps 379
Gantt chart 526 air source (ASHP) 440–2 of live conductor 338, 341, 369
garden watering systems 66–7 ground source (GSHP) 437–40 regulations 372, 373
gas detectors 491 HETAS 481, 535 insulation of pipework 136, 173
gas fuels 474–6, 483–4, 492 home automation devices 358 to conserve heat 154, 235
gas safety issues 157, 481, 534 hose union bib taps (outside tap) integral filling loop 200
gas solenoid 413 62–3, 66–7 interconnected cisterns 17
gas valve 275 hot water heating load 235 internal space 500
geothermal energy/heat 116 calculation 240–1 intumescent air vents 500
glycol 432 hot water storage vessels 159–62 intumescent collars 318–19
goal setting (careers) 531–2 hot water systems 115 inverters 458
grates, wet room 314–16 design techniques 150–69 IP (International Protection) Code
grey water reuse systems 451–2 fault diagnosis and repair 181–8 374–7
benefits and limitations 455 fuel sources for 115–16 IP2X and IP4X 341
regulations 453–4 installation requirements 169–74 isolation 362
types of 452–3 killing bacteria vs scalding central heating system 281
grilles 498–9 129–30 of electricity supply 261, 281,
ground source heat pumps 437–40 servicing/maintenance 188–9 363–6
underfloor heating system 209 solar thermal 430–5 hot water systems 185
Guidance Note GS38 364, 396–7 specialist components 138–50 valves 138, 140, 251
gutter system, designing 324–8 testing and commissioning J
H 175–80 jacuzzis/hot tubs 357
haemoglobin 491 types and layouts 116–37 junction boxes 356
handover/’signing off’ 528, 530 hydraulic pressure testing 98–100, K
central heating systems 273–4 266–7 kerosene 476
cold water systems 70, 108 hydraulic shock wave 45 L
sanitation systems 331 hydro-electric generation 465–6 large-scale cisterns 8–18
head (available water pressure) 75 I layouts
health and safety 535 IET Wiring Regulations 157, 343, central heating systems 193–
carbon monoxide 491 344, 370–1, 390, 394 215
cold water systems 32, 95, 100, immersion heaters 117–18, 122, cold water systems 7–46
101 123, 155, 170 electrical systems 348–58
electricity 339, 359, 362, 366, functional testing 420–1 hot water systems 116–37
372, 391, 392 temperature control 173 sanitation systems 293–316
hot water and Legionella 110, index circuit, pipe sizing 246–50 leaks
130, 179 industry standards 157 central heating systems 272
sanitary systems 293, 318–20 information sources cold water systems 99, 107
sink waste disposal unit 312–14 for career planning 530–1 hot water systems 178
heat emitter sizing 238–40 central heating 218–19, 263–4 rainwater systems 332
heat exchangers 274–5 cold water systems 68–71 sanitation systems 301, 329,
heat gain 221–2, 229 fuel supply installation 480–1 332
heat loss 219–21 hot water systems 151–2 shower pump 187
from pipework 136, 235 infrared operated outlets 37–8 legible 273
heat loss calculations 220–1, 222 inhibitors, central heating 268–9 Legionella
from pipework 245–6 initial system fill 98, 176, 215, 265 dealing with 110
546
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Index
and hot water temperature design mass flow rate 162 non-mechanical backflow prevention
129–30 calculation of 163 51–7
and mixed water systems 131, materials non-screw compression connectors
132 delivery problems 529–30 381
risk from 110, 179 ordering and storing 527 notification of works carried out 5,
legislation and regulations mCHP (micro-combined heat and 107–8, 179–80, 273
cold water systems 1–6, 46–9, power) unit 445–6 O
68 Mears calculator 234 Ohm’s law 339–40
and electrical safety 342–3, measurements, taking 71–2, 158, oil 115–16, 476
358–9 219 combi boilers 126
environmental technology mechanical backflow prevention OFTEC 481, 535
systems 428–30 58–63 storage of 482–3
rainwater systems 324–8 micro-hydro-electric systems 465 water heaters 123
smoke control 444, 480 benefits and limitations 470 open vented hot water storage
line 338 regulation and requirements system 117–20
liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 475–6 469–70 comparison with unvented
storage of 483–4 turbines 467–8 125–7
live conductor 373 working principles 465–6 expansion vessel sizing 167–8,
live testing 400 micro-renewable energy technologies 235–8
loading unit 73 electricity-producing 455–70 fault finding 185
local authority building control heat-producing 430–46 fill points 251
office, notifying of works legislation relating to 428–30 initial system fill 176
carried out 5, 107–8, mini expansion vessels 46 maintenance requirements 189
179–80, 273 mixer taps 38–40 secondary circulation installations
localised water heaters 128–9 backflow risks 174 135–6
lockshield (gate) valves 137, 271 motor control equipment 356–7 optimisers 358
loose wiring connections 382, 424 motorised valves 251 over sink heaters 128, 129
low loss headers 201 moving plate terminals 378 overflows, large-scale cisterns
lugs 371, 379–81, 394–6 multi-functional control valve 275 11–13
M multi-storey buildings 7 overheat protection 197
macerators 305–10, 357 base design temperatures 225 oxygen and combustion 488, 492
maintenance of 331 cold water system layout 7–21 ozonation 33
magnetic toggle float switch 18–29 N P
mains water supply, problems of naphtha 475 pathogens 27
poor 171–2 national standard 344 peat 477
maintenance natural gas 474–5 performance test 329
cold water systems 109–10 natural ventilation 492–3 perpendicular 433
hot water systems 188–9 negative head shower pumps 43–4 photovoltaic energy production
sanitation systems 331–2 neutral (conductor) 338 456–61
mandatory 95 neutralisers 269 pipe sizing
manifolds 210, 211–12 noise issues central heating systems 241–9
manufacturer’s instructions 69, 91, central heating systems 272 cold water systems 73–90
97, 109 cold water systems 106 discharge stacks 320–3
central heating 219, 264, 277 hot water systems 178 regulations for sanitary 320–3
electrical installations 348 turbines 464 simplified method 83–6
fuel systems 480, 519 non-concussive taps 38–9 tabulated method 76–83
hot water systems 158, 181 waste pipes 296–8, 320
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
planning pumping stations 310–11 micro-renewable energy systems
career 530–2 pumps see also circulating pumps 428–30
plumbing installations 527–8 booster/boosting 7, 18, 20–1, regulatory body 481
pressure testing 100, 266–7 93–4 relays, electrical 421
planning permission 428–9 duty point 165–6, 167 renewable energy 116
ASHPs 441 heat pumps 435–42, 477–8 low-carbon fuels 477–9
micro-hydro schemes 469 positioning of 251 technologies 455–70
PV systems 460 power calculation 87–9, 166 repairing faults see fault diagnosis
solar thermal systems 434 pump laws 88–9 and repair
for wind turbines 464–5 shower 41–4 residual current device 313, 349
plumbing system installation submersible 23, 36, 449 circuit breakers with 351
524–30 surface 36 resistance 338
pneumatic pressure vessel 9–10 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) cables resistance testing 405
polarity testing 261 368–70 resistors 407
post-aerated flame 489 terminating 388–90 retrospective 3–4
potable 20 PVCu (unplasticised poly vinyl reverse osmosis (RO) 31
power 338, 340 chloride) 319 risk assessments 365–6
power circuits 351–2 Q rivers, water collection from 24
power flushing 269–70 quotations 70, 291–2, 525 rocker switches 422
pre-aerated flame 489 R rodding point 298
presentation of designs to customers radiators roof area, effective 324–6
90, 169, 250, 291 calculating size of 238–40 roof space, PV installation 458
pressure filters 30–1 checking for blockages in 278 room size and temperatures 223–4
pressure gauges 92, 106, 177, heat emission diagram 207 room thermostats 280, 283, 358,
254, 283 positioning of 252 405–6
pressure readings, taking 105–6, radon gas 501 S
177 rainwater harvesting 447–51 safety issues see also health and
pressure reducing valves 44–5, rainwater systems safety
140–1, 172 design and installation 323–4 fuel storage 486–7
pressure relief valves 139, 144, fault diagnosis and repairs sand filters 29–30
253 332–3 sanitation systems 290
fault finding 184, 283 legislation 324–8 commissioning of 328–31
pressure testing 98–100, 266–7 rapid (gravity) sand filters 30 design techniques 317–23
printed circuit boards (PCBs) 412 ratio 328 fault diagnosis and repairs
private water supply (PWS) 21 RCBOs 350–1 332–3
components used to pump water RCDs (residual current devices) 349 foul tanks 301–5
35–6 record keeping 108, 110, 180, legislation and regulation 290–2
methods of providing 21–34 272–3, 330 servicing and maintenance
regulations 3, 16 reed beds 304–5, 453 331–2
system layouts 34–5 refrigerant 435–6, 440, 441 sink waste disposal units
programmers, for heating control regulatory requirements 439–40 312–14
206, 285, 358, 403–4 regulations types of system 293
proving units 400 central heating systems 218 ventilation 293–301
Provision and Use of Work electric safety 343–5, 358–9 waste water lifters 310–12
Equipment Regulations 343 fuel supply and storage 480–1 WC macerators 305–10
pryolised 320 micro-hydro-electric systems wet rooms 314–16
pull cord switches 422 469–70 scale drawings 71–2, 169, 250
548
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Index
schmutzdecke 30 solar radiation 222, 430 T
Scottish Water Bylaws (2004) 47 solar thermal (hot water) systems tanking 314
screw terminals 377, 379 116, 430–5, 477, 478 taps
screwdrivers 367 solder creep 371 bath/shower mixer 39–40
sealed heating systems 196–7 soldered terminations 381 flow limiting valves 40
components of 252–4, 282–3 solenoid valves 15, 413 garden irrigation 66–7
fill points 251 solid fuel 116, 476–7 infrared operated 37–8
permanent filling connections to HETAS 481, 535 non-concussive 38–9
253–4 soundness testing spray 40
secondary circulation 134–7 cold water systems 98–100 temperature 216
balancing 177–8 electrical terminators 382 bacteria vs scalding concerns
sizing of pump 162–5 hot water systems 176 129–30
security 362 sanitation systems 329 central heating design 216,
sedimentation 29 space heating load, boiler criterion 223–5
self-closing taps 38–9 235 sensors 20
septic tanks 301–4 space heating zoning requirements temperature control
servicing 194–6 DTC for solar systems 431
central heating systems 276 specialist components hot water 130–2, 173
cold water systems 108–9 cold water systems 37–46 safety controls, UHWSS 138–9
hot water systems 188–9 hot water systems 138–50 space heating 195, 205–6
sanitation systems 331–2 spillage test, ventilation 501, 520–1 ‘temporary decommissioning’
shadow flicker 464 spillover level 53, 65 108–9, 185, 281
shock arrestors 45–6 spray taps 40 terminating cables/conductors
showers spring water collection 26 370–7
backflow prevention 63, 65 square base terminals 377–8 consequences of unsound
booster pumps 41–4, 165–7 stack effect 225 382–3
fault finding 186–7 standard English 70 inspection and testing 382
instantaneous 357 static pressure 171 methods for safe/effective
mixer taps 39–40 statutory 429 383–90
TMV installations 131 stop/isolation valves 140, 251 test lamps, voltage detection 397–8
shrouds 384–5 storage testing equipment 396–401
single check valves 60–1, 138, 141 cold water in cisterns 86–7, 92 for safe isolation 363–4
sink waste disposal units 312–14 of fuels 482–8 testing procedures
maintenance of 332 hot water 116–29, 159–62 central heating systems 254–
siphonage see also backflow rainwater 449 62, 266–7
prevention treated water 26–7 chimney/flue systems 519–21
induced/self 329–30 stratification 15, 136–7, 159, 161 electrics 261–2, 366–96
slinkies 438–9 streams, water from 24 hot water systems 175–80
SMART targets 532 stripping cables/wires 369–70, thermal cycling 373
smoke control areas 444, 480 386–7, 389–90, 395–6 thermal shock 201
smoke matches, spillage test 520–1 sub-station transformer 354 thermal stores 126–7
smoke test, flue flow 520 submersible pumps 23, 35–6, 449 thermistors 416
socket testers 399–400 supplementary bonding 355, 425 thermocouple 415
soil stack systems 293, 296–7 sustainable fuels 477–9 thermoplastic cables 368–9
solar photovoltaic (PV) technology switch 407 stripping 368–70
456–61 SWOT analysis 532
549
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2
thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs) fault finding 184 Water Supply (Water Fittings)
130–2, 210 G3 requirements 535 Regulations (1999) 2–3, 97
guide for selecting 133 initial system fill 176 backflow protection 46–7, 63–7
thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) installation of 169–71 central heating systems 263,
206, 278 maintenance requirements 189 266
thermostats 183, 280, 404 secondary circulation installations fluid categories 47–9
boiler 408–9 135 hot water systems 134, 140,
checking faulty 182, 187–8, use of cold water accumulators 150, 152–6
278 171–2 notification requirements 5, 6
cylinder 280, 283, 358 upstream 52 water table 26
frost 260–1 urinals 40–1, 65 water treatment 27–34
as heating controls 173, 283, V water softener issues 93
358 ventilation water turbines 465–70
room 280, 283, 358, 405–6 domestic fuel systems 492–501 water types 447
safety controls in hot water sanitary systems 293–301 water undertaker 2, 107
systems 139 verbal communication 69, 70–1, WCs 65
time clocks 136, 182, 278, 358 277, 526 backflow prevention 55–6
tone of voice 70 verifiable 58 flow limiting valves 40
trace heating 137 vertical loops, ground heat 438 macerators 305–10, 331, 357
transducers 19, 92 vertigo 491 spacing requirements 318
transformers 361 visual inspections ventilation design 293–301
transpose 89 central heating systems 264–5 weather compensators 202, 203
tundish 138, 144–5 chimney/fuel systems 519–20 weather conditions, fuel storage
turbidity 29 cold water systems 98 487
turbines prior to electric tests 400–1 weir gauges, flow rate checks
micro-hydro-electric 465–70 sanitation systems 328–9 105–6, 177
micro-wind 461–5 vitiated air 490 wells, water pumped from 22–3
turbulent flow 75, 76 voltage 338 wet rooms 314–16
type B circuit breakers 353 voltage testers 398 wind speed, turbines 463
U W wind turbines 461–5
U-values 219–21 waste disposal unit, sinks 312–14 wire strippers 367, 369, 387
ultraviolet irradiation 33–4 waste pipes, sizing 296–8, 320 wiring
under sink heaters 124–5, 128–9 waste products from fuel use, alternative methods 285
underfloor heating systems 206–15 problems of 480 centres 356, 403
unvented hot water storage systems waste water lifters 310–12 diagrams 254–61, 347
(UHWSS) 120–5 maintenance of 331–2 IET regulations 344–5
balanced and unbalanced supply Water Act (2003) 2, 3 systems, installing 368–70
pressures 132, 134 water conservation technologies working relationships 524–6
comparison with open vented 446–55 workplace conflicts 528–9
125–7 water demand and use 73, 447 written communication 69–70, 525
controls, function and position of water hammer 45 Z
138–45 water quality parameters 28 zone valves 202, 284, 358, 404–6
discharge pipework 146–50 water softeners 92, 93 zoning 194–6, 205–6
550
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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 2, Second Edition
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