What constitutes 'emplacement' of an ophiolite?

" Mechanisms and

relationship to subduction initiation and formation of metamorphic
soles
JOHN WAKABAYASHI: & YILDIRIM DILEK 2
11329 Sheridan Lane, Hayward, CA 94544, USA (e-mail." [email protected])
2Department of Geology, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA

Abstract: Ophiolites have long been recognized as on-land fragments of fossil oceanic
lithosphere, which becomes an ophiolite when incorporated into continental margins through a
complex process known as 'emplacement'. A fundamental problem of ophiolite emplacement is
how dense oceanic crust becomes emplaced over less dense material(s) of continental margins
or subduction-accretion systems. Subduction of less dense material beneath a future ophiolite
is necessary to overcome the adverse density contrast. The relationship of subduction to
ophiolite emplacement is a critical link between ophiolites and their role in the development of
orogenic belts. Although ophiolite emplacement mechanisms are clearly varied, most existing
models and definitions of emplacement concern a specific type of ophiolite (i.e. Oman or
Troodos) and do not apply to many of the world's ophiolites. We have defined four prototype
ophiolites based on different emplacement mechanisms: (1) 'Tethyan' ophiolites, emplaced over
passive continental margins or microcontinents as a result of collisional events; (2)
'Cordilleran' ophiolites progressively emplaced over subduction complexes through accre-
tionary processes; (3) 'ridge-trench intersection' (RTI) ophiolites emplaced through complex
processes resulting from the interaction between a spreading ridge and a subduction zone; (4)
the unique Macquarie Island ophiolite, which has been subaerially exposed as a result of a
change in plate boundary configuration along a mid-ocean ridge system. Protracted evolutionary
history of some ocean basins, and variation along the strike of subduction zones may result in
more complicated scenarios in ophiolite emplacement mechanisms. No single definition of
emplacement is free of drawbacks; however, we can consider the inception of subduction,
thrusting over a continental margin or subduction complex, and subaerial exposure as critical
individual stages in ophiolite emplacement.

Ophiolites have been recognized as on-land frag- lower (Coleman 1971) versus upper plate (Temple
ments of oceanic crust since the advent of plate & Zimmerman 1969; Dewey & Bird 1970, 1971;
tectonics (e.g. Gass 1968; Dewey & Bird 1970; Moores 1970) of a subduction system (Fig. 1). In
Moores 1970; Coleman 1971; Moores & Vine the past two decades, however, controversy regard-
1971). Incorporation of ophiolites into continental ing the tectonic setting of ophiolite formation has
margins is a significant component of the tectonic greatly overshadowed any debate over emplace-
evolution of orogenic belts and has been broadly ment mechanisms (e.g. Moores et al. 2000 and
defined as 'ophiolite emplacement' or 'ophiolite references therein). The widespread acceptance of
obduction' (e.g. Moores 1970; Dewey & Bird the suprasubduction zone (SSZ) ophiolite concept
1970, 1971; Coleman 1971). Scientific evaluation (e.g. Robinson et al. 1983; Pearce et al. 1984) has
of ophiolite emplacement has played a key role in contributed to the swinging of the majority opi-
the formulation of plate tectonic theory, because nion on ophiolite emplacement toward the model
ophiolites provide a critical link between the sea- of emplacement from the upper plate of a subduc-
floor spreading evolution of oceanic plates and tion system (e.g. Dewey 1976; Moores 1982;
their demise at subduction zones and because the Searle & Stevens 1984) (Figs 1 and 2). Regardless
mechanisms of their incorporation into land con- of their original tectonic setting of igneous forma-
stitute a first-order tectonic problem in plate tion, ophiolites became incorporated into conti-
tectonics. nental margins through complex interactions of
Ophiolite emplacement mechanisms were once lithospheric plates and hence the mechanisms of
a subject of vigorous debate, particularly with ophiolite emplacement should be expected to vary
respect to the derivation of an ophiolite from the depending on the age, thickness and thermal state

From: DILEK, Y. & ROBINSONP. T. (eds) 2003. Ophiolites in Earth History. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 218, 427-447. 0305-8719/03/$15 9 The Geological Society of London 2003.
428 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

Fig. 1.The preferred model of emplacing an ophiolite over a continental margin (same thrusting sense as subduction)
contrasted with emplacement antithetic to the subduction polarity. Although these diagrams illustrate the case for
Tethyan ophiolites, the same principles apply to Cordilleran ophiolites emplaced over subduction-accretion
complexes (see Fig. 4).

of oceanic crust, the nature and geometry of plate present a critical evaluation of the models on
boundaries involved, and the size and character subduction initiation and metamorphic sole
(i.e. oceanic versus continental, microcontinent, development, both of which constitute two major
island arc, seamount, etc.) of the interacting phases in ophiolite emplacement. Finally, we
plates. Although ophiolite emplacement mechan- discuss the emplacement mechanisms of the four
isms have been debated for several decades, most prototypes of ophiolites.
of the arguments concern a specific type of
ophiolite and do not apply to different types of
Ophiolite prototypes
ophiolites around the world.
In this paper we examine the existing ideas We follow in this paper the 1972 Penrose defini-
and models on ophiolite emplacement mechan- tion of an ophiolite (Penrose Conference Partici-
isms to better document the nature and order of pants 1972) for simplicity, although we realize the
the processes involved in the incorporation of obvious shortcomings of this restricted definition
fossil oceanic crust into continental margins as in ophiolite classification (Dilek 2003), because
ophiolites. We define four prototypes of ophio- the discussion of various tectonic environments of
lites based on their emplacement mechanisms, ophiolite genesis is not directly relevant to empla-
which deviate from each other as a result of cement mechanisms. Our discussion of ophiolites
different plate interactions in the past. We then excludes thrust slices or blocks of pelagic sedi-
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 429
ophiolite generation at
future ophiolite mid ocean
2"---~ ,~Q
.., ~. -. ridge o p hiolite, g eneration at
Z-"--/-~ ~o~""'~" ~ ......................................... . ...... supra-subduction
~^ . Tu[ure o p m o , t e ..
u f . - ,, -..zone spreaalng
~',';] ',
,,% ,, ~~ .- ~- . ~ .......................................................... ~ center
~.~-.... , , ~ .................................................................................
~ ......................

b'O~. Of- ,, ~J
40 km approximate ~ ~"~",;~,~,,,~...~,~..~
~ ~' ~

r.. - m f %.

future o p h i o l i t e

subduction initiates beneath ophiolite ~'-~,,~%,,

/
ophiolite thrust (emplaced) ~'
v
over continental margin
/ophiolite
\ \ N-~.~ ~:~:,,:~, ................. ...................~ , : : ~ : ~ : : ~ :

Fig. 2. Illustration that ophiolite emplacement and the environment of the emplacement do not constrain the tectonic
setting of ophiolite genesis. Any type of ophiolite, whether it be nascent arc, interarc, backarc or mid-ocean ridge
generated, can be emplaced over a continental margin or subduction-accretion complex.

mentary rocks, basalt and variably serpentinized wedges may be the off-scraped remnants of
ultramafic rock that are intercalated within accre- peridotite-cored uplifts formed at ridge-transform
tionary wedges. Exposures of ophiolitic rocks in intersections (Coleman 2000).
subduction-accretion systems are not treated as We distinguish four prototypes of ophiolites
ophiolite complexes in this paper because: (1) based on their emplacement mechanisms and the
accretionary wedge ophiolitic rocks most com- nature of their underlying tectonic basements: (1)
monly comprise small blocks or thrust sheets of Tethyan; (2) Cordilleran; (3) ridge-trench inter-
basalt with or without overlying chert or lime- section (RTI); (4) Macquarie Island-type. Moores
stone; (2) serpentinite, although locally present as (1982) recognized the differences between the
moderately large bodies or sheets (up to several Tethyan and Cordilleran types and provided sev-
kilometres of structural thickness and 30 km in eral lines of criteria for their distinction that we
along-strike length), seldom occurs in the same follow herein. RTI ophiolites are special because
block or thrust sheet with basalt and chert; (3) both their igneous evolution and tectonic emplace-
gabbro or sheeted dykes are extremely rare in ment are strongly controlled by the spatial and
accretionary wedge sheets or blocks; (4) the temporal interactions between mid-ocean ridges
largest dimensions of most thrust sheets of ophio- and subduction zones (e.g. Forsythe & Nelson
litic rocks in accretionary wedges are less than 1985; Lytwyn et al. 1997). The close association
10km, whereas Penrose-type ophiolites can ex- and interaction of ridges with trenches during the
tend for hundreds of kilometres along-strike; (5) formation of RTI ophiolites are unrelated to
different scraps of oceanic rocks within the same subduction initiation. The Macquarie Island-type
accretionary wedge can vary greatly in age and ophiolite presents a unique case (Varne et al.
origin. The lack of large ophiolite sheets, contain- 1969, 2000) whereby relatively in situ and young
ing thick plutonic sections, in subduction com- oceanic crust has been exposed subaerially as a
plexes, is consistent with the conclusion of Cloos result of changing plate boundary configurations.
(1993) that all downgoing oceanic crust is sub- Depending on the interpretation of the tectonic
ducted except for a few topographic highs from setting of the Macquarie Island ophiolite, an
which basalt and pelagic sediments may be off- argument could be made that this ophiolite is
scraped. Ultramafic rocks within accretionary subaerially exposed but not emplaced.
430 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

The terms Cordilleran and Tethyan traditionally sheets of high-grade metamorphic rocks, are pre-
carry geographical connotations, but we empha- sent beneath most Tethyan ophiolites (e.g. Wil-
size that we define 'Cordilleran' and 'Tethyan' liams & Smyth 1973; Spray 1984; Jamieson 1986;
ophiolites on the basis of their emplacement Dilek et al. 1999). There is a significant break in
mechanisms, not their location. For example, the metamorphic pressure between the ophiolite,
Brooks Range ophiolite, of Alaska in the North which commonly exhibits negligible burial meta-
American Cordillera, has been emplaced over a morphism, and the structurally underlying meta-
continental margin (Wirth et al. 1993) reminiscent morphic sole (reviewed by Wakabayashi & Dilek
of Tethyan-type ophiolites, and hence we consider 2000).
it a Tethyan ophiolite for the purposes of our
discussion of emplacement. Some ophiolites in the
Cordilleran-type ophiolites
Sierra Nevada of California, also part of the North
American Cordillera, have been emplaced over Cordilleran ophiolites structurally overlie subduc-
continental margins or island arcs (e.g. Moores tion-accretion complexes and range from rare
1970; Moores & Day 1984) much as in Tethyan complete ophiolite sections to those missing one
examples, and therefore we also would consider or more of the major ophiolite lithologies (e.g.
them as Tethyan ophiolites from the standpoint of Irwin 1977; Saleeby 1992; Coleman 2000). Volca-
their emplacement. On the other hand, the Cretac- niclastic and intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks
eous ophiolites of Neo-Tethys in the eastern that are generally associated with island arc
Pontide belt of Turkey clearly have a protracted development are widespread in the extrusive sec-
emplacement history typical of subduction-accre- tions of Cordilleran ophiolites. Upper-crustal rock
tion systems in the Pacific Rim (Yilmaz et al. units in Cordilleran ophiolites display island arc
1997), and we consider these ophiolites as Cordil- tholeiite to calcalkaline chemical affinities indi-
leran in character regarding their emplacement cating a subduction zone origin of their magmas
histories. (Shervais & Kimbrough 1985; Shervais 1990;
We briefly summarize the characteristic features Saleeby 1992). The existence of volcaniclastic
of these four ophiolite prototypes below and rocks, including some subaerial depositions, indi-
discuss their emplacement mechanisms in a later cates the construction of volcanic arc edifices
section. during the evolution of these ophiolites. Cross-
cutting field and geochronological relations from
Tethyan-type ophiolites
the Jurassic ophiolites in the Sierra Nevada foot-
hills in California show that the arc construction
Tethyan ophiolites structurally overlie passive con- had occurred on and across a pre-existing, multi-
tinental margins and their crystalline basement, ply deformed and heterogeneous oceanic basement
microcontinental fragments, or island arcs. Teth- (Dilek et al. 1990a, 1991). Metamorphic soles are
yan ophiolites in the eastern Mediterranean region present beneath many Cordilleran ophiolites,
commonly display a Penrose-type complete pseu- although in some cases the sole has been nearly
dostratigraphy (defined as having upper-mantle completely dismembered (e.g. Platt 1975; Brown
rocks, cumulates, gabbros, sheeted dykes, volcanic et al. 1982; Cannat & Boudier 1985; Wakabayashi
rocks) and include some of the classic ophiolites & Dilek 2000). Blueschist-facies rocks are also
of the world (e.g. Troodos ophiolite, Dilek et al. present structurally beneath many Cordilleran
1990b; Robinson & Malpas 1990; Oman ophiolite, ophiolites (e.g. Ernst 1971; Platt 1975; Brown et
Searle & Cox 1999; Dilek et al. 1998; Bay of al. 1982; Ernst 1988). There is a significant break
Islands ophiolite in Newfoundland, Casey et al. in metamorphic pressure between the ophiolite,
1981). Ligurian-type ophiolites exposed in the which commonly exhibits negligible burial meta-
westem Alps and Apennines have Hess-type ocea- morphism, and the structurally underlying meta-
nic crust with MORB affinities (Dilek 2003, and morphic sole or blueschist-facies rocks (e.g. Platt
references therein) and are also considered as 1986).
Tethyan based on their emplacement mechanisms.
Extrusive sections of most Tethyan ophiolites do
R i d g e - t r e n c h intersection (RTI) ophiolites
not have volcaniclastic rocks that are typical of
volcanic arcs (e.g. Dilek & Moores 1990, and Ridge-trench intersections are common in plate
references therein), but the upper-crustal rocks in tectonics and may cause anomalous near-trench
many Tethyan ophiolites display the geochemical igneous activity (Marshak & Karig 1977), which
characteristics of subduction zone environments may result in oceanic crust or ophiolite formation
(e.g. Pearce 1975; Alabaster et al. 1982; Rautens- (Casey & Dewey 1984). Ridge-trench intersection
chlein et al. 1985; Umino et al. 1990; Jenner et al. (RTI) ophiolites may have a complete or nearly
1991). Metamorphic soles, thin ( < 5 0 0 m thick) complete pseudostratigraphy. Accretionary wedge
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 431

materials may be present both structurally above The Macquarie Island ophiolite differs from
and below RTI ophiolites (e.g. Lytwyn et al. Tethyan- and Cordilleran-type ophiolites in that it
1997). The ridge-trench intersections are asso- structurally overlies either in situ oceanic crust
ciated with low-pressure, high-temperature meta- (Varne et al. 2000) or suboceanic mantle (Daczko
morphism of the rocks structurally above (and et al. 2002), rather than a continental margin or a
inboard) of the ophiolite (e.g. Sisson & Pavlis subduction-accretion complex. A metamorphic
1993; Brown 1998). Examples of this type of sole is not exposed. If such a sole were present, it
ophiolites include the Resurrection Bay and would be beneath the present level of exposure.
Knight Island ophiolites in Alaska (Lytwyn et al. Igneous ages of the Macquarie Island ophiolite,
1997) and the Taitao ophiolite in Chile (Forsythe determined from 4~ step heating ages of
& Nelson 1985; Nelson et al. 1993; Lagabrielle et two different basalt outcrops, range between 9.7
al. 2000). The petrology and geochemistry of the and 11.5 Ma (Duncan & Varne 1988). These ages
ultramafic, gabbro and dyke sections of the Taitao are consistent with the estimated age of the
ophiolite in Chile display a mid-ocean ridge basalt ophiolite from plate motion models, magnetic
(MORB) affinity whereas the geochemistry of anomaly patterns and the ages of associated
extrusive rocks, which are interpreted to have sedimentary rocks (Vame et al. 2000). The gen-
erupted after the spreading centre had intersected eration of oceanic crust in the Macquarie Island
with the trench (LeMoigne et al. 1996), indicates ophiolite apparently occurred at slow rates (5-
a mixed MORB and island arc tholeiite affinity 10 mm a -1 half-spreading rate) during the waning
(LeMoigne et al. 1996). The degree of decompres- stages of sea-floor spreading activity at a mid-
sional melting of MORB mantle, caused by ridge ocean ridge (Vame et al. 2000).
subduction, was apparently less rigorous than that Goscombe & Everard (2001) suggested that,
typically occurring at mid-ocean ridges because of following generation of the 'Macquarie Island
the capping of the melting column by the con- oceanic crust' and associated extensional faulting
tinental edge. This phenomenon, combined with in the vicinity of the spreading centre, the ophio-
crustal assimilation and fractional crystallization lite was subject to transtensional deformation,
of enriched MORB melt, produced more silicic possibly during transition from the spreading
rocks in the extrusive sequence of the Taitao environment to a transform environment. The
ophiolite (Kaeding et al. 1990; Lagabrielle et al. transtension was followed by transpressional de-
1994). Sheeted dykes and lavas from the two formation along the transform fault plate bound-
Alaskan ophiolites have geochemistry similar to ary. In contrast, Daczko et al. (2002) interpreted
that of MORB with some arc influence that has all structures on Macquarie Island, including
been attributed to intersection of the spreading active ones, to be extensional or transtensional.
centre with a subduction zone and a slab-free Greenschist-grade lower pillow lavas and sheeted
window (Lytwyn et at. 1997). Although only two dykes have yielded 4~ step heating ages of
ridge-trench ophiolite localities have been de- 6.5-7.2 Ma, interpreted to indicate cooling at the
scribed to date, this type of ophiolite may be more end of greenschist-grade hydrothermal meta-
common in the rock record (van den Beukel & morphism (Duncan & Varne 1988). The transform
Wortel 1992). plate boundary along which Macquarie Island is
situated became transpressional at or after 5 Ma
(Varne et al. 2000; Goscombe & Everard 2001).
Macquarie Island ophiolite
The Macquarie Island ophiolite is exposed on the Development of metamorphic soles and
37 km • 5 km Macquarie Island, which is situated subduction initiation: a critical part of
about 950 km SSW of New Zealand and 1500 km
SSE of Tasmania along the transform boundary ophiolite emplacement
between the Indo-Australian and Pacific Plates Structure and evolution of metamorphic soles
(Varne et al. 1969, 2000). Exposures on Macquar-
ie Island comprise a complete, Penrose-type Initiation of subduction and formation of meta-
ophiolite including basalts (making up nearly two- morphic soles have been linked to the ophiolite
thirds of the exposures) with intercalated sedimen- emplacement process. Some researchers have ex-
tary rocks, sheeted dykes, gabbro and ultramafic plicitly defined the inception of subduction and
rocks. The basaltic rocks display MORB and consequent development of a metamorphic sole
enriched MORB (E-MORB) chemistry, and plate beneath an ophiolite as emplacement, or at least
motion reconstructions place the site of ophiolite the first stage of emplacement (e.g. Williams &
generation at a mid-ocean ridge spreading centre Smyth 1973; Malpas 1979; McCaig 1983; Jamie-
(Vame et al. 2000). son 1980, 1986; Hacker et al. 1996).
432 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

Subophiolitic metamorphic soles, or simply ever, thrusting, in contrast to normal faulting,

metamorphic soles, are thin (<500 m thick), fault- requires the erosional removal of all material
bounded sheets of highly strained high-grade originally present between the ophiolite and sole,
metamorphic rocks that structurally underlie many an enormous volume of ultramafic material. Large
ophiolite complexes (e.g. Williams & Smyth volumes of syn-exhumational ultramafic sediments
1973; Jamieson 1986). The higher-grade parts of have not been observed to be associated with
the metamorphic soles are composed mainly of ophiolites and their soles. The absence or scarcity
metabasic rocks of oceanic affinity, with minor of metaclastic rocks in the higher-grade (earliest
metamorphosed pelagic sedimentary rocks. Many formed) part of metamorphic soles indicates that
soles display inverted metamorphic field gradients the ocean floor at the site of subduction initiation
and an inverted ocean crustal sequence. The high- lacked terrigenous sediment cover. This observa-
grade parts of such soles appear to grade structu- tion suggests either that sites of subduction initia-
rally downward from metagabbros to metabasalts tion were far from a major landmass, or that
to metamorphosed pelagic sedimentary rocks (Ja- sufficient submarine topography was present to
mieson 1986). shield the nascent subduction zone from terrige-
The pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions of nous sediments.
metamorphism for subophiolitic soles are consis- In addition to the inverted temperature gradient
tent with high-temperature metamorphism beneath recorded in metamorphic soles, an inverted pres-
hot suboceanic mantle. Metamorphic soles are sure gradient is also observed (Jamieson 1986;
thought to form at the inception of oceanic Gnos 1998), indicating that the sole is a composite
subduction beneath the hot sub-ophiolitic mantle of slices formed at different times, brought to-
of the hanging wall, as suggested by estimated P - gether by thrust faulting (Casey & Dewey 1984;
T conditions of their metamorphism, their oceanic Gnos 1998). The structurally lower (lower-grade)
protoliths, and the presence of an ophiolite struc- parts of soles were probably scraped off the
turally above them (e.g. Williams & Smyth 1973; subducting oceanic plate some time after the
Malpas 1979; Nicolas & Le Pichon 1980; Spray structurally higher (higher-grade) parts of the sole
1984; Jamieson 1986) (Fig. 1). The inverted tem- were formed.
perature anomaly responsible for the high-grade The inferred origin of metamorphic soles, as
metamorphism of the sole decays quickly products of subduction initiation, suggests that
(<2 Ma) as subduction continues (Peacock 1988; they may offer insight into how subduction begins,
Hacker 1990, 1991; Hacker et al. 1996). Thus the at least in the cases that result in development of
high-grade metamorphism of the sole can occur metamorphic soles and subsequent emplacement
only at the inception of subduction because the of ophiolites. The high temperature of meta-
hanging wall would be too cold to cause high- morphism as reflected by mineral assemblages in
grade metamorphism thereafter. As a result of sole rocks and the small age difference between
thermal insulation from continuing subduction, the soles and overlying ophiolites indicate that ocean
metamorphic rocks of the sole cool rapidly crust was young (generally 5 Ma or younger) and
through the blocking temperature of commonly hot at the inception of subduction (e.g. Spray
applied isotopic dating methods such as 4~ 1984; Jamieson 1986; Hacker et al. 1996; Dilek
(Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000). Because of this et al. 1999). No soles have been found that
rapid cooling, the metamorphic age of the sole predate the ophiolites found structurally above
closely approximates the inception of subduction them, so if such ophiolites were of SSZ origin (as
(e.g. Spray 1984; Peacock 1988). has commonly been interpreted), they must have
Pressures of metamorphism associated with been formed above an older subduction zone than
metamorphic soles are higher than can be ex- the one that began with the formation of the sole
plained by the structural thickness of material (Wakabayashi & Dilek, 2000). Thus, SSZ ophio-
found above them (Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000), lites must have been emplaced above a separate,
indicating that: (1) the amount of underthrusting younger, subduction zone than the one they
represented by metamorphic soles is considerable formed over.
(burial depths range from 20 to 40km); (2) The inverted ocean crustal sequence exposed in
normal faulting must have occurred between the the high-grade parts of soles is not compatible
ophiolite and the sole after sole development, to with an ordinary sequence of underplating or
exhume the sole to the present field relationship offscraping during subduction initiation that would
with the ophiolite. Alternatively, the relationship produce a right-side-up ocean-floor stratigraphy
of the ophiolite structurally above the high-P within each thrust sheet. The inverted ocean-floor
metamorphic sole can be explained by multiple sequence found in metamorphic soles suggests
thrusting events instead of normal faulting (e.g. that subduction might have started as the down-
Cowan et al. 1989; Ring & Brandon 1994). How- bowing of young oceanic crust that developed into
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 433

an overturned fold (Fig. 3). The inferred over- material that may indicate the approach of a
turning of the flexure at the inception of subduc- continental margin in the lower plate (as in
tion is consistent with the model of Mueller & Tethyan ophiolites), or the development of an
Phillips (1991), who have suggested that founder- arc-trench depocentre in the upper plate (as in
ing of dense oceanic lithosphere alone cannot Cordilleran ophiolites). Anticlockwise P-T paths
initiate subduction; an external force is needed. of metamorphism from both intact (Hacker &
The overturned limb of the progressively forming Gnos 1997) and dismembered (Wakabayashi
oceanic flexure becomes thinned by numerous 1990) metamorphic soles show evidence of a
thrust faults as the fold develops into a young pressure increase with cooling. This can most
subduction zone and the future ophiolite, as well easily be achieved if the upper plate of the nascent
as the sole, are left on the upper plate of this subduction zone is imbricated (tectonically
system (Fig. 3). Oceanic rocks in the overturned, thickened) after subduction has begun and the
fault-thinned limb are subject to high-temperature metamorphic sole has started to cool (e.g. Waka-
metamorphism beneath the hot suboceanic mantle; bayashi 1990).
this configuration forms the high-grade meta-
morphic sole with an 'inverted' sequence of
Exhumation of metamorphic soles
oceanic crust. The actual subduction break is the
main structure of what may be a broader shor- Following sole metamorphism, the higher-grade
tened zone in the oceanic lithosphere. part of the sole is exhumed relative to the over-
Subsequent continuous subduction leads to off- lying ophiolite. This differential exhumation ap-
scraping under lower-temperature conditions, as pears to be accommodated by a normal fault
the hanging wall rapidly cools. The structurally above (low-P ophiolite on higher-P sole) and by
lower parts of the sole may include metaclastic thrust faults below (inverted pressure gradient in

[] basalt and diabase, with veneer

of overlying pelagic sediments
[] mostly gabbro

Initial Flexure of Oceanic Crust

Continued flexure

Overturned fold develops;

overturned limb is thinned
by many parallel thrust faults
and distributed shearing

Continued shearing
~ ~ Inverted of overturned limb
- ~ . ~ sheared
eanlc crust

Future ophiolite

orphic sole
eared
d oceanic
, , - ~ section
approximatescale " ~ Nascent subduction
zone with metamorphic

Fig. 3. Model for inception of subduction. The width of the subophiolitic sole is exaggerated in this view so that it is
visible. Additional imbrication of the upper plate may occur, leading to the increasing burial with cooling noted in
some metamorphic soles. The new subdnction zone generally forms in young oceanic crust (near a spreading centre)
and may exploit a pre-existing zone of weakness. There may be a density contrast across this zone of weakness with
older, more dense material on the side that subducts. Such density contrast would be greatest across a fracture zone,
but smaller contrasts may be present across zones of normal faulting in the oceanic crust.
434 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

the sole), suggesting an apparent extrusion of the Fracture zones separate oceanic lithosphere of
higher-grade part of the sole. Such relations are differing age and density and are likely sites of
analogous to those associated with high-pressure subduction initiation (Casey & Dewey 1984;
metamorphic rocks (blueschists and eclogites) Hawkins et al. 1984; Stem & Bloomer 1992).
(Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000). The exhumation Subduction may be initiating along two segments
fault (or faults) structurally above the sole does of the Macquarie Ridge, an oceanic transform, in
not necessarily coincide with the contact between the SW Pacific Ocean (Collot et al. 1995; Frohlich
the peridotite and the metamorphic sole; it could et al. 1997), along the Azores-Gibraltar transform
be somewhere between the sole and the crustal fault, and along a fracture zone in the East Caro-
section of the ophiolite (Hacker & Gnos 1997; line Basin (Mueller & Phillips 1991). The age of
Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000). Timing of the oceanic crust on the upper plate of a subduction
exhumation of the high-grade part of the meta- initiated at a fracture zone should become progres-
morphic sole relative to the ophiolite is poorly sively older along the trend of the trench-line,
constrained in many cases. Geochronological and away from the spreading centre. Such a relation-
structural data from the Oman ophiolite (e.g. ship may result in a variation of age of tens of
Hacker et al. 1996; Gregory et al. 1998; Gray et million years over the hundreds of kilometres of
al. 2000) suggest that exhumation of the sole oceanic crust that form a future ophiolite. Some
relative to the Oman ophiolite occurred probably ophiolites in the North American Cordillera show
less than 10 Ma after the metamorphism of the large (tens of million years) ranges of igneous
sole rocks. Such an exhumation event would have ages as well as lithological heterogeneity suggest-
occurred prior to, or in the earliest stages of, the ing a similar scenario; their tectonic evolution is
thrusting of the ophiolite over the Arabian con- consistent with subduction initiation along a frac-
tinental margin. For Tethyan ophiolites in general, ture zone (Saleeby 1990, 1992). In contrast, many
metamorphic soles were probably exhumed rela- ophiolite belts that are hundreds of kilometres
tive to the ophiolite prior to, or during the earliest long, such as the Coast Range ophiolite of
stages of thrusting onto a continental margin, California (Hopson et al. 1981, 1996) and many
because the soles and ophiolites commonly are Tethyan ophiolites (e.g. Dewey 1976; Juteau 1980;
thrust over continental margin sequences as part Dercourt et al. 1986; Dilek & Moores 1990), show
of the same nappe system (Moores 1982; Searle & a restricted (generally 5 Ma or less) age range.
Cox 1999). Such ophiolite belts are inconsistent with subduc-
tion initiation along an oceanic transform fault or
fracture zone.
Major contrasts in age and density of oceanic
Subduction initiation models
lithosphere are also found where new spreading
Mueller & Phillips (1991) showed that the block- began in older ocean crust (i.e. rift propagation in
age of a subduction zone by buoyant material the Lau Basin; Parson & Wright 1996; Zellmer &
(island arc, continental fragment, continental mar- Taylor 2001). Such contrasts in lithospheric age
gin) is probably the only event capable of generat- and density would be parallel to a spreading
ing a large enough external force to initiate a new centre, as in the case of ridge-parallel normal
subduction zone. The conclusions of Mueller & faults (Dilek et al. 1988), which constitute pre-
Phillips (1991) are consistent with models of existing zones of mechanical weakness. Initiation
subduction initiation based on field relations in of subduction along such a ridge-parallel disconti-
ophiolites (Casey & Dewey 1984), as well as the nuity between old and young crust would result in
geodynamic history of the SW Pacific, where the an ophiolite (on the upper plate of the subduction
clogging of subduction zones with buoyant materi- zone) that is older than its metamorphic sole, and
al was followed by initiation of new subduction that is of relatively consistent age along the trend
zones (Hall 1996). of the trench-line.
Although an external force apparently triggers
subduction initiation, a material contrast and a
zone of weakness in the oceanic lithosphere may Ophiolite emplacement mechanisms
determine the location of the nascent subduction
zone (Casey & Dewey 1984). An oceanic spread- Proposed models and the problem o f
ing centre (i.e. mid-ocean ridge) has been sug- emplacing oceanic lithosphere over less
gested as a site of subduction initiation (e.g. dense rocks
Casey & Dewey 1984; Hacker et al. 1996).
Initiation of subduction at a spreading centre is The existing ophiolite emplacement models gen-
consistent with the indistinguishable ages of some erally fall into four categories (Fig. 1): (1) empla-
ophiolites and their soles (Hacker et al. 1996). cement by partial subduction of a continental
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 435

margin beneath the displaced fossil oceanic crust Uyeda 1975), ophiolite emplacement is best
(e.g. Temple & Zimmerman 1969; Dewey & Bird viewed as less dense material being dragged (by
1970, 1971; Moores 1970); (2) emplacement by the descending slab) beneath an ophiolite, rather
antithetic thrusting of oceanic crust from the than the pushing of an ophiolite over less dense
subducting plate (e.g. Coleman 1971), referred to material. Consequently, an ophiolite emplaced as
by some as flake tectonics (e.g. Oxburgh 1972); part of the upper plate of a subduction system
(3) emplacement by gravity sliding (e.g. Reinhardt (Temple & Zimmerman 1969; Dewey & Bird
1969; Church & Stevens 1971; Smith & Wood- 1970, 1971; Moores 1970), is more plausible than
cock 1976); (4) emplacement through intersection emplacement from the downgoing slab (e.g. 'ob-
of a spreading ridge with a subduction zone (e.g. duction' of Coleman 1971), because in the latter
Forsythe & Nelson 1985; van Beukel & Wortel scenario there is no slab to drag the less dense
1992; Lytwyn et al. 1997). The term 'obduction' material beneath the ophiolite (Fig. 1). An excep-
was first defined by Coleman (1971) to explain tion is the subduction of an active spreading
ophiolite emplacement through antithetic thrusting centre, which may arrest the subduction of very
along active continental margins. Dewey (1976) young, buoyant, oceanic lithosphere and result in
used obduction, however, to refer to any type of emplacement of ophiolites from the downgoing
ophiolite emplacement mechanism, and others plate (e.g. Forsythe & Nelson 1985; van Beukel &
have followed this usage (e.g. Searle & Stevens Wortel 1992).
1984). The connection between subduction zones and
How oceanic crust comes to be emplaced over ophiolite emplacement links ophiolites to the
the less dense continental margin material or development of orogenic belts. Ophiolites make
subduction-accretion complex is the central pro- up the structural 'roof' of palaeosubduction zones,
blem of ophiolite emplacement. A viable emplace- and ophiolite-marked subduction sutures have
ment model needs to include a mechanism that been considered the most important first-order
overcomes this adverse density contrast. Gravity structures in orogenic belts (e.g. Moores 1970;
sliding, in the absence of other processes, requires Moores et al. 1999).
an unrealistic topographic high on the ocean floor
and improbable transport distances necessary to
emplace an ophiolite (Dewey 1976; Moores Collisional emplacement o f Tethyan-type
1982). Gravity sliding might have played a partial
ophiolites
role in emplacement of some ophiolites (Searle &
Stevens 1984), particularly after collision-induced Emplacement of Tethyan ophiolites has been trad-
thrusting caused significant crustal uplift and itionally defined as the thrusting of an ophiolite
topographic buildup; these processes might have over a continental margin and/or a crystalline
then produced high gravitational potential energy complex of a microcontinent (e.g. Temple &
in the upper-plate rocks that would have triggered Zimmerman 1969; Dewey & Bird 1970, 1971;
downward sliding of ophiolitic packages onto the Moores 1970; Coleman 1971) (Fig. 4). By this
continental margin sequences in the lower plate definition, the inception of oceanic subduction
(Gregory et al. 1998; Gray et al. 2000; Gray & (and development of the metamorphic sole) be-
Gregory 2003). However, it is unlikely that gravity neath the ophiolite predates the terminal emplace-
sliding can be the sole agent or primary mechan- ment event (Fig. 4) (Moores 1982). However,
ism of ophiolite emplacement. some others have defined the inception of subduc-
Subduction zones are the only locations on tion as emplacement itself (e.g. Williams & Smyth
Earth where less dense material is thrust beneath 1973; Malpas 1979; Jamieson 1980; McCaig
denser material on a large scale. Thus, ophiolite 1983). Alternatively, thrusting of an ophiolite over
emplacement mechanisms must be spatially asso- a passive continental margin has been considered
ciated with subduction. Such a linkage is consis- but one step in a multi-stage emplacement pro-
tent with the occurrence of metamorphic soles cess, the beginning of which may involve trans-
beneath ophiolites. Underthrusting of buoyant form fault tectonics (Brookfield 1977) or the
material at subduction zones is a consequence of inception of subduction (e.g. Casey & Dewey
the attachment of such material to the dense 1984; Jamieson 1986; Hacker et al. 1996).
downgoing oceanic lithosphere. This includes both Collision of a passive continental margin leads
passive continental margins or island arcs attached to the arrest of subduction because the continental
to a downgoing oceanic slab, and accretionary material is too buoyant to be subducted (e.g.
wedge materials that are scraped off the down- Temple & Zimmerman 1969; Moores 1970). Sub-
going oceanic slab. Because the pull of the sinking duction jump and a flip of subduction polarity
oceanic lithospheric slab is such an important may then follow, creating the field relations noted
driving force in plate tectonics (e.g. Forsythe & by Coleman (1971) in which the active subduction
436 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

(a)
Inception of thrusting beneath young oceanic lithosphere;
metamorphic sole forms beneath hot suboceanic mantle

40 km metamorphic sole young oceanic crust (future ophiolite)

f approximate
scale 40 km
i i
antle

"Tethyan"
l Or
IIII• "Cordilleran" ophiolites:
Accretionary Emplacement
Subduction continues; material scraped off downgoing
ophiolites: Collisional Emplacement plate progressively forms accretionary complex
Continental margin approaches structurally beneath ophiolite
Continental margin subduction zone

future ophiolite accretionary complex~ future ophiolite

~\\/\ "/t " / ~ ~"/','~:--~_ /

~ ~ C/~a ~ mantle . .. ~--~

IlldilUl~/i ~ tal section ~ / / J
Base, crustal ~ ~ ......
base, crustal -. y/ ~41ti!l_"~--~,...,._~ of future Ol / /

mantle .
-"-------..~ metamorphic sole ~--metamorphic sole
~-- accreted materials or first Early exhumation of
Early exhumation of thrust slices of leading metamorphic sole \accretionary complex
metamorphic sole edge of continental
margin

Ophiolite thrust over continental margin;

1 1
Accretionary complex grows with
this is generally considered "emplacement". continued subduction; because of the
progressive growth of the accretionary
continental
complex, there is no single event that
margin
ophiolite can be called "emplacement" except
for the inception of subduction
" ~ . ' ~ : ~' ~ "~ :: i
" \ ~ / ~ / ~ ~ ' Z " / ~/~ _~-'~-~-~._ mantle accretionary c o m p l e x ~ _ ~ ophiolite

mantle

Fig. 4. Emplacement of Tethyan and Cordilleran ophiolites (a) and ridge-trench ophiolites (b). It should be noted
that if a continental margin is attached to the plate subducting beneath a Cordilleran ophiolite, such an ophiolite may
eventually be thrust over a continental margin, 'converting' it to a Tethyan-type ophiolite. Similarly, if subduction
continues after ridge-trench ophiolite emplacement, a subduction complex may develop structurally beneath such an
ophiolite and it would effectively become a Cordilleran ophiolite, although rocks structurally above the ophiolite
would exhibit higher-grade metamorphism than those associated with a typical Cordilleran ophiolite. Ridge-trench
emplacement may also be followed by collision, converting the ophiolite into a Tethyan ophiolite; rocks structurally
above the ophiolite would show a higher grade of metamorphism than a typical Tethyan ophiolite setting.

zone dips beneath the recently emplaced ophiolite. ity flip in eastern N e w Guinea (Cooper & Taylor
In such a scenario, emplacement of the ophiolite 1987), and the c. 1 0 - 5 Ma polarity flip in north-
is facilitated by the previous subduction zone ern Sulawesi (Hall 1996). Because the collision o f
dipping away from the continental margin. Such a buoyant microcontinent or arc with a subduction
subduction polarity flips have occurred in the SW zone results in the arresting of subduction, similar
Pacific, including the continuing subduction polar- to the collision o f a continent in the downgoing
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 437

(b)
accreted terranes/continental
active spreading ridge material ~ ~ ' ~
t accretionary complex ~ ~'-~/-~/

Accretionary complex grows with t ~ / ~ - / s ~ /; /c

continued" subductlon;
" because of the ~ ~~ "/ ~ ~ / c ' , ~, , "/~/\"/~"/~"/~"/':/~/f.,~/~"
~i
progressive growth of the accretionary ~ ~ i ~/~.
complex, there isno singleevent that ........ ~ ~ ~
can be called "emplacement" except - ~ ~
for the inception of subduction

Spreading ridge enters subduction

zone; uplift and erosion of accretionary
complex, forearc plutonic activity
(intrusions into accrationary prism) and
volcanism (eruption onto it) occur.

[ . ~ \ l \ \ i l ' . . , i ~ \ l l \ i l \ l l "l- ~r ~t,

~ ~ ;~' ~ I ~ ~ " " / ~= ~ ~ I ~ I ~ I.~ I ~ H" + +

40 km

f approximate
scale
i 4 0 km

ophioiite

Trailing edge of spreading ridge stalls mantle

while landward slab detaches; slab window
plutonism and volcanism spreads; new subduction
zone forms; further uplift and erosion of
accretionary complex; ophiolite may be
subaerially exposed because of underthrusting
of young oceanic crust, but may later submerge
as subduction continues unless a large volume
of material is accreted beneath.

Fig. 4. (continued)

plate with a trench (e.g. Cloos 1993), ophiolites al. 1999). A notable exception is the Cretaceous
that are thrust over microcontinents or island arcs Troodos ophiolite, whose thrusting over the Era-
(e.g. Hall 1996) are also considered as Tethyan- tosthenes Seamount was facilitated by the colli-
type ophiolites in this treatment. We define this sion of this seamount with the Cyprus trench (and
mechanism of emplacement as 'collisional'. a north-dipping subduction zone) starting in the
The emplacement of collisional Tethyan-type Pliocene (Robertson 1998).
ophiolites includes the following events from old-
est to youngest: (1) initiation of intra-oceanic Oman ophiolite. The Tethyan-type Oman ophio-
subduction and formation of metamorphic sole; lite, considered by many as the best-exposed and
(2) exhumation of metamorphic sole relative to most complete ophiolite in the world, has been the
the ophiolite; (3) thrusting of the ophiolite over subject of debate over its emplacement mechan-
continental margin via collision; (4) subaerial ism(s). Some researchers believe that the Oman
exposure of the ophiolite. Ages of metamorphic ophiolite was emplaced over a single subduction
soles are commonly similar to or slightly younger zone directed away from the Arabian continental
(<2 Ma) than the igneous ages of crustal rocks in margin (e.g. Dewey 1976; Hacker et al. 1996;
many Tethyan ophiolites, and most Tethyan ophio- Searle & Cox 1999; Searle et al. 2003). Other
lites were emplaced onto continental crust within workers have concluded that an earlier episode of
10 Ma of their formation (Dewey 1976; Dilek et subduction, dipping beneath the continent, was
438 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

followed by gravitational collapse and possible beneath the ophiolite following inception of sub-
formation of a new subduction zone dipping away duction; (4) subaerial exposure of the ophiolite.
from the continent (Gregory et al. 1998; Gray et
al. 2000; Gray & Gregory 2003). In this model, Coast Range ophiolite. The emplacement history
ophiolite emplacement is inferred to have been of the Coast Range ophiolite in Califomia illus-
associated with the latter two events. The contro- trates the stages of emplacement of a Cordilleran
versy involves different interpretations of the ophiolite (Fig. 5). The Coast Range ophiolite
structures and, in particular, the geochronology of forms scattered exposures over a distance of
the high-P metamorphic rocks, including blues- 900km in western California, a distance that
chists and eclogites, which occur structurally extends to 1300 km when slip on the dextral San
beneath the ophiolite. One research group inter- Andreas fault system is restored (Bailey et al.
prets the metamorphic ages as reflecting a high-P, 1970; Hopson et al. 1981). The crustal sections of
subduction-related metamorphic event that pre- the ophiolite are 4 km thick or less, and the
ceded ophiolite generation (Miller et al. 1999; exposures range from sheared ultramafic rocks
Gray et al. 2000; Gray & Gregory 2003). Other with lenses of gabbro and mafic volcanic rocks, to
researchers (e.g. Hacker et al. 1996; Searle et al. nearly 'complete' Penrose-type sequences that
2003) have concluded that Ar/Ar metamorphic include ultramafic rocks, cumulate and isotropic
ages from eclogites that exceed the ophiolite in gabbros, sheeted intrusive rocks, and mafic and
age are a consequence of excess Ar that results in intermediate volcanic rocks (e.g. Point Sal ophio-
ages significantly older than the actual crystal- lite, Hopson et al. 1981). The Coast Range
lization age of the metamorphic rocks. If the ophiolite structurally overlies the Franciscan sub-
interpretation of older eclogites is correct, the duction complex (e.g. Bailey et al. 1970) and is
Oman ophiolite may differ markedly in tectonic depositionally overlain by the forearc basin strata
setting from all other ophiolites. This is because of the Great Valley Group (Dickinson 1970).
high-P metamorphic rocks are universally younger The Coast Range ophiolite was formed at about
than the ophiolites that structurally overlie them 165-170 Ma (Mattinson & Hopson 1992; Hopson
(Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000). et al. 1996), possibly in a back-arc or nascent arc
setting (e.g. Moores 1970; Schweickert & Cowan
1975; Dickinson et al. 1996; Ingersoll 2000;
A c c r e t i o n a r y e m p l a c e m e n t o f Cordilleran- Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000) (Fig. 5). Alterna-
type ophiolites
tively, the ophiolite may have been formed in a
forearc (Shervais 1990; Saleeby 1996) or a mid-
Similar to the emplacement of Tethyan ophiolites, ocean ridge setting (Hopson et al. 1981, 1996).
the emplacement of Cordilleran ophiolites begins Any of the proposed settings of ophiolite genesis
with the inception of subduction beneath the is broadly compatible with the emplacement
future ophiolite and the formation of a meta- events described below (starting with the inception
morphic sole. The ophiolite is not thrust over a of subduction beneath the ophiolite); the tectonic
passive continental margin as in collisional Teth- setting of ophiolite genesis places no constraint on
yan ophiolites; instead, materials are added to the mechanisms of emplacement.
subduction-accretion complex beneath the ophio- The Coast Range ophiolite was placed in the
lite by progressive tectonic accretion (Fig. 4). The upper plate of the east-dipping Franciscan subduc-
history of subduction may also involve removal of tion zone at 165-160Ma, based on interpreted
previously accreted materials, known as subduc- age of metamorphic sole formation of 159-
tion erosion (e.g. von Huene 1986). The subdue- 163 Ma (Wakabayashi & Dilek 2000). Continued
tion-accretion complexes beneath Cordilleran subduction resulted in overprinting of the sole
ophiolites include trench sediments, as well as the with high-P-low-T (HP-LT) metamorphic miner-
upper parts of seamounts, oceanic plateaux and als (Wakabayashi 1990) (Fig. 6), and continued
aseismic ridges, and other topographic highs from deformation broke up the metamorphic sole. Rem-
the downgoing oceanic plate (e.g. Cloos 1993). nants of the sole currently occur mostly as blocks
The emplacement process of a Cordilleran ophio- in Franciscan m~langes, commonly referred to as
lite is gradual or cumulative, in contrast to the 'high-grade' blocks (Wakabayashi 1990; Waka-
punctuated process of Tethyan ophiolite emplace- bayashi & Dilek 2000).
ment. Some of the pieces of the metamorphic sole
The following events are common to all Cordil- and some of the structurally highest (and oldest)
leran ophiolites: (1) initiation of subduction and blueschist-facies rocks of the structurally under-
formation of metamorphic sole; (2) exhumation lying Franciscan Complex may have been ex-
of metamorphic sole relative to ophiolite; (3) humed by Tithonian time (151-144 Ma; Gradstein
progressive underthrusting of oceanic material et al. 1995) based on the following observations:
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 439

170-165 Ma (earliest) 160-100 Ma

Subduction continues. More material is progressively
Genesis of Coast Range ophiolite (CRO) in nascent arc setting offscraped structurally beneath sole. Deeper parts of
offscraped slices undergo blueschist metamorphism.
Sole may be largely dismembered into blocks, some
exhumation of these blocks may occur early in this
Sierra Nevada varous time period via melange return flow or serpentinite
older oceanic crust accreted terranes and mud volcanism.
. . . . . plutons that intrude them Franciscan serpentinite basal forearc basin
Tuiure~ u
subduction complex mud volcano deposits Great vo c a m ~
~ oceanic.cttl~t. (blueschist facies . . . . . / Valley Group arc ~ t ~
shaded) \ ruture~Ku/ /(GVG)

.,c.,c,,c,~c,fc,~r.~, f~A~.~c.fctfc.f~,f~,f~.;~.;~.;c,~.;~.~:,f~,;~,f~.
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!
?!ii!i?i!.
!!ii
re,fc,f~,fc.fc,fc.f~Xc,,.. <,,c.,c,,c,,c,,c,,c,,c,,c,,~,,c,,c.,~,,.
................

170-165 Ma (next) Approximate ~ale 100-70 Ma

Rapid rollback of subduction zone Main stage exhumation of blueschist facies
..... rocks. Deposition of upper Great Valley Group
future Great 0 50km in forearc basin
Valley 'ophiolite' volcanic
(GVO) . arc
future CRO Franc;scan complex (blueschist future CRO GVG
facies dark shade) ~ ~ . . . ~ . _ ~ / / ~ ( ' - ~
"-/~ht~ h/~_~2~'~~ ' ~ , "' mahtle . / I ~ - / f k O ~ ~..-,,~'=~'~2~-~ ~ " Z ~ h ~ "--

i ?,anJ!<.~S~ ,-,-,-,-,= t:,:,~. -,=,:,:,-=,:-:,=,=,=,=,=,=~-J.

70-20 Ma
East-vergent tectonic wedging; subaerial
165-160 Ma exposure of Coast Range ophiolite locally occurs;
Continental margin blocks subduction zone. East-dipping Widespread subaedal exposure does not occur until
Franciscan subduction initiates beneath the CRO. after this frame. GVG Sierra Nevada batholith
Metamorphic sole forms (precursor to Franciscan
Franciscan c o m p l e x ( b l u e s c h i s t ~ O R e / _. _ and metamorphic
high grade blocks). ' ~ / 1 •vo terranes . ~
facies dark shade) \ ~ ,~ / ~ --,, _

metamorph c sole future GVO

\ future CRO /

Fig. 5. Tectonic history of the Coast Range ophiolite. The ophiolite is illustrated as being generated in a nascent arc
setting, although other tectonic settings are compatible with the tectonics of emplacement. It should be noted that the
width of the metamorphic sole is greatly exaggerated so that it shows on the diagram. The entire forearc region is
submerged until the final frame (70-20 Ma). The last three frames are modified from Wakabayashi & Unrtda (1995)
and Wakabayashi (1999).

(1) high-grade blocks are present in basal (Titho- forearc basin) lack the mineral assemblages or
nian and Valanginian) Great Valley Group (Carl- textures listed above. These observations collec-
son 1981; Phipps 1984); (2) a Tithonian- tively suggest that parts of the blueschist-over-
Valanginian Franciscan sandstone (Moore 1984) printed metamorphic sole were exhumed prior to
contains block(s) of high-grade rock(s); (3) blues- Tithonian-Valanginian redeposition into the
chist cobbles including ruffle (in Franciscan meta- trench and forearc basin. Much of the early
morphic rocks found only in the high-grade exhumation of the sole may have occurred as
blocks) are present in some Tithonian to Valangi- blocks in a shear zone rather than as a coherent
nian age Franciscan conglomerates (Moore & sheet, because many of the blocks have actinolite-
Lieu 1980); (4) intergrown tawsonite and white and chlorite-bearing rinds suggesting reaction with
mica (a texture limited to Franciscan high-grade surrounding ultramafic rocks at reasonably ele-
blocks) are detrital clasts in some Tithonian- vated temperatures (Coleman & Lanphere 1971).
Valanginian Franciscan sandstones (Crawford The high-grade blocks may have been exhumed as
1975; Brothers & Grapes 1989). Older blueschist blocks in serpentinite diapirs, a setting similar to
belts in the Sierra Nevada to the east (east of the the occurrence of blueschist blocks in serpentinite
440 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

& Wortel 1992). It is difficult to envision why the

12
oceanic flake would form from the landward side
10 W9Oj~ of the spreading centre because such a piece is
attached to the downgoing plate, and because the
strength of the oceanic plate should be lowest at
wg0
(kb)6 "L/ "A the spreading centre (e.g. Mueller & Phillips
1991) (Fig. 4). It seems more plausible that the

. Cy ophiolitic slice is derived from the seaward side of

the spreading centre (Fig. 4) where the oceanic
lithosphere, of zero age and buoyant, is separated
2 HG97 from the downgoing oceanic slab and thus from
HG97 slab pull forces by the spreading centre itself. If
' 460 ' 860 ' 1~00 this scenario is correct, then this piece of young
oceanic lithosphere stalls and does not subduct. A
T~ new subduction zone then forms outboard of the
Fig. 6. Comparing two representative P-T paths from stalled piece of oceanic lithosphere (Fig. 4). Near-
the high-grade blocks of the Franciscan Complex [P-T trench intrusions and volcanism occur as a result
paths labelled W90 from Wakabayashi (1990)] with two of thermal activity related to the slab-free window
representative P-T paths from the metamorphic sole of (e.g. Thorkelson 1996) and the initiation of new
the Oman ophiolite (Hacker & Gnos 1997; labelled subduction (Fig. 4). Elevated geothermal gradients
HG97). from the slab-free window result in low-P-high-T
metamorphism (e.g. Sisson & Pavlis 1993; Brown
1998). An exhumed accretionary wedge with such
mud volcanoes in the Marianas forearc (Fryer high-temperature metamorphism and plutons may
et al. 2000) (Fig. 5). resemble an exhumed magmatic arc (Brown
Franciscan subduction continued unabated for 1998).
over 140 Ma, resulting in progressive accretion of Ridge-trench intersections are common geo-
units scraped off the downgoing plate (Wakabaya- logical phenomena and this process has been
shi 1992). At least 25% of the exposed Franciscan suggested as a common ophiolite emplacement
complex was metamorphosed under HP-LT, mechanism (van den Beukel & Wortel 1992).
blueschist-facies conditions. Deposition of clastic However, only two examples of this type of
sediments in the forearc basin on the future Coast ophiolite have been identified thus far. This may
Range ophiolite took place while the Franciscan be because the ophiolite subsides beneath sea
subduction complex was forming structurally be- level after subduction resumes (e.g. Collot et al.
neath the ophiolite (Fig. 5). The burial of the 1995; see discussion below). If a significant
ophiolite beneath forearc strata did not result in volume of accretionary wedge material were ac-
significant burial metamorphism of the ophiolite. creted structurally beneath the ophiolite as a
Subaerial exposure of the Coast Range ophiolite consequence of continued subduction, then the
and some of the underlying accretionary complex ridge-trench intersection ophiolite would become
may have locally occurred in the Eocene (Nilsen a Cordilleran-type ophiolite.
& McKee 1979), while subduction was still active,
and was widespread by the Miocene, when a
transform plate boundary replaced the subduction Emplacement o f the Macquarie Island
zone (Cole & Armentrout 1979). As illustrated in
ophiolite
this Coast Range ophiolite example, emplacement
of a Cordilleran ophiolite is gradual, with only the Interpretations of the emplacement of the Mac-
inception of subduction standing out as a well- quarie Island ophiolite include emplacement over
defined event in the history of the ophiolite. a subduction complex (Dewey & Bird 1971) and
emplacement antithetic to subduction (Coleman
1971). More recent studies have suggested that the
Emplacement o f RTI ophiolites
Macquarie Island ophiolite has been thrust over
Ridge-trench intersection ophiolites are emplaced oceanic crust as a consequence of transpression
as a consequence of the subduction of an oceanic along a diffuse transpressional plate boundary
spreading ridge (Forsythe & Nelson 1985; van den (Varne et al. 2000; Goscombe & Everard 2001).
Beukel & Wortel 1992). Published models suggest In contrast, Frohlich et al. (1997) and Dazcko et
that the emplacement process occurs by stranding al. (2002) suggested that there is no evidence for
a piece of the oceanic plate from the landward underthrusting of oceanic crust beneath Macquarie
side of the spreading centre (e.g. van den Beukel Island.
 EMPLACEMENT OF AN OPHIOLITE 441

The Macquarie Island ophiolite differs from all quence, emplacement of a single ophiolite may
other known ophiolites in that no lower-density vary along-strike from collisional to accretionary.
material structurally underlies the ophiolite. The In addition to changes along the strike of a
ophiolite structurally overlies either oceanic crust subduction zone, strike-slip faulting may play an
or suboceanic mantle. If the ophiolite overlies important role in the juxtaposition of ophiolites
suboceanic mantle instead of underthrust oceanic with adjacent terranes (e.g. Hopson et al. 1996)
crust, a good argument could be made that the and/or in lateral translation of ophiolites and
Macquarie Island ophiolite is not emplaced at this 'suspect terranes' for long distances along-strike
time. Subduction may be initiating along segments of an orogenic belt (e.g. Cowan et al. 1997).
of the transform plate boundary both north and
south of Macquarie Island (Ruff et al. 1989;
Collot et al. 1995; Frohlich et al. 1997). If
subduction begins and then progresses beneath the Discussion: how should we define ophiolite
ophiolite, the upper plate of the subduction zone
emplacement?
may subside, leading to submergence of the
ophiolite. Submergence of islands on the upper Existing definitions of ophiolite emplacement in
plate of the subduction zone has occurred along the literature, developed mainly for Tethyan
the northern part of the plate boundary, where ophiolites, clearly cannot be applied to other
subduction has only recently initiated (Collot et ophiolite types. Two geological events are com-
al. 1995). If the Macquarie Island ophiolite should mon to all types of ophiolites despite their differ-
experience such submergence in the future, it is ing tectonic histories: (1) initiation of subduction
likely that re-emergence of the ophiolite would beneath the ophiolite; (2) subaerial exposure of
occur only with significant underplating of a ophiolite. An emplacement definition that would
subduction complex beneath the ophiolite (con- apply to all ophiolites, with the possible exception
verting the ophiolite to a Cordilleran-type) or of the Macquarie Island ophiolite, would be the
collision of a passive continental margin (i.e. the inception of subduction beneath the ophiolite.
western edge of the Campbell Plateau) with the However, using the inception of subduction as the
subduction zone beneath the ophiolite (converting definition of emplacement may create confusion
the ophiolite to a Tethyan-type). because it would contradict decades of published
emplacement definitions for Tethyan ophiolites.
Given that ophiolites are defined as 'on-land
Potential impact o f complex plate fossil oceanic crust', an argument could be made
interactions along irregular continental that subaerial exposure of an ophiolite charac-
margins terizes its emplacement. To date, there are no
submerged units of oceanic rocks that are called
The discussion of different types of ophiolite ophiolites (unless they are physically connected to
emplacement mechanisms has focused on 2D, a subaerial exposure). The only named ophiolite
cross-sectional views of emplacement processes. in the world that does not have a surface exposure
Such cross-sectional views assume regular con- is the 'Great Valley ophiolite' of California (God-
tinental margins and a uniformity of processes frey & Klemperer 1998; Coleman 2000; Godfrey
along the strike of a subduction zone; these & Dilek 2000), which is buried beneath several
features do not reflect the actual complexity of kilometres of sedimentary rocks of the Great
interactions observed along modem convergent Valley basin. Some may argue, however, that the
plate margins (e.g. Hall 1996). Synchronous Great Valley ophiolite does not truly fit the
ophiolite emplacement and new oceanic crest definition of an ophiolite because it is not ex-
generation may occur at some convergent plate posed. Subaerial exposure of an ophiolite is gen-
boundaries, where the collision of an irregular erally fairly easy to define in the geological
continental margin with a trench may result in record, but it is not commonly associated with an
ophiolite emplacement at promontories whereas in important tectonic event in its history. Conse-
slab-rollback, forearc magmatism and young quently, defining subaerial exposure as emplace-
ocean crust formation within embayments. Actua- ment may not be as useful as the inception of
listic examples exist along the collision zone subduction for the purposes of discussing ophio-
between the Indo-Australia plate and the Sunda lite tectonic history. In addition, existing ophio-
arc-trench system, where the Australian continen- lites can be submerged as a result of eustatic
tal margin is colliding with a segment of the sea-level changes, subsidence, or tectonically in-
trench south of Timor, whereas subduction of the duced burial by sediment and rock avalanches,
Indian Ocean floor is proceeding along the Sunda leading to a potential for future 'tmemplacement'
Trench farther west (Harris 2003). As a conse- of an ophiolite.
442 J. WAKABAYASHI & Y. DILEK

Another altemative is to consider emplacement 700, 70-81.

as the entire process between subduction initiation BROOKFIELD, M.E. 1977. The emplacement of giant
and subaefial exposure of the ophiolite. Thus, ophiolite nappes I. Mesozoic-Cenozoic examples.
geological events such as inception of subduction, Tectonophysics, 37, 247-303.
thrusting over a continental margin (if applicable), BROTHERS, R.N. & GRAPES, R.H. 1989. Clastic law-
sonite, glaucophane, and jadeitic pyroxene in Fran-
and subaerial exposure become individual stages
ciscan metagreywackes from the Diablo Range,
in the emplacement of an ophiolite. California. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
A viable alternative would be to classify the 101, 14-26.
emplacement mechanism according to the four BROWN, E.H., WILSON, D.L., ARMSTRONG, R.L. &
prototypes discussed in this paper. Classifying the HARAKAL, J.E. 1982. Petrologic, structural, and age
emplacement mechanisms using these four proto- relations of serpentinite, amphibolite, and blueschist
types would require little modification of existing in the Shuksan Suite of the Iron Mountain-Gee
definitions, but complications still exist. For exam- Point area, North Cascades, Washington. Geological
ple, the potential for along-strike changes from Society of America Bulletin, 93, 1087-1098.
BROWN, M. 1998. Ridge-trench interactions and high-
accretionary to collisional emplacement can po-
T-low-P metamorphism, with particular reference
tentially complicate the use of a single emplace- to the Cretaceous evolution of the Japanese islands.
ment classification for an ophiolite. In addition, ln: TRELOAR, P.J. & O'BRIEN, P.J. (eds) What
closure of wide ocean basins following a pro- Drives Metamorphism and Metamorphic Reac-
tracted subduction history may result in the thrust- tions?. Geological Society, London, Special Publi-
ing of an ophiolite and underlying accretionary cations, 138, 137-169.
wedge over a continental margin. In essence, this CANNAT, M. & BOUDIER, F. 1985. Structural study of
may 'convert' an emplacement mechanism from intra-oceanic thrusting in the Klamath Mountains,
an 'accretionary' to a 'collisional' one in time. northern California: implications on accretion geo-
metry. Tectonics, 4, 435-452.
Another drawback of classifying emplacement
CARLSON, C. 1981. Upwardly mobile m6langes, serpenti-
mechanisms according to the four prototypes is nite protrusions, and transport of tectonic blocks in
the potential confusion resulting from our me- accretionary prisms. Geological Society of America,
chanistic rather than geographical use of the terms Cordilleran Section, Abstracts with Programs, 13,
'Cordilleran' and 'Tethyan'. 48.
No single definition of emplacement is free of CASEY, J.F. & DEWEY, J.F. 1984. Initiation of subduc-
drawbacks in terms of the potential confusion that tion zones. In: GASS, I.G, LIPPARD, S.J. & SHEL-
it may cause for readers of the ophiolite literature. TON, A.W. (eds) Ophiolites and Oceanic
Perhaps the best recommendation is for research- Lithosphere. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 13, 269-290.
ers to clearly specify what they mean by emplace-
CASEY, J.F., DEWEY, J.F., FOX, P.J., KARSON, J.A. &
ment when they use the term, with the awareness ROSENCRANTZ, E. 1981. Heterogeneous nature of
that inception of subduction beneath an ophiolite oceanic crust and upper mantle: a perspective from
is probably the only definition that would apply to the Bay of Islands Ophiolite Complex. In: EMILIA-
all ophiolites. NI, C. (ed.) The Oceanic Lithosphere. Wiley, New
York, VII, 305-338.
We thank E. Moores for years of stimulating discussions CHURCH, W.R. t~ STEVENS, R.K. 1971. Early Paleozoic
on the subject of ophiolite tectonics. Our studies of ophiolite complexes of the Newfoundland Appala-
ophiolites have been supported by research grants from chians as mantle-ocean crust sequences. Journal of
the National Science Foundation (EAR-9219064, EAR- Geophysical Research, 76, 1460-1466.
9796011, OCE-9813451 to Y.D.), the NATO Science CLOOS, M. 1993. Lithospheric buoyancy and collisional
Programme (CRG-970263, EST.CLG-97617), and the orogenesis: subduction of oceanic plateaus, conti-
National Geographic Society. Constructive reviews by P. nental margins, island arcs, spreading ridges, and
Robinson, R. Sedlock and E. Moores greatly improved seamounts. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
the text and our understanding of processes and mechan- 105, 715-737.
isms of ophiolite emplacement, and are gratefully COLE, M.R. & ARMENTROUT, J.M. 1979. Neogene
acknowledged. paleogeography of the western United States. In:
ARMENTROUT,J.M., COLE, M.R. & TERBEST, H. JR
(eds) Cenozoic Paleogeography of the Western
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