DATA MANIPULATION

L EC T U R E S L I D ES A R E A DA P T E D / M O D I F I E D F RO M S L I D ES
P ROV I D E D BY T H E T E X T B O O K , C O M P U T E R S C I E N C E : A N
OV E RV I E W BY J. G L E N N B RO O K S H EA R A N D D E N N I S B RY LOW
P U B L I S H E R P EA RS O N
Data Manipulation
 Computer Architecture
 Machine Language
 Program Execution
 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
 Communicating with Other Devices
 Other Architectures

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Computer Architecture
Computer Architecture
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor
◦ Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
◦ Registers
◦ General purpose
◦ Special purpose

 Bus
 Motherboard

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CPU and main memory connected via a bus

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Motherboards
 The motherboard
◦ is the main printed circuit board.
◦ contains the buses, or electrical
pathways found in a computer.
Buses allow data to travel
among the various components.
◦ accommodates CPU, RAM,
expansion slots, heat sink/fan
assembly, BIOS chip, chip set,
sockets, internal and external
connectors, various ports, and the
embedded wires that interconnect the
motherboard components.

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Central Processing Unit
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is known as the
brain of the computer. It is also referred to as the
processor.
 The CPU executes a program, which is a sequence
of stored instructions.

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Central Processing Unit
 Some CPUs incorporate hyperthreading or
hypertransport to enhance the performance of the
CPU.
 The amount of data that a CPU can process at one
time depends on the size of the processor data bus.
 Speed of the CPU is measured in cycles per second
- megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
 Overclocking is a technique used to make a
processor work at a faster speed than its original
specification.

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Central Processing Unit
 The latest processor technology has resulted
in CPU manufacturers finding ways to incorporate
more than one CPU core onto a single chip.
◦ Dual Core CPU - Two cores inside a single CPU
◦ Triple Core CPU - Three cores inside a single CPU
◦ Quad Core CPU - Four cores inside a single CPU
◦ Hexa-Core CPU - Six cores inside a single CPU
◦ Octa-Core CPU - Eight cores inside a single CPU

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The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Subsystem that performs addition, subtraction, and
comparison for equality
 Components
◦ Registers, interconnections between components, and the
ALU circuitry
 Register
◦ Storage cell that holds the operands of an arithmetic
operation and holds its result
 Bus
◦ Path for electrical signals

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The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Registers are similar to RAM with following minor
differences
◦ They do not have a numeric memory address but are
accessed by a special register designator such as A, X or R0
◦ They can be accessed much more quickly than regular
memory cells
◦ They are not used for general purpose storage but for
specific purposes such as holding the operands for an
upcoming arithmetic computations.
 A typical ALU has 16, 32 or 64 registers.

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The Control Unit
 Control unit
◦ Tasks: fetch, decode, and execute

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Machine Language
Stored Program Concept
 A program can be encoded as bit patterns and
stored in main memory.
 From there, the CPU can then extract the
instructions and execute them.
 In turn, the program to be executed can be altered
easily.

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Terminology
 Machine instruction: An instruction (or command)
encoded as a bit pattern recognizable by the CPU

 Machine language: The set of all instructions

recognized by a machine

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Machine Language Philosophies
 Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
◦ Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
◦ Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola and ARM

 Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

◦ Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
◦ Example: Intel

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Machine Instruction Types
 Data Transfer: copy data from one location to
another
 Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to
compute a new bit patterns
 Control: direct the execution of the program

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Adding values stored in memory

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Dividing values stored in memory

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An architecture of the machine

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Parts of a Machine Instruction
 Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
 Operand: Gives more detailed information about
the operation
◦ Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-code

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The composition of an instruction

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Decoding the instruction 35A7

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A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

1 RXY LOAD reg. R from cell XY.
2 RXY LOAD reg. R with XY.
3 RXY STORE reg. R at XY.
4 0RS MOVE R to S.
5 RST ADD S and T into R. (2’s comp.)
6 RST ADD S and T into R. (floating pt.)

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A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

7 RST OR S and T into R.
8 RST AND S and T into R.
9 RST XOR S and T into R.
A R0X ROTATE reg. R X times.
B RXY JUMP to XY if R = reg. 0.
C 0 HALT.

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A Simple Machine Language
 14A3: Load
◦ The contents of the memory cell located at address A3 to
be placed in register 4.
 20A3: Load
◦ The value A3 to be placed in register 0.
 35B1: Store
◦ The contents of register 5 to be placed in the memory cell
whose address is B1.
 40A4: Move
◦ The contents of register A to be copied into register 4.

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A Simple Machine Language
 5726: Add
◦ The binary values in registers 2 and 6 to be added and the
sum placed in register 7.
 634E: Add
◦ The values in registers 4 and E to be added as floating-
point values and the result to be placed in register 3.

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A Simple Machine Language
 7CB4: Or
◦ The result of ORing the contents of registers B and 4 to be
placed in register C.
 8045: And
◦ The result of ANDing the contents of registers 4 and 5 to
be placed in register 0.
 95F3: Xor
◦ The result of XORing the contents of registers F and 3 to
be placed in register 5.
 A403: Rotate
◦ The contents of registers 4 to be rotated 3 bits to the right
in a circular fashion.

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A Simple Machine Language
 B43C:
◦ Compare the contents of register 4 with the contents of
register 0.
◦ If equal, the pattern 3C would be placed in the program
counter so that the next execution executed would be the
one located at that memory address.
◦ Otherwise, nothing would be done.
 C000:
◦ Stop program execution.

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An encoded version of the instructions

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Quiz
The following are instructions written in the above
simple machine language. Rewrite in English.
◦ 368A
◦ BADE
◦ 803C
◦ 40F4

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Quiz
What is the difference between the instructions 15AB
and 25AB in the simple machine language?

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Quiz
Here are some instructions in English. Translate each
of them into the simple machine language.
◦ LOAD register number 3 with the hexadecimal 56.

◦ ROTATE register number 5 three bits to the right.

◦ AND the contents of register A with the contents of register

5 and leave the result in register 0.

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Program Execution
Program Execution
 Controlled by two special-purpose registers
◦ Program counter: address of next instruction
◦ Instruction register: current instruction
 Machine Cycle
◦ Fetch
◦ Decode
◦ Execute

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The machine cycle

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Decoding the instruction B258

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A program stored in main memory

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The fetch step of the machine cycle

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The fetch step of the machine cycle

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Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
Arithmetic/Logic Operations
 Logic: AND, OR, XOR
◦ Masking
 Rotate and Shift:
◦ circular shift (rotation)
◦ logical shift
◦ arithmetic shift
 Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
◦ Precise action depends on how the values are encoded
(two’s complement versus floating-point).

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Masking

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Circular shift

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Logical shift

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Quiz
Identify both the mask and the logical operation
needed to accomplish each of the following
objectives:
• Put 1s in all but the most significant bit of an 8-bit
pattern without disturbing the most significant bit.
• Filter out all of the green color component from
an RGB bitmap image pixel in which the middle 8
bits of a 24-bit pattern store the green information.
• Invert all of the bits in a 24-bit RGB bitmap
• Set all the bits in a 24-bit RGB bitmap pixel to 1,
indicating the color “white”.

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Quiz
Identify a logical operation (along with a
corresponding mask) that, when applied to an input
string of 8 bits, produces an output string of all 0s if
and only ifs the input string is 1000 0001.

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Communicating with Other
Devices
Communicating with Other Devices
 Controller: An intermediary apparatus that handles
communication between the computer and a device
◦ Specialized controllers for each type of device
◦ General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire)
 Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
 Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory
cells

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Controllers attached to a machine’s bus

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A conceptual representation of memory-
mapped I/O

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Communicating with Other Devices
 Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory
access by a controller over the bus
 Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus speed
impedes performance
 Handshaking: The process of coordinating the
transfer of data between components

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Communicating with Other Devices
 Parallel Communication: Several communication
paths transfer bits simultaneously.
 Serial Communication: Bits are transferred one
after the other over a single communication path.

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Data Communication Rates
 Measurement units
◦ Bps: Bits per second
◦ Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
◦ Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
◦ Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
 Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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What’s on the Outside of the Box?

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What’s on the Outside of the Box?
 Connectors on a notebook may vary

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Universal serial bus
 USB (universal serial bus) ports
◦ Connects up to 127 peripheral devices
◦ USB 2.0 (high-speed USB)—fully compatible with USB 1.1
products, cables, and connectors
◦ Designed to replace older parallel and serial ports
◦ Connects a variety of devices to the computer, including:
◦ Keyboards
◦ Mice
◦ Printers
◦ Digital cameras

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Universal serial bus
 USB 2.0
◦ Uses an external bus
◦ Supports data transfer rates of 480 Mbps between the computer
and the peripheral device
◦ Supports hot swapping—ability to connect and disconnect devices
without shutting down the computer
◦ Plug-and-play (PnP)—allows computers to automatically detect
the device when you plug it in
 USB 3.0 (2008): 5Gbps
 USB 3.1 (2013): 10Gbps
 USB hub
◦ Device that plugs into existing USB port
◦ Contains four or more additional ports

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FireWire
 FireWire (1395 ports)
◦ Created by Apple in 1995
◦ IEEE 1394 Higher Performance Serial Bus, also known as
Sony i.Link
◦ Offers high-speed connections for dozens of peripheral
devices (up to 63)
◦ Enables hot swapping and PnP
◦ Data transfer rates of FireWire
◦ FireWire 400—400 Mbps
◦ FireWire 800—800 Mbps
◦ Declared “dead” by Steve Jobs.

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Video connectors
 VGA (video graphics array)
◦ 15-pin male connector—works with standard monitor
cables
◦ Transmits analog video signals
◦ Used for legacy technology cathode ray (CRT) monitors
 DVI (Digital visual Interface) port—lets LCD
monitors use digital signals
 Onboard video—video circuitry built into the
motherboard where the video connector is on the
back of the system unit case

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HDMI
 High-Definition Multimedia
Interface
◦ A video/audio interface for transmitting
uncompressed video data, and
compressed/uncompressed audio data.
◦ Digital replacement for analog video
standards.
◦ Designed: 2002 (7 companies).
◦ HDMI 2.1: 48Gbps.
◦ Newer version: 3D, Ethernet data
connection, Consumer Electronics
Control (CEC) extensions.

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Additional connectors
 Telephone
 Network
 PC card slot
◦ PC card
◦ ExpressCard
 Sound card
 Game card
 TV/sound capture
board

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Other Architechtures
Other Architectures
 Technologies to increase throughput:
◦ Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
◦ Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors
simultaneously
◦ SISD: No parallel processing
◦ MIMD: Different programs, different data
◦ SIMD: Same program, different data

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Pipelining

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Parallel processing
◦ Method where more than one processor performs at the
same time—faster processing

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