JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes 2018-19 academic year

PHYSICS NOTES
2nd BACHELOR'S DEGREE

José Escudero Martínez

Bachelor of Physical Sciences

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JOHN XXII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: INTRODUCTION 2018-19 academic year

INTRODUCTION

These notes aim to cover all the contents required for the Baccalaureate Assessment Test for
University Access (PEBAU) in Andalusia. In no case are they intended to be a textbook, but rather a guide that
provides students with adequate follow-up of the 2nd year of Baccalaureate Physics subject without having to
take their own notes, thereby saving considerable time in the presentation of the subject in class and allowing a
greater number of examples and exercises to be carried out in the classroom.

On the other hand, these notes have been possible thanks to my university classmate and friend, Juan
Carlos Rodríguez Herola, and are a reflection of our experience in teaching this subject over the years. There are
different ways of structuring the contents of the subject and, in my case, I have decided that it is the one that is
summarized in the index of topics indicated on the next page and which I will briefly describe.

I have to highlight that these notes have included some content that does not correspond to the 2nd
year of baccalaureate curriculum and, therefore, cannot be evaluated in the PEBAU (see the general guidelines
and orientations for the access and admission test in the public universities of Andalusia that you can find on
the center's website). However, I consider that they are necessary to complete the training of the student at this
level.

Topic 0 is a review of the basic mathematical tools that we are going to use this course, with an
extension of vectors to three-dimensional space.

Topics 1 and 2 are intended to be a review of the contents on “Dynamics, Work and Energy” that were
studied in the 1st year of Baccalaureate, but with greater rigor than then, since the student has the appropriate
mathematical tools, such as calculus. differential and integral.

Topic 3 is dedicated entirely to the joint study of gravitational and electrostatic interaction, including
the Earth's gravitational field and the movement of satellites. I consider that it is appropriate to study both
fields simultaneously to simplify the student's learning process, and so that the student can see the analogies
and differences between both interactions.

Topics 4 and 5 make up the “Electromagnetic interaction” block. Topic 4 is dedicated to the study of
the magnetic field and topic 5 to the study of electromagnetic induction, a phenomenon that is the basis of the
so-called electromagnetic synthesis.

Topics 6 and 7 make up the “Vibrations and waves” block, with the first dedicated to the study of
simple harmonic vibratory motion (MAS) and the second to wave motion, in general, and to harmonic waves, in
particular, to their properties and electromagnetic waves.

Topic 6, MAS, is not part of the syllabus of this course, nor is it evaluable in the PEBAU, but I have
considered it important to include it in this course because I believe that its study is easier for students now,
and it will also help us understand better. and more easily to wave motion.

Topic 8 is dedicated to a brief introduction to geometric optics in relation to image formation in optical
systems.

Finally, topics 9 and 10 are dedicated to “Modern Physics”: topic 9 to wave-particle duality and topic 10
to nuclear physics.

The timing is relative since it depends on several factors, but I consider that it would be appropriate to
dedicate the first quarter to the development of topics 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, the second quarter to topics 5, 6, 7 and
8, and the third quarter to topics 9 and 10.

Finally, I hope that these notes are of great help to all those students who use them.

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: INDEX OF TOPICS 2018-19 academic year

TOPIC INDEX

0. Basic tools of Physics.

1. Dynamics of the particle or material point.
2. Work and energy. Conservative and non-conservative forces.
3. Gravitational field and electric field.
4. Electromagnetic field.
5. Electromagnetic induction.
6. Simple harmonic vibratory motion.
7. Wave motion.
8. Geometric optics.
9. Wave-particle duality.
10. Nuclear physics.

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TOPIC 0. BASIC TOOLS OF PHYSICS

1. Physical quantities and their classification.

2. Geometric operations with vector magnitudes:
2.1 Geometric addition and subtraction of vectors.
2.2 Geometric definition of the product of a scalar and a vector.
2.3 Geometric definition of the scalar product of two vectors.
2.4 Geometric definition of the vector product of two vectors.
3. Cartesian coordinates or components of a vector: analytical expression of a
vector.
4. Analytical operations with vector quantities:
4.1 Analytical addition and subtraction of vectors.
4.2 Analytical definition of the product of a scalar and a vector.
4.3 Analytical definition of the scalar product of two vectors.
4.4 Geometric definition of the vector product of two vectors.
4.5 Derived from a vector.
5. Unit vectors.

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1. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

A physical quantity is a property of bodies that can be measured, that is, it can be expressed
by a quantity and its corresponding unit.

A first classification of physical quantities is: - Fundamental physical quantities - Derived

physical quantities.

Remember that the former are defined without using any other magnitude and that the latter
use one or more of the former for their definition. The choice of fundamental quantities is arbitrary,
but the number of fundamental quantities chosen must be the minimum needed to coherently and
precisely define all the others (which is why they are called derivatives).

Both fundamental and derived physical quantities are grouped into systems of units. The
following table shows the fundamental magnitudes and their units in the International System of
Units (SI):

FUNDAMENTAL MAGNITUDES AND THEIR UNITS IN THE SI

MAGNITUDE UNIT OF SYMBOL
Length MEASUREMENT
meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second yes
Temperature degree Kelvin K
Electric current intensity amp TO
Luminous intensity candle CD
Amount of matter mole mole
COMPLEMENTARY UNITS OF THE SI
Plane angle radian rad
solid angle stereoradian Mr

Remember that the measurement of any physical quantity in one unit can be changed to
another equivalent unit and that the most recommended method is the so-called “method of unit
fractions”.

From another point of view, physical quantities are classified as:

- Scalar physical quantities.
- Vector physical quantities

Remember that a physical magnitude is said to be scalar when it is perfectly determined by a

quantity and its corresponding unit. This is the case of mass, temperature, surface, volume, density,
work, etc.

However, for a vector physical magnitude to be perfectly determined, it is not enough to give
the quantity and its unit, it is necessary to know the direction and sense (sometimes also the point of
application). This is the case of position, speed, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.

Vector physical quantities are graphically represented by an arrow, called VECTOR , and are
written symbolically with the letter that symbolizes the physical quantity with an arrow above it. For

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 0. BASIC TOOLS OF PHYSICS 2018-19 academic year

example, the velocity vector would be:

In a physical magnitude we have to talk about the following characteristics:

DIRECTION : It is the line that contains the vector or that is parallel to the vector.

DIRECTION : It is the end of the vector.

MODULE: It is the numerical value of the physical magnitude and is directly

proportional to the length of the vector. It is represented by:
^
|v|

EXAMPLE 1

Indicates the sense direction and module of the corresponding vector physical quantity in each of the
following cases:

a) Car traveling at 50 km/h to the right.

b) Object that is thrown vertically upward at 10 m/s.
c) Train approaching the station platform on your right at 20 km/h.
d) Acceleration of Earth's gravity.
e) Object descending at 5 m/s.
f) Motorcycle approaching the pedestrian crossing on your left at 20 m/s.
g) Your weight.
h) Ball that is kicked at 200 m/s at an angle of 45º with the horizontal.
i) Tennis player who hits the ball downwards at 45º with the horizontal at 100 m/s.

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2 .- GEOMETRIC OPERATIONS WITH VECTORAL MAGNITUDES.

To operate with scalar magnitudes it is enough to handle the quantities and coherent units,
but to operate with vector magnitudes you not only have to take into account the quantity (module),
you must also take into account the direction and sense. Let's remember the operations with vectors
seen in previous courses and expand them to some more.

2.1 Geometric addition and subtraction of vectors

^ ^
To geometrically add two vectors u and v , one of them is placed after the other, and the
origin of the first is joined to the end of the last:
--

You can see that when the vectors you add do not have the same direction, their sum coincides
José Escudero Martínez...........................................................................................................1
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u v
A ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma.......................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100

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M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>...............................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM
Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --.....................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1.........................................................................................................................175
1 11.......................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/.................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x.......................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248

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2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7.............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2.............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '..............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]..............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..............................................................................349

u − v = u + (− v )

^ ^
Observe how in this case the vector u - v is the vector that joins the end of the second with the
end of the first.
- --

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2.2 Geometric definition of product of a scalar and a vector

-
The product of a real number k and a vector u is called the product of a scalar and a
vector.
-
It is represented by k . u , and the result is a new vector that has the following characteristics:

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2.3 Geometric definition of scalar product of two vectors.

The scalar product of two vectors u and v , which is represented by uv , is a scalar that is
obtained by multiplying the modules of both vectors by the cosine of the angle they form:

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )
COMMENTS: From the geometric definition of the scalar product we can deduce the
following:

1º.- The dot product of two vectors can be positive, negative or zero, depending on the
value of the cosine of the angle they form:

o If the angle formed by the vectors is acute (cosine +), the scalar product is positive, if
the angle is obtuse (cosine -), the scalar product is negative.

o If the vectors are perpendicular, the dot product is 0, since cos 90º = 0. This property
serves as CRITERION OF PERPENDICULARITY BETWEEN TWO VECTORS.

uv > 0 uv <0 uv = 0

2nd.- If we multiply the vector by itself scalarly, we obtain an expression that

allows us to calculate the modulus of the vector from its scalar product:

—>—> —> —> ^ —>

or. u = | u | . | u | .cos( u , u ) = | u | 2 cosO° = u | 2 ^ | —>
u| = u. or

Note that the magnitude of a vector coincides with the positive square root of its scalar product.

3º.- If we solve for the cosine in the geometric definition, we obtain the expression:

uv

|u|.|v|

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So if we know the magnitude of the two vectors and the value of their scalar product, we can know
the angle that these vectors form.

2.4 Geometric definition of vector product of two vectors.

--?2
The vector product of two vectors u and v , which is represented by U A V or by

COMMENTS:
From the geometric definition of the vector product we can deduce the following:
--
1º.-If the vectors u and v have the same direction (parallel or antiparallel), their vector
product is zero, since the vectors would form an angle of 0º or 180º with each other, and in both
cases the sine is equal to 0.
2º.- If the vectors are perpendicular, their vector product is maximum, since the - -
vectors u and v would form 90º and their sine is 1.

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3º.- The vector product of two vectors is not commutative, as can be seen in the drawing:

v A u =- u A v
3 .- CARTESIAN COORDINATES OR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

The Cartesian coordinate system is formed by three mutually perpendicular lines, called
Cartesian coordinate axes , which intersect at a point O, which is the origin of the coordinates. The
three axes are the “x axis” , the “y axis” and the “z axis” .

If in each of the axes a unit vector is defined (in unity mode) and in direction
— — — —>
positive (they are the vectors i , j and k ), any vector r of the space can be expressed as a
—>—> —>
linear combination of the vectors i , j and k As can be seen in the following drawing:

To the expression:

r = xi + y . j + z . k or r =( x , y,z)
—>
It is called ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION OR VECTOR EXPRESSION OF VECTOR r .

The scalars x, y, z are called CARTESIAN COORDINATES OR COMPONENTS

—
CARTESIAN VECTOR r .

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COMMENTS:

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1º.- When the direction of the vector is parallel to one of the three coordinate axes, then the
vector has only one coordinate other than zero: the one that corresponds to the axis with respect to
which it is parallel. Furthermore, the non-zero coordinate will be positive if the direction of the vector
coincides with the positive direction of the axis and negative if it is the opposite.

For example, if a car is moving horizontally to the right with a speed of 10 m/s, the analytical
expression for its velocity vector is:

— — — — Direction: horizontal
v = 10 im
— / s = 10 i + 0 j + 0km / s = (10,0,0)m / s —> < Direction: right
Module: 10m/s

If the car now moves to the left with the same speed of 10 m/s, the analytical expression for
its speed vector is:

— — — — — ( Direction: horizontal
v — — 10 im / s — — 10 i + 0 j + 0km / s—( — 10,0,0) m / s >' Direction: left
I Module: 10m/s

2nd.- If the vector is contained in the XY plane and its direction does not coincide with either
of the two axes, then the vector will have the first two components other than zero and the third
equal to zero.

For example, suppose that a projectile is fired with a speed of 100 m/s at an angle of 45º with
the positive part of the x-axis. Write the analytical expression for the velocity vector.

— — —
v
=vxi+vyj

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v = 50/2 i + 50/2 jm / s = 50^2 i + 50 2j + 0km/s

Notice how the two coordinates are positive since the vector is oriented in the first quadrant.

The general way to calculate the coordinates of a vector in the XY plane, applying
trigonometry is:

—•
_V, v = v x + v y
i j
^<
x
xy
= | v I .cos a
——
= | v | . sena

Where α is the angle that the positive semi-axis of the x forms with the vector. The sign of the sine
and cosine of this angle will give you the sign of the vector's coordinates.

—j

3º.- If the vector is contained in the XZ or YZ planes, there was always a null coordinate: the
“y” coordinate in the first case, and the “x” coordinate in the second.

4º.- When the vector does not coincide with any of the axes, nor with the XY, XZ or YZ planes,
then the three coordinates of the vector will be different from zero.

EXAMPLE 2nd

Indicates the analytical expression of the corresponding vector physical quantity in each of the
following cases:

a) Car traveling at 50 km/h to the right.

b) Object that is thrown vertically upward at 10 m/s.
c) Train approaching the station platform on your right at 20 km/h.
d) Acceleration of Earth's gravity.
e) Object descending at 5 m/s.
f) Motorcycle approaching the pedestrian crossing on your left at 20 m/s.
g) Your weight.

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h) Ball that is kicked at 200 m/s at an angle of 45º with the horizontal.
i) Tennis player who hits the ball downwards at 45º with the positive semi-horizontal axis
at 100 m/s.
j) Plane that Flying to 1000km /htoward S.
k) Plane that Flying to 1000km /htoward NE.
l) Plane that Flying to 1000km /htoward HE.
m) Plane that Flying to 1000km /htoward NNO.

4.- OPERATIONS WITH VECTORS IN ANALYTICAL FORM

--
Let us suppose two vectors u and v expressed analytically:

u = (U x ,u y ,U z ) = U x i + u j y

+uzk y v = ( ,v y ,v z
)
=vxi+v y j+ v k
z

4.1 Analytical addition and subtraction of vectors - -

The analytical sum of the vectors u and v is defined, as the vector obtained by adding
similar coordinates:

u+v = (u. ,U ,U) + ( v , v , v )

= (u + v , u + v , u , +
v ) = (u, + v ) i + ( u + v ) j + ( u , + v ) k
X and Z X and Z x xy yz z xx yy zz

^ ->
The analytical subtraction of the vectors u and v is defined, as the vector obtained by subtracting the
similar coordinates of the second from the coordinates of the first:

u v
- =ug,u,,uz) - ( v ,v ,v
x y z )
=(U x
-
v ,u x y
-
v ,u
y z
-
Vz ) = ( U x
-
v )i+(u
x y
-
v )j
y

+(u z -v ) k
z

4.2 Product of a scalar and a vector in analytical form

-
The product of a scalar k by a vector u is defined as the vector obtained by multiplying
each of its coordinates by the scalar:

->
k . or

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k(U ,U ,U
= x y z ) = (ku ,ku ,ku ) = ku i + ku j + ku k
x y z x y z

4.3 Scalar product of two vectors in analytical form - -

The scalar product of two vectors u and v , written analytically, is a scalar that is
obtained by multiplying the similar coordinates of both vectors and adding the results:

uv = (u x ,u y ,u
z yvv x v y v ) = u x . v x + u v .
, ,
! y and

+uz v. z

COMMENTS
1st.- Remember that the 2nd comment on the geometric definition of the scalar product
told us that if we scalarly multiply the vector by itself, we obtain an expression that allows us to
calculate the magnitude of the vector from its coordinates:

—> —> —> —> ________• _• —> —> —> —> —>
or. u = | u | . | u | .cos( u , u ) = | u | 2 cosO° = u | 2 ^ |u| = Vu. or

And if we now replace the scalar product with its analytical expression:

—— / * _>L I
|u|= or . u = J u 2 +
u and + u Z
We obtain that the module of a vector is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of its
coordinates.

2nd.- Remember also that, according to the third comment, if we solve for the cosine in
the geometric definition, we obtain an expression that allowed us to know the cosine of the angle
formed by the vectors and, from it, calculate the angle formed by the vectors :

cos(u,v) = ^'v ?
|u|.|v|

And if we now replace the scalar product with its analytical expression and also the modulus of the
vectors, the expression remains:

— — u v.x x

uv v
± u and . and
cos(u,v) = 2 2 2 Í2 2 ± u z v. 2
I u I' I z
u
x2+uy2+uz2.vx2
v| +vy2+vz
So if we know the coordinates of the vectors, we can know the angle they make.

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4.4 Vector product of two vectors in analytical form

The analytical expression of the vector that results from a vector product between two
vectors is obtained as follows:

77/ •
N— --------------------------- / N • •
u
A ==( u v .
v
and z

- u v.z and

J
i
+(u v . z x

ux. - V
z ) j +(u v .
x and
-
uy V ) k

4.5 Derivative of a vector in analytical form

The derivative of a vector is another vector that is obtained by deriving each of its
coordinates and is written:

v = vi + vj + vk—
v=vi+v j+v k ' '

xy z xy z

5. UNIT VECTORS

A vector is unitary when its module is unity.

^

If a vector v is not unitary, we can find two unit vectors of the same direction as it: one in
the same direction and one in the opposite direction.
^

To do this, simply multiply the vector v by the inverse of its module or change the sign of
said product, respectively.

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EXAMPLE 3
- -- - -- -
Given the vectors u = 2 i —j -4- 3 kv = i - 2 j — k Calculate: - -
a) The sum: u + v - -
b) The subtraction: u v —
--
c) The product of the scalar 3 and the vector u : 3. u
--
d) The scalar product of both vectors: u . v
—• —•
e) The module of each of the vectors: | u | and | v |
f) The angle formed by both vectors.
— —
g) The vector product of both vectors: u A v
—
h) Unit vector of the same direction and sense as u . Check that it is unitary.
—
i) Unit vector of the same direction and opposite sense as u . Check that it is unitary.

EXAMPLE 4
Respond to the same sections of the previous exercise with vectors:
— — — — —— — —
u— —i - j kv i-2j — — 3k —

EXAMPLE 5
Check the value of the following scalar products between the unit vectors:
— — — — — — — —— — — —
1.1 Yo . j Yo . k j.j j.k k.k

a) Applying the geometric definition.

b) Applying the analytical definition.
Solution: 1, 0, 0, 1, 0 and 1

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EXAMPLE 6º
Check the following vector products:
José Escudero Martínez.................................................................................................................
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v ).........................................................................................................
v A u =- u A v......................................................................................................................
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?...........................................................................................................
u
A v ==( u and v . z....................................................................................................................
J i +(u z v . x..............................................................................................................................
| to |...................................................................................................................................
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2...............................................................................................................
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1......................................................................................................................
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.....................................................................................................
- -..........................................................................................................................................
> F i = ma.............................................................................................................................
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU............
>F = ma............................................................................................................................
>F = ma = N+................................................................................................................
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9]..............................................
ISSUES.......................................................................................................................................
+ g n........................................................................................................................................100
M...............................................................................................................................................100
/2...................................................................................................................................................100
V= —P...........................................................................................................................110
V r B.....................................................................................................................................113
— f B F.................................................................................................................................117
> =>.....................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS............................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS............................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =......................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =......................128
4......................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ......................=E = + 4 " KQ Total

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135
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --...........................................................................................................................167
1......................................................................................................................................175
1 1..............................................................................................................................175
1 11............................................................................................................................175
/ /...............................................................................................................................189
/.......................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo.............................................................................................................................212
V1—V2.................................................................................................................................213
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.........................................................................................................................228
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x.............................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...)..........................................................................................248
2π....................................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T.........................................................................................................................248
TO......................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π.........................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...).........249
2 IT.................................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..................................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2...................................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]....................................................................................................................252
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................292
11....................................................................................................................................314
s '...................................................................................................................................314
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................317
ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................315

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ISSUES.....................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C...................................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]....................................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n...................................................................................................335
H+H- He + In...............................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln............................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■...............................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n...................................................................................349

TOPIC 1. DYNAMICS OF THE MATERIAL POINT

1. Introduction.
2. Movement, trajectory, space traveled, position vector and displacement vector.
3. Vectors instantaneous velocity and instantaneous acceleration.
4. Intrinsic components of acceleration: normal or centripetal acceleration and
instantaneous acceleration.
5. Classification of movements.
6. MRU.
7. MRUA.
8. MCU.
9. Composition of movements: parabolic movement.
10. The Laws of Dynamics or Newton's Laws.
11. The friction force.
12. Centripetal force. Examples: conical pendulum and curves.
13. Momentum or linear momentum.
14. Impulse of a force.
15. Relationship between the impulse of a force and the momentum.
16. Principle of conservation of momentum or linear momentum.
17. Deforming effect of a force on a spring: Hooke's Law.

RECOMMENDED READING:
Inertial and non-inertial reference systems. inertia forces

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1. INTRODUCTION

In physics, an object that has mass but has no dimensions is called a material point or particle . In
reality, when physics considers a body as a material point, it is not that it lacks volume but that it does
not have to be taken into account for the phenomenon being studied.

2. MOVEMENT, PATH, SPACE COVERED, POSITION VECTOR AND DISPLACEMENT VECTOR

The change in position of a body with respect to a point taken as a reference, called a reference
system, is called movement . From the definition it is clear that movement is a relative concept, that is,
the same object can be in motion with respect to a reference system and at the same time be at rest
with respect to another different reference system.

In motion, the imaginary line that joins the successive positions through which a body passes is
called a trajectory . This can be rectilinear, curvilinear (circular, elliptical, parabolic, etc.) or a succession
of both.

In a movement, the length of the path is called the space traveled .

The position vector of a particle, with respect to a reference system, is the vector that goes from
the origin of the reference system to the position occupied by the particle. It is represented - by r .

The position vector of a particle that moves with respect to a reference system will be a function of
time (it will only be constant when the particle is at rest with respect to said system) and that is why we
can write:

----

r(t) = x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j + z ( t ) k

The module of the position vector will tell us how far the particle will be from the reference system
at each instant.

We call Cartesian equations of the position vector the analytical expressions of its components
x(t), y(t) and z(t), which correspond to three scalar equations.

In general there will be three Cartesian equations of the position, but if the particle moves only
along one of the coordinate axes then the only coordinate other than 0 of the position vector will be
that of that axis, and the others can be ignored. two coordinates since they would be null, and
therefore, there will be a single Cartesian equation of the position.

The difference between the position vectors at the final instant t 2 and the position vector at the
initial instant t 1 is called a displacement vector between two instants of time t 1 and t 2 . HE -
represents by 4 r and is calculated:

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-- -
At r=r(2)-r()
Taking into account the geometric definition of the subtraction between two vectors, it can be
seen that the displacement vector graphically coincides with the vector that goes from the initial
position to the position occupied at the final instant (figure 1.1).

The module of the displacement vector will indicate the distance that separates the two
positions occupied by the particle in a straight line. In general, this distance will be less than the space
traveled. The magnitude of the displacement vector will only coincide with the space traveled when the
trajectory is rectilinear and the direction of movement is not reversed.

In the following graph you can see the position vectors of a particle, with respect to a reference
system, at two different moments in time, the trajectory and the displacement vector between those
same two moments:

Figure 1.1
Position vector, displacement vector and trajectory

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3. INSTANT SPEED AND INSTANT ACCELERATION VECTORS

The instantaneous velocity vector is the vector that indicates the velocity of the particle at any
instant of time. It is a vector tangent to the trajectory at each point of it and the direction of movement.
It is calculated by deriving the instantaneous position vector with respect to time:

----
r(t) = x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j + z ( t ) k
-
- dr dx -
dy -
dz ^
v(t) = r() =d= xt i + y '( t ) J +
z'(t)k = di +
~y J +
dt k = V x (t)i + V, (t) j + V (t) k

The instantaneous acceleration vector is the vector that indicates the acceleration of the particle
at any instant of time. It is calculated by deriving the instantaneous velocity vector with respect to time:

- Yo Yo Yo

r ( t ) = x ( t ) i + y(t)j + z(t)k

Figure 1.2

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Instantaneous speed and acceleration vectors

4. INTRINSIC COMPONENTS OF ACCELERATION: NORMAL OR CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION AND
TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION

The acceleration vector measures the changes in the velocity vector per unit of time. Therefore,
if the velocity vector does not change over time, the acceleration is 0.

But speed is a vector and therefore is characterized by having module, direction and sense. This
means that it is enough for just one of these characteristics to be modified so that we can affirm that
the speed is not constant.

In rectilinear movements the direction of speed does not vary. The module may or may not.

In curvilinear movements the direction and direction of speed is continually changing. The
module may or may not.

Therefore, in rectilinear movements there will be acceleration if the speed module changes,
while in curvilinear movements there will always be acceleration whether or not the speed module
changes.

In a movement in which there is acceleration, it is always possible to decompose the

acceleration vector into two components, called intrinsic components of the acceleration :

- a component tangent to the trajectory called tangential acceleration .

- And a component perpendicular to the trajectory called normal or centripetal
acceleration.

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Tangential acceleration measures changes in the magnitude of velocity while normal or

centripetal acceleration measures changes in the direction (and therefore also in the direction) of
velocity.

Therefore, in rectilinear movements there will never be normal or centripetal acceleration. If

there is acceleration in a rectilinear movement, it will be tangential.

However, in curvilinear movements there will always be normal or centripetal acceleration

since there are always changes in the direction of speed. In these movements, if the magnitude of the
velocity changes, there will also be tangential acceleration.

The characteristics of the intrinsic components of acceleration are:

TANGENTIAL
ACCELERATION :
—•
9dIvI d.v.
Ia|= Or simply a=—
MODULE:
tangent to the trajectory.
ADDRESS:
DIRECTION: that of the movement if the speed increases or opposite to the movement if the
speed decreases.

NORMAL OR CENTRIPETAL
ACCELERATION :
——
MODULE: v| 2
v 2

—oo simply a = a =
R nc R
—
DIRECTION: perpendicular to the
trajectory.
DIRECTION: towards the center of the
trajectory.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCELERATION AND ITS INTRINSIC

COMPONENTS:
— —
—
a=a+a
nt
— — —
MODULE: | to |
=v I a I 2 I a t
I2

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Example 1
The instantaneous position vector of a particle moving through space, in SI units, is:
----
r(t} = ( t ~ t) i + (4 - 2 1 ) j + 1 3 k
2

For said particle calculate:

a) The starting position. b) The position at 3 s.
c) The distance at which the particle is from the reference point at 5 s.
d) The displacement vector between moments 3 and 5 s.
e) The instantaneous velocity vector. f) The initial speed.
g) The speed module at 2 s. h) The instantaneous acceleration vector.
1) The magnitude of the acceleration at 10 s.

Example 2
The Cartesian coordinates of the position vector of a particle moving in the XY plane are given by the
following expressions, in SI units:
J x(+) = t 2 + 2
I y() = 3t - 2
For said particle, it responds to the same sections of the previous example.

Example 3
The instantaneous position of a particle moving along the abscissa axis is given by the expression:
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1
in SI units. Calculate:
a) The speed and acceleration with which the body moves at any instant.
b) The initial position and initial speed.
c) The position and speed at 4s.
d) Has the direction of movement changed? Because?
e) Is the speed canceled at any time? When?
f) Calculate the space traveled in the first 5 seconds?

Example 4
The position of a material point moving along the x-axis varies with time according to the expression:
x ( t ) = 442 - 3t + 11
where x is measured in meters and t in seconds. Respond to the same sections as the previous example.
SOLUTION: a) v(t) = 8t-3 m/sa(t)=8 m/s 2 b) x0=11 m v0=-3 m/sc) x(t=4s) = 63 mv(t= 4s) = 29 m/sd) if e) if at = 3/8 sf) e = 86.125 m

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5. CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENTS

Movements are classified based on two points of view: according to the trajectory and according to the
speed module.

Rectilinear
CAREER < Curvilinear: circular, parabolic, elliptical, etc.

—•
UNIFORMS: | v | = cte

SPEED MODULE < — ——

uniformly varied: | v | varies uniformly
VARIED < ——
varied in a non-uniform way: | v | varies non-uniformly
Yo

6. STRAIGHT AND UNIFORM MOVEMENT (MRU)

It has a straight trajectory and a constant velocity module, that is, the velocity vector is constant and,
therefore, there is no acceleration.

The equation of motion or equation of position of an MRU would be:

— — — X(t} = X + vx t.
r() = r + vt yf) = I +vy x

zt = o
z
+vz
t.
If the particle moves only along the x axis, the parametric equation of motion or parametric equation
of position would be:

x(t) = Xo + vt .

which is the equation that you know from previous courses.

The space traveled by the mobile in time t can be calculated as: e = vt

7. UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION (MRUA)

It has a straight trajectory and the speed module varies uniformly, that is, it only has tangential
acceleration and is constant.

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The equation of motion or equation of position of an MRUA would be:

N| —N| —N| — 99
/ \ \KX ATOTO
• • * ———

N"* • • • DDN
IIIIIIoreither
- - - 1— .

+++
TO
r ( t ) = r + v 0 t. +

•••
either
2 a.m. either

+++
NX
NxK
|

If the particle moves only along the x axis, the parametric equation of motion or parametric equation
of position would be:

1
x(t)
= x. +Vf +
00
— at . 2

The parametric equation for velocity is: v(t) = Vo + at .

The space traveled in a time t, when the direction of movement is not reversed, is calculated:

1
= = vt + ad2t
02

which are the equations that you know from previous courses.

Although you will still be more familiar with the one that corresponds to an MRUA in the vertical
direction, the y axis, whose parametric equation of motion or parametric equation of position would be:
1 and ( t )
= y o + v o -f + at. 2

and specifically when it is a free fall movement , that is, with the sole presence of the force of gravity
(without friction with the air), where we always know the value of the acceleration, a, which is the
acceleration of the gravity. As you remember, it is symbolized by the letter g and in the case of free fall
movements in the vicinity of the earth's surface it is worth -9.8 m/s 2 . The parametric equation of the
position or equation of motion of free fall in the vicinity of the earth would be:
1
y(t)
= Y o + v 0 t.
+ g,gf = = y o + v o t - 5 t 2

You will also remember the following equation in which time does not v = v o + 2ae
appear:

This equation sometimes presents problems when we solve for vy/ov 0 in motions with negative
acceleration.

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Example 5

Two athletes are 200 m apart and run towards each other with respective speeds of 8 and 10 m/s. Calculate:

a) The equations of motion of both runners.

b) The meeting point and the moment in which they will do so.
c) The space traveled by each of them up to that moment.

Example 6

A car initially at rest chases a motorcycle that is 50 m in front of it. The motorcycle circulates at a constant
speed of 20 m/s while the car accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s 2 . Calculate:

a) The equations of motion of both vehicles.

b) Where and when will they meet?
c) The space traveled by each vehicle up to that moment and counted from the moment the car began
to move.

Example 7

An object is thrown downwards from the terrace of an 80 m building with a speed of 5 m/s. Simultaneously,
another object is launched from the ground with a speed of 30 m/s. Find:

a) The equations of motion of each object.

b) Where and when will they cross paths?
c) Will the second body be rising or falling? Because?
d) The space traveled by each of them until the moment of the meeting.

Example 8

From two towns A and B separated by a distance of 10 km, two cars meet at speeds of 72 km/h and 108
km/h. Calculate:

a) The equations of motion of both cars.

b) The time it takes to cross each other.
c) The distance both cars are from town A at that moment.
d) The space that each car has traveled up to that moment.
SOLUC: b) 200 sc) 4000 md) 4000 m and 6000 m respectively

Example 9

From a window 15 m above the ground, a notebook is dropped. At the same time, a pencil is thrown from
the ground with an initial speed of 12 m/s. Find:

a) The equation of motion of each object.

b) Where and when do they intersect?
SOLUC: a) y 1 = 15 – 4.9t 2 y 2 = 12t – 4.9t 2 b) At 1.25 s and 7.3 m from the ground

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8. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION (MCU)

It is a movement with a circular path and a constant speed module. Therefore, it does not have
tangential acceleration but it does have normal or centripetal acceleration. In the following figure you can
see the velocity and acceleration vectors at different points of the trajectory:

Figure 1.4
Velocity and acceleration vectors in an MCU

Observe in the figure that the magnitude of the velocity vector is the same at any point on the trajectory.
Also note that the magnitude of the normal or centripetal acceleration is also the same at any point along the
trajectory.
—>
- — |v|2 v2

an =| to c | = either simply a = a = —
RR
Since the magnitude of the velocity is constant, the time it takes the particle to describe one complete
revolution is always the same. This time is called the MCU period and is represented by the letter T and in SI units
it is measured in s.

In an MCU, frequency is the number of turns described per unit of time. It is represented by the letter f, it
coincides with the inverse of the period and in the SI units it is measured in turns/s = cycles/s = rps (revolutions/s).
This unit is called hertz (Hz).

f=T
The angle described per unit of time is called angular velocity. It is represented by the letter ω, it is
calculated by dividing the angle described by the time spent describing it and in SI units it is measured in rad/s.
described angle 2π
ω
- or — =- - = 2nf
time spent T
The relationship that exists between the modules of the linear velocity v and the angular velocity ω

is: v = ^.R with R being the radius of the circular

Example 10 path.

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The pulley of a motor rotates with mcu at a rate of 240 rpm (revolutions per minute). Find:
a) The frequency, angular velocity and period of the pulley movement.
b) The centripetal acceleration of the points at the outer end of the pulley if its radius is 20 cm.
SOLUC: a) 4 Hz 25.12 rad/s and 0.25 sb) 126.2 m/s 2

Example 11
A record player spins at 33 rpm. Calculate:

a) The angular velocity and the angle described at 3 s.

b) If the radius is 10cm and a fly is on the edge of the disk, calculate the linear speed of the fly.
c) The distance traveled by the fly at 3s.
SOLUC: a) 3.454 rad/s and 10.362 rad b) 0.34 m/sc) 1 m

Example 12
The angular velocity of a wheel is 6.28 rad/s. Find:
a) the frequency, the period.
b) The linear velocity (v) and the normal acceleration of a point on the periphery of the wheel. The
turning radius is 50 cm.
SOLUC: a) 1 Hz and 1 s b) 3.14 m/s and 19.72 m/s 2

Example 13
A cyclist travels a circular path of radius 5 m with a speed of 54 km/h. Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the cyclist.
b) angular velocity
c) The time it takes to complete each lap
SOLUC: a) 45 m/s 2 b) 3 rad/sc) 2 s

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9. COMPOSITION OF MOVEMENTS: PARABOLIC MOVEMENT

A particle is said to describe a compound motion when the particle is subjected to two or more
simultaneous motions. An example of this phenomenon occurs when a boat on a river is subjected to
two simultaneous movements: the movement driven by the boatman while rowing and the movement
driven by the current of the river water.
Another example of compound motion is that of bodies when they are thrown on the surface of
the earth in a direction other than vertical. The body is subjected to two movements: an MRU of
advancement in the horizontal direction and an MRU of free fall as a consequence of the action of the
gravitational force (of its own weight). The result of these two movements is a parabolic movement.
The following figure represents the velocity vector and its horizontal and vertical components at
different points of the trajectory for a particle launched from the origin of coordinates:

Figure 1.5
Velocity vector and its components in a parabolic motion

In the previous figure it can be seen how the horizontal component of the velocity remains
constant (MRU) while the vertical component of the velocity varies, being positive while the body
ascends, becoming 0 at the highest point of the trajectory and being negative while the body ascends.
comes down.

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The equations of motion or position and speed are as follows:

POSITION EQUATIONS

- --
r(t) = xi + yj

EQUATIONS OF SPEED

- --
v ( t ) = vxi + vyj =>

Example 14
A person throws a ball from a platform located 1.7 m above the ground with a speed of 6 m/s and a
shooting angle of 53º. Calculate:
a) The equations of position and velocity.
b) The flight time.
c) The speed with which it reaches the ground.
d) The reaching.
e) The maximum height to which the ball reaches.

Example 15th
A projectile is launched from a cliff 150 m high with an initial speed of 400 m/s and an angle of
inclination of 30º. Calculate:
a) The components of the initial velocity
b) The time it takes to fall to the ground.
c) The reaching.
d) The maximum height reached.
SOLUC: a) v 0x = 346.4 m/sv 0y = 200 m/sb) 41.5 sc) 14.4 km d) 2191 m

Example 16
A boy throws stones horizontally from the top of a 25 m high cliff. If you want them to hit an islet that
is 30 m from the base of the cliff, calculate:
a) The speed with which you must throw the stones.
b) The time it takes for the stones to reach the islet.
SOLUC: a) 13.3 m/sb) 2.2 s

10. NEWTON'S LAWS

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Classical Mechanics is based on three laws or principles that were stated by the English
scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727). These three laws of motion are collected in one of his most
important works: the book titled “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)”.

They could really be reduced to just two laws, since the second includes the first. However, this
is how he presented them, it is easier to understand them and the first one was actually proposed by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), a great Renaissance man born in Pisa.

10.1 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW, FIRST PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS OR PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA

“ If no force acts on a body or if the resultant of all the forces acting on the body is zero, then
the particle will be at rest or moving with constant speed, that is, with MRU.”

COMMENTS

1º.- According to this principle, the forces are not the cause of the movement of the bodies
since a body can be moving with MRU and yet the resultant of the forces is worth 0.

2nd.- This principle also says that in the absence of forces, bodies lack acceleration, that is,
they do not change their speed, that is, they do not change their state of rest or initial movement in
which they were. Since inertia is defined as the resistance or opposition that a body presents to
changing its state of rest or movement, it is for this reason that it is also called the principle of inertia.

3º.- When no forces act on a body or the result of all those that act is equal to 0, the body is
said to be in equilibrium . Therefore, both a body at rest and with MRU is in equilibrium. In the first
case we speak of static balance , while in the second case we speak of dynamic balance .

4º.- Rest and MRU are two equivalent situations from a dynamic point of view because in
both there is an absence of forces.

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10.2 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW, SECOND PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS OR FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF

DYNAMICS

“The resultant of all the forces acting on a particle coincides with the product of its mass and
its acceleration.”

——
F RTE . = mg
——— — —
F1+ + + +
F 2 F 3 ... F n = ma
n
--
> F i = ma
i =1

COMMENTS:

1º.- Newton's first Law is a particular case of the second:

- -- --
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU

2nd.- The unit of force is the unit of mass times the unit of acceleration which, in the SI of
units, is kg.m/s 2 . This unit is known as Newton.

Kgm = NEWTON ( N )

One Newton is the force that applied to a 1 kg body gives it an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .

3º.- The resulting force that acts on a particle and the acceleration of said particle are vectors
of the same direction and direction since the force is obtained from the product of a scalar
-
positive, the mass m, times a vector, the acceleration a .

--
F RTE . = ma

--
4°.- The FRTE equation . = ma is a physical law that tells us that forces are responsible for the
accelerations of bodies, that is, forces are responsible for changes in the speed of bodies, that is,
changes in the movement of bodies. the bodies. Therefore, the
--
FRTE expression . = ma is a cause-effect relationship: the cause is the forces and the effect is the

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acceleration.

5º.- This Law also allows us to physically interpret mass, not as an amount of matter, but as a
measure of the inertia of bodies, that is, as a measure of the resistance or opposition that bodies
present to changes in its movement. In fact, if we apply two equal forces to two bodies of different
masses, the acceleration that each of them acquires would be:
--
-F -F

ai = my a2 = M

The body with less mass has greater acceleration, that is, it changes its speed more quickly and,
therefore, has less inertia. Unlike the one with greater mass.

10.3 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW, THIRD PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS OR PRINCIPLE OF ACTION AND
REACTION

“If a body A exerts a force (action) on another body B, this body exerts another equal force
(reaction) on A but in the opposite direction.”

COMMENTS:

1.- This principle states that forces always appear in pairs, the action-reaction pair, and they are
forces of the same direction, of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.

2nd.- According to the previous comment, it could be thought that the pair of action-reaction
forces cancel each other out. However, this is not true since they are applied to different bodies.

3º.- The forces of action and reaction are simultaneous, that is, there is no temporal separation
between them.

4º.- This principle states that forces are always mutual actions between bodies and, for this
reason, forces are also known as interactions.

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11. THE FORCE OF FRICTION

Friction force is a force that dissipates energy in the form of heat. It is often said that the force
of friction opposes movement. Although this is true, it is no less true that it also allows other
movements. In fact, without the force of friction we would not be able to walk or write, the wheels of
vehicles would not be able to move, etc.

The friction force can be static or dynamic (also called kinetic ). The static friction force is the
force that acts while the body is at rest on the surface and can have values between 0 and a
maximum value. When the applied force exceeds this maximum value, the body begins to move on
the surface and then the dynamic or kinetic friction force appears.

The maximum value of the static friction force is:

—• —•
|F| = u, . O well F. = u .N
NEITHER roz . its T . max . and
roz . its T . max . and

Being:
μ a characteristic constant that only depends on the nature of the surfaces brought into
contact and is called the static friction coefficient.
—
N is the normal force with which both surfaces are pressed together.

The module of this force represents the minimum value that a force parallel to the surface
must have so that when applied to the body at rest, it begins its movement.

The value of the dynamic or kinetic friction force is:

—— —— —— ——
roz . din . P
roz . cin . = d .I N I = μ .| N | O well F
roz . din . roz . cin . d c
. roz . cin = u .N = u .N
Being:
Ua = U, a characteristic constant that only depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact
and is called the dynamic or kinetic friction coefficient.
—
N is the normal force with which both surfaces are pressed together.

COMMENTS

1º.- Both friction coefficients are dimensionless, that is, they lack units since they are
obtained by dividing the module of two forces.

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2º.- The static friction coefficient is slightly greater than the dynamic or kinetic one. This
means that more force needs to be applied to a body at rest to start its movement than, once in
motion, to maintain its constant speed:

μe —F >
roz . its T . max . roz . cin .
> μc ^roz.cin.

3º.- Both friction coefficients can be calculated experimentally as follows:

To calculate the coefficient of static friction between a body and the surface on which it rests,
the surface is gradually raised until the angle at which the body begins its movement is located. With
this inclination, the maximum value of the static friction force has been reached, which will coincide
with the parallel component of the weight and therefore:

roz . its T . max . t

u .N = P.sine e

U e .P N = P.sine

OR, . P .cos a = P.sine

sena
μe = tga
thin
g
Where α is the angle at which the body begins sliding along the surface.

With the previous inclination the body will slide with accelerated movement since the
dynamic friction force, which is lower than the maximum static friction force, will be lower than P t . If
we want it to slide with MRU we must slightly decrease the inclination until we achieve balance
between the dynamic friction force and P t . For this new inclination the following will be fulfilled:

roz.din. 71

u, .N = P.sin/5

U c .P N = P.sin(5

u, .P.cos P = P.sin/5

sinβ
μc
— = tgP
c
cosβ

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β being the angle of inclination for which the body slides with constant speed (MRU).

Example 17
Consider any of the objects that you currently have on the table (a body at rest resting on a horizontal
surface). Analyze the forces that act on it.

Example 18
Consider the same body as the previous example but now you apply a force to it. -
Analyze the forces that act on it and whether it will move or not in the following Horizontal F.
cases:
a) If there was no friction between the body and the surface of the table.
b) Considering the real situation.

Example 19
—
Do the same as in the previous example assuming that the force F that is applied makes an angle α
with the horizontal.

Example 20º
On a 20 kg body, resting on a horizontal surface with friction (µ c = 0.25), a horizontal force of 100 N is
applied. Calculate:
a) The friction force that acts.
b) The acceleration with which the body moves.
c) The speed of the body after 3 s if it was initially at rest.
SOLUC: a) 49 N b) 2.5 m/s 2 c) 7.5 m/s

Example 21
A force of 50 N is applied to an 8 kg body that is resting, at rest, on a horizontal surface. The force
forms an angle of 60º with the horizontal and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the body and
the surface is 0.1. Calculate the acceleration with which the body moves.
SOLUC: 2.7 m/s 2

Example 22
A body of mass m is deposited on an inclined plane of inclination angle α and begins to slide. Analyze
the forces acting on the body and verify that the acceleration of descent is independent of the mass
of the body, in the following cases:
a) There is no friction.
b) Yes there is friction
Example 23
—
A force F acts on a body of mass 5 kg, initially at rest, whose modulus is 10 N. If the coefficient of
static friction between the body and the surface is 0.4, calculate the value of the friction force that
acts and its maximum value in each of the situations drawn:

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-
José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1..................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM
Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152

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ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1..........................................................................................................................175
1 11........................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo.........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...).....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '...............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331

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235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n...............................................................................349

SOUC: a) 10 N; 19.6 N b) 8.7 N; 21.6 N c) 8.7 N; 17.6 N d) 0 N; 23.6N

Example 24th
Two masses are linked by a rope that passes through the throat of a pulley (Atwood machine).
Analyze the forces acting on each mass.

Example 25º
A 20 kg body is dropped. by a plane inclined at 30º with respect to the horizontal from a height of 2
m, the coefficient of dynamic friction between the body and the plane being
ud = 0.4.

a) Calculate the acceleration with which it descends.

b) The speed with which it reaches the base of the plane.
SOLUTION: A) 1.5 m/s 2 B) 3.46 m/s

Example 26th
It is observed that a body slides with constant speed down an inclined plane. Based on the first
principle of Dynamics, reason whether or not there is friction between the body and the surface.

Example 27th
A 15 kg body. It is dropped down a plane inclined at 60º to the horizontal, from a height of 2 m. Find:
a) The acceleration of descent if there is no friction between the body and the plane.
b) The time it takes for the body to reach the base of the plane and the speed it will have at
that moment if it started from rest. SOLUTION: A) a = 8.5 m/s 2 B) 0.73 s and 6.2 m/s

Example 28th
From the base of an inclined plane, a body of mass m is thrown upward. Show that the acceleration of
ascent is independent of mass whether there is friction or not.

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Example 29
From the base of a 30º inclined plane, a body of mass m is thrown upward with a speed of 12 m/s.
Calculate the acceleration of ascent, the time it is ascending and the maximum height reached in the
following cases:
a) There is no friction.
b) The dynamic friction coefficient is 0.18.
SOLUTION: a) a = -4.9 m/s 2 t = 2.45 sh = 7.35 m b) a = -6.43 m/s 2 t = 1.87 sh = 5.62 m

Example 30º
-
We horizontally apply a force F to a 60 kg piece of furniture. of mass, which is at rest on a horizontal
surface with friction, the friction coefficients being:
eu = 0.4 and
uc =
0.3.
Determine whether it will move or remain at rest and calculate the friction force that is acting in each
of the following cases:
--
A) F = 200 N B) F = 250 N
SOLUC: A) does not move; F roz = 200 N B) if it moves; F roz = 176.4 N

Example 31st
We want to determine the coefficient of static and kinetic friction between a box and a plank. By
gradually raising the plank, it is observed that the box begins to slide when the inclination is 28º.
Under these same conditions the box travels 3 m in 3 s. Calculate both coefficients.
SOLUC: µ e = 0.53 µ c = 0.455

Example 32nd
A skier, descending from rest down a slope 213 m long and with a gradient of 3%, takes a time of 61 s.
If the skis are changed, the same skier spends a time of 42 s. Determine the coefficient of friction
between the snow and the skis, in each case.
SOLUC: µ c1 = 0018 µ c2 = 0.005

Example 33º
A body slides freely down a 30º inclined plane with constant speed. Once at the base of the plane, it is
launched upwards with a speed of 10 m/s.
a) Calculate the time it will take to stop and the height at which it will stop.
b) Once it stops, will it slide back down on its own? Reason your answer.
SOLUC: a) 1.02 s 2.55 mb) ?

Example 34º
You want to lift a 5 kg body. by a plane inclined 30º with respect to the horizontal. If the coefficient of

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kinetic friction is 0.4, calculate:

a) The force parallel to the plane that we have to apply to make it rise with an acceleration
of 0.5 m/s 2 .
b) The height reached by the body after 2 s assuming that it started from rest.
SOLUC: a) 44.05 N b) 0.5m

Example 35º
Two masses of 1 and 3 kg hang from the ends of a rope that passes over a pulley. Neglecting the mass
of the rope and the pulley, calculate:
a) System acceleration.
b) The tension of the rope.
SOLUC: a) a = 4.9 m/s 2 b) T = 14.7 N

Example 36º
A 6 Kg body. of mass slides on a horizontal table, (whose coefficient of friction is 0.25), it slides due to
the action of a rope to which it is attached, this rope passes through the throat of a pulley to another
4 kg body. that hangs. Calculate:
a) the acceleration with which the mass on the table slides.
b) The tension of the rope at each end of the rope.
SOLUC: a) 2.45 m/s 2 b) 29.4 N

Example 37º
Two bodies of 4 and 6 kg. They are supported on a horizontal surface without friction and joined by a
rope of negligible and inextensible mass. The body on the right is pulled with a horizontal force F of 20
N to the right. Calculate:

------------------------- -----------•

a) System acceleration.
b) The tension of the rope.
SOLUTION: A) a = 2 m/s 2 B) T = 8N

Example 38º
Repeat the previous problem assuming that force F is applied at an angle of 30º with the horizontal.
SOLUTION: A) a = 1.74 m/s 2 B) T = 6.96 N

Example 39th
Repeat problem #24 assuming that there is friction with μ 1 = 0.1 and μ 2 = 0.15.
SOLUTION: A) a = 0.73 m/s 2 B) T = 6.84 N

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Example 40º
Repeat problem #25 assuming that there is friction with μ 1 = 0.1 and μ 2 = 0.15.
SOLUTION: A) a = 0.62 m/s 2 B) T = 6.4N

12. CENTRIPETAL FORCE. EXAMPLES.

12. 1. CENTRIPETAL FORCE.

A body with curvilinear motion always has centripetal acceleration since the direction of its speed
changes continuously.
The body is therefore not in balance and a force responsible for said acceleration must act on
it, which must have the same direction and sense as the centripetal acceleration, that is, directed
towards the center of the trajectory. This force responsible for the centripetal acceleration of bodies
is called centripetal force.
The following graph shows the centripetal force in an MCU:

COMMENTS:
1st.- Centripetal force is just a name, it is not another force to add to the movement.
2nd.- The centripetal force can be of a very different nature: gravitational, electrical, friction,
tension, etc.
3º.- The modulus of the centripetal force, applying Newton's 2nd Law is:

-- v 2

F c = ma Fc
= ma
= mp

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12.2. EXAMPLES.

12.2.1. CONICAL
PENDULUM
The conical pendulum is a device formed by a heavy body of small dimensions, tied to the end of
an inextensible rope of negligible mass that is attached to a fixed point at the other end, so that
the body describes a circular path in a horizontal plane. , the thread forming a certain angle with
the vertical, as indicated in the figure:

Only its own fundamental weight of the a the tension of rope. Applying the principle
dynamics of said mass acts on the mass m: n the
d

____ - - -- -
>F = ma = T+
P = ma
In the vertical axis there is balance of forces, then in said axis:

- -- -
2 F = o = T and + P = 0 = T and — —P = T = P = T cos0 = mg
>
On the horizontal axis there is normal or centripetal acceleration, then on
said axis:

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-- --
>F = ma —
x = ma — F - F = ma —
x = ma —
fav v
c
v 2 x c 2 op c x c

T send = m— T send = m----------

R L cos θ

Combining both equations we obtain different expressions that relate the different
magnitudes of this movement. For example:

- Clearing the tension in any of them and substituting in the other

we would get:

2 2

tgd = vyz = tgd = —V

gR gL cos θ
>

- Squaring both expressions and adding member to member

we would get:

( v N2 _,2 ( V2
T = ( mv ) 2
+ = (mv ) ^
m
R Lcosg J
Im)
\R) >

12.2.2. VEHICLES THAT TAKE CURVES

12.2.2.1. FLAT CURVE WITHOUT FRICTION

A vehicle could never take a flat curve without friction. It is enough to do a force analysis
and observe that there would be no force that could curve the trajectory and cause the centripetal
acceleration that is needed.

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12.2.2.2. FLAT CURVE WITH FRICTION

However, a vehicle could take a flat curve with friction. It is enough to do a force analysis
and observe that the static friction force between the tires and the asphalt can curve the trajectory of
the vehicle and cause the centripetal acceleration that is needed.

In fact, when the mobile takes the flat curve of radius R, the forces that act are three: The
normal, the weight and the static friction force. Applying Newton's second law or fundamental
principle of dynamics to the vehicle:

___ - - - -
>F = ma = Froz = ma c

In the vertical axis there is balance of forces, then in said axis:

- -- -
2 F = o = N+P = 0 = N——P =
N — P — mg
On the horizontal axis there is normal or centripetal acceleration, then on said axis:

-- - -
—
2 — ma
F
= F roz . its T . — ma = F
fav F op
— ma = roz . its T . — ma = F — mv 2

roz . its T .

It is important to note that the static friction force has a limit value and therefore can only provide a
maximum value to the centripetal acceleration, that is, for each curve there will be a maximum value
of the speed at which it can be taken. This maximum value would be:

José Escudero Martínez......................................................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )..............................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v...........................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z.........................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x...................................................................................................................17
| to |........................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2....................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1...........................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma...........................................................................................37
- -...............................................................................................................................37
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> F i = ma..................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.37
>F = ma.................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+.....................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9]...................................76
ISSUES............................................................................................................................82
+ g n.............................................................................................................................100
M....................................................................................................................................100
/2........................................................................................................................................100
V= —P................................................................................................................110
V r B..........................................................................................................................113
— f B F......................................................................................................................117
> =>..........................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =...........127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =...........128
4...........................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ..........=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................152
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --................................................................................................................167
1...........................................................................................................................175
1 1...................................................................................................................175
1 11.................................................................................................................175
/ /....................................................................................................................189
/............................................................................................................................190
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................193
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo..................................................................................................................212
V1—V2......................................................................................................................213
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................217
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................218
K = mo2...............................................................................................................228

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ISSUES..........................................................................................................................233
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x..................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...)...............................................................................248
2π.........................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T..............................................................................................................248
TO...........................................................................................................................248
2π 2π..............................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)249
2 IT......................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7........................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2........................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ].........................................................................................................252
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................289
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................292
11.........................................................................................................................314
s '........................................................................................................................314
ISSUES.........................................................................................................................317
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................315
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C........................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4].........................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n........................................................................................335
H+H- He + In....................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■....................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n........................................................................349

12.2.2.3. CANTED CURVE WITHOUT FRICTION

When the curve is banked, a vehicle could take it even without friction. When doing a
force analysis we can see that the horizontal component of the normal force is the centripetal force
that allows us to curve the trajectory of the mobile and cause the centripetal acceleration that is
needed.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY SEMINAR José Escudero Martínez Page 53

Applying Newton's second law or fundamental principle of dynamics to the vehicle:

JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 1: DYNAMICS OF THE MATERIAL POINT 2018-19 academic year

12.2.2.4. BANKED CURVE WITH FRICTION

When the curve is banked and there is friction, the force analysis tells us that both the static friction
force between the tires and the asphalt and the normal force provide separate components to form
the centripetal force and thus be able to curve the trajectory of the vehicle and cause the centripetal
acceleration needed.

Applying Newton's second law or fundamental principle of dynamics to the vehicle:

____ -- --- -
>F = ma = N+P+ F roz . its T . = ma c

In the vertical axis there is balance of forces, then in said axis:

___ - --- ---

>F = o — Ny + P + F =0 = Ny
— —P — F
N
and
—P +
v**
F
roz . its T .
^

yroz . its T . yroz . its T .

N cos a — mg + μ Nsinα N— mg
cos α — μ sinα

On the horizontal axis there is normal or centripetal acceleration, then on said axis:

José Escudero Martínez......................................................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )..............................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v...........................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z.........................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x...................................................................................................................17
| to |........................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2....................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1...........................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma...........................................................................................37
- -...............................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma..................................................................................................................37

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 1: DYNAMICS OF THE MATERIAL POINT 2018-19 academic year

Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.37

>F = ma.................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+.....................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9]...................................76
ISSUES............................................................................................................................82
+ g n.............................................................................................................................100
M....................................................................................................................................100
/2........................................................................................................................................100
V= —P................................................................................................................110
V r B..........................................................................................................................113
— f B F......................................................................................................................117
> =>..........................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =...........127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM
Total =...........128
4...........................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ..........=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................152
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --................................................................................................................167
1...........................................................................................................................175
1 1...................................................................................................................175
1 11.................................................................................................................175
/ /....................................................................................................................189
/............................................................................................................................190
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................193
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo..................................................................................................................212
V1—V2......................................................................................................................213
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................217
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................218
K = mo2...............................................................................................................228
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................233

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ISSUES..........................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x..................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...)...............................................................................248
2π.........................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T..............................................................................................................248
TO...........................................................................................................................248
2π 2π..............................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)249
2 IT......................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7........................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2........................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ].........................................................................................................252
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................289
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................292
11.........................................................................................................................314
s '........................................................................................................................314
ISSUES.........................................................................................................................317
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................315
ISSUES..........................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C........................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4].........................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n........................................................................................335
H+H- He + In....................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■....................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n........................................................................349

— m
RN ( sinα + μ e cos α ) v max .

Substituting the value obtained for N into the maximum speed equation we obtain:

- , =, max sinα + μ cos α gR

cos α — μsinα

We can verify that this expression encompasses all the previous situations

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13. LINEAR MOMENT OR MOMENTUM OF MOVEMENT

It is called the linear momentum or momentum of a particle of mass m that is moving -

with speed v , to the product of the mass of its mass times its speed:

--
p = mv

COMMENTS :

1º.- It is a vector magnitude because it is obtained from the product of a scalar, the mass, and
a vector, the speed.

2nd.- It has the same direction and meaning as the velocity vector:
--
p = mv

3º.- The module of the momentum is the product of the mass and the module of the speed:

—• —•
| p | = m | v | Or simply p = mv

4º.- In the international system of units it is measured in kg.m/s.

14. IMPULSE OF A FORCE

The effect of a force not only depends on its value, it also depends on the time during which the
force acts.

We call the impulse of a force the product of the force and the time during which it acts.
Symbolically:

— —
I = F .A t

From the definition of the impulse of a force we can deduce the following comments:

1st.- It is a vector magnitude since it is defined by the product of a scalar magnitude, time, by a
vector magnitude, force.

2º.- The impulse has the same direction and meaning as the force.

3º.- The module of the impulse is equal to the module of the force multiplied by the time it acts.

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4º.- In the SI units, the impulse is measured in Ns, which is the same unit as that of the
momentum or linear momentum:
Ns = Kg. m. s -2 . s = Kg. m. s -1 = Kg . m/s

15. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IMPULSE OF A FORCE AND THE MOMENTUM OF

MOVEMENT

We can obtain the relationship between both physical quantities from Newton's second law:

- - - -----
--
- ^ F. to you = m. A v ^ F. A t =
2 Av m.(v - v 0 ) = mv - mv o = A p
F RTE . = ma — F RTE . = m.
to you

-- -
I = F. At t=p

The impulse of the resultant force acting on a body coincides with the change in the
momentum of said body.

Example 41st
A tennis player hits a 125 g ball with his racket that arrives at him with a speed of 12 m/s, and returns
it in the same and opposite direction at 20 m/s. If the force applied by the player was 400 N, calculate
the contact time between the ball and the racket.

16. PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM OR MOMENTUM OF MOVEMENT

Conservation principles are fundamental laws of Physics that express essential properties of
nature. In Dynamics the three most important conservation principles are three: the principle of
conservation of linear momentum or momentum, that of angular momentum or kinetic moment, and
that of mechanical energy. In this question we will see the first of them and in the following topic the
third (the second applies to rotating systems).

The principle of conservation of linear momentum or momentum says:

“ If the resultant of the external forces acting on a system is zero, then the linear momentum
or momentum of the system remains constant, that is, it does not vary”

Symbolically:

-----
Yes >
F
=0 — At p = 0— p = cte . —
p, pfinal
EXT . initial final

In phenomena such as crashes, explosions, jet engines or gunshots, the linear momentum of the
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system is conserved, since the resulting external forces are null or very weak compared to the
intensity of the internal forces that appear in the phenomena listed above.

The conservation of momentum has important technological applications: For example, a rocket
advances thanks to the expulsion of gases in the opposite direction. The same thing happens in jet
airplanes and some cars.

In nature we also find examples: some animals, such as squid, propel themselves by launching a
jet of water in the opposite direction.

To carry out exercises to apply this principle, it is advisable that you follow the following steps:

1º.- Identify the body or bodies that make up the system.

2º.- Make sure that the result of the external forces that act on the system is null or negligible.

3º.- Choose the same reference system for the initial and final situation.

4º.- Make a good outline of the initial and final situation.

5º.- equalize the initial and final linear momentum of the system taking into account that they
are vectors.

6º.- Clear and calculate the unknown data.

Example 42nd
Two skaters of 50 and 70 kg move in the same direction and in opposite directions with respective speeds of
4 and 2 m/s. Suddenly they collide and, as a result of the fright, they remain in an embrace. Calculate the speed
with which the two skaters will move after the collision.

--
SOLUC: v = 0.4 im / 5

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Example 43º
A billiard ball collides at a speed of 5.2 m/s against another ball that is stationary. After the collision, the first
ball moves in a direction that is 30º with its initial direction, and the second ball, in a direction of – 60º with the
initial direction of the first. Calculate the final speed of both balls.

—• —• —• —• —• —•
SOLUC: v
= 4.5 I cos 30º i + sin 30º j I m / 5 v 2 = 2.6 I cos( - 60º) i + sin ( - 60º) jm / 5

17. DEFORMING EFFECT OF A FORCE ON A SPRING: HOOKE'S LAW.

Let us remember that forces can produce two types of effects on bodies: changing their
movement (producing accelerations) and deforming them. Until now we have been studying the first
of them. Let's now look at the second effect in the case of springs.

When a force is applied to a spring, the spring deforms (lengthens or shrinks), but what
relationship exists between the intensity of the force applied to the spring and the deformation
produced in the spring? To find out, we can place a spring in a vertical position provided with an
index that moves on a graduated ruler when different masses are hung at its end, as shown in the
figure:

This experience was carried out by the English physicist R. Hooke, who in 1678 formulated
the law known as HOOKE'S LAW which says:

HOOKE'S LAW

The deformation suffered by a spring is directly proportional to the force applied

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K L
F applied E A =K(L-4)
F applied = Force applied to the spring or deforming force of the spring (N)

L 0 = Initial length of the spring (m)

L = Length of the spring when the force F is applied (m)

K = It is a characteristic constant of each spring called ELASTIC CONSTANT (N/m)

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COMMENTS:

1º.- When the spring deforms under the action of the applied force, the spring acquires a new
equilibrium situation. This balance is only possible through the appearance of a force that counteracts
the applied force. This force is exerted by the spring and is called recovery force or elastic force, and is
a force opposite to the applied force or deforming force (equal module, same direction but opposite
direction).

Elastic force or spring recovery

force

Force applied to the spring or

deforming force

elastic F -F
appli

2nd.- If the experiment is carried out in only one direction, the vertical as in the previous
figures, the elongations only occur in that direction and the variation in length can be replaced by
variations in the ordinate axis (y axis). The previous equation would be:

F
elastic
-F ——
coordinate.
and KA
The above equation is actually the parametric equation of the force vector, that is, its vertical

3º.- The same would happen if the deformation occurred only horizontally:
F
elastic
-F —
KAx —
4º.- Springs have elasticity limits within which Hooke's law is fulfilled. If these limits are
exceeded, the spring does not comply with this law and its deformation may become permanent.

Example 44º
A spring lengthens by 20 cm when we exert a force of 24 N on it. Calculate:
a) The value of the elastic constant of the spring
b) The elongation of the spring when a force of 60 N is exerted on it.

SOLUTION: A) K= 120 N/m B)A L — 0.5m

Example 45º
Calculate the elongation suffered by a spring with an elastic constant of 100 N/m when a force of 85 N

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is applied to it.
SOLUC: H = 85cm

Example 46º
A spring whose spring constant is 150 N/m has a length of 35 cm when no force is applied to it.
Calculate:
a) The force that must be exerted on it so that its length is 45 cm.
b) The length of the spring when a force of 18 N is applied
SOLUTION: A) F = 15 N B)L=47cm

Example 47th
A spring lengthens 12 cm when we hang a mass of 1.8 kg from it. Calculate:
a) The elastic constant of the spring.
b) The elongation of the spring when hanging a mass of 4.5 kg.
SOLUTION: A) K= 147 N/m B) A L = 0.3 m

Example 48º
A spring with an initial length of 25 cm acquires a length of 45 cm when we hang a mass of 2.2 kg
from it. Calculate:
a) The elastic constant of the spring.
b) The length of the spring when we hang a mass of 2.75 Kg.
SOLUTION: A) K= 107.8 N/m B)L=50cm

Example 49th
The length of a spring is 32 cm when we apply a force of 1.2 N, and 40 cm when the applied force is
1.8 N. Calculate:
a) The length of the spring when no force is applied.
b) The elastic constant of the spring
SOLUC: B) L = 16 cm B) K= 7.5 N/m

Example 50º
The length of a spring is 80 cm when we apply a force of 0.98 N and increases to 90 cm when the
applied force is 1.40 N. Calculate:

a) The elastic constant of the spring.

b) The length of the spring when no force is applied.
SOLUTION: B) K= 4.26 N/m B) L = 0.57m

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RECOMMENDED READING

Inertial and non-inertial reference systems

... create actions between objects and describe them with respect to a reference system since the
effect on an object depends, through acceleration, on the
chosen reference system.
The problem is that , as Galileo said: it is impossible to
know, I Through mochanical experiments, whether a
sisirna is at rest or moves with constant speed and in a
straight line.
When traveling by plane, train or bus. With constant
speed and in a straight line , you can walk, read a book
or drink a soft drink just as in a steady stream .
The laws of Physics are the same for unobservers , that
for some reason, even one enters in relative motion
"and pulls straight." ia and with speed simultaneously
or> une reepech of the other.
From this principle it follows that the intensity of the
interaction, whether . za is the mass in all systems that
move with each other ( cars with uniform rectilinear motion, because the acceleration
that an object is the same in all these systems of reference
A reference system is inertial when it is at rest or its movement is uniform rectilinear.
In this reference system, Newton 's laws apply and the accelerations are a product of the forces
that, in turn. They are the result of the interaction between objects.
In most cases a reference system fixed on the ground can be considered inertial. Despite the
rotation and translation movements of the Earth.
An observer located in an animated system with acceleration is called non- inertial and
in your systems Newton's laws are not valid.
(To apply Newton's laws , in a non-inertial reference system,
the so-called inertial forces must be introduced, which
depend on the acceptance of the reference system.
These forces make sense to cut or accelerate the system
F,=- m a.

Being a, the acceleration of the reference system.

Inertial forces are not the result of any interaction in the
objects, they are a calculation device introduced by the non-
inertial observer to apply Newton's laws in his reference
system and therefore do not have their counterpart. action-
reaction.
The observations made from this point of view are
reduced to a problem of statics, since the heavens would
be in D'Alembert's equilibrium .

ras * F Eure? = 0

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Movement on a platform
Imagine a platform that goes around an
axis that passes through its center. On the
platform there is an object tied to the end of
a rope attached to the shaft. Suppose that
between the platform and the object there is
no slow movement and that both, platform
and object , rotate, along the axis, with the
same angular velocity and that this is
constant. A dynamometer • inserted in the
string indicates the । ntensity of the
rope tension
An inertial observer, located outside the
platform ma, deduces that the tension of
the rope provides the comal acceleration
that forces the object to describe a
circular path. Api it andu Id Newton 's
second law:
, ,L, V3
= m ü Í Tm a, —T-mR
- Paia an observer not inertia!, who travels
on the plane taforma, the object is at
rest. As he observes that the
dynamometer is stretched, he introduces
a fictitious force of inertia F - - m 4, , which he calls centrifugal force, which balances the tension
of the rope

LF-0; m 2,-0r-m=o=r=m'
To any observer located on the platform it
appears that the force of inertia is real and
that is why it is called the centrifugal force.

Playing on the platform

Perched on a platform that
rotates at extremely fast
speeds are two boys playing to
throw a ball from one another.
An older person observes that
at the beginning of the
game most pass attempts
fail
For an inertial observer located
outside the platform, the ball
follows a straight line
trajectory. He second 0>fi0
does not receive it because
cam position bias while", the
ball is on the way
For a non- knercial observer ,
located on the platform , the second child is at rest and does not receive the ball because it
describes a curvilinear path .

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TOPIC 2. WORK AND ENERGY. CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

1. Definition of mechanical work.

2. Definition of power.
3. Conservative and non-conservative forces. Potential energy.
4. Theorem of kinetic energy or theorem of work or theorem of living forces (TFV).
5. Relationship between work and energy. Theorem or Principle of Conservation
of Mechanical Energy (TCEM).

ISSUES
ISSUES

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1. DEFINITION OF WORK

We say that a force does work on a body if it transfers some form of energy to it. In particular,
if said energy is mechanical we will say that the force has done mechanical work.
Suppose a body of mass m moves between two positions A and B following a
—•
rectilinear path under the action of a constant force F
—
F

TO b

—
The work done by a constant force F in a rectilinear displacement of the
—
mass m between two positions A and B, to the dot product of the force vector F times the vector
—
displacement Δ r between both positions:

— — —
—
W = F. Ar = | F. | A r . cos( F A r ) [2.1]

From the previous definition the following conclusions or comments can be drawn:

1º.- The work done by a force is a scalar physical magnitude, since it is defined by the scalar
product of two vectors. Therefore, work can be a positive, negative number or be worth zero.

2nd.- The unit of work coincides with the unit of force times the unit of length, which in the SI
of units would be the Newton (N) times the meter (m). And this unit is given the name Julio (J).

Nm = Joule (J)

The definition of a Joule is the following: “A Joule is the work that a force of 1 N would do in a
displacement of 1 m, when the force was applied in the same direction and sense as the movement.”

—
3º.- If we apply a force to a body and it does not move ( Δ r = 0), the force does not do work.

4º.- If the applied force is perpendicular to the displacement, the force does not do work
either, since the angle formed by the force and displacement vectors would be worth 90º and the
cosine —— ——
of this angle is 0 (cos( F ,Δ r ) = cos (90º) = 0) (we can affirm that the forces perpendicular to the
displacements do not do work).

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- ^
| F |. | Δr |. cos(90º) = 0
-
m
-,
T b W( F )= = 5º.- The work done by
O a force coincides with the
-F work done by its tangential
component. In effect, we can
decompose the applied force into its two components - -
F and F so that the normal component does no work.
--- - -
W( F )=W( F ) + W( F ) = 0 + W( F ) = W( F )
n t t t

6º.- The work done by a force is positive when the force favors the displacement of the body,

-
Fn
-
m Δr

Ft
that is, the tangential component of the force has the same direction and direction as the movement,
and it would be negative when the force opposes the movement, That is, the tangential component
opposes the movement of the body.

WAB
>0

--

WAB<
TO b 0
t

7º.- Do not confuse work with effort. Effort consists of applying force, while work consists of
applying force and producing displacement that is not perpendicular to the force.

8º.- The definition of work that was given at the beginning of the question was for a constant
force in a rectilinear displacement, but the forces are not always constant and the

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Movements are rarely rectilinear. So how to define the work done by any force in any
displacement?
In these cases, the trajectory is divided into infinite elementary trajectories so that each of
these infinitesimal trajectories can be considered rectilinear and the force constant in each of them.
We would then calculate the elementary work dW performed in each trajectory
—• —•

elementary through the scalar product dW = F.dr and we would add all these works to obtain the
work along the entire trajectory. This summation is carried out through a mathematical operation
called integral and is written like this:
BB —>
w = f A dW = f F • dr
_______•TO___
_____•TO______

where A and B are the initial and final points of the trajectory and dr is an infinitesimal displacement
vector tangent to the trajectory at each of its points.

Example 1
——
In each of the following situations the force F that is applied to a body is represented. Assuming that
this force has a value of 10 N, the angle of inclination of the plane is 30º, the displacement along the
plane is 2 m, the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.2 and the mass that is
displaces is 1 Kg.

10th

For each of the three situations calculate:

a) He job done bythe force weight.
b) He job done bythe force normal.
——
c) He job done bythe force F.
d) He job done bythe force of friction.

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2. DEFINITION OF POWER.

Power is defined as the work r work made by r unit of time, and is calculated by dividing the
done between the time spent real zarlo:

P=W
[2.2]
t

From the definition of power we can draw the following conclusions:

1st.- Power is a derived and scalar physical quantity that measures the efficiency with which a
certain work is performed. In fact, the less time spent doing the same work, the greater the
power.

2nd.- Work is measured in the unit of work divided by the unit of time and, therefore, in the SI it
will be J/s. This unit is known as the watt (w).

1J = 1w
yes
A watt is the power developed when 1 joule of work is done in one second.
Other power units are the multiples and submultiples of the watt (Kw, Mw, etc.) and the
horsepower (1 CV = 735 w) 3rd.- If in the power expression we eliminate work, we obtain:

W=Pt [2.3]

From this expression we can deduce that the units of work (or energy) coincide with the units of
power times the units of time. One of these units is the Kw.h, which is the unit in which the
electrical energy consumed in homes is measured and whose equivalence with the joule is the
following:
1Kwh = 1000w 3600s = 3,600,000 w . s = 3.6.106 J

Example 2
A 1.5 t car goes up a 12% slope with a constant speed of 72 km/h. Neglecting friction, calculate:
a) Work done by the engine during the first 10 minutes.
b) Power developed by the engine. Express it in CV.

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 2: WORK AND ENERGY 2018-19 academic year

3. CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES. POTENTIAL ENERGY

A conservative force is one whose work done on a body that moves between two given
points, A and B, is independent of the path followed by it between said points.

WA (1)=WA (2)=WA (3)=…

B B B

The immediate consequence of the previous definition is that the work done by a
conservative force throughout any cycle (closed path) is zero.

W A = W (for any path) = 0

A

A force is said to be non-conservative when the value of the work done by it between two
positions depends on the path followed between both positions.

WA B
(1) 2 W A (2) 2 W A (3)...
B B

An immediate consequence of the previous definition is that there must exist at least one
cycle in which the work done by the non-conservative force is different from 0.

W A
(at least in one cycle) ≠ 0

Examples of conservative forces are: the gravitational force (and therefore the weight force),
the elastic force, the electric force and the...(it will be completed when we teach topic 9).
Examples of non-conservative forces are the friction force and… (to be completed in topic 4).
Any other force that has not been explicitly said to be conservative will be treated as non-

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conservative.

What advantages do conservative forces have over non-conservative forces?

The advantage of conservative forces is that the work done by them only depends on the
values that a scalar magnitude takes, which we call potential energy (E p ), at the extreme points of
the trajectory, so that we can write the following relationship, known as the potential energy
theorem and which says:

The work done by conservative forces when a particle moves between two positions
coincides with the variation in potential energy of the particle between said positions, but with a
change of sign.

W C = -ΔE p = - [ E p (B) - E p (A) ] = E p (A) - E p (B) [2.4]

where ΔE p = E p (B) - E p (A) is the variation in potential energy between points A (initial) and B (final)
of the path followed by the body.
The “-” sign means that the body decreases its potential energy as long as the conservative
force has done positive work in its movement. So that:

“The potential energy associated with a given conservative force decreases by an amount equal to the
work done by said force between two given points on a path.”

According to this theorem, we can calculate the work of conservative forces without having to
use the definition of work; it would be enough to evaluate the variation in potential energy.

Each conservative force has its own potential energy associated with it:

Gravitational potential energy at a point close to the Earth's surface

At points sufficiently close to the Earth's surface, the force-weight can be considered
practically constant and the associated potential energy is:

E p = m·g·h [2.5]

If we are dealing with points far from the earth where the force-weight cannot be considered
constant, the expression of the potential energy is different and will be seen in the next topic.

elastic potential energy

Let us assume a spring of constant K located horizontally. The restoring force of the spring can
be expressed as F = —Kx1, with x being the separation distance from the equilibrium position of the
spring and the expression for the elastic potential energy associated with this force is:

Ep=
1Kx2 [2.6]

electrical potential energy

We will study it in the next topic.

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Example 3
A body of mass 2 kg is lifted from the ground to a height of 4 m. Calculate:
a) Using the definition of work, calculate the work done by the weight force if it is lifted
vertically.
b) Check that this work coincides with minus the variation in potential energy of the particle
between the initial and final position.
c) Imagine that the particle rises to the same height, but moving it along a 30º inclined
plane. Answer the same questions as in sections a) and b). What stands out to you about
the results obtained?
d) Why do you think mountain roads are made in zig-zags and not in straight lines?

Example 4
Suppose that a body of mass 100 g is subject to a horizontal spring of elastic constant 50 N/m. If we
separate it 5 cm from its equilibrium position by stretching the spring, calculate:
a) The elastic potential energy that the body has in said position.
b) The work done by the elastic force in the displacement from the equilibrium position to 5
cm.
c) The work done by the force that produces the displacement (external force).
d) What elastic potential energy would the body have if instead of stretching the spring we
had compressed it 5 cm from its equilibrium position? What work would the elastic force
have done in this displacement? And the external force?

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4. THEOREM OF WORK, OR THEOREM OF KINETIC ENERGY OR THEOREM OF LIVING FORCES (TFV)

The work theorem, kinetic energy or TFV says that: “When a particle moves between two
positions, the total work done by the forces acting on the body along a given displacement is equal to
the variation of kinetic energy that said body experiences
WA B TOTAL= ΔEC = EC(B) – EC(A) [2.7]

Comments:
1º.- This theorem is applicable to any type of forces (conservative and/or non-conservative)
and any displacement (rectilinear or not).
2nd.- This theorem allows us to calculate the total work done on a particle without having to
use the definition of work; it would be enough to evaluate the kinetic energy of the particle in the
initial and final positions.
3º.- If we solve for the final kinetic energy in the equation of the theorem we obtain:

E C (B) = E C (A) + W A B
TOTAL

As we see, depending on the sign of the total work done on the particle, the kinetic energy of the
particle will have increased, decreased or remained constant.
If W A B TOTAL > 0 — E C (B) > E C (A) ^ E C ↑
If W A B TOTAL L < 0 — E C (B) < E C (A) ^ E C ↓
If W A B T O T AL = 0 — E C (B) = E C (A) ^ E C =
cte. the work done on a particle must be understood as a
4º.- According to the previous comment,
transfer of energy.

Example 5
A body of mass 1 kg is allowed to slide down a 30º inclined plane. If the body starts from rest and the
coefficient of friction between it and the plane is 0.1, find:
a) The work done by each of the forces acting on the body and the resulting work when the
body moves 3 m on the plane.
b) The velocity that the body acquires at the end when it has traveled 3m on the plane
applying the TFV.
c) Respond to the previous section using dynamics.

Example 6
A 10 kg body is thrown on a horizontal surface with a speed of 10 m/s. Due to friction, the body ends
up stopping after traveling 200 m above the surface. Calculate the value of the friction force:
a) Through the TFV.
b) Through dynamics.
5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND ENERGY. CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Let us consider a particle that moves between two positions A and B following any trajectory
and under the action of forces of any type (conservative and/or non-conservative, constant and/or

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non-constant). Applying the work theorem (TFV) we obtain:

WA B
TOTAL = ΔE c

If we decompose the total work into the sum of two works: that carried out by the
conservative forces and that carried out by the non-conservative forces, the previous expression
remains:

WA B
TOTAL = W A B FC + W A B FNC

If we take into account that the work of the conservative forces coincides with the least
variation in the potential energy of the particle (potential energy theorem), the previous equation
becomes:

ΔE c = - ΔE p + W A B
FNC

Solving for the work of non-conservative forces, we obtain

ΔE c + ΔE p = W A B
FNC

And if we take into account that mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential
energies, we can write the following expression known as the Mechanical Energy Theorem :

ΔE m = W A B
FNC [2.8]

The variation in mechanical energy experienced by a body in a given trajectory coincides with the
work done by all the non-conservative forces that act on the particle in said trajectory.

From this theorem we can extract the following consequences:

1º.- If along a certain path between two points A and B only conservative forces do work
(W NC = 0), then ΔE m = 0, that is, the mechanical energy remains constant. This result is known as the
principle of conservation of mechanical energy (PCEM) or theorem of conservation of mechanical
energy, whose mathematical expression can be written as follows:

If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9]

It is important to note that if the mechanical energy of the particle remains constant, this does
not necessarily imply that its kinetic and potential energies are constant. What must happen is that
the increase or decrease in its kinetic energy will be compensated, respectively, by a decrease or
increase in the same amount of its potential energy.

2º.- If along a certain path between two points A and B, non-conservative forces do work (W NC
≠ 0), then ΔE m ≠ 0, that is, the mechanical energy varies by an amount equal to the work carried out
by non-conservative forces. Depending on the sign of this work, this will be the sign of the variation in
mechanical energy, and therefore, the mechanical energy of the particle will have increased or
decreased:

Yeah WA B
FNC >0 = ΔEm >0 = Em↑

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Yeah WA B
FNC <0 = ΔE m < 0 = Em↓
In particular, those non-conservative forces that do negative work will decrease mechanical
energy; These forces are called dissipative since when they act they cause mechanical energy to be
dissipated in the form of heat. Among these forces, the forces of sliding friction or resistance of a
medium to the body that moves through it stand out.

Example 7
A body of mass m is dropped from the roof of a building 40 m high.

A) Analyzes whether or not the mechanical energy of the body is conserved during its fall.
B) Analyze how the kinetic and gravitational potential energies of the body vary during its fall.
C) Calculate the speed with which it hits the ground by applying the Principle of Conservation of
Mechanical Energy (PCEM).
D) Calculate the speed with which it hits the ground by applying the equations of free fall motion.
SOLUC: C) and D) v = -28 m/s

Example 8
Repeat the previous problem assuming that the body is thrown downward with a speed of 8 m/s.

SOLUC: C) and D) v = -29.1 m/s

Example 9
A body of mass m is allowed to slide down a 30º inclined plane without friction from a height of 2 m.

A) Analyzes whether or not the mechanical energy of the body is conserved during its descent.
B) Analyze how the kinetic and gravitational potential energies of the body vary during its descent.
C) Calculate the speed of the body when it reaches the base of the plane by applying the PCEM.
D) Calculate the speed of the body when it reaches the base of the plane by applying the kinematics
equations.
SOLUC: C) and D) v = 6.3 m/s

Example 10
Repeat the previous problem assuming that there is friction and that the coefficient of friction between the body
and the plane is 0.2. (As is evident, you will not be able to answer section C but, instead, you will be able to
answer by applying the relationship between the work of non-conservative forces and mechanical energy, equation
2.8).

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Example 11
A body of mass m is thrown upward from the ground along a frictionless 30º inclined plane with a speed of 14 m/s.
A) Analyzes whether or not the mechanical energy of the body is conserved during its ascent.
B) Analyze how the kinetic and gravitational potential energies of the body vary during its ascent.
C) Calculate the maximum height reached by applying the PCEM.
D) Calculate the maximum height reached by applying the kinematics equations.
SOLUC: C) and D) h = 10 m

Example 12
Repeat the previous problem assuming that there is friction and that the coefficient of friction between the body
and the plane is 0.2 (As is evident, you will not be able to answer section C but, instead, you will be able to answer
by applying the relationship between the work of non-conservative forces and mechanical energy, equation 2.8).

Example 13
From a height of 1 m, a body of mass 50 g is dropped onto an elastic spring 10 cm long and whose
elastic constant is 500 N/m.

Do anT energy analysis of the movement of the body falling from its initial position until the
O) maximum compression of the spring occurs, assuming that there is no friction.
B) Calculate the maximum deformation of the spring.
C) What will happen after the maximum deformation of the spring has occurred?
SOLUTION: B) 4
cm
Example 14
A 1 kg body is dropped from a height of 1 m, without friction, as indicated in the figure:

A) Do an energy analysis of the problem from the moment the body is released until the
maximum deformation of the spring occurs.
B) Calculate the speed with which the body hits the spring.
C) Calculate the maximum deformation of the spring if its elastic constant is 200 N(m.
D) What will happen after the maximum deformation of the spring has occurred?
SOLUC: B) 4.4 m/s C) 31 cm

ISSUES
Question 1 Comment on the following sentences: a) The mechanical energy of a particle remains
constant if all the forces acting on it are conservative. b) If the mechanical energy of a particle does

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not remain constant, it is because a dissipative force does work.

Question 2 a) Can the kinetic energy of a particle be negative? And the potential energy? If yes,
explain the physical meaning. b) Is it always true that the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the
decrease in potential energy? Justify the answer.
Question 3 Analyze the following propositions, reasoning whether they are true or false: a) The work
done by a force on a body is equal to the variation of its kinetic energy. b) Reason why the work done
by friction forces is always negative.
Question 4 If three conservative forces of different nature and one non-conservative force act on a
particle, how many terms of potential energy are there in the equation of the mechanical energy of
that particle? How does the contribution of the non-conservative force appear in this equation?
Question 5 Comment on the following statements, reasoning whether they are true or false: a) there
is a potential energy function associated with any force. b) the work of a conservative force on a
particle that moves between two points is less if the displacement is carried out along the line that
joins them.
Question 6 Answer reasonedly the following questions: a) Can potential energy be associated with a
friction force? b) What makes more physical sense, the potential energy at a point or the variation in
potential energy between two points?
Question 7 Explain the relationships that exist between work, variation in kinetic energy and variation
in potential energy of a particle that moves under the action of various forces. What would indicate
the fact that mechanical energy is not conserved?
Question 8 Comment on each of the following statements and explain whether they are true or false:
a) The work of a conservative force increases the kinetic energy of the particle and decreases its
potential energy. b) The work of a non-conservative force increases the potential energy of the
particle and decreases its mechanical energy.
Question 9 Can the same body have more than one form of potential energy? Reason your answer by
providing some examples.
Question 10 a) What work is done when supporting a body for a time t ? b) What work does the
force-weight of a body do if it moves a distance d along a horizontal surface? Reason your answers.
Question 11 A car starts on a straight and horizontal road, reaches a certain speed that remains
constant for a certain time and, finally, slows down until it stops. a) Explain the energy changes that
take place along the path. b) The car then travels down a downward slope with the brake applied and
maintains its speed constant. Reason the energetic changes that occur.
Question 12 Explain and reason the truth or falsity of the following statements: a) The work done by
all the forces that act on a particle when it moves from one point to another is equal to the change in
its kinetic energy. b) The work done by all the conservative forces that act on a particle when it moves
from one point to another is less than the change in its potential energy.
Question 13 Answer reasonedly the following questions: a) If the mechanical energy of a particle
remains constant, can it be ensured that all the forces acting on the particle are conservative? b) If the
potential energy of a particle decreases, does its kinetic energy have to increase?
Question 14 Answer reasonedly to the following questions: a) A particle on which a force acts carries
out a displacement. Can you ensure that it does work? b) A particle, initially at rest, moves under the

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action of a conservative force. Does its potential energy increase or decrease?

Question 15 Only conservative forces act on a particle. a) Does its mechanical energy remain
constant? Give reasons for your answer. b) If frictional forces also act on the particle, how would they
affect the mechanical energy?
Question 16 A particle starts from a point on an inclined plane with a certain speed and ascends,
sliding along said inclined plane without friction, until it stops and descends again to the starting
position. a) Explain the variations in kinetic energy, potential energy and mechanical energy of the
particle along the displacement. b) Repeat the previous section assuming that there is friction.
Question 17 Explain why, instead of potential energy at a point, we should talk about the variation of
potential energy between two points. Illustrate your answer with some examples.
Question 18 The work done by a conservative force in the displacement of a particle between two
points is less if the path followed is the segment that joins said points.
Question 19 Can it be stated that the work done by all the forces acting on a body is always equal to
the variation of its kinetic energy? Give reasons for your answer and support yourself with an
example.
Question 20 Answer reasonedly the following questions: a) Can potential energy be associated with a
friction force? b) What makes more physical sense, the potential energy at a point or the variation in
potential energy between two points?
Question 21st A body slides upwards along an inclined plane that forms an angle α with the
horizontal. Reason what work is done by the force-weight of the body when it moves a distance d on
the plane.
Question 22 From the edge of a cliff of height h, a body is allowed to fall freely. How do their kinetic
and potential energies change? Justify the answer.
Question 23 a) Explain the principle of conservation of mechanical energy and under what conditions
it is fulfilled. b) A car descends a slope with the brake applied and maintains its speed constant.
Reason the energetic changes that occur.
Question 24 Can it be stated that the work done by all the forces acting on a body is always equal to
the variation of its kinetic energy? Is it equal to the change in its potential energy? Reason your
answers.
Question 25 A body of mass m is raised from the ground to a height h in two different ways: directly
and through an inclined plane. Reason that the work of the force-weight is the same in both cases.
Question 26 A particle moves under the action of a conservative force. Does it increase or
decreases its potential energy? And its kinetic energy? Reason your answers.
Question 25 A block with a speed v 0 is thrown up an inclined plane. Explain how its kinetic energy,
potential energy, and mechanical energy change as the body rises and then falls to the starting
position. Consider the cases: i) there is no friction; ii) that there is.
Question 26 If three conservative forces of different nature and one non-conservative force act on a
particle, how many terms of potential energy are there in the equation of the mechanical energy of
that particle? How does the contribution of the non-conservative force appear in this equation?
Question 27 a) Explain what the mechanical energy of a particle is and in which cases it is conserved.

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b) An object is thrown up an inclined plane with friction. Explain how the kinetic, potential, and
mechanical energies of the object change during ascent.
Question 28 An object descends with constant speed down an inclined plane. Explain, with the help
of a diagram, the forces that act on the object. Is its mechanical energy constant? Give reasons for
your answer.
Question 29 If the mechanical energy of a particle is constant, must the resulting force acting on it
necessarily be zero? Give reasons for your answer.

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ISSUES

Problem 1 A body is thrown upwards along a 30º inclined plane, with an initial speed of 10 ms -1 .
a) Explain qualitatively how the kinetic, potential, and mechanical energies of the body vary during
the climb.
b) How does the length traveled change if the initial speed is doubled? What if the angle of the
plane is doubled? (g = 10 ms -2 )
Problem 2º A conservative force acts on a particle and moves it, from a point x 1 to another point x 2 ,
doing a work of 50 J.
a) Determine the change in potential energy of the particle in that displacement. If the potential
energy of the particle is zero at x 1 , what will it be worth at x 2 ?
b) If the 5 g particle moves under the exclusive influence of that force, starting from rest at x 1 ,
what will be the speed at x 2 ? What will be the change in mechanical energy?
SOLUTION: b) v2 = 141 m/s ∆Ep = -50 J

Problem 3º A 2 kg body falls on an elastic spring of constant k = 4000 N m - 1 , vertical and attached to the
ground. The height at which the body is released, measured above the upper end of the spring, is 2 m.
a) Explain the energy changes during the fall and compression of the spring.
b) Determine the maximum deformation of the spring. (g = 10 ms – 2 )
SOLUC: b) 15 cm (100x 2 – x – 2 = 0)

Problem 4 A 5 kg block slides with constant speed across a horizontal surface while a force of 10 N is
applied to it, parallel to the surface.
a) Draw in a diagram all the forces acting on the block and explain the work-energy balance in a
displacement of the block of 0.5 m.
b) Draw in another diagram the forces that would act on the block if the force applied to it were 30
N in a direction that is 60º with the horizontal, and indicate the value of each force. Calculate
the change in kinetic energy of the block in a displacement of 0.5 m. g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: b) ∆Ec = 5.1 J

Problem 5 º A 2 kg block is thrown up a rough ramp (

u = 0.2) that forms an
-1
angle of 30º with the horizontal, with a speed of 6 ms . After ascending the ramp, the block descends
and reaches the starting point with a speed of 4.2 ms -1 .
a) Draw a diagram of the forces that act on the block when it ascends the ramp and, in another
diagram, those that act when it descends and indicate the value of each force. Is the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy verified in the process described? Give reasons for your
answer.
b) Calculate the work of the friction force in the rise of the block and comment on the sign of the
result obtained.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: b) -9.2 J

Problem 6º A 100 kg sled starts from rest and slides down the side of a hill with an inclination of 30º
with respect to the horizontal.
a) Do an energy analysis of the movement of the sled assuming that there is no friction and
determine, for a movement of 20 m, the variation of its kinetic, potential and mechanical

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energies, as well as the work done by the Earth's gravitational field.

b) Explain, without the need for calculations, which of the results in section a) would be modified
and which would not, if friction existed.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: a) W(P) = 10,000 J

Problem 7º A 10 kg block slides down a plane inclined 30º above the horizontal and of length 2 m. The
block starts from rest and experiences a friction force with the plane of 15 N.
a) Analyze the energy variations that occur during the descent of the block.
b) Calculate the speed of the block when it reaches the bottom of the inclined plane.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: b) 3.74 m/s

Problem 8 º A 100 kg block rises with constant speed along a plane inclined at 30º with respect to the
horizontal by the action of a force parallel to said plane. The coefficient of friction between the block and
the plane is 0.2.
a) Draw in a diagram the forces acting on the block and explain the energy transformations that
take place as it slides.
b) Calculate the parallel force that produces the displacement, as well as the increase in potential
energy of the block in a displacement of 20 m.
g = 10ms -2

SOLUC: b) 660 N; 10,000 J

Problem 9º A 2 kg block is thrown upwards, along a rough ramp (µ c = 0.2) that forms an angle of 30º
with the horizontal, with a speed of 6 ms -1 .
a) Explain how the kinetic, potential, and mechanical energies of the body vary during the
climb.
b) Calculate the maximum length traveled by the block in the ascent. (g = 10 ms -2 )
SOLUTION: b)

Problem 10º A 100 kg sled slides along a horizontal track when pulled with a force F, whose direction
forms an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The coefficient of friction is 0.1.
a) Draw on a diagram all the forces acting on the sled and calculate the value of F so that the
sled slides with uniform motion.
b) Do an energy analysis of the problem and calculate the work done by the force F in a 200 m
displacement of the sled.
g=10ms -2
SOLUC: a) 108.7 N b) 18908 J

Problem 11º A 0.5 kg body is initially at rest at a height of 1 m above the free end of a vertical spring, the
lower end of which is fixed. The body is dropped onto the spring and, after compressing it, it rises again.
The spring has a negligible mass and an elastic constant k = 200 N m -1 .
a) Do an energetic analysis of the problem and justify whether the body will return to the starting
point.
b) Calculate the maximum compression experienced by the spring g = 10 ms -2
SOLUTION: b) 25 cm (20x 2 – x – 1 = 0)

Problem 12º A 500 kg block ascends at constant speed up an inclined plane with a slope of 30º, dragged
by a tractor using a rope parallel to the slope. The coefficient of friction between the block and the plane
is 0.2.

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a) Sketch the forces acting on the block and calculate the tension in the rope.
b) Calculate the work that the tractor does to make the block travel a distance of 100 m on the
slope. What is the change in potential energy of the block?
g =10 ms -2 .
SOLUC: a) T = 3300 N b) ∆Ep = 250 000 J

Problem 13º A 1 kg block slides with constant speed along a horizontal surface and collides with the end
of a horizontal spring, with an elastic constant of 200 N m -1 . compressing it.
a) What must be the speed of the block to compress the spring by 40 cm?
b) Explain qualitatively how the kinetic and elastic potential energies of the block-spring system
would vary in the presence of friction. g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: a) 5.66 m/s

Problem 14º A 3 kg block, placed on a horizontal plane, is compressing a spring of constant k = 1000 N m
-1
by 30 cm. When the spring is released, the block is launched and, after traveling a certain distance on
the horizontal plane, it ascends a 30º inclined plane. Assuming negligible friction between the block and
the planes:
a) Determine the height to which the body will reach.
b) Reason when the kinetic energy will be maximum and calculate its value.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: a) b)

Problem 15º A 2 kg block is located at the end of a spring, with an elastic constant of 500 N m -1 ,
compressed by 20 cm. When the spring is released, the block moves along a horizontal plane and, after
traveling a distance of 1 m, ascends along a plane inclined at 30º to the horizontal. Calculate the distance
traveled by the block on the inclined plane.
a) Zero friction assumption.
b) If the coefficient of friction between the body and the planes is 0.1.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: a) b)

Problem 16º A 0.5 kg body is thrown up an inclined plane, which is 30º with the horizontal, with an
initial speed of 5 ms -1 . The coefficient of friction is 0.2.
a) Draw in a diagram the forces that act on the body, when it goes up and when it goes down
the plane, and calculate the maximum height reached by the body.
b) Determine the speed with which the body returns to the starting point.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: a) 15 b)

Problem 17º A boy on a sled slides down a slope with snow (negligible friction) that has an inclination of
30º. When it reaches the end of the slope, the sled continues sliding along a rough horizontal surface
until it stops.
a) Explain the energy transformations that take place during the movement of the sled.
b) If the distance traveled on the horizontal surface is five times greater than the distance
traveled along the slope, determine the coefficient of friction.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: b) µ = 0.1

Problem 18 º At an instant t 1 the kinetic energy of a particle is 30 J and its potential energy is 12 J. At a
later instant t 2 its kinetic energy is 18 J.

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a) If only conservative forces act on the particle, what is its potential energy at time t 2 ?
b) If the potential energy at time t 2 were 6 J, would nonconservative forces act on the
particle?
Reason your answers.
SOLUTION: a) Ec = 24 J b) ?

Problem 19º A 10 kg block is thrown upward along an inclined plane that forms an angle of 30° with the
horizontal with an initial speed of 5 ms -1 . After ascending the inclined plane, the block descends and
returns to the starting point with a certain speed. The coefficient of friction between plane and block is
0.1.
a) Draw in two different diagrams the forces acting on the block during the ascent and
during the descent and indicate their respective values. Reason whether the principle of
conservation of energy is verified in this process.
b) Calculate the work of the friction force in the rise and fall of the block. Comment on the
sign of the result obtained.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: b)

Problem 20º A 200 kg block ascends with constant speed along a plane inclined 30º with respect to the
horizontal under the action of a force parallel to said plane. The coefficient of friction between the block
and the plane is 0.1.
a) Draw in a diagram the forces acting on the block and explain the energy transformations
that take place during its sliding.
b) Calculate the value of the force that produces the displacement of the block and the
increase in its potential energy in a displacement of 20 m.
-2
-2g = 9.8ms

SOLUTION: b)

Problem 21º A 2 kg block is located at the top of a rough inclined plane 5 m high. When the block is
released, it slides down the inclined plane, reaching the ground with a speed of 6 ms -1 .
a) Analyze the energy transformations that take place during sliding and graphically
represent the forces acting on the block.
b) Determine the work done by the gravitational force and the friction force. (g = 9.8 ms -2 )
SOLUTION: b)

Problem 22º A 100 kg block descends along a plane inclined at 30º with respect to the horizontal and a
force F is applied to the block parallel to the plane that brakes it, so that it descends at a constant speed.
The coefficient of friction between the plane and the block is 0.2.
a) Draw on a diagram the forces acting on the block and calculate the value of the force F
b) Explain the energy transformations that take place when the block slides and calculate
the variation of its potential energy in a displacement of 20 m.
-2
-2g = 9.8ms

SOLUTION: b)

Problem 23 The body in the figure slides down the slope without friction. When it is at point P its speed
is v.

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a) What is the minimum speed with which the particle at P has to move to reach Q?
b) With what speed will it reach Q if at P it has a speed of 12 m/s?
SOLUC: a) 9.9 m/s b) 6.8 m/s

Problem 24º A spring with an elastic constant of 250 N/m, horizontal and with a fixed end, is
compressed by 10 cm. Attached to the free end of the spring is a 0.5 kg body that is ejected when the
spring decompresses.
a) Explain the energy variations experienced by the body while the spring is decompressed
assuming that there is no friction, and calculate the speed with which the body is
ejected.
b) Assuming that once the body leaves the spring, a friction force with a coefficient of 0.2
appears, it explains the energy variations of the body and calculates the distance
traveled until it stops.
SOLUC: a) 2.24 m/sb) 1.25 m

Problem 25º From point A in the figure, a body of mass m is released. Calculate the length that the body will travel
on the 53º ramp if:

1m 17th 53rd
........................................1 m . .►..............

a) There is no friction throughout the entire journey.

b) There is friction only in the 53º plane, the coefficient being 0.1.

Problem 26º A 2 kg body is thrown with a speed of 6 m/s along a rough horizontal surface (µ = 0.2). The block, after
traveling 4 m along the plane, collides with the free end of a spring whose elastic constant is 200 Nm -1
, placed
horizontally and held at the other end. Calculate:

a) The maximum compression of the spring assuming that during compression the surface is perfectly
polished.
b) The total work done during compression.

SOLUC: A) 45 cm B) - 20.25 J

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THEME 3. GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD

1. Physical field concept: scalar and vector fields. Graphic representation.

2. Planetary models: Kepler's laws
3. Gravitational force between two point masses
4. Electrostatic force between two point charges
5. Gravitational field intensity and electric field intensity
6. Gravitational potential energy and electrical potential energy
7. Gravitational potential and electrical potential
8. Gravitational and electrical potential difference
9. Relationship between electric potential and electric field
10. Equipotential surfaces
11. Earth's gravitational field
11.1. Gravitational force
11.2. Gravitational field intensity
11.3. gravitational potential energy
11.4. Gravitational potential
11.5. Satellite motion: orbital speed, period and energy
11.6. Escape velocity
12. Weightlessness
13. Gravitational field flow and electric field flow
14. Gauss theorem for the gravitational field
14.1. Gauss theorem for the gravitational field
14.2. Applications of Gauss's Theorem for the gravitational field
14.2.1 Gravitational field outside a uniform spherical mass
14.2.2 Gravitational field inside a uniform spherical mass
15. Gauss theorem for the electric field
15.1. Gauss theorem for the electric field
15.2. Applications of Gauss's Theorem for the electric field
15.2.1 Electric field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere
15.2.2 Electric field inside a uniformly charged solid sphere
16. Electric field in a conductor in equilibrium. Faraday cage
17. Analogies and differences between gravitational and electric fields

RECOMMENDED READING:
1. Weightlessness
2. The tides

ISSUES

ISSUES

1. FIELD PHYSICAL CONCEPT. SCALAR FIELDS AND VECTOR FIELDS.

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

In Physics, a field is any region of space in which the value of a physical quantity is revealed. For
example, any region that we take from our environment, such as the classroom we are in, is a physical
field for multiple reasons: it is a gravitational field of forces, it is a field of temperatures, pressures,
density, etc.

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Physical fields are classified as scalar and vector, depending on the physical magnitude that is
manifested in them.

1 .A SCALAR FIELDS

Scalar fields are physical fields in which the physical magnitude that is revealed is of a scalar type.
The fields of temperatures, pressures, densities, luminosities, etc. are scalar fields.

Scalar fields are represented graphically by means of so-called isolines or equiscalar surfaces,
which are imaginary lines or surfaces that, at a given instant, pass through all the points of the field
that have the same value of the scalar magnitude. Isotherms and isobars are the isolines of the
temperature and pressure field respectively. On a topographic map the lines that join points that are
at the same height above sea level are called contour lines.

The following graph represents a map of isobars as can be observed daily in the spaces dedicated
to meteorological information:

Figure 3.1
From the definition of isolines or equipotential surfaces we can deduce the following:

o The shape of isolines or equiscalar surfaces is arbitrary and generally changes over time.
o Two different isolines can never intersect. In fact, if two isotherms or two different isobars
intersect at a point, it would mean that at the same instant the same point has two different
values of temperature or pressure.
o The greater or lesser density of isolines in a given region indicates that there is a more or less
pronounced variation (gradient) of the scalar magnitude in said region.

1.B VECTOR FIELDS

They are physical fields in which the magnitude that manifests is vector in nature. Vector fields
are the speed field of the wind or the current of a river, the gravitational, electric and magnetic force
field.

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Vector fields in which the physical magnitude that manifests is a force are called force fields. The
gravitational, electric and magnetic fields are force fields. We will study the first two in this topic and
the third in the following two topics.

Vector fields are represented graphically by means of so-called field lines, which are imaginary
tangent lines (of the same direction and direction) at each point and at each instant to the vector that
characterizes the vector field. If the vector field is a field of forces, the field lines are called lines of
force, and the vector that characterizes the field of forces is called the field intensity vector or simply
the field vector.

Furthermore, the field lines are drawn so that the density of lines is directly proportional to the
vector that characterizes the vector field, that is, the greater or lesser proximity between the field
lines indicates the greater or lesser intensity of said field.

If the vector field is a uniform (constant) field then the lines that represent it must be parallel and
equally spaced

Figure 3.3

2. PLANETARY MODELS: KEPLER'S LAWS

Historically, there have been two models that attempted to describe the movements of the
planets: the geocentric model and the heliocentric model.

• Geocentric model

The ancient Greeks thought that the Earth was the center of the Universe and that all celestial
bodies moved around it. In a first hypothesis, it was assumed that these bodies described concentric
circles around the Earth, which does not well describe the retrograde motion of the planets observed
from Earth.

To explain these observations, the astronomer Ptolemy of Alexandria developed, in the 2nd
century AD, his theory of epicycles. In the simplest case, it was assumed that the planets moved
uniformly in a circle called the epicycle , the center of which moved, in turn, on a larger circle, known
as the deferent , whose center was the Earth. The planet's resulting trajectory was an epicycloid .

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Figure 3.4

In short, what the Greeks did was describe planetary motion with respect to a reference system
placed on Earth.

The geocentric model was maintained until the Renaissance (16th century), especially due to the
influence of the Church on scientific thought.

• Heliocentric model

It was proposed by Nicolás Copernicus in the 16th century, collecting the ideas of Aristarchus (s.
III AC). According to this model, the planets move in concentric orbits around the Sun, that is, it
describes the planetary movement from a reference system located on the Sun. In this system the
movement of the planets had a simpler description. This model was experimentally corroborated by
Galileo when observing some satellites of Jupiter with his telescope.

Kepler's Laws

Based on the astronomical observations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler proposed
three laws with which he quantitatively describes the movement of the planets around the Sun:

o First Law
The planets describe elliptical orbits around the Sun, the latter being located at one of the focuses
of the ellipse. (fig. 3.5)

o Second law (law of the areas)

The areolar velocity (speed with which the area described by the radiovector that connects the
Sun to each planet varies) is constant for each planet, that is, said radiovector sweeps equal areas in
equal time.
As a consequence of this law, the orbital speed of a planet is not constant throughout its orbit,
being smaller at the points of its orbit furthest from the Sun (aphelion).

o Third law
The square of the orbital period (T) of each planet is directly proportional to the cube of its
average distance (d) from the Sun:

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T 2 = K d 3 [3.1]

Figure 3.5

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3. GRAVITATORY FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINT MASSES

Based on Kepler's laws and his own laws of Dynamics, Isaac Newton proposes, in the 19th
century. XVII, his law of universal gravitation , published in his work Principia Mathematica
Philosophiae Naturalis , with which he describes the gravitational interaction between two point
masses. The statement of said law can be summarized as follows:

“The force with which two point masses (M and m) separated by a distance r are attracted is directly
proportional to the values of said masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that
separates them”
.
F=G 1
r2
(force vector module)
The vector expression of the gravitational
force between point masses can be written as follows:

- M MM ■ (force vector) [3.2]

F= -G 1
r2
2
ur

Where:
G = 6.67·10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 is the so-called universal gravitation constant
- -■
“r” is the modulus of the vector r (which is the distance that separates the two masses that interact)
——
The vector r is the vector that goes from the source mass to the control mass
—■
AND
Ur = 7 is a unit vector of the same direction and sense as the vector r and therefore a unit vector
directed from the source mass to the control mass (fig. 1.2).

Figure 3.6
Along with the previous characteristics, we can make the following observations regarding the
gravitational force:

o It is a force of attraction.
o It is a central force because its direction coincides with the direction of the line that joins the two
interacting masses.
o The gravitational force is a long-range force because it manifests itself at both short and long
distances.
o G is a universal constant, that is, its value does not depend on the medium in which the interacting
masses are found and, therefore, the gravitational attraction between two masses is also
independent of the medium in which they are found.
o Due to the small value of G, the force of gravitational attraction between two masses is only
noticeable in the case in which at least one of the two masses is of a high value.

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o It is a force whose value decreases with the square of the distance that separates the interacting
masses (it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance), which allows us to
demonstrate, together with its central character, that it is a conservative force and , therefore, it
will have a potential energy associated with it.
o Superposition principle: The forces exerted by masses are additive, which means that the resulting
force on a given mass is equal to the vector sum of the forces of other masses. This property is
called the superposition principle and can be stated as follows:

If a mass is simultaneously subjected to several independent forces, the resulting force is

obtained by adding these forces vector-wise.

--- - Mm - M. m G Mn.m -
F 2 ++ ... + F n r2
u
F
Rte = F
1+ a u r1 - 2 u
rn
r 2
1 r 2
rn

Figure 3.7

o If one of the masses is the earth, then the gravitational force of attraction that the earth exerts
on any mass m would be:

E_ M M T .m —• F=G =G
F= -G T .
ur
T.J. T. Where r = R T + [3.3]
r2
r2 ( R + h)2
h

This force is what we call the weight of the mass m:

— —
P =m. g P =m. g
——

g module

And we can identify the acceleration vector of the Earth's gravity g and its

Q=G —=G [3.4]

- r2 (R+h)2
Example 1
Two masses of 10 t each are located at positions (0.4) m and (3.0) m.

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Draw and calculate the gravitational interaction force vectors between the two.
Example 2
Two masses of 5 t each are located at positions (0.0) m and (4.0) m.

a) Draw the gravitational force that each of them exerts on a third mass of 1 t located at
the point (0.3) m. Also draw the resulting gravitational force exerted by the first two
masses on the third.
b) Calculate the value of each of the forces.

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4. ELECTROSTATIC FORCE BETWEEN POINT CHARGES

Currently, electric charge is a model that Physics uses to explain electrical phenomena. Any
electrified body is also called electric charge. In general, we give the name point charge to any
electrified body when its dimensions are not taken into account.
Electrical charges can be:

• Positive: This name was arbitrarily given to the charge acquired by the rubbed glass. Protons
have this charge.
• Negative: it is the charge that amber (fossilized resin) acquires by rubbing and electrons are
carriers of it.

Properties of electric charge

1. Electric charge is a physical quantity whose SI unit It is the coulomb (C), in honor of the French
scientist Charles Coulomb (1736-1806).
2. Charges of the same sign repel each other and charges of the opposite sign attract each other.
3. The charge is conserved: in electrification no charge is created, it is only transmitted from one
body to another, so that the total charge remains constant ( principle of conservation of electric
charge ).
4. The charge is quantized : it is presented as an integer multiple (N) of the elementary charge (e)
which is the smallest charge that can occur freely in nature. This charge is that of the electron, its
value e = 1.6·10 -19 C. Thus, the value of the electric charge of any electrified body will be Q =
±N·e.
5. The electrification of a body consists of it losing or gaining electrons, becoming positively or
negatively charged, respectively.

Coulomb law

This law establishes the characteristics of the interaction between point charges:

“The force with which two charged bodies attract or repel each other is directly proportional to the
product of said charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates them.”

|Q 1 |.|Q 2 |
2 electrostatic force vector modulus

The vector expression of the electrostatic force between two point charges can be written as
follows:

—• QQ ——
Q 1 . Q 2
F= K 2 ur
r
electrostatic force vector [3.5]

Where:
K is the so-called electrical constant.
- -—
“r” is the modulus of the vector r (which is the distance that separates the two charges that interact)
——
The vector r is the vector that goes from the source load to the witness load
——
AND
Ur = 7 is a unit vector of the same direction and sense as the vector r and therefore a unit vector

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directed from the source load to the witness load (fig. 1.2).

Charges of different signs

Charges of the same sign

Figure 3.9

From these characteristics, we deduce the following consequences :

o The electrical interaction force can be attractive (charges of different signs) or repulsive
(charges of the same sign).
o It is a central force because…..
o It is a long-range force.
o The value of the electrical constant K is not a universal constant since its value depends on the
medium interposed between the interacting charges. Therefore, the electrical interaction
between two charges does depend on the medium in which said charges are found.
o The electrical constant is maximum in a vacuum and is approximately:
K(vacuum) = K 0 = 9·10 9 N m 2 C -2
Therefore, the electrical interaction between two charges is maximum when they are in a
vacuum, and decreases when they are in a material medium.
The electrical constant can be expressed in terms of another constant, the so-called
dielectric constant ɛ. The relationship between both is:
1
4 72e
o It is a force whose value decreases with the square of the distance that separates the
interacting charges (it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance), which allows us
to demonstrate, together with its central character, that it is a conservative force and ,
therefore, it will have a potential energy associated with it.
o Coulomb's law is only valid for point charges and for finite spherical bodies that are far away,
that is, when the radius of the spheres is negligible compared to the distance between their
centers.
o Principle of superposition: The forces exerted between charges are additive, which means that
the resulting force on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of the forces on other
charges. This property is called the superposition principle and can be stated as follows:

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If a load is simultaneously subjected to several independent forces, the resulting force is

obtained by adding these forces vector-wise.

--- - Q1. -
u r1 + a K
u r2 + ... + K Q
n.
u rn
F Rte = F 1 + F 2 + ... + F n 2
q 2 r rn
2

r Figure
2
3.10

Example 3

Two charges Q 1 and Q 2 meet in a vacuum at positions (0.0) m and (-4.0) m.

a) Draw the force exerted by each of these charges on a third charge Q 3 located at position
(0.3) m. Also draw the resultant force exerted by the first two charges on the third. Q 1 = 3 µC
Q 2 = -5 µC Q 3 = -1 µC
b) Calculate the value of each of these forces.

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5. GRAVITATORY FIELD INTENSITY AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Let us remember that force fields are represented graphically by means of so-called lines of force,
which are imaginary lines tangent at every point to the vector that characterizes the force field, called
field intensity vector. In this question we will see who this vector is in both the gravitational field and
the electric field.

5.A GRAVITATORY FIELD INTENSITY.

We define the gravitational field intensity vector or gravitational field vector at a point of a
gravitational field as the gravitational force per unit of mass at said point, that is, the force that would
be exerted on a mass of 1 Kg placed at said point.

—g
= [3.6]

If we know the value of this magnitude at any point in the field, we can determine the
gravitational force exerted on any point mass m placed at said point from equation [1.8]:
—• —•
F = m. g [3.7]

That is, multiplying the witness mass m by the value of the field intensity vector at said point.

If the gravitational field is created by a point mass M, then the gravitational field intensity
vector or gravitational field vector created by this source mass at any point around du will be:
M .m ——
— -G .
2ur M— Mg=Gr2
।

g= — = [3.8
m m r 2 r

Figure 3.11
o The gravitational field intensity vector created by a point mass at any point in its field is a radial
vector directed towards the source mass as can be seen in the previous figure.
o The intensity of the gravitational field is measured in unit force divided by unit mass which, in SI
units would be:
m
Kg .
2
Ns m
2
kg kg s
Which as we see is the unit of acceleration.

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o If we observe the magnitude of the gravitational field intensity vector created by a point mass at
any point around it, we see that it is directly proportional to the source mass M, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between each point and the source dough.
Mg=Gr2
o If we know the value of the gravitational field intensity at a point, we can calculate the value of the
force that any witness mass m would experience when placed at that point. To do this, it would
be enough to multiply the value of the witness mass by the value of the field.
—
• _F_ p-
g= — => F=mg
m

—• —•
If we observe the previous expression F = m g , we can verify that the intensity vector
of gravitational field at a point and the force that that field exerts on a witness mass m placed at
said point, are vectors of the same direction and direction.
—
g

——
mg
o Let us remember that a field of forces can be represented graphically by means of the so-called
field lines or lines of force . Therefore, the gravitational field created by a point mass, as a field of
forces, will also be represented by the lines of force, which are tangent at each point to the vector
that characterizes the field. Taking into account that the vector that characterizes the field is the
field intensity vector, the lines of force of the gravitational field of a point mass M have the
following form:

Figure 3.12

Observe how the density of lines of force decreases as we move away from the source mass, that
is, the lines of force separate, and this indicates that the field is less intense.

o Superposition principle for the gravitational field: If the gravitational field is created by several
point masses M 1 , M 2 , …, M n , the gravitational field intensity at a given point is determined by
vector adding the gravitational field intensities created by each mass separately at said point:

Figure 3.13

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G
--- -
M /2 2n
M

1+g2 rn
u
rn
g
Rte = g

+ ... -G ur1 G u 2r 2
2

r2 r2
If the source mass of the gravitational field is the Earth, and we consider it as a point mass, then the
gravitational field intensity at any point on or above its surface is:

Where r = R T + [3.9]
h

This magnitude is what we call the acceleration of the Earth's gravity, which as we can
see is not constant but decreases with the square of the distance to the center of the
Earth.
We can obtain the value of this magnitude on the surface of the earth which, as we
know, is 9.8 m/s : 2

G = 6.67.10 Nm /Kg -11 2 2

M T = 5.98.10 Kg 24

R T = 6380 Km = 6.38.10 m 6

g(surface/c/e') = g = G^T = 6.67.10 . , 62

-= 9,799 m
either
R 2
,
(6,38.10 )
6 2 s 2

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5.B ELECTRICAL FIELD INTENSITY.

We define the electric field intensity vector or electric field vector at a point in an electric field
as the electric force per unit of positive charge at said point, that is, the force that would be exerted
on a charge of +1 C placed at said point. spot.

[3.10]

If we know the value of this magnitude at any point in the field, we can determine the electric
force exerted on any point charge q placed at said point from equation [1.8]:
—• —•
F = q. AND [3.11]

That is, multiplying the witness charge q by the value of the field intensity vector at said point.

If the electric field is created by a point charge Q, then the electric field intensity vector or
electric field vector created by this source charge at any point around it will be:

—— . KG.q—
F-Kr ur- Q,) E = K2 |Q|
q = q = K 2 u r o The electric field
r
intensity vector created by a point charge [3.12]
at any point in its field is a radial vector,

positive source
charge

Negative source
charge
Figure 3.15
away from the source charge, if the charge is positive, and directed toward
the source charge, if the charge is negative, as as can be seen in the previous
figures.
o The electric field intensity is measured in unit force divided by unit charge which, in SI units would
be:
N.V.
cm

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o If we observe the magnitude of the electric field intensity vector created by a point charge at any
point around it, we see that it is directly proportional to the source charge Q, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between each point and the source load.
E= K2|Q|
r
o If we know the value of the electric field intensity at a point, we can calculate the value of the force
that any witness charge q would experience when placed at that point. To do this, it would be
enough to multiply the value of the witness charge by the value of the field.
—
2F — —
E= — F =q E
q —> —>

o If we observe the previous expression F = q E , we can verify that the electric field intensity vector
at a point and the force exerted by that field on a control charge q placed at said point, are
vectors of the same direction and sense, if the witness charge is positive, or in opposite
directions, if the witness charge is negative.
——
AND
—— ——
q+
EITHER - f > F = q E

—— ——
F=qE

o Let us remember that a field of forces can be represented graphically by means of the so-called
field lines or lines of force . Therefore, the electric field created by a point charge Q, as a field of
forces, will also be represented by the lines of force, which are tangent at each point to the vector
that characterizes the field. Taking into account that the vector that characterizes the electric
field is the field intensity vector, the lines of force of the electric field of a point charge Q have the
following form:

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Figure 3.16

Positive charges are said to be sources of field lines and negative charges are sinks of field lines.
Observe how the density of lines of force decreases as we move away from the source mass, that
is, the lines of force separate, and this indicates that the field is less intense.

o Superposition principle for the electric field: If the electric field is created by several point charges
Q 1 , Q 2 , …, Q n , the electric field intensity at a given point is determined by vector adding the
electric field intensities created by each load separately at said point:

Figure 3.17

--- -
KQ1 u, QQ
U + _gG u
E Rte = E 1 + E + ... + E r2 1
RT 1 2 n
r
F Ku F... F Ku
2r2 2 rn

Example 4

Two equal masses of 10 t meet respectively at the origin of coordinates and at the point (0, -3) m.

a) Draw the gravitational field intensity of each of the masses at the point (4.0) m. Also draw the
resulting field intensity at said point due to the action of both masses.
b) Calculate the value of the three fields.

c) Draw and calculate the resultant force that the two masses would exert on a third mass of 2
kg when placed in position (4.0) m.

Example 5

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Two electric charges of Q 1 = 5 µC and Q 2 = -5 µC are found respectively at the points (3.0) and (-3.0)
m.

a) Draw the electric field created by each of the charges and the resulting field at the point P =
(0.4) m.
b) Calculate the value of each of the previous fields assuming that the charges are in a vacuum.
c) Draw and calculate the total electric force that the two previous charges would exert on a
third charge q = 10 C placed at point P.

Example 6

Consider the gravitational field created by the earth.

a) Calculate its value at 5000 km altitude.

b) Calculate its value at a height of six times the Earth's radius.
c) To what height would it have to be raised for it to decrease to 20% of what it is worth on its
surface?
d) At what height above the earth's surface does the field decrease by 20% of what it is worth
on its surface?

Example 7

A planet has double the mass of the Earth and also double the radius. What relationship exists
between the gravitational field of this planet on its surface and that of the Earth, also on its surface?

Example 8

Two masses M 1 and M 2 are separated by a distance d. Analyze if there is any point at which the
resulting gravitational field created by both masses cancels out.

Example 9

Calculate at what point the resulting gravitational field created by two masses of 10 t and 100 t that
are 10 km apart is nullified.

Example 10

Calculate at what point the resulting gravitational field created by the Earth and the Moon cancels
out.

Example 11

Two charges Q 1 and Q 2 are separated by a distance d. Analyze if there is any point at which the
resulting electric field created by both charges cancels out.

Example 12

Calculate at what point the resulting electric field created by two charges of 4 µC and 6 µC located in
a vacuum 40 cm away is nullified.

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Example 13

Calculate at what point the resulting electric field created by two charges of -4 µC and 2 µC located in
a vacuum 20 cm away is nullified.

Example 14
—•
Consider a uniform gravitational field g

a) Draw the gravitational field intensity vector at three different points of said field.
b) At which of the three points is the field modulus greatest? because?
c) Place a mass m at each of the points and draw the gravitational force that the field exerts on
it. Where is the strength greatest?
d) Draw what the lines of the Earth's gravitational field will approximately look like in the
classroom.

Example 15th
——
Consider a uniform electric field E

a) Draw the electric field intensity vector at three different points of said field.
b) At which of the three points is the field modulus greatest? because?
c) Place a positive charge q on each of the points and draw the electric force that the field
exerts on it. Where is the strength greatest?
d) Place a negative charge q on each of the points and draw the electric force that the field
exerts on it. Where is the strength greatest?

Example 16

A particle of mass 20 g and positive charge q is suspended from the ceiling by a thread. In the area
where the particle is, a uniform and horizontal electric field of 100 N/C is applied. Under these
conditions the thread deviates 20º from the vertical until it reaches equilibrium again.
a) Calculate the value of the charge q.
b) What would have happened if the charge q had had a negative charge?

6. GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL ENERGY ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Let us remember that both the gravitational force and the electric force are conservative forces,
and therefore, each of them has an associated potential energy function such that when a mass
or charge moves between two positions of a gravitational or electric field, respectively, the Work
done by the force of the field (gravitational or electric) coincides with the variation of the power
energy of the mass or charge between both positions but with a change of sign.
In this question we will see the expressions of both potential energies.

6 .A GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL ENERGY

The fact that the gravitational force is conservative allows us to associate the scalar
magnitude of gravitational potential energy with it so that we can calculate the work done by it

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between two given points, applying the potential energy theorem:

W C = -ΔE p [3.13]

It can be shown that the expression for the potential energy of a witness mass m at a point in
the field created by a point mass M is:

Ep = -c";m [3.14]

From the previous expression we can deduce the following comments:

o The gravitational potential energy between two masses has a negative sign, which indicates that it
is an attractive force.
o The – sign in the previous expression also tells us that if the witness mass m moves away from the
source mass M, the potential energy increases, approaching the value 0 for an infinite distance, as
can be seen in the following graph.

Figure 3.18

o In the previous graph it can be seen that the origin of energy (place where energy is worth 0) is at
infinity.
o If the mass m is moved from any point P to infinity and we calculate the work done by the
gravitational force in this displacement we obtain:

W c (P→∞) = E p (P) –E p (∞)= E p (P)

That is, the gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a point P of the field can be interpreted
as the work that the field would do (gravitational force) when the mass m moved from that point
to infinity.

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o Superposition principle: if the field is created by two or more point masses, the gravitational
potential energy of a point mass m at a point in the field would be the scalar sum of the
interaction energies of the mass m with each of the source masses.

M. m M. m M. m
E =E D 1+ E z + ... + E g G —* —
...— G n
p p 1 p 2
r 1 r pn2 rn

o If the source mass is the Earth and we treat it as a point mass, the gravitational potential energy of
any witness mass m placed on or above its surface would be:

[3-15]

o Validity of the expressions of gravitational potential energy: The expressions that we know for the
gravitational potential energy of a mass m located at a point in the Earth's gravitational field are
two:
E p =mgh

But what relationship is there between them? where are they valid?
The expression for gravitational potential energy given by equation [3.15] is valid for any
point outside the Earth, including points on its surface. However, if the mass m moves between
two points very close to the Earth's surface, the variation in g is practically negligible, and the
gravitational field can be considered constant in such circumstances. Only under these conditions
will the expression of the terrestrial gravitational potential energy mgh be valid
The first expression or general expression has a – sign and takes ∞ as its energy source, the
second expression has a + sign and takes the Earth's surface as its energy source. But both
expressions take into account that gravitational potential energy increases as we move away from
the earth. This causes the variation of gravitational potential energy between two points close to
the Earth's surface to coincide.
7 .B ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The fact that the electric force is conservative allows us to associate the scalar magnitude of
electric potential energy with it so that we can calculate the work done by it between two given
points, applying the potential energy theorem:

W C = -ΔE p [3.16]

It can be shown that the expression for the potential energy of a witness charge q at a point
in the field created by a point charge Q is:

E p = K^ [3.17]

From the previous expression we can deduce the following comments:

o If the interacting charges are of the same sign, the electrical potential energy is positive. This
indicates that the interaction between them is one of repulsion and also tells us that if the
witness charge q moves away from the source charge Q, the potential energy decreases,
approaching the value 0 for an infinite distance, as can be seen in the graph following.

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o If the charges that interact are of different signs, the electrical potential energy is negative. This
indicates that the interaction between them is one of attraction and also tells us that if the
witness charge q moves away from the source charge Q, the potential energy increases,
approaching the value 0 for an infinite distance, as can be seen in the graph following.

o In the two previous graphs it can be seen that the origin of energy (place where energy is worth 0)
is at infinity.
o If the mass q is moved from any point P to infinity and we calculate the work done by the electric
force in this displacement we obtain:

W c (P→∞) = E p (P) –E p (∞)= E p (P)

That is, the electric potential energy of a charge q at a point P in the field can be interpreted as
the work that the field (electric force) would do when the mass q moved from that point to
infinity.
o Superposition principle: if the field is created by two or more point charges, the electric potential
energy of a point charge q at a point in the field would be the scalar sum of the interaction
energies of the charge q with each of the source loads.

E =E P ,+ Ez + ... + E = KQ 1 .q + KQ^^q + ... + K Q n . q p p 1 p 2 pn

r1r2 rn

Example 17

Consider the field created by two point charges Q 1 and Q 2 of 4 and -5 µC each, located in a vacuum
respectively at the origin of the coordinates and at the point (0.6) m.

a) Calculate the electrical potential energy that a third charge q of 2 µC would have placed at
point A = (10.0) m

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b) If the charge q is transferred from point A above to point B = (0, -3) m, does its electrical
potential energy increase or decrease?
c) Calculate the work that the electric field would do on the charge q when moving from A to B.
What does the sign of this work indicate?

Example 18

Imagine that from a height of 10,000 km a mass m is dropped towards the earth.

a) Neglecting the effects of friction, it energetically analyzes what its falling movement would be
like until it reaches the earth's surface.
b) Calculate the speed with which it would reach the surface.

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7. GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL AND ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL

7. GRTAVITATORY POTENTIAL.

The gravitational potential V at a point in the gravitational field is the gravitational potential
energy possessed by the unit of mass located at said point, that is, the gravitational potential energy
that a mass of 1 Kg placed at said point would have:

V= —P [3.18]

From this definition we can conclude that if we know the value of the gravitational potential
at a point in the field, we can know the gravitational potential energy of a witness mass m by placing
it at said point; it would be enough to multiply the witness mass m by the value of the potential.

Ep = mV [3.19]

For the gravitational field created by a point mass M, the gravitational potential at a point can
be expressed:

M. m
= E p
= - G r
=- G M

mm r [3.20]

From the previous expression we can deduce the following conclusions:

o The gravitational potential is a scalar physical magnitude that is measured in units of energy divided
by units of mass, and that in the international system of units would be:
J.
kg
This unit does not receive any special name.

o The gravitational potential created by a point mass at any point in its field has a negative sign and
increases as we move away from the source mass, approaching the value 0 for an infinite
distance, as can be seen in the following graph.

Figure 3.21

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o All points that are equidistant from the source mass have the same potential value, that is, all the
points of a sphere centered on the source mass M and with radius r have the same potential
value and form what is called a surface equipotential.

V1<V2<V3<0

Figure 3.22
o The gravitational potential difference (ddp) between two points of the gravitational field created by
a point mass M would be:

V B -V,=-GM - -G M' = GM - A r A
\ rB -G.M.
J\ rA \ rB rA rB
J J.
o The gravitational potential at a point P of the field can be interpreted as the work that the field
would do (gravitational force) when a mass of 1 Kg moved from that point to infinity.
o Superposition principle: if the field is created by two or more point masses, the gravitational
potential at a point in the field would be the scalar sum of the potentials of each of the source
masses.

V =V, +V, + ... 4 V— — g'l—GM. — ... — G M n

p p1p2 pn

r r1 2 rn

o If the source mass is the Earth and we treat it as a point mass, the gravitational potential created by
the Earth at any point on its surface or above it would be:

V=-G
[3.21]

7. B ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL.

As with the gravitational field, the conservative nature of the electric field allows us to
associate with the electric force a scalar magnitude which is called electric potential V at a point in
the electric field and which is defined as the electric potential energy possessed by the unit. of
positive charge located at said point, that is, the electrical potential energy that a +1 C charge placed
at said point would have:

go E p q
[3.22]

From this definition we can conclude that if we know the value of the electric potential at a
point in the field, we can know the electric potential energy of a witness charge q by placing it at said
point; it would be enough to multiply the witness charge q by the value of the potential.

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E P = qv [3.23]

For the electric field created by a point charge Q, the electric potential at a point can be
expressed:

K Q.qr
V=Ep =K Q

q q
r
From the previous expression we can deduce the following conclusions:
[3.24]
Electric potential is a scalar physical quantity that is measured in units of energy divided by units
of charge, and that in the international system of units would be:
J
■ = Volt ( V )

This unit is called a volt.

o The electric potential created by a point charge Q at any point in its field has a positive sign if the
charge is positive and decreases as we move away from it, approaching the value 0 for an infinite
distance, and it has a negative sign if the source charge is negative and It increases as we move
away from it, approaching the value 0 for an infinite distance, as can be seen in the following
graphs.

o The electric potential difference (ddp) between two points of the electric field created by a point
charge Q would be:

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V B -V A =K - K Q = KQ ( 1
rB rA
VrB
o All points that are equidistant from the source charge have the same value of the potential, that is,
all the points of a sphere centered on the source charge Q and with radius r have the same value
of the electric potential and form what is called a equipotential surface.

V1>V2>V3>0

V1<V2<V3<0

o The electric potential at a point P of the field can be interpreted as the work that the field (electric
force) would do per unit of positive charge, that is, when a charge of +1 C was transferred from
that point to infinity.
o Superposition principle: if the field is created by two or more point charges, the electric potential
at a point in the field would be the scalar sum of the potentials of each of the source charges.

V
p V
p1 + V
p2 + ... 4 M = kG + kG - + ... + K Q n

p p1p2 pn
r1r2 rn

Example 19

Two equal masses of 10 t meet at positions (-4.0) m and (0.4) m.

a) Calculate the resulting gravitational potential created by both masses at the coordinate
origin.
b) Calculate the gravitational potential energy that a mass of 100 kg would have placed at the
origin of coordinates.

Example 20º

Two point charges of -2 and 6 nC (1nC = 10 -9 C) each are found in a vacuum respectively at positions
(3.0) and (-3.0) m.
a) Calculate the resulting electric potential at the point P = (0, -4) m created by both charges.
b) Where would a witness charge q have more electrical potential energy, at point P or at the
origin of coordinates?

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Example 21

Two point masses M 1 and M 2 are located at a distance d. Analyze whether or not the resulting
gravitational potential will be canceled at some point in the field created by both masses.

Example 22

Two point charges Q 1 and Q 2 are at a distance d. Analyze whether or not the resulting electric
potential will be canceled at some point in the field created by both charges.

Example 23

Two point charges Q 1 = 3 nC and Q 2 = 6 nC are 20 cm apart.

a) Calculate, if it exists, the point or points where the resulting electric potential created by the
two charges cancels out.
b) Calculate the point where the resulting electric field created by the two charges cancels out.

Example 24th

Two point charges Q 1 = -3 nC and Q 2 = 9 nC are 40 cm apart.

a) Calculate, if it exists, the point or points on the line that joins both charges where the
resulting electric potential created by the two charges is nullified.
b) Will there be points in the field, that do not belong to the line that joins both charges, where
the resulting electric potential created by the two charges is cancelled?
c) Calculate the point where the resulting electric field created by the two charges cancels out.

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8. WORK AND DIFFERENCE OF GRAVITATORY AND ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL

8. A WORK AND DIFFERENCE OF GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL.

Let's consider two points A and B in a gravitational field. Each of these points will have a
defined value for the gravitational potential V A and V B . Suppose that a control mass m moves from A
to B. By the potential energy theorem we know that the work done by the gravitational field
(conservative force) on the mass m in this displacement coincides with the variation of gravitational
potential energy of the mass m between both positions but with a change of sign:

Camp - AE p = E p (A) - E p ( B )

And if we take into account the relationship between the gravitational potential and
the potential energy E = mV we can write:

Acampo - AE p = - [ E pB - E pA ] = - [ mV B
-
mV ] = - m [ V
A B
- V
A
]
=- m
• V
This equation allows us to calculate the work of the field from the potential difference:

=-m[V pB -V pA ]=-mAV
W.B.

Camp [3.25]
If we call external work or work to be done the work done by a force opposite to that of the
field and we take into account that both works are of opposite sign, we obtain:

W Aexternal =- W Afield =m[V pB -V pA ]=m A V [3.26]

On the other hand, if we solve for any of the two previous equations we obtain The physical
interpretation of the gravitational potential difference between two points of a field:

W.B. b

A V=V B - V A = Camp
Aexternal [3.27]
The difference in gravitational potential between two points of a field is the work done by the
field per unit of mass but changed sign, or the external work per unit of mass.

9. B WORK AND DIFFERENCE IN ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL.

Let us consider two points A and B in an electric field. Each of these points will have a defined
value for the electric potential V A and V B . Suppose that a witness charge q is moved from A to B. By
the potential energy theorem we know that the work done by the electric field (conservative force)
on the charge q in this displacement coincides with the variation of electric potential energy of the
charge q between both positions but with a change of sign:

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TO

Acampo - A E p = Ep.A) - E p ( B )

b
And if we take into account the relationship between the electric potential and the potential energy
E, = qV we can write:

Acampo - A E p = - [ E pB - E pA ] = - [ qV B - qV A ] = - q [ V B - V A ] = - q A V
This equation allows us to calculate the work of the field from the potential difference:

WA B
field =-q[V pB -V pA ]=-q A V [3.28]

If we call external work or work to be done the work done by a force opposite to that of the
field and we take into account that both works are of opposite sign, we obtain:

W Aexternal =- W Acampo =q[V pB -V pA ]=q A V [3.29]

Aexternal Camp pB pA

On the other hand, if we solve for any of the two previous equations we obtain The physical
interpretation of the electric potential difference between two points of a field:

W
W.B.
B
Acampo Aexternal
A V=V B [3.30]
The difference in electric potential between two points of a field is the work done by the field
per unit of positive charge but changed sign, or the external work per unit of positive charge.

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10. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL AND THE ELECTRIC FIELD
-
When a charge q is placed within an electric field E , the charge is subjected to a — —
electric force whose value is given by F = qE .
This force does work as the load is moved by its action. The work done by the electric force when the
charge moves between two positions A and B of the electric field, and taking into account that the
electric force is a conservative force, is given by the expression:
W.B. =-AE - [ E pB - E pA ]
Camp p
Taking into account the relationship between the electric potential energy of a charge at a point and
the electric potential at that point, E = qV , we can write the work of the electric force as:

Camp - AE p = - [ E pB - E pA ] = -
[ qV B - qV A ] = -q
[VB - GOES ] = -q
AV

If we solve for the electric potential difference in the previous expression, apply the definition of work
done by a force and take into account the definition of the electric field intensity vector, we obtain
the desired relationship:
-.
b

AFza . Electric —f B F dr
—fB
A V=V - V = TO elec . ^
B.A. d

A V=V, — V A = —f B
E . dr [ 3.31-
A]
B.A. TO

The difference in electric potential between two points of an electric field coincides with the work
done by the electric field intensity vector between both points but changed sign.

IMPORTANT:
1º.- If the electric field is uniform and the displacement is in the same direction and direction
as the electric field lines, we can obtain a simple expression:

A v=v, —V A = —f B E.dr = —f B
E . dr . cos 0º — — E f dr — B
—E.d
B.A. TO TO TO

Where d is the distance that separates, in the direction of the field, both points.

A V=V B — VA — — E . d [ 3.31-B]
The difference in electric potential between two points of a uniform electric field coincides with the
product of the modulus of the electric field intensity vector and the distance that separates, in the
direction of the field, said points having changed sign.

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2nd.- This same relationship can be obtained for the gravitational field and the gravitational potential
difference:

b
-
TO and if g is uniform A V=V -V A — — g . d
B

BA = “J A gdr

Example 25º

Two point charges of -2 and 6 nC (1nC = 10 -9 C) each are found in a vacuum respectively at positions
(3.0) and (-3.0) m.
a) Calculate the difference in electric potential created by the two charges between the points A
= (1, 4) m and B = (0.0) m.
b) Calculate the work done by the field and the external work when a charge q = 10 C is moved
from point A to point B.

Example 26th

An electron initially at rest is accelerated by a potential difference of 10 KV.

a) Analyzes the energy transformations of the electron throughout its movement.
b) Calculate the speed acquired by the electron once accelerated.

Example 27th

The kinetic energy acquired by an electron when, at rest, it is accelerated by a potential

difference of 1 V is called an electron volt (eV).
a) Calculate the kinetic energy that the electron acquires under these conditions.
b) How many joules is 1 eV equivalent to?

Example 28th

Repeat the previous problem assuming that it is a proton that is accelerated.

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10. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES AND GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF A CONSERVATIVE FIELD OF

FORCES

9. TO EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES IN THE GRAVITATORY FIELD

Let us remember that both the gravitational field and the electric field are vector fields of
forces and therefore can be represented graphically by means of field lines or lines of force that are...

But, we also know that both fields are conservative force fields, and this allows us to
complete their graphic representation by introducing a new concept: that of equipotential surfaces.

The imaginary surfaces formed by all those points that have the same potential value
(gravitational or electrical) are called equipotential surfaces in a conservative force field.

For example, if we are dealing with the gravitational field created by a point mass M, we
know that the value of the potential at any point in its field is:

V =-G M
r

that, as we already said in a previous question, the points that have the same value of the
gravitational potential are those that are equidistant from the source mass, that is, all the points
located on a sphere concentric with the source mass. Therefore, the equipotential surfaces of the
gravitational field created by a point mass M are concentric spheres with it, as seen in the following
figure:

Figure 3.25

In this scheme, we observe that the gravitational field lines are perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces and are directed in the direction of maximum decrease in the gravitational potential, that is,
V1>V2>V3.

If it is the electric field created by a point charge Q, we can also affirm that the equipotential
surfaces are concentric spheres with the source charge:

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=K Q

Figure 3.26

If the source charge is negative the only thing that would change would be the direction of the lines
of force.

Note that whether the source charge is positive or negative, the lines of force are
perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces and are always directed toward the decreasing potentials.

From the definition of equipotential surfaces, we can deduce the following:

o Two different equipotential surfaces will never intersect, that is, there cannot be the same point
with two different values of the potential.

o When a mass or a witness charge moves between two points on an equipotential surface, its
potential energy does not change, and therefore, no work is done on it.

E =mV
p
— WB Camp
= -W B
Aexternal
= —AE=—mAV=o
Q

E =qV — WB = -WB = —AE

— —q A V = o
p
Camp Aexternal Q
In the case of the gravitational field, this is what happens to satellites in their rotation movement
around the planets, which do so in an orbit that belongs to the same equipotential surface and
therefore maintain their rotation movement without consuming energy. .

o The equipotential surfaces and the lines of force are always perpendicular at each of the points of
the field, and furthermore, the potential decreases in the direction of the field.

o From the previous section we can conclude that, if we know the shape of the equipotential
surfaces, we can deduce the shape that the lines of force will have, and vice versa. And we can
apply this to a uniform force field, whether gravitational or electric. Like the

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lines of force of a uniform field are parallel and equally spaced lines, we can deduce that the
equipotential surfaces will be planes perpendicular to the lines of force and parallel to each other.
The following figure represents a uniform electric field:

Figure 3.27

Observe how the lines of force are directed towards decreasing potentials.

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11. EARTH GRAVITATORY FIELD

Next, we are going to carry out an elementary study of the Earth's gravitational field based on
the generalities described so far about the gravitational field created by point masses. This study
would also be valid for the gravitational field created by any other celestial body.

11.1 EARTH GRAVITATORY FORCE AND GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL ENERGY

Assuming that the Earth was a perfect sphere, it can be shown that the gravitational force
that it exerts on any body of mass m located in its vicinity is given by the same expression provided by
the law of universal gravitation: where M T is the mass of the Earth, r is the distance between the
center of the Earth and the point where the mass m is located, and
ur is a unit vector originating at the center of the Earth and directed toward
the position of m.
This force, also called weight , has the same characteristics as the gravitational force between
point masses and its module can be expressed as:

If R T is the radius of the Earth and h is the height at which m is located above the Earth's
surface, we can write r = R T + h.
Because the gravitational force is conservative, any body of mass m located at a height h
above the Earth's surface will have a gravitational potential energy, the expression of which will be
given from equation [3.15]:

Mrm Mrm
3-
Ep G- • Ep g [3.31]
.

where we have considered infinity as the origin of potential energy.

11.2 EARTH GRAVITATORY FIELD INTENSITY

The intensity of the Earth's gravitational field or acceleration of gravity at any point outside
the Earth has the same expression as in the case of a point mass. So, we can write:

M
8= -Grzür

whose module will be given by:

We can transform the previous expression into another equivalent that gives us how Earth's gravity
varies with height. To do this we write in the previous expression r = R T + h:

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g GM [3.32]
\KTII )

If calling g 0 the gravitational field intensity on the Earth's surface (h = 0):

M.T. 7
go = G —2 =) go ■ R? = G ■ MT
K.T.

Substituting into equation [3.32]:

R
G = GO
(R T + h) 2

If we divide both its numerator and denominator by R 2 , it becomes the expression:

go

which indicates the variation of g with height and in relation to its value on the earth's surface g 0 .

11.3 EARTH GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL ENERGY

M. m
E p =mgh
E =- G
p R+h
The expression for gravitational potential energy given by the first equation is valid for any
point outside the Earth, including points on its surface. However, if the mass m moves between two
points very close to the Earth's surface, the variation in g is practically negligible, and the gravitational
field can be considered constant in such circumstances. Only under these conditions will the second
expression of the Earth's gravitational potential energy be valid.

11.4 EARTH GRAVITATORY POTENTIAL

We define the Earth's gravitational potential, V, at a point as the gravitational potential

energy possessed by the unit of mass located at said point. Therefore:
Ep
V=
m

If we take into account the equation corresponding to the potential energy given in the
previous section, the gravitational potential at a point located at a height h from the Earth's surface
will be:
M.T.
V= —G RT+h

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11.5 MOTION OF SATELLITES: SPEED, PERIOD AND ORBITAL ENERGY

In this section we will describe the movement of satellites around the Earth. In all cases, we
will assume that the satellite describes a circular orbit of radius ra and a height h from the Earth's
surface. What is deduced at this point can be generalized to any satellite orbiting its planet, and to
any planet orbiting the sun.

Orbital speed

It is the linear speed with which a satellite moves around the Earth describing a closed orbit.
Assuming that the satellite of mass m describes a MCU, the Earth's gravitational force provides the
centripetal force necessary to keep the satellite's orbit stable (fig. 1.5). Applying the fundamental
principle of dynamics to the satellite we obtain the orbit speed:

Figure 1.5

MT.m v or 2 rb M.T.
M

F c = ma —^ G— — m- O— • —— vor— A/G - 4G , ,
c c r2 r orb r RT
+h

v orb [3.34]

where r = R T + h is the radius of the orbit.

In the previous expression we can deduce the following:

o The orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass. It only depends on the mass that
creates the field, the earth in this case, and the radius of the orbit.
o Each orbit has a defined value for the speed at which the satellite can move and this speed
decreases with the square root of the orbital radius.

Orbital period

The orbital period of a satellite is the time it takes for the satellite to complete one
revolution. To deduce its expression we use the expression for the orbital velocity obtained in the
previous point and the expression that relates this to the angular velocity:

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27 47 r
> —T2
2 3

=----r —> r2
27 G.M.
v = wr = r => T

T = 2n [3.35]

From the previous expression we can deduce the following:

o The orbital period does not depend on the mass of the body it orbits. It only depends on the
source mass and orbital radius.
o The further away the satellite is orbiting, the longer it will take to complete one revolution.
o This expression can also be used to calculate the orbital radius of a satellite if we know its
orbital period.
o We can observe that, assuming that the orbital motion is a circular motion, we have obtained
KEPLER'S THIRD LAW:

4^ 472,3 4n 2

T2 --------- =--------r 3 = cte.r5

=
GM T G.M.

Orbital energy

Also called binding energy, E, is the total or mechanical energy that a satellite has in its stable
orbit around the Earth. This energy is both kinetic and gravitational potential. Therefore:
1 , MT'HL 1 G ' MT M T • m
c
E = Ec+E,eE=-m.v2— G =E=-m g- - - -
P2 r 2 r---r

Taking out common factor, we can finally write:

1M . m
■ =- G— — — [3.36]
m
2r

From the previous expression we can deduce the following:

o We observe that the orbital energy is negative which means that the satellite in orbit around
the Earth is a body linked to the Earth's gravitational field to which energy must be
communicated so that it leaves its influence.
o We also highlight the fact that as the orbital radius increases, the orbital energy increases,
becoming less negative, that is, approaching zero. This is because the gravitational interaction
between the two masses decreases as the interaction distance between them increases.
o The fact that orbital energy increases with increasing orbital radius also implies that for a
satellite to change to an orbit of greater radius it will be necessary to communicate to it an
amount of energy equal to the difference between the corresponding orbital energies.

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11.6 EXHAUST SPEED

It is the minimum speed, v e , that must be provided to a satellite located at a point in the
Earth's gravitational field so that it leaves its influence. To do this, the total energy that the satellite
must possess must be, at least, zero:

M.T.
2 R+h [3.37]
G
Under these conditions, the satellite would leave the Earth's gravitational field, reaching
infinity without kinetic energy, and it could be demonstrated that its trajectory is a parabola.
In the event that the satellite is launched from the Earth's surface (h = 0), the escape velocity
will have the expression:

2G•MT

Which is worth approximately 11 km/s

If the speed communicated to the satellite was greater than the escape speed, its total energy
would be positive and it would reach infinity with a certain kinetic energy, demonstrating in this case
that the satellite would follow a hyperbola.

Example 29

The International Space Station (ISS) is orbiting approximately 400 km high.

a) Calculate the speed with which it orbits.
b) Calculate the escape velocity of a capsule if it is launched from the space station.

Example 30º

You want to put a satellite into geostationary orbit. At what height should it be placed? (The
geostationary orbit is called that orbit that has an orbital period equal to the time it takes the Earth to
make a complete revolution on itself, that is, 24 hours).

Example 31st

A 1 t artificial satellite orbits the earth at an altitude of 5000 km. What extra energy would
have to be communicated to the satellite so that it goes into orbit at a height twice as high as it is?

Example 32nd

They want to launch a 500 kg satellite from the ground to orbit at a height of 1000 km. What
energy would have to be communicated to the satellite to put it into orbit?

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12. WEIGHTLESS

Weightlessness is called the absence of gravity, that is, the absence of a gravitational field.

If we analyze the expression of the gravitational field created by a point mass:

M g =G 1
M M ^ g = -G 2 1 u r (field vector) r2

(module of the field

vector)
We can see that weightlessness would theoretically be achieved at infinity. In practice it would be
achieved in those areas where the field is weak enough not to be appreciated.

In the case of the earth, considered as a point mass, the expression would be:

g =G T = G T------- (module of the field

T
r 2 (R +h) 2 vector)

—— _ M_ — / W ——
gT = -G T
u -G T

r 2 r
( R.T. +h) r

(field vector)

But is this what happens to astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) or on the space
shuttles? The answer is no, since these devices are very close to the earth, less than 500 km high, and
there the gravity, as you can easily see, is only slightly less than g 0 = 9.8 m/s 2 .

So what happens for astronauts to be floating in the air? What happens is that the astronauts
are, like their ships, in circular motion around the Earth, and the gravitational force (their weight) is
being used to provide them with the centripetal acceleration they need to stay in orbit. This produces
an apparent loss of weight similar to what happens in an elevator when it begins its descent or is
dropped, or when a parachutist jumps into the void before opening his parachute. Therefore, it is an
apparent weightlessness that appears whenever you are in free fall.

13. FLOW OF A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND FLOW OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD

13.1 FLOW OF A GRAVITATORY FIELD

-
When a surface S is placed inside a gravitational field g , this surface is crossed by a certain number of
lines of force. In Physics there is a physical magnitude whose value is directly proportional to the
number of lines of force that cross a certain surface.

Let us assume a uniform gravitational field g and a flat surface S , placed inside said field. The
gravitational flow of the field g , through the flat surface S, is defined as the

scalar product of the vectors gravitational field g and surface —

•
—— —— — —
—— ——
•=g.S= — . — .cos( g , S )
g Ye
[3.38]

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The surface vector, S , is a vector perpendicular to the surface and whose module coincides with its
area.

Figure 3.28

From the definition of gravitational flow through a surface, we can deduce the following
characteristics:
1st.- The gravitational flow is a scalar physical quantity since it is defined by the scalar product
of two vectors.
2nd.- The unit of gravitational flow is the unit of gravitational field times the unit of surface
area which, in the SI of units would be N.kg -1 .m 2 = m 3 .s -2 .

José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u v
A ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1..................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100

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/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1..........................................................................................................................175
1 11........................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo.........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248

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TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...).....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '...............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n...............................................................................349
•
The vectors g and S form an angle greater than 90º. From a physical point of view
this means that there is a net number of lines of force that are incoming to the
surface.

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• The flux through a surface is zero if cos( g , S ) = 0, and this implies that the —• —•
vectors g and S are perpendicular, that is, the surface is placed parallel to the lines
of force. From the physical point of view this means that the surface is not crossed by
any line of force or that the number of lines that cross the surface in both directions
is the same.

5a.- The flow is maximum and positive when cos( g,s ) = 1 , that is, the number of lines of
force that crosses the surface is maximum and outgoing. If cos ( g,s ) = -1, The flow is maximum and
negative, that is, the number of lines of force that crosses the surface is maximum but incoming.
6th.- If the surface is closed and the source mass is inside, the flux through the closed surface
will never be zero, it will always be negative since the surface is crossed by a certain number of field
lines from the outside to inside.
7th.- If the surface is closed and the source mass is on the outside, the flux through the
closed surface will always be zero since the surface is crossed in both directions by the same number
of field lines.
8th.- The definition of flow that we have given is for a uniform gravitational field and a flat
surface. But what if the field is not uniform and/or the surface is not flat? In these cases

divides the surface into infinite elementary surfaces, dS , so that each of these infinitesimal surfaces
can be considered flat and the gravitational field constant in each of them. We would then calculate
the elemental flux, d φ , carried out on each surface
—— ——
elementary through the scalar product g . dS and we would add all these flows to obtain the
total flow across the entire surface. This summation is carried out through a mathematical operation
called integral and is written like this:

é =j d [3.39]
ó=f g . dS

Figure 3.29
c) .2 FLOW OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD
-
When a surface S is placed inside an electric field E , this surface is crossed by a certain number of
lines of force. In Physics there is a physical magnitude whose value is directly proportional to the
number of lines of force that cross a certain surface.
-

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Let us assume a uniform electric field E and a flat surface S , placed inside
-
said field. The electric flux of the field E , through the flat surface S, is defined as the
-
scalar product of the electric field vectors E and surface S
—— —— — — —— ——
^=E.S= —. — .cos( E , S )
AN Ye
[3.40]
The surface vector, s, is a vector perpendicular to the surface and whose module coincides with its
area.

Figure 3.30

From the definition of electric flow through a surface, we can deduce the following characteristics:
1st.- Electric flow is a scalar physical quantity since it is defined by the scalar product of two
vectors.
2nd.- The unit of electric flux is the unit of electric field times the unit of surface area which,
in the SI of units, would be NC -1 .m 2 .
3rd.- If we observe the expression of the flow, we can see that it depends on three factors:
the - —
field intensity E , surface size | S | , and the orientation of the surface with respect to —• —•
to the electric field cos ( E , S ) . Therefore, if we want to modify the electric flow through a surface,
we can modify any of these three factors.
4th.- The electric flow can be positive, negative or zero.
—— ——
• The flux through a surface is positive if cos ( E , S ) > 0, and this implies that —— ——

The vectors E and S form an acute angle. From a physical point of view this means
that there are a net number of lines of force that are protruding from the surface.

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The flux through a surface is negative if cos( E,s ) < 0, and this implies that
—• —•
the vectors E and S form an angle greater than 90º. From the physical point of view
This means that there is a net number of lines of force that are
surface. incoming to the

The flux through a surface is zero if cos( E , S ) = 0, and this implies that the —— ——
vectors E and S are perpendicular, that is, the surface is placed parallel to the lines
of force. From the physical point of view this means that the surface is not crossed by
any line of force or that the number of lines that cross the surface in both directions
is the same.

—— —— .

5th.- The flow is maximum and positive when cos ( E , S ) = 1 , that is, the number of lines of
force
—— ——

that crosses the surface is maximum and projections. If cos ( E , S ) = -1, The flow is maximum and
negative, that is, the number of lines of force that crosses the surface is maximum but incoming.
6th.- If the surface is closed and the source charge is inside, the flux through the closed
surface will never be zero, it will always be negative since the surface is crossed by a certain number
of field lines from the outside to inside.
7th.- If the surface is closed and the source charge is on the outside, the flux through the
closed surface will always be zero since the surface is crossed in both directions by the same number
of field lines.
8th.- The definition of flow that we have given is for a uniform electric field and a flat surface.
But what if the field is not uniform and/or the surface is not flat? In these cases the surface is divided

into infinite elementary surfaces, dS , so that each of these infinitesimal surfaces can be considered
flat and the electric field constant in each of them. We would then calculate the elemental flux, d φ ,
carried out on each elemental surface
—— ——

through the scalar product E. dS and we would add all these fluxes to obtain the total flux across

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the entire surface. This summation is carried out through a mathematical operation called integral
and is written like this:

^ =f d [3.41
ó=f E .dlS ]

Figure 3.31

14. GAUSS THEOREM FOR THE GRAVITATORY FIELD. APPLICATIONS.

14.1 GAUSS THEOREM FOR THE GRAVITATORY FIELD

Gauss' Theorem for the gravitational field says:

The net flux that crosses a closed surface inside a gravitational field is directly proportional to the
total mass contained in said surface.
—> —>

net =
d
= g.dS =-4 n GM
Total [3.42]

From the expression of Gauss's Theorem for the gravitational field we deduce the following
COMMENTS: 1º.- We understand by net flow the flow that crosses the surface outwards minus the
flow that crosses the surface inwards.
2nd.- We understand total mass as the algebraic sum of all the masses inside the closed surface.
3º.- The proportionality constant is - 4πG. The minus sign tells us that the gravitational flow through a
closed surface will always be negative, that is, there will never be a net gravitational flow towards the
outside of a closed surface.
4º.- If the closed surface does not enclose any mass inside, the gravitational flow will always be zero.

14.2 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS THEOREM FOR THE GRAVITATORY FIELD

Gauss's Theorem allows us to calculate the expression of the gravitational field created by some mass
distributions. These mass distributions must be homogeneous bodies with a certain symmetry
(spherical, cylindrical, flat), in which we have a clear idea of the direction and sense that the lines of
force would take at each point.
The objective pursued when applying Gauss's Theorem is to be able to solve for g from the formula —
—
J g .dS =-4 n GM . To do this, to solve for g, it is necessary to consider a closed surface
suitable (called Gaussian surface), in which g has a constant value and is perpendicular to the surface
at each of its points. Thus:

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J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM
Total =g — 4

n GM
Total

Total Yes

Where S is the value of the Gaussian surface that we have considered.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY SEMINAR José Escudero Martínez Page 126

JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

14.2.1 GRAVITATORY FIELD CREATED BY A UNIFORM SPHERE AT OUTER POINTS

We take as the Gaussian surface a sphere of radius r > R and with the same center as the sphere of
mass. Since the sphere is homogeneous and due to the symmetry of the mass distribution, the
gravitational field is the same at all points on the Gaussian surface and is perpendicular to it, its
direction being inwards:

Thus:
7 GM Total
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z
4
GM
Total
=
Yes

Being S the value of the surface and M total the mass of the solid sphere. Therefore, the gravitational
field value at points outside the uniform sphere of mass is:

, 4G Ta _ 4 ^ GM ra GM
T O t al GM oa
Yes 4^ r2
r 2
r2

From the previous expression we can deduce the following results:

o As we see, the gravitational field at an external point of a uniform spherical mass has the
same value as the field created by a point mass, of equal value to that of the spherical mass, that was
located in the center of said sphere. That is, the uniform spherical mass behaves, at points outside it,
as if it were a point mass whose total mass was concentrated in its own center.

o The previous comment justifies, in part, that we consider the Earth's gravitational field, at a
point outside the Earth (r > RT), as if it were created by a point mass located in its center and of equal
mass to the Earth (r = RT + h). Why do we say that it justifies only in part?

o We would obtain this same result for a uniform spherical crust, since we would follow the
same procedure as that carried out for the solid and uniform spherical mass.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY SEMINAR José Escudero Martínez Page 127

JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

14.2.2 GRAVITATORY FIELD CREATED BY A SPHERE OF UNIFORM MASS AT INTERIOR

POINTS

We take as the Gauss surface a sphere of radius r < R and with the same center as the sphere of mass.
Since the sphere is homogeneous and due to the symmetry of the mass distribution, the gravitational
field has the same value at all points of the Gaussian surface that we have considered and is
perpendicular to it, its direction being inward:

Thus:
—• —•
47 GM Total
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7
Total
GM
= gS

Where S is the value of the Gaussian surface and m is not the total mass of the sphere, but rather the
mass of the part of the solid sphere enclosed by the Gaussian surface. We can put the mass m as a
function of the density ρ and the volume of the Gaussian surface.

4
José Escudero Martínez...............................................................................................................
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )........................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.....................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?..........................................................................................................17
u v
A ==( u and v . z...................................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x............................................................................................................................17
| to |..................................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..............................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.....................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma....................................................................................................37
- -........................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma...........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU..........37
>F = ma...........................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...............................................................................................................53

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].............................................76

ISSUES......................................................................................................................................82
+ g n......................................................................................................................................100
M..............................................................................................................................................100
/2..................................................................................................................................................100
V= —P..........................................................................................................................110
V r B...................................................................................................................................113
— f B F................................................................................................................................117
> =>...................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS..........................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS..........................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.....................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.....................128
4....................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ....................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --.........................................................................................................................167
1....................................................................................................................................175
1 1.............................................................................................................................175
1 11...........................................................................................................................175
/ /..............................................................................................................................189
/.....................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo............................................................................................................................212
V1—V2................................................................................................................................213
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2........................................................................................................................228
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................233

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

diff. of spatial phase = k (x...........................................................................................248

) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).........................................................................................248
2π..................................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T.......................................................................................................................248
TO.....................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π.......................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)........249
2 IT................................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7.................................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2.................................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]..................................................................................................................252
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................292
11..................................................................................................................................314
s '..................................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...................................................................................................................................317
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..................................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]..................................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n.................................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..............................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln...........................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..............................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..................................................................................349
V4
nR3
3
We can substitute the density in the previous expression and we obtain:

M 4 M
g = G——4 — 71 = Gr
nR 3
3
3

3 —

[3.44]

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY SEMINAR José Escudero Martínez Page 130

JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

From the previous expression we can deduce the following results:

o As we see, the gravitational field at an interior point of a homogeneous spherical mass is
directly proportional to the distance of said point from the center of the sphere. This means
that as we go deeper, g decreases until it becomes zero at the center of the sphere. The
following graph shows the results obtained for both exterior and interior points:

Figure 3.32 Variation of the gravitational field of a homogeneous solid sphere

o The previous comment could also be applied to the case of the Earth's gravitational field, at
points interior to the Earth (r < RT), if we consider, in first approximation, the Earth as a
sphere of uniform mass. The following graph shows the value of the Earth's gravitational field
at both exterior and interior points:

Figure 3.33 Variation of the gravitational field of the earth considered as a homogeneous solid sphere

o We would not obtain this same result for a homogeneous spherical mass, since if we
followed the same procedure as that carried out for the solid and homogeneous
spherical mass, we would obtain that the gravitational field inside it is zero. The following
graph shows the results that would be obtained for a homogeneous spherical crust of
mass:

Figure 3.34 Variation of the gravitational field of a uniform spherical crust

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY SEMINAR José Escudero Martínez Page 131

 JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

15. GAUSS THEOREM FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD. APPLICATIONS

15.1 GAUSS THEOREM FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD

Gauss's Theorem for the electric field says:

The net flow that crosses a closed surface inside a directly proportional to the electric field is
total charge that said surface encloses.

— — Q
[3.45]
^ net = d_ =
íE .d:5 = 4 ” KQ
Total Total Q

From the expression of Gauss's Theorem for the electric field we deduce the following COMMENTS:
1º.- We understand by net flow the flow that crosses the surface outwards minus the flow that
crosses the surface inwards.
2nd.- We understand by net charge the algebraic sum of all the charges inside the closed surface.
3º.- The proportionality constant is 4πK = 1/ε and the sign of the net charge that the closed surface
encloses will indicate whether the net electric flux is positive or negative.
4º.- If the closed surface does not contain any charge inside, or contains as many positive as negative
charges, the electric flow will be zero.

15.2 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS THEOREM TO THE ELECTRIC FIELD

Gauss' Theorem allows us to calculate the expression of the electric field created by some charge
distributions. These load distributions must be homogeneous bodies with a certain symmetry
(spherical, cylindrical, flat), in which we have a clear idea of the direction and direction that the lines
of force would take at each point.
The objective pursued when applying Gauss's Theorem is to be able to solve for E from the formula
José Escudero Martínez...............................................................................................................
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )........................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.....................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?..........................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z...................................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x............................................................................................................................17
| to |..................................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..............................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.....................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma....................................................................................................37
- -........................................................................................................................................37

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

> F i = ma...........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU..........37
>F = ma...........................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...............................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].............................................76
ISSUES......................................................................................................................................82
+ g n......................................................................................................................................100
M..............................................................................................................................................100
/2..................................................................................................................................................100
V= —P..........................................................................................................................110
V r B...................................................................................................................................113
— f B F................................................................................................................................117
> =>...................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS..........................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS..........................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.....................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM
Total =.....................128
4....................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ....................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --.........................................................................................................................167
1....................................................................................................................................175
1 1.............................................................................................................................175
1 11...........................................................................................................................175
/ /..............................................................................................................................189
/.....................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo............................................................................................................................212
V1—V2................................................................................................................................213
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................217

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

ISSUES....................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2........................................................................................................................228
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x...........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).........................................................................................248
2π..................................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T.......................................................................................................................248
TO.....................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π.......................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)........249
2 IT................................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7.................................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2.................................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]..................................................................................................................252
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................292
11..................................................................................................................................314
s '..................................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...................................................................................................................................317
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES....................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..................................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]..................................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n.................................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..............................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln...........................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..............................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..................................................................................349

4 7 KQ Q 4 7K | Q | |Q|
- Total ____ - Total Total Total
Yes gS Yes gS
Where S is the value of the Gaussian surface that we have considered

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

15.2.1 ELECTRIC FIELD CREATED AT OUTER POINTS BY A SOLID SPHERE WITH UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED CHARGE

Suppose a solid charged sphere of radius R and total charge Q. We take as the Gauss surface a sphere
of radius r > R and with the same center as the charged sphere. Since the sphere is homogeneous and
due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field is the same at all points on the
Gaussian surface and is perpendicular to it. The being depends on the sign of the net charge: inwards
if it is negative and outwards if it is positive:

Applying Gauss's Theorem to the field that crosses said surface:

=± Q Total
Toa Yes H.H

E 4
7 K | Total Q | Yes E 4
2 K | Total Q | K | Total
Q| |
Total Q |
= [3.46]
K

4 n r2 r2 r2

j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ =E = + 4

" KQ Total
From the previous result we can conclude the following:
o As we see, the electric field at an external point of a uniformly charged sphere has the same
value as the field created by a point charge, of equal value to the spherical charge, that was located in
the center of said sphere. That is, the uniformly charged sphere behaves, at points outside it, as if it
were a point charge whose net charge was concentrated in its own center.
o We would obtain this same result for a uniformly loaded spherical crust, since we would
follow the same procedure as that carried out for the uniformly loaded solid sphere.

15.2.2 ELECTRIC FIELD CREATED AT INTERIOR POINTS BY A SOLID SPHERE WITH CHARGE
DISTRIBUTED UNIFORMLY INSIDE ITS
We take as the Gauss surface a sphere of radius r < R and with the same center as the charged
sphere. Since the sphere is homogeneous and due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
electric field is the same at all points on the Gaussian surface and is perpendicular to it. The direction
depends on the sign of the net charge: inwards if it is negative and outwards if it is positive:

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 JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

Applying Gauss's Theorem to the field that crosses said surface:

José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1.........................................................................................................................175
1 11.......................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '..............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..............................................................................349

S being the value of the Gaussian surface and net q is no longer the total charge of the sphere, but the
charge of the part of the solid sphere enclosed by the Gaussian surface. We can put the net mass q as a
function of the charge density ρ c and the volume of the Gaussian surface.
43
net q = A c . Gauss Pc . g7r3

Therefore, the electric field value at points interior to the homogeneous charged sphere is:

.4
4
7K^ c 3 ^r 4 Q
4 7K | q | net
Yes
2
= K . P c .4 n r = P c r
4n r 3 38

But in most cases what we know is the net charge of the sphere Q and its radius R, so we can express
the charge density ρ c based on these two parameters that are constant for each sphere:

and by substituting in the expression for the electric field:

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 JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

[3.47]
José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1
uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total

135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1.........................................................................................................................175
1 11.......................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314

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JOHN XXIII CARTHUSI A 2nd Baccalaureate Physics Notes: TOPIC 3: GRAVITATORY FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD 2018-19 academic year

s '..............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..............................................................................349

h3 4 3 3 R 4n8R3
7R
3

From the previous expression we can conclude that:

o The electric field at an interior point of a uniform solid spherical charge is directly
proportional to the distance of said point from the center of the sphere. This means that as we go
deeper, E decreases until it becomes zero at the center of the sphere. The following graph shows the
results obtained for both exterior and interior points:

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Figure 3.35 Variation of the electric field of a uniformly charged solid sphere

o We would not obtain this same result for a uniformly charged spherical crust, since if we
followed the same procedure as that carried out for the solid and homogeneous spherical charge, we
would obtain that the gravitational field inside it is zero since any Gaussian surface that we consider
in its The interior does not contain any charge. The following graph shows the results that would be
obtained for a uniformly loaded spherical cortex:

Figure 3.36 Variation of the electric field in a uniformly charged spherical shell

16. ELECTRICAL FIELD INSIDE A CONDUCTOR IN BALANCE: FARADAY CAGE

An electrical conductor is in equilibrium when its charges are at rest. Under these conditions, the
electric field inside must be zero, since otherwise its charges will not be at rest as they would suffer
the action of that field.
The fact that the electric field inside a conductor in equilibrium is zero implies other important
consequences:
o The electric potential inside is constant. If it were not, an electric field would be established
between the points of different potential that would break the balance.
o The moving charges of the conductor in equilibrium are located on its surface, regardless of
whether the conductor is hollow or solid. This is a consequence of Gauss's theorem since if we
consider an internal Gaussian surface infinitely close to that of the conductor, the flux through it will

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be zero, because the field inside is zero. Therefore the net charge contained in this Gaussian surface
must be zero.

Figure 3.37 Conductor in equilibrium

o The surface of a conductor in equilibrium, which is where moving charges reside, is an

equipotential surface.
o The electric field created by the conductor in equilibrium on its surface is perpendicular at each
point on its surface since it is an equipotential surface.
The Faraday cage is an application of Gauss's theorem and consists of a metal box that protects from
external electric fields. It owes its name to the British physicist Michael Faraday who built one in
1836. It is also known as the Faraday shield . They are used to protect against electric shocks, since
the electric field inside is zero.
The operation of the Farday cage is based on the properties of a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium. When the metal box is placed in the presence of an external electric field, the positive
charges remain in the lattice positions; The electrons, however, which are free in a metal, begin to
move since a force given by:
--
F = eE
Where e is the charge of the electron. Since the charge of the electron is negative, the electrons move
in the opposite direction to the electric field and, although the total charge of the conductor is zero,
one of the sides of the box (on which the electrons accumulate) is left with an excess of negative
charge, while the other side is left with a defect of electrons (positive charge). This displacement of
the charges causes an electric field to be created inside the box in the opposite direction to the
external field , so that the resulting electric field inside the conductor is therefore zero.

Figure 3.38 Faraday cage

Since there is no field inside the box, no charge can pass through it; For this reason, it is used to
protect devices from electrical charges. The phenomenon is called electrical shielding .

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Many devices that we use in our daily lives are equipped with a Faraday cage: microwaves, scanners,
cables, etc. Other devices, without being provided with a Faraday cage, act as such: elevators, cars,
airplanes, etc. For this reason, it is recommended to stay inside the car during a thunderstorm: its
metal body acts as a Faraday cage.

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17. ANALOGIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GRAVITATORY AND ELECTRICAL FIELDS

If we analyze the expressions of the force of gravitational interaction between two masses (Law
of Universal Gravitation) and the force of electrical interaction between two charges (Coulomb's Law)
we can deduce certain analogies and certain differences between them:

Gravitational force:
2
F = -GM r —• (force vector module)
u (force vector) F = G r r2

_ M M — g = -G 2 1 u (field vector)
g=G 1
(module of the field vector)
r

electrostatic force

F = kG-R U (force vector) F=KIGRlGI

r2 r
r2 (force vector module)

— Q——
(field vector) |Q 1 |
E= K
Q 1
ur E =K (module of the field
r 2
r2
vector)
ANALOGIES:

1st.- In both the force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the bodies that
interact and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates them.

2nd.- Both are fields of central forces, that is, their direction is the line that joins the bodies that
interact, masses in the gravitational field and charges in the electric field.

3rd.- They are long-range forces since the interaction between two masses or between two
charges is canceled at an infinite distance.

4th.- They are not contact forces, but interactions at a distance that act both in a vacuum and in
the presence of material media. The presence of a mass or a charge produces a “deformation”
that gives the space a certain property at each of its points, thus creating the corresponding
fields. This “deformation” of space is only revealed when a mass or a witness charge is placed at
those points.

5th.- Both are conservative force fields, that is, both admit an associated potential energy and it is
possible to define a gravitational and electrical potential respectively.

6th.- In both fields the lines of force are radial and open.

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DIFFERENCES

1st.- The source of the gravitational field is the mass, and the source of the electric field is the
charge. There is only one type of mass, but there are two types of charge, positive and negative.

2nd.- Gravitational interaction forces are always attractive, while electrostatic interaction forces
can be attractive (charges of different sign) or repulsive (charges of the same sign).

3rd.- Since G is a universal constant, the gravitational interaction between two masses is
independent of the medium in which they are located; but the same does not happen with
charges since the value of K is different for each medium, being maximum in a vacuum.
Therefore, the electrical interaction between two charges is maximum when they are in a
vacuum.

4th.- The electric force is much greater than the gravitational force. For example, the constant K 0
= 9.10 9 UI, while the constant G = 6.67.10 -11 UI, and this means that the value of K 0 is
approximately 10 20 times higher.

5th.- The lines of force of the gravitational field are always incoming in the mass that creates it
(masses are said to be sinks of lines of force), while the lines of force of the electrostatic field are
incoming if the charge is negative ( field line sinks) or outflows if the charge is positive (field line
sources).

Lines of force of a point mass LINES OF FORCE OF A POINT CHARGE + LINES OF FORCE OF A POINT CHARGE -

6th.- The force that acts on a mass placed in a gravitational field always has the same direction and
direction as the gravitational field. However, in an electric field the force that acts on a positive charge
does have the same direction and direction as the electric field, but it has the opposite direction if the
field acts on a negative charge.

— ——
mg

q(+) or * » ——

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—— ——
F=qE
q (-)

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7th.- Gravitational potential energy is negative since it corresponds to an attractive force, while
electrical potential energy can be positive (charges of the same sign that repel each other) or negative
(charges of different signs that attract each other).

M. m =K Q.qr
AND =-G Ep
p . grave r

8th.- The gravitational flow through a closed surface that encloses a set of masses is always negative
(Gauss's Theorem), while if it encloses a net set of charges, the flow can be positive or negative.
9th.- The gravitational field created by a mass is not altered by the fact that the mass is moving.
However, when a charge is moving, in addition to the electrostatic field, a new field of forces appears:
magnetic interaction.

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RECOMMENDED READING

The phenomenon of weightlessness

We often see images of astronauts and objects floating in the air
inside space ships. people in a state of weightlessness
The term weightlessness is not correct because the force of
gravitational attraction with which the Earth acts on the astronauts is
not equal to zero and all the people and objects that are inside the
ship have weight.
The relationship between the weight of an astronaut in the super
surface of the Earth and inside the interspace station national, ISS;
that rotates in an orbit located 400 Ion from the Earth 's surface is

Gomy:mammoram
P.M. _ (R,+ hy2_________R3_____________________
P,an Gomromamonon (R, + h (6370 km + 400 km-
"Yo
B astronaut and all the objects in the spacecraft weigh only 11 % less than on the ground. Therefore, the distance of the ship is not a
sufficient explanation for the apparent loss of weight.

Apparent weight

The sensation we have of our own weight comes from the forces that balance it, when sitting we feel the force with which the chair acts,
which balances our weight and prevents us from falling to the ground. When we weigh ourselves on a bako scale , its spring is compressed to
balance our three weight. This compression allows the value of the weight to be determined with a device that has been calibrated C applying
Hooke's law .
But let's see what happens when we weigh

ourselves or pe use an object with a

dynamometer inside an elevator.
If the elevator is stopped, the dynamometer indicates
a quantity equal to the height of the object.
If the elevator descends with an acceleration tion
equal to that of gravity, there is no any force that
balances weight and dyne mometer indicates a
quantity equal to zero.

Apparently we and the objects inside the elevator

do not weigh anything. This situation is called
weightlessness. dez, more correctly apatüfile filia

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of weight, and it is what astronauts experience when they move in orbit around them. finger of the Earth

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Weightlessness in orbit
The Eravitatory Interaction acts on a spacecraft that describes a circular orbit
around the Earth, which provides the centripetal force necessary for the circular
movement to take place. The spacecraft carries out a continuous freewheeling
movement towards the surface of the Earth following a closed curve . After each orbit
it returns to the initial position, to continue with a new fall.
The special ship and astronaut move in free fall towards the Earth with the same
acceleration and therefore no force acts on the astronaut and the objects of the ship
to balance their weight. That is the reason why they do not appear to pose at all.

Creation of weightless environments

Scientists generate weightless environments , producing situations of free fall

towards the surface. surface of the Earth in different ways aboard spacecraft , in
parabolic flights with ae spacecraft, in free fall from space by means of rocket probes
and free fall towers
Satellites in orbit operate in weightlessness conditions for long, continuous periods of time.

With rockets, periods of free fall are generated during their descent, lasting up to 0
minutes.
The European Space Agency uses an Ajebus
300 aircraft to provide weightless conditions
through paraholic flights. The plane climbs to
about 8,000 m, then descends quickly. When
descending to the appropriate height, the
plane will ascend to repeat the process. In this
way, periods of free fall of a duration of half a
minute are achieved that can be repeated
successively. mind. It is as if people and
objects move inside a giant roller coaster.
There are also facilities on the surface of the
Earth. rra. They consist of towers more than
>00 m high den three of which objects are
dropped that experience so a free fall for
several seconds.
Gravity affects all biological processes physical
and chemical conditions on the Earth's
surface, weightless environments provide an
environment suitable used to unravel
substance behaviors that are masked by
gravity. In this way, new horizons of
( experimentation are opened. tation in
Medicine, Biology. Escape Mechanics,
combustion, behavior of materials
B phenomenon of weightlessness causes discomfort
to astronauts when carrying out their activities Yo
daily. But, what worries doctors the most are the disorders in your body, and
especially the loss of bone mass. Other disorders are the decrease in red blood cells,
muscle weakness and problems. psychological problems derived from confinement in
rooms of reduced dimensions. To alleviate the effects of weightlessness, astronauts
follow programs with very specific physical exercises to which they dedicate two
hours a day

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•re daóet eede

The tidal phenomenon

The periodic rise and fall of all ocean waters, including those of the open sea, gulfs and bays, is called a tide ,
the result of the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun. about water and the Earth itself.

La Cencha Beach (San Sebascian)

The first correct explanation of the tidal phenomenon was given by Newton, when he associated it with the influence of the grammatical interaction
between the Earth and the Moon.

lunar tides
A person riding a merry-go-round observes that he tends to be ejected from the platform with greater intensity the further he is from the center of it. To

justify this observation, from a non-inertial redirection system , the person must introduce an inertia force , called za centrifuge, which *e pushes out

Inertia causes water particles to become detached from its surface when a wet ball rotates. Similarly, the rotation of the Earth causes the
water in the ocean to tend to come loose, but it fails to do so due to attraction. gavitatory of the Earth itself I this effect is greater at points close to the
temestre equator
The Earth and the Moon form a system that is held together by gravitational interaction. If the two stars are no longer considered as point objects , the
system rotates around a common center that is located in front of the Earth and at a distance from its "within 3/4 of the Earth's radius, the rest, all the
points of the surface of the Earth are affected by the attraction of the moon with a strong force the more intense the closer they are to this
The combination of the two phenomena gives a difference in lunar attraction and centrifugal force) causes the ocean regions located on the side of the

Earth facing the Moon to move closer towards the satellite, which is why they are at high tide. In turn, the Regions that are found on the
opposite side of the Earth move away from the satellite and also become high tide. If the Earth were completely covered with water, it would be deformed

until it had the shape of an ellipsoid aligned with the system. ma Toerra-Luna.
Due to the movements of the Earth and the Moon, the lunar demarcation component remains for a period of approximately 12 hours and 30 minutes.

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Solar brands
The Sun also has a direct interest in the tidal phenomenon with a period of 24 hours.
The fact that the mass of the Sun is 27 million times greater than that of the Moon and is located 400,000 v- res further away is not enough
to explain that its effect on ocean waters is 45% less than the effect produced by Moon

This lesser contribution of the Sun to the demarcation effect is due to the fact that the difference between the intensities of the forces
with which the Moon acts on the closest and most distant ocean is much greater than the corresponding difference in the case of the Sun.

Spring tides and neap tides

The magnitude of the tide is the result of the combination of the two geological deformation ellipsoids. nerated, so its magnitude depends
on the relative positions of the Sun and the Moon with respect to the Weather at a given instant.

The periods of the new moon and full moon, the Sun, will last . The Moon and the Earth are aligned, the two elect join together and the marks are alive. 1 r them high tides rise
more and low tides fall more than usual

When the Moon is in the last quarter or first quarter phase , the Sun, the Moon and the Earth form a right angle and there are neap tides. In this state of

the stars, the high mark is lower and the lower higher than normal.
The size of the tide is also highly influenced by the structure of the coast and the oceans. No". Thus, the tides of the Mediterranean Sea, a closed sea ,

are not comparable . It was produced in the Ailnticu Ocean and the Cantabrian Sea

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ISSUES
GRAVITATORIAL INTERACTION ISSUES

Question 1 a) Explain the concept of escape velocity and reasonedly deduce its expression. b) What
would happen in reality if we launched a rocket from the surface of the Earth with a speed equal to the
escape velocity?
Question 2

> In a region in which there exists a uniform gravitational field A

of intensity g, represented in the figure by its lines of
1 "” > field. a) Reason the value of the work done when moving
9
d -----------------------------------,, the unit of mass from point A to B and from B to C. b)
R Analyze the analogies and differences between the described field
and the
I5 c
------•-----------•----------> Earth's gravitational field.
"hd"

Question 3 It is usually said that the gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m located at a
height h is given by the expression E P = mgh. a) Is this statement correct? Because? b) Under what
conditions is said formula valid?
Question 4 a) Write the law of Universal Gravitation and explain its physical meaning. b) According to
the law of Gravitation, the force that the Earth exerts on a body is proportional to its mass. Why don't
bodies with greater mass fall faster?
Question 5 Let A and B be two points in the elliptical orbit of a comet around the Sun, with A being
further from the Sun than B. a) Do an energy analysis of the comet's motion and compare the values of
the kinetic and potential energies at A and B. b) At which point A or B is the magnitude of the velocity
greater? And the acceleration?
Question 6 a) If the zero gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m is located on the surface
of the Earth, what is the value of the potential energy of the particle when it is at an infinite distance
from the Earth. b) Can the kinetic energy of a particle be negative? And the potential energy? If yes,
explain the physical meaning.
Question 7 The kinetic energy necessary to escape from the Earth depends on the choice of the source
of potential energy.
Question 8 Two identical satellites A and B are in circular orbits of different radii (R A > R B ) around the
Earth. Answer the following questions reasonably: a) If the two satellites were in the same orbit ( RA = R
B ) and had different masses (m A < m B ), which of the two would move with greater speed? Which of

them would have more kinetic energy?

Question 9 A particle moves in a uniform gravitational field. a) Does its gravitational potential energy
increase or decrease when moving in the direction and sense of the force exerted by the field? What if it
moved in a direction perpendicular to said force? Reason your answers. b) Write an expression for the
work done by the gravitational force on the particle for a displacement d in both cases. What is said
work invested in?
Question 10 A particle of mass m, located at a point A, moves in a straight line towards another point B,

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in a region in which there is a gravitational field created by a mass M. a) If the value of the gravitational
potential at point B is less than at point A, reason whether the particle is approaching or moving away
from M. b) Explain the energy transformations of the particle during the indicated displacement and
write its expression. What changes would be expected if the particle went from A to B following a non-
rectilinear path?
Question 11 We want to place a satellite in a circular orbit, at a certain height above the Earth. a) Explain
the energy variations of the satellite from its launch to its orbital situation. b) Does the mass of the
satellite influence its orbital speed?
Question 12 A mass m moves in a gravitational field produced by another mass M. a) Does its potential
energy increase or decrease when the two particles approach each other? b) If initially m was at a
distance r from M and moves to a distance 2r , explain the variations in its kinetic and potential energy.
Question 13 a) The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m located at a height h is usually
written as E P = mgh. Comment on the meaning and limits of validity of said expression. b) Why does the
gravitational potential energy of a planet increase as it moves away from the Sun?
Question 14 Comment on the following statements, defining the associated physical concepts and
justifying whether they are true or false: a) The gravitational field is conservative and therefore there is a
potential associated with it. b) The work done by the gravitational field on a particle that moves between
two points is less if it does so through the line that joins said points, since it is the shortest path.
Question 15 Suppose that the Earth reduced its radius by half while maintaining its mass. a) Would the
gravitational field intensity M increase on its new surface? b) Would its orbit around the Sun be
substantially modified? Justify your answers.
Question 16 Two identical satellites are in orbit around the Earth, their orbits having different radii. a)
Which of the two will move faster? b) Which of the two will have the greatest mechanical energy?
Reason your answers.
Question 17 a) What relationship exists between the period and the orbital radius of two satellites? b)
Knowing the radius of the orbit and its period, can we determine the masses of the Earth and the
satellite? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 18 Using energy considerations, determine the minimum speed that would have to be given to
an object of mass m , located on the surface of a planet of mass M and radius R , in order for it to leave
the influence of the planet's gravitational field.
Question 19 A particle of mass m, located at a point A , moves in a straight line towards another point B ,
in a region in which there is a gravitational field created by a mass M. a) If the value of the gravitational
potential at point B is greater than at point A , reason whether the particle is approaching or moving
away from M. b) Explain the energy transformations of the particle during the indicated displacement
and write its expression. What changes would be expected if the particle went from A to B following a
non-rectilinear path?
Question 20 A satellite is in circular orbit around the Earth. Reason whether the potential energy, kinetic
energy and total energy of the satellite are greater, less or equal to those of another satellite identical to
the previous one that follows an orbit, also circular, but with a smaller radius.
Question 21 Two identical satellites are in circular orbits of different radius around the Earth. Give
reasons for your answers to the following questions: a) Which of them has the greatest speed, the one
with the largest or smallest radius orbit? b) Which of the two has greater mechanical energy?

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Question 22 Reason the truth or falsity of the following statements: a) The weight of a body on the
surface of a planet whose mass was half that of the Earth would be half its weight on the surface of the
Earth. b) The state of "weightlessness" of the astronauts inside the spaceships orbiting the Earth is due
to the fact that the force that the Earth exerts on them is zero.
Question 23 a) Consider a point located at a certain height above the Earth's surface. Which speed is
greater at that point, orbital or escape? b) As the distance of a body from the surface of the Earth
increases, the force with which it is attracted to it decreases. Does that mean that its potential energy
also decreases? Reason your answers.
Question 24. Draw in a diagram the lines of force of the gravitational field created by a point mass M.
Let A and B be two points located on the same line of force of the field, B being the point closest to M. a)
If a mass, m, is located at A and moves to B, does its potential energy increase or decrease? Because? b)
If a mass, m, is located at A and is moved to another point C, located at the same distance from M as A,
but on another line of force, does the potential energy increase or decrease? Give reasons for your
answer.
Question 25 If for some reason the Earth were to reduce its radius by half while maintaining its mass,
explain how the following would be modified: a) The intensity of the gravitational field on its surface. b)
Its orbit around the Sun.
Question 26 a) An artificial satellite describes a circular orbit around the Earth. What work is done by the
force with which the Earth attracts the satellite during an orbit? Justify the answer.
Question 27 Answer reasonedly to the following questions: a) If the radius of the lunar orbit around the
Earth were reduced, would its orbital speed increase? b) Where is the escape velocity greater, on the
Earth or on the Moon?
Question 28 Reason, based on Kepler's second law, how the speed of a planet changes throughout its
orbit as the distance to the Sun varies.
Question 29 a) Using energy considerations, deduce the expression for the minimum velocity that would
have to be given to an object of mass m, located on the surface of a planet of mass M and radius R, in
order for it to leave the influence of the field. gravity of the planet. b) It is desired that a satellite be in a
geostationary orbit. Reason with what period of revolution and at what height you should do it.
Question 30 Can the masses of the Earth and the satellite be determined knowing the data of the orbit
described by the satellite? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 31st A uniform field is one whose intensity is the same at all points. Does your potential have
the same value at all points? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 32 The orbital radius of a planet is N times greater than that of the Earth. Reason what the
relationship is between your periods.
Question 33 Demonstrate Kepler's third law from Newton's law of universal gravitation for a circular
orbit.
Question 34 a) Explain what is meant by escape velocity and reasonably deduce its expression. b)
Reason what energy would have to be imparted to an object of mass m, located at a height h above the
surface of the Earth, in order for it to move away from it indefinitely.
Question 35 Suppose that the radius of the Earth were reduced to half its value while the Earth's mass
remained constant. Would this change affect the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun? Give
reasons for your answer.

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Question 36 a) Relationship between gravitational field and potential. b) Draw on a diagram the lines of
the gravitational field created by a point mass M. A mass m, located at a point A, moves to another point
B, closer to M. Reason whether its potential energy increases or decreases.
Question 37. Indicate the meaning of escape velocity and explain how the escape velocity of a body
changes if its height above the Earth's surface varies from 2 RT to 3 RT.
Question 38 Two satellites A and B of different masses (m A > m B ) describe circular orbits of identical
radius around the Earth. Reason the relationship between their respective speeds and their potential
energies.
Question 39 Reason at what point, located between two point masses m 1 and m 2 (m 1 = m 2 ), the force
on a third point mass m 3 would be zero and what would be the potential energy of this last mass in that
position.
Question 40 Reason why the gravitational potential energy of a body increases when it moves away
from the Earth.
Question 41 The Earth is closer to the Sun in the boreal winter (in the northern hemisphere) than in the
summer. Both January and July have 31 days. In which of those months does the Earth travel the
greatest distance in its trajectory? Justify the answer.
Question 42 a) Explain what the weight of an object is. b) Reason what relationship exists between the
weight of a satellite that is in an orbit of radius r around the Earth and what it would have on the Earth's
surface.
Question 43 Two particles of masses m and 2m are separated by a certain distance. Explain what force
acts on each of them and what is the acceleration of said particles.
Question 44 a) Suppose that planet Earth doubled its radius. By what factor should its mass vary so that
the gravitational field on its surface remains constant? Give reasons for your answer. b) Two point
particles of mass m are separated by a distance r. After a certain time the mass of the first has been
reduced by half and that of the second by an eighth. For the force of attraction between them to have
the same value as the initial one, is it necessary to bring them closer or further apart? Give reasons for
your answer.
Question 45 a) Explain what the orbital speed of a satellite is and deduce its expression. b) Indicate what
a geostationary satellite is. With what period of revolution and at what height should it orbit the Earth?
ELECTRICAL INTERACTION ISSUES

Question 46 Two equal point charges are separated by a distance d . a) Is the total electric field zero at
any point? If so, what is the position of said point? b) Repeat the previous section assuming that the
charges were of different signs.
Question 47 Indicate whether or not the following sentences are correct, justifying your answers: a) If
two points are at the same electric potential, the electric field at the points of the segment that joins
said points is zero. b) The work necessary to transport a charge from one point to another that is at a
different electric potential is zero.
Question 48 What differences can you point out between the electrostatic interaction between two
point charges and the gravitational interaction between two point masses.
Question 49 Answer reasonably the following questions: a) Can the electric field produced by two point
charges at a point on the segment that joins them be zero? b) Can the electric field at a point be

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determined if we know the value of the potential at that point?

Question 50 a) Reason whether the electrostatic potential energy of a charge q increases or decreases
when passing from point A to point B , with the potential at A being greater than that at B. b) Point A is
further than point B from the charge Q that creates the field. Reason whether the charge Q is positive or
negative.
Question 51 Can the gravitational field and/or the electric field be canceled at a point on the segment
that joins two charged particles? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 52 In a region of space the electrostatic potential increases in the positive direction of the Z
axis and does not change in the directions of the other two axes. a) Draw the electrostatic field lines and
equipotential surfaces on a diagram. b) In what direction and sense will an electron move, initially at
rest?
Question 53 A charged particle penetrates a uniform electric field with a speed perpendicular to the
field. Describe the path followed by the particle and explain how its energy changes.
Question 54 Two point, positive and equal electric charges are located at points A and B of a horizontal
line. Reasonably answer the following questions: a) Can the potential at some point in the space
surrounding both charges be zero? And the electric field? b) If we separate the charges at a distance
twice the initial distance, is the potential energy of the system halved?
Question 55 Reasonably justify, with the help of a diagram, what type of movement a proton and a
neutron carry out if they penetrate with a speed v 0 into a region in which there is a uniform electric
field of the same and opposite direction as the speed v 0
Question 56 Comment on the following statements regarding the electric field: a) When a charge moves
on an equipotential surface, its mechanical energy does not change. b) Two equipotential surfaces
cannot intersect.
Question 57 a) Explain the characteristics of the electric field in a region of space in which the electric
potential is constant. b) Reasonably justify the sign of the charge of a particle that moves in the direction
and direction of a uniform electric field, so that its potential energy increases.
Question 58 Reason the truth or falsity of the following statements: a) When we move away from a
negative electric charge, the electrostatic potential increases but the intensity of the field it creates
decreases. b) At some point P located on the segment that joins two identical electric charges, the
electrostatic potential cancels out but not the intensity of the electrostatic field.
Question 59 Give reasons for the answers to the following questions: a) A negative charge moves in the
direction and direction of a uniform electric field. Does the electric potential increase or decrease at the
position of the charge? Does its potential energy increase or decrease? b) How would the answers from
the previous section differ if it were a positive charge?
Question 60 A positive electric charge moves in a uniform electric field. Reason how its electrostatic
potential energy varies if the charge moves: a) In the same direction and sense of the electric field. What
if it moves in the opposite direction? b) In a direction perpendicular to the electric field. What if the load
describes a circle and returns to the starting point?
Question 61st When a charged particle moves in the direction and sense of an electric field, its potential
energy increases. What sign does the charge of the particle have? Reason your answer.
Question 62 a) A negatively charged particle passes from a point A, whose potential is V A , to another B,
whose potential is V B > V A. Reason whether the particle gains or loses potential energy. b) Points C and
D belong to the same equipotential surface. Is work done when moving a charge (positive or negative)
from C to D? Justify the answer.
Question 63 Is the electric field zero at any point on the segment that joins two point charges of equal

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absolute value but opposite sign? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 63 a) Explain the relationship between electric field and potential. b) Reason if the electric
potential at a point where the electric field is zero can be different from zero.
Question 64 Two charges +q 1 and –q 2 are located at two points in a plane. Explain, with the help of a
graph, in what position a third charge, +q 3 , would have to be placed so that it would be in equilibrium.
Question 65 a) Reason whether the electrostatic potential energy of a charge q increases or decreases
when passing from point A to point B, with the potential at A being less than that at B.
b) Point A is further than point B from the charge Q that creates the field. Reason whether the
charge Q is positive or negative.
Question 66 A charged particle moves spontaneously towards points where the electrostatic potential is
greater. Explain whether, from this behavior, the sign of the charge can be deduced.
Question 67ª Consider two electric charges +Q and –Q, located at two points A and B. Reason what the
electrostatic potential would be at the midpoint of the segment joining points A and B. Can it be
deduced from said value that the electric field is zero at said point?
Question 68ª In a region of space there exists an electrostatic field generated by a negative point charge,
q. Given two points, A closer to the charge and B farther from the charge, reason whether the potential
at B is greater or less than that at A.
Question 69 Two positive point electric charges are located at two points A and B on a line. Can the
electric field be zero at any point on that line? What if both charges were negative? Reason your
answers.
Question 70 Two point charges q and - q are located on the X axis, at x = a and at x = - a, respectively.
Write the expressions for the electrostatic field and the electrostatic potential at the origin of
coordinates.
Question 71st A negatively charged particle passes from a point A, whose potential is V A , to another
point B, whose potential is V B < V A. Reason whether the particle gains or loses potential energy.
Question 72 Two positive point electric charges are located at two points A and B on a line. Can the
electric field be zero at any point on that line? What if one of the charges was negative? Reason your
answers.

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ISSUES
Problem 1 Two particles of masses m 1 = 2 kg and m 2 = 5 kg are located at the points P 1 (0.2) m and P 2
(1.0) m, respectively.
a) Draw the gravitational field produced by each of the masses at the coordinate origin and at the
point P(1,2) m and Calculate the total gravitational field at the point P.
b) Calculate the work necessary to move a 0.1 kg particle from point O to point P.
—, —> —>
SOLUTION: a) g
— - 1,33.101 i - 8,44.10 10 jm / 52 b) W Oext — 10 -
11
J

Problem 2. Reasonably determine at which point (or points) of the XY plane the intensity of the electric
field created by two identical charges of q 1 = q 2 = – 4 ,0) and (2,0). Is the potential at that point (or points)
also zero? Calculate its value in any case.
K e = 9 x 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2
SOLUC: V = - 36 000 V

Problem 3. On two opposite vertices of a square, with sides 6 cm, the masses m 1 = 100 g and 2 = 300 g
are placed.
a) Draw on a diagram the gravitational field produced by each mass in the center of the square and
calculate the force acting on a mass m = 10 g located at that point.
b) Calculate the work done by moving the 10 g mass from the center of the square to one of the
vertices not occupied by the other two masses.
—— —— ——
SOLUC: A d to) ? If m 1 is in A and m 2 in C: F — 5.29.101 i - 5.29.101 j N
—— —— ——
If m1 is in B and m2 in D: F — 5.29.101 i + 5.29.101 j N
b) In any case: ) vertex
center ext — 1.9.10-12 J
.

Problem 4 A particle of charge 6 x 10 -6 C is at rest at the point (0,0). A uniform electric field of 500 N/C is
applied, directed in the positive direction of the OY axis.
a) Describe the path followed by the particle until the instant it is at point A, located 2 m from the
origin. Does the potential energy of the particle increase or decrease in said displacement? What
does this variation in energy become?
b) Calculate the work done by the field in the displacement of the particle and the potential
difference between the origin and point A.

SOLUTION: b) WA cam — 6.10 -3

J A. V A — - 1000 v
Or field EITHER

Problem 5 a) Determine the average density of the Earth.

b) At what height above the Earth's surface does the intensity of the Earth's gravitational field decrease
by a third?
G = 6.67 ·10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 R T = 6370 g = 10ms -2
km
SOLUC: a) Notice that they do not give you the mass of the earth. You have to calculate it with the data provided in the statement:
d = 5622 Kg/m 3
b) h = 4660 km

Problem 6 Two charges q 1 = 2 X 10 -6 C and q 2 = -4 X 10 -6 C are fixed at points P 1 (0.2) m. and P 2 (1.0)

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m., respectively.
a) Draw the electric field produced by each of the charges at the point O (0.0) m. and at point P
(1,2) m. and calculate r the total electric field at point P.
b) Calculate the work necessary to move a charge q = -3 X 10 -6 C from point O to point P and
explain the physical meaning of this work.
Ke b) W P ext =- 0.081 J
=9

Problem 7 a) Draw in a diagram the forces acting on a 1000 kg body, located at the midpoint between
the Earth and the Moon and calculate the value of the resulting force. The distance from the center of
the Earth to the center of the Moon is 3.84 · 10 8 m.
b) How far from the center of the Earth is the point, between the Earth and the Moon, at which the
gravitational field is zero?
G = 6.67 · 10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; MT = 5.98 · 10 24 kg; ML = 7.35 · 10 22 kg
SOLUC: a) FRte = FT - FL = 10.8 – 0.13 = 10.67 N directed towards the earth b) ?

Problem 8 Two particles with equal positive charges of 4 X 10 -6 C occupy two consecutive vertices of a
square of side 1 m.
a) Calculate the electrostatic potential created by both charges at the center of the square. Would
the result be modified if the charges were of opposite signs?
b) Calculate the work necessary to move a charge of 5 X 10 -7 C from one of the remaining vertices
to the center of the square. Does this result depend on the path followed by the load?
K e = 9 X 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2

SOLUC: a) V
= V 4 V = 2 = 2 = 101408 V ? b) W = 0.02 J 1 2 1 2 ext

Problem 9 Two masses, 5 and 10 kg, are located at the points (0, 3) and (4, 0) m, respectively.
a) Calculate the gravitational field at the point (4, 3) m and represent it graphically
b) Determine the work necessary to move a mass of 2 kg from the point (4, 3) to the point (0, 0) m.
Explain whether the value of the work obtained depends on the path followed.
—> —> —> —> —>
SOLUTION: a) g
= g 1 + 92 = — 2,08.101 i - 7,41.10 1 jm / s 2
b) W4 3) = 5,625.10-11 J
(4,(3) t .

Problem 10 In the vicinity of the Earth's surface, a uniform electric field is applied.
It is observed that when a 2 g particle loaded with 5·10 -5 C is released, it remains at rest.
a) Reasonably determine the characteristics of the electric field (direction and direction module).
b) Explain what would happen if the charge were: i) 10·10 -5 C; ii) -5·10 -5 C.
— —
SOLUTION: a) E = 392 j NC 1 b) ?

Problem 11º Two point charges, q 1 = 2 X 10 -6 C and q 2 = 8

a) Determine at what point on the segment that joins the two charges the electrostatic field and/or
potential is zero. What if it were q 1 = - 2 X 10 -6 C?
b) Explain, without needing to do calculations, whether the electrostatic energy increases or
decreases when another charge, Q , is moved from the point (0, 20) m to (0, 10) m.
K e = 9 X 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2

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-6 -6
SOLUTION: a) If q1 = 2.10 C and q2 = 8.10 C, the field would cancel at the origin of coordinates and the potential would not cancel at any
point

If q1 = -2.10 -6 C and q2 = 8.10 -6 C, the field would not cancel at any point and the potential would not cancel at the point (-0'4, 0) m

c) ¿?

Problem 12 Two 10 g particles are suspended by two 30 cm threads from the same point. If both
particles are given the same charge, they separate so that the threads form a 60º angle between them.
a) Draw on a diagram the forces acting on the particles and analyze the energy of the system in
that situation.
b) Calculate the value of the charge supplied to each particle.
K e = 9 X 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2 ; g = 10 ms -2 .
SOLUC: b) ± 0.76 µC

Problem 13º Two equal point charges, of - 1.2 ·10 -6 C each, are located at the points A (0, 8) m and B (6,
0) m. A third charge, - 1.5 ·10 -6 C, is placed at point P (3.4) m.
a) Represent in a diagram the forces exerted between the charges and calculate the resultant on
the third charge.
b) Calculate the potential energy of said charge.
K e = 9 X 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2
- p
SOLUTION: a) F = 0 N b) E = 6.48.10-3 J

Problem 14º Two point masses m = 10 kg and m' = 5 kg are located at the points (0.3) m and (4.0) m,
respectively.
a) Draw the gravitational field produced by each of the masses at point A (0.0) m and at point B
(4.3) m and calculate the total gravitational field at both points.
b) Determine the work necessary to move a 0.5 kg particle from point B to point A. Discuss the sign
of this work and reason if its value depends on the path followed.
—, —> —>
SOLUTION: a) g = 2,8.1o - i + 7,41.10 11 j ms 2
11
b) WA =-1,3.10-1 J
B ext .

Problem 15º Two small balls, weighing 20 g each, are held by 2.0 m long threads suspended from a
common point. When both are charged with the same electrical charge, the wires separate until they
form an angle of 15º. Suppose they are in a vacuum, close to the surface of the Earth:
a) Calculate the electric charge communicated to each ball.
b) The electric charge of the ball on the right is doubled. Draw the two situations in a diagram
(before and after doubling the charge of one of the balls) and indicate all the forces that act on
both balls in the new equilibrium situation.
K = 9 10 9 N m 2 C -2 ; g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: a) ± 8,8.10 -7 C b) ?

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Problem 16º Two charges q 1 = 10 -6 C and q 2 = - 4 · 10 -8 C are located 2 m from each other.
a) Analyze, using the necessary graphic representations, where along the straight line that joins
them, the intensity of the electrostatic field created by these charges is nullified.
b) Determine the location of said point and calculate the electrostatic potential there.
SOLUTION: b) At 0.56 m to the right of the second charge (6r2 2 – r2 – 1 = 0) V = V1 + V2 = 3600 – 720 = 2880 V

Problem 17º A small sphere of 100 g, charged with 10 -3 C, is attached to the end of an insulating thread,
inextensible and of negligible mass, suspended from the other fixed end.
a) Determine the intensity of the uniform electric field, directed horizontally, so that the sphere
is at rest and the thread forms an angle of 30º with the vertical.
b) Calculate the tension supported by the thread under the above conditions. g = 10ms -2
SOLUTION: b) E = 575 N/C b) T = 1.15 N

Problem 18 The electric field in the vicinity of the Earth's surface is approximately 150 NC -1 , directed
downward.
a) Compare the electric and gravitational forces acting on an electron located in that region.
b) What charge should be applied to a 1-g metal paper clip so that the electric force balances
its weight near the Earth's surface?
me = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; g = 10ms -2

SOLUTION: a ) F elect = 2.4.1017 j N F grave. =- 9,l\<0- 3 j N

- Feet = 2.64.10 - 12 b) - 66.7 uC
grave

Problem 19º An electron, with a speed of 6 · 10 6 ms -1 , penetrates a uniform electric field and its speed
cancels out at a distance of 20 cm from its entry into the field region.
a) Reason what the direction and sense of the electric field are.
b) Calculate its module.
e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; me = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg K= 9 · 10 9 N m 2 C- 2
SOLUC: a) and b) 512 NC -1 in the direction and direction in which the electron moved

Problem 20º An electron moves with a speed of 5 · 10 5 ms -1 and penetrates an electric field of 50 NC -1

of the same direction and sense as the speed.

a) Do an energy analysis of the problem and calculate the distance the electron travels before
stopping.
b) Explain what would happen if the incident particle were a proton.
e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; m e = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg; m p = 1.7 · 10 -27 kg
SOLUC: a) 1.4 cm b) ?

Problem 21º A particle with charge 2 · 10 -6 C is at rest at the point (0,0). A uniform electric field of 500
NC -1 is applied in the positive direction of the OY axis.
a) Describe the motion followed by the particle and the energy transformation that takes place
along it.
b) Calculate the potential difference between the points (0.0) and (0.2) m and the work done to
move the particle between these points.
SOLUC: b) ∆V = - 1000 V Wfield = 2.10 -3 J

Problem 22º A particle of mass m and charge -10 -6 C is at rest when subjected to the Earth's
gravitational field and a uniform electric field E = 100 NC -1 in the same direction.

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a) Make a diagram of the forces acting on the particle and calculate its mass.
-1
b) Analyze the motion of the particle if the electric field were increased to 120 NC and
determine its acceleration. g = 10ms -2

SOLUC: a) m = 10 -5 kg b) a = 2 m/s 2

Problem 23º A 2 g plastic ball is suspended from a 20 cm long thread and, when a uniform and
horizontal electric field of 1000 N C- 1 is applied, the thread forms an angle of 15º with the vertical.
a) Draw on a diagram the electric field and all the forces acting on the sphere and determine its
electric charge.
b) Explain how the potential energy of the sphere changes when the electric field is applied. g
= 10ms -2
SOLUTION: a) q = ± 5.4 µC b) ?

Problem 24º The electric field at a point P, created by a charge q located at the origin, is 2000 NC -1 and
the electric potential at P is 6000 V.
a) Determine the value of q and the distance from point P to the origin. c
b) Calculate the work done in moving another charge Q = 1.2 · 10 – 6 C from point (3, 0) m to point
(0, 3) m. Explain why the path followed does not have to be specified.
K e = 9 X 10 9 N·m 2 ·C -2
SOLUTION: a) q = 2 µC r = 3 mb) 0 J ?

Problem 25º The mass of the Sun is 324,440 times greater than that of the Earth and its radius is 108
times greater than that of the Earth.
a) How many times is the weight of a body on the surface of the Sun greater than on Earth?
b) What would be the maximum height reached by a projectile that was launched vertically
upwards, from the solar surface, with a speed of 720 km/h?
SOLUC: a) 27.82 times greater b) 73.6 m

Problem 26º A communications satellite is located in a geostationary orbit (T = 24 h) circular around the
Earth's equator. Calculate:
a) Radius of the trajectory, tangential acceleration of the satellite and work done by the
gravitational force during a half-period.
b) Gravitational field and acceleration of gravity at any point in the orbit.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg.
SOLUC: a) r = 42,000 km at = 0 m/s 2 W = 0 J b) a = g = 0.22 m/s 2

Problem 27º A satellite describes a circular orbit of radius 2R T around the Earth.
a) Determine its orbital speed.
b) If the satellite weighs 5000 N on the Earth's surface, what will be its weight in orbit? Explain the
forces acting on the satellite.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.

SOLUC: a) v = 5595 m/sb) P = 1255 N?

Problem 28º The Moon is 3.8

a) At what point in its trajectory toward the Moon would the acceleration of the projectile be
zero?
b) What minimum initial velocity should it have to reach that point? How would you move from
that position?
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; M.T. = 6 X 10 24 kg; R.T. = 6400 km; M L

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= 7 X 10 22 kg; R.L. = 1600 km.

SOLUC: a) At 5.5.10 km from the moonb) v = 1.1.10 4 m/s ¿?
4

Problem 29 The mass of the Moon is 0.01 times that of the Earth and its radius is 0.25 times the radius
of the Earth. A body, whose weight on Earth is 800 N, falls from a height of 50 m onto the lunar surface.
a) Determine the mass of the body and its weight on the Moon.
b) Perform the energy balance in the falling movement and calculate the speed with which the
body reaches the surface.
g T = 10 m/s 2
SOLUC: a) m = 80 Kg P = 128 N b) ? V = 12.65 m/s

Problem 30º A 1000 kg meteorite collides with another, at a height above the Earth's surface of 6 times
the radius of the Earth, and loses all of its kinetic energy.
a) How much does the meteorite weigh at that point and what is its mechanical energy after the
collision?
b) If you fall to Earth, do an energy analysis of the fall process. With what speed does it reach the
earth's surface? Reason your answers
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUTION: a) P = 200 NE = -8.93.10 9 J b) ? V = 10,000 m/s

Problem 31 a) Explain the influence that the mass and radius of a planet have on the acceleration of
gravity on its surface and on the potential energy of a particle close to said surface.
b) Imagine that the Earth doubled its radius and quadrupled its mass. What would be the new value of
g? And the new period of the Moon?

G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; M T = 6 X 10 24 kg; RT = 6400 km; M L = 7 X 10 22 kg R L = 1600 km

SOLUC: a) ? b) ?

Problem 32º An artificial satellite in geostationary orbit is one that, when rotating with the same angular
speed of rotation of the Earth, remains on the same vertical.
a) Explain the characteristics of that orbit and calculate its height with respect to the Earth's
surface.
b) Reason what values you would obtain for the mass and weight of a body located on said satellite
knowing that its mass on Earth is 20 kg.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km
SOLUC: a) ? h = 36,600 km b) m = 20 kg P = 4.4 N

Problem 33º A 1000 kg artificial satellite rotates around the Earth in a circular orbit of 12,000 km. radio.
a) Explain the variations in kinetic and potential energy of the satellite from its launch on the
Earth's surface until it reached its orbit and calculate the work done.
b) What variation has the weight of the satellite experienced compared to what it had on the
Earth's surface?
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUC: a) ? Wext. = 3.10 10 J b) ∆P = -7220.8 N

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Problem 34 A 200 kg body is raised from the surface of the Earth to a height of 5000 km.
a) Explain the energy transformations that take place and calculate the minimum work necessary.
b) If, by mistake, we had assumed that the gravitational field is uniform and of equal value to that
on the surface of the Earth, reason whether the value of the work would be greater, equal to, or
less than that calculated in part a). Justify if this assumption is correct.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUC: a) ? Wext. = 5.5.10 9 J b) ?

Problem 35º A satellite is at a height of 600 km above the surface of the Earth, describing a circular
orbit.
a) Calculate the time it takes to make a complete turn, reasoning the strategy followed for said
calculation.
b) If the orbital speed were to decrease, explain whether the satellite would move toward or away
from the Earth, and indicate what changes would occur in the satellite's potential energy, kinetic
energy, and mechanical energy.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUTION: a) T = 1.62 hb) ?

Problem 36º Two particles of masses m 1 = 2 kg and m 2 = 5 kg are located at the points P 1 (0.2)m and P 2
(1.0) m, respectively.
a) Draw the gravitational field produced by each of the masses at point O (0,0)m and at point
P(1,2) m and Calculate the total gravitational field at point P.
b) Calculate the work required to move a 0.1 kg particle from point O to point P.
—> —> — — — — —
SOLUTION 9, =-1,334.101 jm / s 2 b)
: a) —— ——
=g = g, + g 2 — -8.3375.10 - 11 i 2
g = -8.3375.101 im / s 2 - 1,334.1010 jm / s

WP
0 ext .
— 10 -
11
J

Problem 37º A satellite describes a circular orbit around the Earth with a radius twice that of the Earth.
a) Determine the speed of the satellite and its rotation period.
b) Explain how the magnitudes determined in a) would vary in the following cases: i) if the mass of
the satellite were double; ii) if it orbited around a planet of half the mass and radius equal to
that of the Earth.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUC: a) v = 5592 m/s T = 4 hb) ?

Problem 38º A 300 kg body located 5000 km above the Earth's surface falls towards the planet.
a) Explain the energy transformations that take place and calculate the speed with which it reaches
the surface, assuming that the body started from rest.
b) At what height above the Earth's surface must the body be so that its weight is reduced to a
quarter of its value on the surface?
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 M T = 6 X 10 24 kg. R T = 6400 km.
SOLUC: a) ? v = 7420 m/sb) h = 6400 km

Problem 39º The European research satellite (ERS-2) flies over the Earth at an altitude of 800 km.
Assume its circular path and its mass of 1000 kg.
a) Reasonably calculate the orbital speed of the satellite.

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b) If we assume that the satellite is subjected only to the gravitational force due to the Earth, why
does it not fall on the Earth's surface? Give reasons for your answer.
-2
RT = 6370 km; g = 10ms

SOLUC: a) v = 7400 m/s b) ?

Problem 40º A 500 kg artificial satellite rotates around the Moon in a circular orbit located 120 km
above the lunar surface and takes 2 hours to make a complete revolution.
a) Using the data in the problem, could the mass of the Moon be calculated? Explain how you
would do it.
b) Determine the potential energy of the satellite when it is in the aforementioned orbit.
G = 6.67×10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; R L = 1740 km
SOLUC: a) ? ML = 7.3.10 22kg b) Ep = -1,3.10 9 J

Problem 41 a) Qualitatively explain the variation of the Earth's gravitational field with height and make
an approximate graphical representation of said variation.
b) Calculate the minimum speed with which a body will have to be launched from the surface of the
Earth so that it ascends to a height of 4000 km.
–2
RT = 6370 km; g = 10 ms

SOLUC: a) ? b) v = 6958 m/s

Problem 42 Suppose that a body is dropped from the same height onto the surface of the Earth and the
Moon.
a) Explain why the decay times would be different and calculate their relationship.
b) Calculate the height that a body will reach that is launched vertically on the lunar surface with a
speed of 40 ms - 1 .
M T = 81 M L ; R T = (11/3) R L ; g = 10 ms – 2
SOLUC: a) ? b) h = 500 m

Problem 43º The Apollo 11 spacecraft orbited the Moon with a period of 119 minutes and at an average
distance from the center of the Moon of 1.8 · 10 6 m. Assuming that its orbit was circular and that the
Moon is a uniform sphere:
a) determine the mass of the Moon and the orbital speed of the ship;
b) How would the orbital speed be affected if the mass of the spacecraft were doubled? Give
reasons for your answer.
SOLUC: a) M L = 6.65.10 22 kg v = 1581 m/s b) ?

Problem 44º A 400 kg artificial satellite rotates in a circular orbit at a height h above the Earth's surface.
At this height the value of gravity is one third of the value on the Earth's surface.
a) Explain whether work must be done to keep the satellite in orbit and calculate its mechanical
energy.
b) Determine the period of the orbit.
g = 10 ms -2 ; R T = 6.4 • 10 6 m
SOLUC: a) ? Em = - 7,4.10 9 J (NOTE: You do not have the mass of the earth. You have to deduce it with the data provided) b) T = 3.18 h
-6 -6
Problem 45º Consider two point electric charges of q 1 =2·10 C and q 2 =-4·10 C separated by a
distance of 0.1 m.
a) Determine the value of the electric field at the midpoint of the segment that joins both

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charges. Can the electric field be zero at any point on the line that joins them? Answer
reasonedly with the help of a diagram.
b) Reason whether it is possible that the electric potential cancels out at some point on said line
and, if so, calculate the distance from said point to the charges.
K = 9 10 9 N m 2 C -2
--- - - -
6
SOLUTION: a) E = E i + E2 = 7.2.106 i + 14, 4.10 i = 21.6.106 i N / C YES, to the left of qi

b) There are two points where the potential cancels out: 10 cm to the left of q1 and also in the segment that joins them 3.3 cm from q1

Problem 46º Two point charges of q 1 = -4 C and q 2 = 2 C are found at the points (0.0) and (1.0) m
respectively.
a) Determine the value of the electric field at the point (0.3) m.
b) Reason what work must be done to transfer a point charge q 3 = 5 C from infinity to the point
(0,3) and interpret the sign of the result.
K = 9 10 9 N m 2 C -2

--- - -- - - SOLUTION: a) E = E i + E2 = ( - 4.10 9 j ) + ( - 5,7.10 8 i + 1,7.10 9 j ) = — 5,7.10 8

i - 2, 3.10 9 j N / A
b
) W í 03) = - 3,15.10 10 J ?
,
ext .

Problem 47º A 200 kg satellite describes a circular orbit, of radius R = 4 •10 6 m, around Mars.
a) Calculate the orbital speed and period of revolution of the satellite.
b) Explain how the kinetic and potential energies of the satellite would change if the radius of the
orbit were 2R.
G = 6.67 •10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; M Mars = 6.4 •10 23 kg
SOLUC: a) v = 3266.8 m/s T = 2.14 hb) ?

Problem 48º The space shuttles orbit the Earth at an approximate height of 300 km, and everyone is
familiar with the images of astronauts floating inside them.
a) Determine the intensity of the gravitational field at 300 km above the Earth's surface and
comment on the weightlessness of the astronauts.
b) Calculate the orbital period of the shuttle.
M T = 6 • 10 24 kg; G = 6.67 •10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 ; R T = 6.4 • 10 6 m
SOLUC: a) g = 8.92 m/s 2 ¿? b) T = 1.51 h

Problem 49 (08-R) The electric potential at a point P, created by a charge Q located at the origin, is 800 V
and the electric field at P is 400 NC -1 .
a) Determine the value of Q and the distance from point P to the origin.
b) Calculate the work done in moving another charge q = 1.2 · 10 -6 C from point (3, 0) m to
point (0, 3) m. Explain why the path followed does not have to be specified.
K = 9 10 9 N m 2 C -2
SOLUC: a) Q = 1.78.10 -7 C r = 2 mb) (0.3)
¿?
30
( ) ext

Problem 50º A particle of 5 · 10 -3 kg and electric charge q = - 6 · 10 -6 C moves with a speed of 0.2 ms -1 in
the positive direction of the X axis and penetrates the region x > 0 , in which there is a uniform electric
field of 500 NC -1 directed in the positive direction of the Y axis.
a) Describe, with the help of a diagram, the path followed by the particle and reason whether
the potential energy of the particle increases or decreases as it moves.

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b) Calculate the work done by the electric field in moving the particle from the point (0, 0) m to
the position it occupies 5 s later.
g = 10ms -2

SOLUC: a) ? b
) w(.- 13255) _ 0.3975 J
(0,0) field

Problem 51º A small sphere of 5 · 10 -3 kg and electric charge q hangs from the lower end of an insulating
thread, inextensible and of negligible mass, 0.5 m long. When applying a horizontal electric field of 2 · 10
2
V m -1, the wire separates from the vertical until it forms an angle of 30º.
a) Draw on a diagram the forces acting on the sphere and determine the value of the charge q.
b) Do an energy analysis of the process and calculate the change in potential energy of the
sphere.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: a) ? Q = ±1.4.10 -4 C b) ? ∆Ep grav. = - ∆Ep elect. = 0.0035 J

Problem 52º A charge of 3 · 10 -6 C is located at the origin of coordinates and another charge of -3 · 10 -6
C is located at the point (1,1) m.
a) Sketch the electric field at point B (2.0) m and calculate its value. What is the electric
potential at point B?
-6
b) Calculate the work necessary to move a charge of 10 · 10 C from point A (1.0) m to point B
(2.0) m.
K = 9 10 9 N m 2 C -2

--- - -- --
SOLUC: a) E = E i + E2 = (6,75.103 i ) + ( - 9,6.10
3
i + 9,6.10 3 j ) — — 2,82.10 3 i + 9, 6.10 3 j N / C

V ( B ) — V + V — 1.35.104 - 1.91.10 4 — — 5.5.10 3 V

c) W B — -5,5.10-2 J A ext .

Problem 53º A particle with a charge of 2 · 10 -6 C is at rest at the point (0, 0) and a uniform electric field
of 100 NC -1 is applied, directed in the positive direction of the X axis.
a) Reasonably describe the trajectory followed by the particle until the instant it finds itself at a
point A, located 4 m from the origin. Reason whether the potential energy of the particle
increases or decreases in said displacement and what this change in energy becomes.
b) Calculate the work done by the force acting on the particle in the displacement between the
origin and point A and the difference in electric potential between both points.

SOLUC: a) ?b) W B — 8.10-4 J A V — - 400 V

0 field

Problem 54º Two equal point charges, of +10 -5 C, are in a vacuum, fixed at the points A (0, 0) m and B (0,
3) m.
a) Calculate the electrostatic field and potential at the point C (4, 0) m.
b) If we dropped another point charge of +10 -7 C at the point C (4, 0) m, how would it move?
Justify the answer.
K = 9 . 10 9 N m 2 C -2

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--- - -- --
SOLUC: a) E = E i + E2 = (5625 i ) + (2880 i - 2160 j ) = 8505 i - 2160 j N / C

V
= V + V = 2.25.10 4 + 1.8.10 4 = 4.05.10 4 V

c) ¿?

Problem 55º An electron moves with a speed of 2 · 10 6 ms -1 and penetrates a uniform electric field of
400 NC -1 , of the same direction and sense as its speed.
a) Explain how the energy of the electron changes and calculate the distance it travels before
stopping.
b) What would happen if the particle were a positron? Give reasons for your answer.
e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; m = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg
SOLUC: a) ? 0.028m b) ?

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THEME 4. MAGNETIC FIELD

1. Origin of the magnetic field

2. Description of the magnetic field
3. Magnetic field created by a moving charge
4. Magnetic field created by a rectilinear and indefinite electric current
5. Magnetic force on moving point charges: Lorentz force
6. Movement of point charges in magnetic fields
7. Magnetic force on a straight current
8. Magnetic force between rectilinear currents

ISSUES
ISSUES

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1. ORIGIN OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

The phenomenon of magnetism has been known for more than 2000 years. It was first
discovered in Magnesia (Asia Minor). Some natural bodies such as magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) have the
property of attracting small pieces of iron. Such bodies are called natural magnets , and the property
they have is called magnetism .
In addition to natural magnets, there are other substances, such as iron, cobalt and nickel,
that can acquire magnetism artificially. These bodies are called artificial magnets .
Magnets, both natural and artificial, have the following properties:

• Every magnet has maximum attraction or repulsion at the ends, which are called magnetic
poles .
• The magnetic poles are called North and South because it is oriented according to the
magnetic poles of the Earth, which is a natural magnet.
• There are no magnetic monopoles, that is, the magnetic poles are inseparable, so a magnet
always has two poles (dipoles) no matter how small it is.

Figure 4.1

• Poles of the same type repel each other and poles of different names attract.
• The value of the force of attraction or repulsion between magnets decreases with the
distance between them.

The origin of magnetism began to be well known during the 18th and 19th centuries. Thus, in
1819, the Danish scientist Christian Oersted discovered that electric currents created magnetic fields
around them . His experience consisted of observing that when a magnetized needle was brought
close to an electric current, it stopped pointing towards the North Pole and became perpendicular to
the current. From this, it was deduced that electric currents produce the same effect as magnets.

Figure 4.2 Oersted experience

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Twelve years later, Michael Faraday observed the reciprocal effect: by bringing a magnet
closer to or further away from a conductor, an electric current is generated in it. Both experiences
have the same foundation: moving electric charges produce magnetic forces . Magnetism is,
therefore, a consequence of electricity and movement.
Later, Ampère, with his theories based on the experiences of Oersted and Faraday, laid the
foundations of electromagnetism. From everything said, it can be deduced that electromagnetism is
based on a series of basic points:

• Electric charges in motion produce a magnetic type interaction, in addition to the

electrostatic interaction given by Coulomb's Law. They therefore produce an electromagnetic
interaction.
• Every moving charge produces a magnetic field.
• A magnetic field acts on electric charges when they are in motion and certain conditions are
also met, as we will see later.
• A magnetic field is said to exist at a point if a mobile charge placed at it and meeting the
appropriate conditions experiences a force.

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2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnetic field is the region of space in which the magnetic force is evident. Therefore, a
magnetic field will exist at any point in the region around a magnet, a moving electric charge or an
electric current. To check this, it would be enough to place another magnet, iron filings, a magnetized
needle, an electric current or a moving charge in said region, and we would observe the action of a
force on any of them.
The magnetic field is a vector field of forces and therefore at each point it is characterized by
the field intensity vector, which in this case is called the magnetic induction vector, or simply
magnetic field , and is represented by B.
The magnetic field vector at each point is defined as the force exerted by the field on the unit
of positive charge that moves with a unit of speed in a direction perpendicular to the field at that
point. Its SI unit It is the Tesla (T), in honor of the scientist of Serbian origin Nikola Tesla.
A tesla is the induction of a magnetic field that exerts a force of 1 N on a charge of 1 C that
moves at 1 m/s inside the field and perpendicular to it:

N
Telia = 1
C. m / s
Another unit of magnetic field is the Gauss (g) :

1 T = 10 4g

The magnetic field, as a vector field of forces, can be represented graphically by field lines or
lines of force that are called lines of magnetic induction . The direction of the field is tangent at each
point to the lines of induction and has the same direction as these. Furthermore, they are constructed
so that the density of lines is greater at those points where the magnetic field is more intense.

1.1 Lines of force of the magnetic field of a rectangular magnet

Figure 4.3
Magnetic induction lines of the magnetic field of a magnet

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The earth is a powerful magnet. The south magnetic pole is located north of Canada,
approximately 1300 km from the geographic north pole. Therefore, the compass does not point
exactly to geographic north.

Figure 4.4
Magnetic induction lines of the Earth's magnetic field

Observe that the lines of force are closed (unlike those of the gravitational and electric fields,
which are open) and their density increases near the ends of the magnet, which is where the intensity
of the magnetic field is greatest. Also note that the lines of force leave the north pole and enter the
south pole.

2.2 Lines of force of a circular current (circular loop)

The lines of magnetic induction of the field created by a loop are represented in the following
figure where it can be seen that they are closed lines and we can say that, like a magnet and
depending on where you look, the loop has its north pole (where the lines come out) or its south pole
(where the lines enter).

Figure 4.5
Field lines of a circular current (circular loop)

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To know which face of the loop is an N pole or an S pole, just follow the rule indicated in the following
figure:

Figura 4.6
Magnetic poles of a circular loop

2.3 Lines of force of a uniform field

In the case where the magnetic field is uniform, the induction lines are parallel to each other,
equally spaced and all in the same direction.

Figura 4.7
Induction lines of a uniform magnetic field

Sometimes dots or crosses are used to symbolize a uniform field leaving or entering the plane
of the paper, respectively.

Incoming magnetic field: Outgoing magnetic field:

Direction: z axis Direction: z axis Positive
direction

Figura 4.8
Induction lines of a uniform magnetic field

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3. MAGNETIC FIELD CREATED BY A MOVING CHARGE

--
The magnetic field B created by a point charge Q moving with speed v at a point P located at a
distance r from it is given by the expression:

1 uQ
11

B = — .^.vxu
4n . r 2 . vxu r

[4.1]

Where:
1
> is the vector that goes from the source charge to point P
1 1
> is a unit vector of the same direction and sense as r
> It is a characteristic constant of each medium called magnetic permeability

From the previous expression we can deduce the following consequences:

o The magnetic field created by a point charge Q at a point increases with the value of the
charge and its speed, but decreases with the square of the distance from the source
charge to said point.
1 11
o The magnetic field B is always perpendicular to the vectors r and v
o As with the electric field, the value of the magnetic field depends on the characteristics of
the medium in which the charges are found through the magnetic permeability µ,
although its behavior is different from that of the electric constant K, as shown. explains
below.

The magnetic permeability µ does not have its maximum value in a vacuum, and therefore the
magnetic field is not maximum in a vacuum (remember that the electric field was). In a vacuum the
magnetic permeability is:
µ 0 = µ (empty) = 4π . 10 -7 IU

The magnetic behavior of matter is established by comparison with a vacuum. For this, the
relative magnetic permeability µ r is used. The magnetic permeability of a medium is the ratio
between its magnetic permeability µ and that of vacuum µ 0.

> Let us emphasize that relative magnetic permeability has no units.

> Observe that the relative magnetic permeability of the vacuum is 1 ( µ r0 = 1).
> If the relative magnetic permeability of a medium is 1 ( µ r = 1), this medium
has the same magnetic permeability as a vacuum ( µ = µ 0 ).
> If the relative magnetic permeability of a medium is greater than unity ( µ r >
1), this medium has more magnetic permeability than a vacuum ( µ > µ 0 ).
> If the relative magnetic permeability of a medium is less than unity ( µ r < 1),
this medium has a lower magnetic permeability than that of a vacuum ( µ < µ

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0 ).
Regarding magnetic permeability, we can distinguish three types of substances or media, whose
behavior is very different:

> Diamagnetic substances, such as gold or silver, whose magnetic permeability is

slightly less than that of a vacuum µ < µ 0 ( µ r < 1) and therefore the magnetic field
inside is slightly smaller than that which exists in a vacuum.
> Paramagnetic substances, such as chromium or manganese, whose magnetic
permeability is slightly greater than that of a vacuum µ > µ 0 ( µ r > 1) and therefore the
magnetic field inside is slightly higher than that which exists in a vacuum.
> Ferromagnetic substances, such as iron, whose magnetic permeability is much greater
than that of a vacuum µ >> µ 0 ( µ r >> 1) and therefore the magnetic field inside is much
greater than that which exists in a vacuum.

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4. MAGNETIC FIELD CREATED BY A STRAIGHT AND INDEFINITE ELECTRICAL CURRENT

The lines of force or lines of magnetic induction of the magnetic field created by a rectilinear
and indefinite current are concentric circles around the conductor whose direction is determined by
the right hand rule: if the conductor is held with the right hand so that the thumb points in the
direction of the current, the other fingers will surround the conductor in the same direction of
rotation as the field lines.

of strength

Figura 4.9
Induction lines of a rectilinear electric current

The magnetic field produced by an electric current of intensity I that circulates through a
rectilinear and indefinite conductor at a point P close to it has the following characteristics:

• Direction : tangent to the lines of induction at each point.

• Direction : that of the lines of induction determined by the right-hand rule.
• Intensity : determined with the expression

[4.2]
where:

µ: magnetic permeability of the medium (in a vacuum it is 4π·10 -7 T m A -1 )

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I: intensity of current passing through the conductor (in amperes: A)

r: distance from the driver to point P (in meters: m)

Example 1 A straight wire through which a current of 0.2 A circulates is in a vacuum located on the x-
axis. If the current flows in the positive direction of the axis:
a) Draw the magnetic field lines (magnetic induction lines) created by the electric current.
b) Draw and calculate the magnetic field at the following points: A = (0.2.0) m B = (0.-2.0) m
C = (0,0,2) m D = (0,0,-2) m

Example 2 A straight wire through which a current of 0.2 A circulates is in a vacuum located on the
ordinate axis. If the current flows in the positive direction of the axis:
a) Draw the magnetic field lines (magnetic induction lines) created by the electric current.
b) Draw and calculate the magnetic field at the following points: A = (2.0,0) m B = (-2.0,0) m
C = (0,0,2) m D = (0,0,-2) m

Example 3 A straight wire through which a current of 0.2 A circulates is in a vacuum located
on the z axis. If the current flows in the positive direction of the axis:
a) Draw the magnetic field lines (magnetic induction lines) created by the electric current.
b) Draw and calculate the magnetic field at the following points: A = (2.0,0) m B = (-2.0,0) m
C = (0,2,0) m D = (0,-2,0) m

Example 4 You can repeat the three previous examples, assuming that the electric current circulates
in the negative direction of the axes.

Example 5 Two straight, parallel conductors, through which currents of 2 and 4 A flow, are located in
a vacuum 40 cm apart.
a) Draw and calculate the magnetic field created by each of the wires at a point located
between the two wires and equidistant from both. Calculate the resulting magnetic field at
that point.
b) Do the same in a point located to the left of the first thread and 50 cm from it.
c) Do the same as in the previous sections at a point located to the right of the second
driver and 80 cm from him.
d) Reason if there is any point at which the resulting magnetic field created by the two wires
cancels out. If yes, calculate it.

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5. MAGNETIC FORCE ON MOVING POINT CHARGES: LORENTZ FORCE

--
The magnetic force F exerted on a point charge q moving with speed v
-
within a magnetic field B is characterized by Lorentz's law whose mathematical expression is:

—
F = qv A B
[4.3]
—• —• —• —• —•
| F | = | q || v || B | sin ( v , B )

This force is called the Lorentz force and has the following characteristics:

The following conclusions are drawn from Lorentz's law:

o If a charge is introduced at rest into a magnetic field, it does not suffer the action of any force,
that is, magnetic fields do not act on charges at rest.
o If the charge is introduced with a speed in the same direction as the magnetic field, it will not
—— ——
It suffers the action of any force, since the vectors v and B form an angle of 0º or 180º, and in
both cases the sine is zero.
—— ——
o The direction of the Lorentz force is always perpendicular to the vectors v and B , that is, to the
plane that contains both vectors.
o The direction of the Lorentz force is the same as the vector product if the charge is positive, or
the opposite direction if the charge is negative.

Figure 4.10
Direction and sense of the Lorentz Force

o If the charge is introduced with a speed perpendicular to the direction of the field, the magnetic
force takes its maximum value:

— — —
max = | q || v || B |

o The magnetic force is at all times perpendicular to the speed, so it does not do any work on the
charge and, therefore, does not modify its kinetic energy.

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o If the charge is introduced into a region in which an electric and a magnetic field coexist, the
force exerted on it will be equal to the vector sum of the electric force and the magnetic
force:

F=F+Fm=q(+VXB) [4.4]

expression known as generalized Lorentz force .

Example 6
Calculate in each of the cases represented, the direction and sense of the magnetic field that acts.

Example 7
An electron moving parallel to the x-axis with a speed of 10 5 m/s enters a uniform magnetic field of
0.2 T perpendicularly.

a) Draw the force that the e - will experience when entering the magnetic field.
b) Calculate the value of the Lorentz force acting on the e - .
c) Reasonably draw the direction and meaning of the electric field that would have to be
superimposed on the magnetic field so that the e - would not deviate when entering them.
d) Calculate the modulus of the electric field from the previous section.

Example 8
Repeat the previous problem if it is a proton.

Example 9
A straight conductor carrying a current of 0.2 A is located in a vacuum along the x axis. At a given
instant an electron is 4 m above the wire with a speed parallel to the z axis of 10 4 m/s.

a) The magnetic field that creates the electric current of the wire at the point where the
electron is (module, direction and sense).
b) The magnetic force that the electric current exerts on the electron at said point (direction,
sense and module).
c) Reason how the electron should move at that point so that the magnetic force on it would be
zero.

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6. MOTION OF POINT CHARGES IN MAGNETIC FIELDS

6.1 CHARGE ENTER PERPENDICULARLY INTO A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

-
If a point charge q is introduced with speed v in a direction perpendicular to a field ^ -
- -
magnetic B , a magnetic force F = qv will act on it. A B which will have the maximum value
—• —• —•
| F | = | q || v || B | . This force will at all times be perpendicular to the speed, so it will be a
centripetal force that will not modify the value of the speed but will modify its direction and that,
being constant, will cause the particle, of mass m, to describe a uniform circular motion. (MCU) within
the magnetic field.

Figure 4.11
Path of a positive charge entering perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field

Applying the second principle of Dynamics to the MCU, we obtain:

José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u
A v ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82

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+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1.........................................................................................................................175
1 11.......................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248

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•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '..............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..............................................................................349
r
| q || B |
——
m|v| mv
r = —'—— =----------
I q II B I 1 q 1 B [4.5]

This last expression provides the radius of the path described by the particle within the
magnetic field.
If we express both the magnetic force and the centripetal force as a function of the angular
velocity ω, we obtain:

V = v : mV = | q | B = | q | b
r |q|Bm m

&=|q| b

m
[4.6]
This expression is called cyclotron frequency , whose value only depends on the charge/mass
ratio of the particle and the intensity of the magnetic field. From it we can deduce the period T and

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the frequency f of the MCU of the particle:

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2z T _ 27 _ 2, :1q B _ 2 7 m
T to m IqIB

2nm 1 |q|b
"I q I B ——
T 2nm
[4.7]

1.2 CHARGE THAT DOES NOT ENTER PERPENDICULARLY INTO A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD

If the charge does not enter perpendicular to the magnetic field, it is always possible to
decompose the velocity vector into two components: one parallel to the direction of the field and
another perpendicular to said field. The parallel component is not affected by the Lorentz force, so
the movement in this direction will be an MRU, while the perpendicular component will be affected
by the Lorentz force, curving as described in the previous section. The result of the composition of
both movements will be a helical movement as indicated in the following figure:

Figure 4.12
Path of a charge that does not enter perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field

1.3 CHARGE ENTERING A NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

If the field is also not uniform, the curvature of the helical path will be greater in those areas
where the field increases. In this situation it can also be demonstrated that the parallel component
decreases, so that the turns of the propeller are closer together as the field increases and, if this is
sufficiently intense, the parallel component of the velocity becomes null, forcing the load back. This
device is called a “magnetic mirror.”

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Figure 4.13
Path of a charge in a non-uniform magnetic field (magnetic mirror)

If the same thing happens on the opposite side, the charge will be confined to that region.
This device is called a magnetic bottle. This device is currently used to confine ionized gases or
plasmas such as in nuclear fusion experiments.

Example 10

An electron moving parallel to the x-axis with a speed of 10 5 m/s enters a uniform magnetic field of
0.2 T perpendicularly.
a) Draw the force that the e - will experience when entering the magnetic field.
b) Calculate the value of the Lorentz force acting on the e - .
c) Reasonably draw the path followed by the e - within the magnetic field.
d) Calculate the radius, period and frequency of the movement of e - (m e- = 9,11.10 -31 Kg).

Example 11

Repeat the previous problem if it is a proton (m p+ = 1.67.10 -27 Kg). .

Example 12
-
An electron and a proton have the same speed v and enter a field perpendicularly
—• uniform magnetic B .
a) Draw the path followed by each of the charges inside the magnetic field.
b) Reason qualitatively (without numerical calculation) which of the two charges curves its path
the most (has the smallest radius)

Example 13

An electron and a proton, which are initially at rest, are accelerated by the same electrical ddp.
Calculate:
a) The relationship that exists between their kinetic energies, once accelerated.
b) The relationship that exists between their speeds.
c) If once accelerated they enter perpendicularly into a magnetic field of intensity B, calculate
the relationship that exists between the radii of their trajectories (m p+ = 1833m e- ).

7. MAGNETIC FORCE ON A STRAIGHT CURRENT

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Electric current consists of the movement of electric charges along a conductor. Therefore, if
we properly place a rectilinear conductor of length l , through which an electric current of intensity I
passes within a uniform magnetic field B, it will exert a magnetic force on each of the charges
(electrons) that move. by the driver.

Figure 4.14
Movement of electrons inside a conductor

The magnetic force exerted on the entire conductor will be the result of those exerted on
each of the charge carriers that circulate through it. It can be shown that this force has the following
expression:

^ ^ —>
F = YO. b
Where:
[4.8]
I is the intensity of current flowing through the wire measured in A.
-
l is the length vector of the conductor whose direction is that of the conductor, whose
direction is that of the current that passes through it and whose module is the length l of the
conductor itself measured in m.
-
B is the magnetic field intensity vector that exerts the force on the rectilinear conductor.

From the previous expression we can draw the following conclusions:

o The direction of the force is perpendicular to the plane in which the conductor and the
magnetic field meet.
o The direction of the force is the same as the vector product / N B .

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-
b

xxxxxx

José Escudero Martínez............................................................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v )....................................................................................................11
v A u =- u A v.................................................................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u v
A ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2..........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1.................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48
>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES..................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2..............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d

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ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =.................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1.........................................................................................................................175
1 11.......................................................................................................................175
/ /..........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
ISSUES................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...).....................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252

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ISSUES................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '..............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331

Figure 4.15
Magnetic force on a straight conductor

235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n..............................................................................349

The modulus of the force is

- -- --
| F | =I. / .B lsin(l,B)
[4.9]

o If the thread is placed parallel to the field lines, it does not exert any
/
/

force on it, since the vectors l and B would have the same direction (parallel or
antiparallel), forming an angle of 0º or 180º between them, and in both cases the sine is
0.

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/
b

—> 12_, / /
| F | = I .l l |.| Bl . sin (0°) = 0

Figure 4.16
Conductor located in the same direction as the lines of force o If the wire is placed
perpendicular to the field lines, it would exert on - -
that the maximum force, since the vectors l and B would be perpendicular, forming an
angle of 90º between them and the sine is equal to 1.

Example 14

A conductor with a side of 10 cm is located on the abscissa axis. Through it, an electric current of 5 A
circulates, directed in a negative direction. In the region where the conductor is located, there is a
uniform magnetic field of 0.01 T, directed along the Z axis, in an increasing direction.

a) Calculate the force (module, direction and sense) that will act on the driver.
b) Idem, if the field is parallel to the XZ plane and forms 60º with the Z axis
c) Idem, if the field has the direction of the X axis.
d) Idem, if the field is directed along the Y axis, towards the increasing y.

Example 15th

Let us assume a straight conducting wire of 0.3 m length and mass 20 g. Said conductor is in a region
in which there is a magnetic field of 1 T, protruding from the paper.

a) Calculate the intensity that must flow through the wire, and the direction in which it must
flow, so that the conductor remains in balance.
b) What would happen if, once the above was achieved, the length of the thread was doubled.

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8. MAGNETIC FORCE BETWEEN STRAIGHT, PARALLEL AND INDEFINITE CURRENTS

Suppose two straight conductors of lengths l 1 and l 2 through which currents of intensities I 1
and I 2 flow, respectively, arranged parallel to each other and separated by a distance d. Each of them
will produce a magnetic field in each of the points that form the other, whose values will be given by:

These fields are perpendicular to each of the conductors (θ = 90°) so they will exert forces on
each conductor of respective maximum values:

—• —• —• —• LI 1 AI1I2
F = | F 12 | = I 2 .| l 2 |.| B1 | = I
2. .l2
12 2 .| l 2 |
n.d. 2nd
[4.12]
—— —— —— AI 1 I 2
F
21 —— .l1
= |
F
21 |
= I 1 .| l 1 |.| B2 | = I 1 .|
2nd
2. n.d.
and I = AI 1 I 2 . l 2
21
I2 [4.13]
nd

If the conductors are indefinite, it is convenient to use the expression for the force per unit of
length: which turns out to be the same for each conductor:

[4.14]
This force will be attractive if the currents circulate in the same direction (as in the case of the
previous figure) and repulsive if they circulate in opposite directions.
Equation [4.14] allows us to give the following definition of ampere as the fundamental unit
of current intensity in the SI:

= ff F
12
F AI1
1’21 /
21
21 I22n
d

Figure 4.17
Interaction between rectilinear and parallel
currents
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An ampere is the intensity of current that must flow through two parallel, rectilinear and indefinite
conductors separated by 1 m in a vacuum, so that they attract or repel each other with a force of 2·10
-7
N per unit of length.

Example 16

Electric currents of 2 and 4 A flow in opposite directions through two parallel straight conductors,
which are 40 cm apart in a vacuum. Calculate:

a) The magnetic field that each one of them creates where the other is.
b) The force per unit length that one exerts on the other.

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ISSUES
Question 1 a) Magnetic force on a moving charge. b) In what direction must a charge move in a magnetic
field so that no force is exerted on it?
Question 2 An electron, a proton and a helium atom penetrate an area of space in which there is a
uniform magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to the speed of the particles. a) Draw the path that
each of the particles would follow and indicate which of them a greater force is exerted on. b) Compare
the accelerations of the three particles. How does its kinetic energy vary?
Question 3. Electric currents of the same intensity and direction circulate through two rectilinear and
indefinite conductors, arranged in parallel. a) Draw a diagram, indicating the direction and direction of the
magnetic field due to each current and the total magnetic field at the midpoint of a segment that joins the
two conductors. b) How would the situation change by doubling one of the intensities?
Question 4 ( a) What is the condition for a charged particle, which moves in a straight line, to continue on
its rectilinear path when it is simultaneously subjected to an electric field and a magnetic field,
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the speed of load? b) Draw the trajectories of the
charged particle from the previous section if only the electric field or the magnetic field existed and
explain, in each case, if the speed varies.

Question 5 A particle, with charge q, penetrates a region in which a field exists. a) Explain how we could
determine, by observing the trajectory of the particle, whether it is an electric field or a magnetic field.
Are there any cases where it would not be possible to determine the field type? b) Make an energy
analysis of the motion of the particle for an electric field and for a magnetic field, both perpendicular to
the speed with which the particle penetrates the field.

Question 6 Two charged particles move with the same speed and, when a magnetic field perpendicular to
said speed is applied, they deviate in opposite directions and describe circular paths of different radii. a)
What can be said about the characteristics of these particles? b) If instead of applying a magnetic field, an
electric field parallel to their path is applied, indicate reasonably how the particles move.

Question 7 Answer reasonably the following questions: a) Is the mechanical energy of a charged particle
moving within a uniform magnetic field conserved? Is the force exerted by said field on the charge
conservative?
Question 8 a) Reasonably explain the action of a magnetic field on a rectilinear conductor, perpendicular
to the field, through which an electric current circulates and draw in a diagram the direction and sense of
all the vector magnitudes that intervene. b) Explain what modifications would occur, with respect to the
previous section, in the following cases: i) if the conductor forms an angle of 45º with the field; ii) if the
conductor is parallel to the field.

Question 9 a) The force acting on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field does not do work. Why? b)
A very long straight wire carries a current of intensity I. A proton moves with speed v perpendicular to the
wire and is at a distance r from the wire at an instant. Draw on a diagram the direction and direction of
the magnetic field and the force acting on the proton.

Question 10 Two particles, of masses m 1 and m 2 and equal charge, penetrate with velocities v 1 and v 2 =
2v 1 in a direction perpendicular to a magnetic field. a) If m 2 = 2 m 1 , which of the two paths will have the
largest radius? b) If m 1 = m 2 , in what relationship will their periods of revolution be? Reason your
answers.

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Question 11a Currents of equal intensity flow through two parallel straight conductors. a) Indicate the
direction and sense of the forces that the conductors exert on each other. Does this force depend on the
current that circulates through them? b) Graphically represent the situation in which the force is
repulsive.
Question 12 A proton enters, with a speed v , into a region of space where there is a uniform magnetic
field. a) Indicate, with the help of a diagram, the possible trajectories of the proton inside the magnetic
field. b) Explain what happens to the kinetic energy of the proton.
Question 13 Give reasons for the answers to the following questions: a) How must a charge move in a
uniform magnetic field to experience magnetic force?
Question 14 Give reasons for the answers to the following questions: a) Of the three vectors that appear
in the equation F = q·( v X B) , which pairs of vectors are always perpendicular to each other and which
may not be? b) The electromotive force induced in a loop is a function of: i) the magnetic flux that passes
through it; ii) the angle that the magnetic field forms with the loop; iii) the existing magnetic field; iv) how
quickly the flow varies with time.
Question 15 Give reasons for the answers to the following questions: a) Is there always magnetic
interaction between two charged particles? Is there always electrical interaction between them? b) In
which cases does a magnetic field exert no force on a charged particle?
Question 16 a) A beam of electrons crosses a region of space without deviating. Can it be stated that
there is no magnetic field in that region? If it exists, what should it be like? b) In a region there is a
uniform magnetic field directed vertically downward. Two protons are fired horizontally in opposite
directions. Reason what trajectories they describe, what plane they are in and what directions their
movements have.
Question 17ª A magnetic field B acts on an electron, which moves with speed v , in a direction normal to
its speed. a) Reason why the path it follows is circular and make a diagram that shows the direction of
rotation of the electron. b) Derive the expressions for the radius of the orbit and the period of the motion.
Question 18 Give reasons for your answers to the following questions: a) By observing the trajectory of an
electrically charged particle, can you deduce whether the force acting on it comes from a uniform electric
field or a uniform magnetic field? b) Is it possible that the force acting on a conductive wire, through
which an electric current circulates, located in a magnetic field, is zero?
Consider two long, parallel wires, separated by a distance d, through which intensities I1 and I2 circulate
(I1 < I2). Let there be a segment, of length d, perpendicular to the two threads and located between
them. Reason if there is any point of the aforementioned segment in which the magnetic field is zero, if:
a) The currents circulate in the same direction. b) The currents flow in opposite directions. If such a point
exists, which thread is it closest to?
Question 19 Two particles with electric charges, of the same absolute value and different sign, move with
the same speed, directed to the right and in the plane of the sheet. Both particles penetrate a magnetic
field perpendicular to the sheet and directed downwards. a) Analyze the trajectories followed by the two
particles with the help of a graph. b) If the mass of one of them is double that of the other (m1 = 2 m2),
which rotates faster?

ISSUES
Problem 1. An electron with 1 eV of kinetic energy describes a uniform circular motion in a plane
perpendicular to a magnetic field of 10 -4 T.
a) Explain, with the help of diagrams, the possible directions and directions of the force, speed and
magnetic field involved and calculate the radius of the path.

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b) Repeat the previous section for another electron that followed a straight path.
m e = 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C.
SOLUTION: a) r = 3.4 cm

Problem 2 A proton, after being accelerated by a potential difference of 10 5 V, enters a region in which
there is a magnetic field perpendicular to its speed, describing a circular path of 30 cm radius.
a) Perform an energy analysis of the entire process, and with the help of diagrams, explain the
possible directions and directions of the force, speed, electric field and magnetic field involved.
b) Calculate the intensity of the magnetic field. How does the radius of the path change if the
magnetic field were doubled?
m p = 1.7 X 10 -27 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C.
SOLUC: b) B = 0.15 T

Problem 3. An electron penetrates into a region in which there is a magnetic field, of intensity 0.1 T, with
a speed of 6 X 10 6 m/s perpendicular to the field.
a) Draw a diagram representing the field, the magnetic force and the path followed by the electron
and calculate the radius. How would the trajectory change if it were a proton?
b) Determine the characteristics of the electric field that, superimposed on the magnetic field,
would cause the electron to follow a uniform rectilinear motion.
m e = 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C. m p = 1.7 X 10 -27 Kg.
SOLUC: a) r = 3.37.10 -4 mb) Module = 6.10 5 N/C; direction and sense depends on the initial situation

Problem 4 A proton, accelerated by a potential difference of 10 5 V, penetrates a region in which there is a

uniform magnetic field of 2 T, perpendicular to its speed.
a) Draw the trajectory followed by the particle and analyze the energy variations of the proton from
its initial state of rest until it finds itself in the magnetic field.
b) Calculate the radius of the proton's path and its period and explain the differences that you
would find if it were an electron that penetrated the magnetic field with the same speed.
m e = 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C. m p = 1.7 X 10 -27 Kg.

SOLUTION: b) r = 2.3 cm T = 3.3.10 -8 s?

Problem 5º In a region of space in which there is an electric field of 100 N/C and a magnetic field of 10 -3
T, perpendicular to each other, a proton and an electron penetrate with velocities perpendicular to both
fields.
a) Draw on a diagram the velocity, electric field, and magnetic field vectors in the case that the
particles do not deviate.
b) What kinetic energy should the proton and electron have under these conditions?
m e = 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C. m p = 1.7 X 10 -27 Kg.
SOLUC: b) Ec e = 4.5.10 -21 J Eq p = 8.5.10 -18 J

Problem 6º An electron penetrates with a speed of 5 X 10 6 m/s into a magnetic field of 12 T

perpendicular to said speed.
a) Draw in a diagram the force acting on the particle as well as the path followed, and justify the
type of path.
b) Calculate the radius of the path and the time it takes to make one complete revolution. Comment
on how these results would vary if the magnetic field were double in value.
m e = 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg. e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C.
SOLUC: b) r = 2.37.10 -6 m T = 3.10 -12 s ¿?

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-1 6 -1
Problem 7º A proton penetrates a uniform electric field of 200 NC , with a speed of 10 ms
perpendicular to said field.
a) Explain, with the help of a diagram, the characteristics of the magnetic field that would have to
be applied, superimposed on the electric field, so that the direction and direction of the initial
speed of the proton are not modified.
b) Calculate the value of said magnetic field. Would the result be modified if instead of a proton, an
electron penetrated under the same conditions?
e = 1.6·10 -19 C
SOLUTION: b) B = 2.10 -4 T?

Problem 8º A proton penetrates a magnetic field, with a speed perpendicular to the field, and describes a
circular path with a period of 10 -5 s.
a) Draw in a diagram the magnetic field, the force acting on the proton and its speed at a point in its
path.
b) Calculate the value of the magnetic field. If the radius of the path it describes is 5 cm, what is the
speed of the particle?
e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C. m p = 1.7 X 10 -27 Kg.
SOLUTION: b) B = 6.62.10 -3 T v = 31 000 m/s

Problem 9 To characterize the uniform magnetic field that exists in a region, a beam of protons with a
speed of 5 X 10 5 ms -1 is used. If the beam is launched in the direction of the AND .
a) Reasonably determine the magnetic field (module, direction and direction).
b) Describe, without having to do calculations, how the magnetic force and the trajectory of the
particles would be modified if electrons were launched with the same speed instead of protons.
e = 1.6 X 10 -19 C.
--
SOLUC: a) B = 0.125 iT

Problem 10º A proton is nine in the positive direction of the OY axis in a region where there is an electric
field of 3·10 5 NC -1 in the positive direction of the OZ axis and a magnetic field of 0.6 T in the positive
direction of the OX axis.
a) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the particle and reason under what conditions the particle
does not deflect.
b) If an electron moved in the positive direction of the OY axis with a speed of 10 3 ms -1 , would it be
deflected? Explain it.
SOLUC: b) ?

Problem 11º Two straight, vertical and parallel conductors, A on the left and B on the right, are 10 cm
apart. A current of 10 A flows upward through A.
a) Calculate the current that must flow through B, so that the magnetic field at a point located 4 cm
to the left of A is zero.
b) Explain with the help of a diagram if the magnetic field can be zero at an intermediate point
between the two conductors.
u 0 = 4n · - 7 - 2
10 NA

SOLUC: a) 35 A b) ?

Problem 12 A proton, which is initially at rest, is accelerated by a potential difference of 6000 V.

Subsequently, it penetrates a region of space where there is a magnetic field of 0.5 T, perpendicular to its
speed.

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a) Calculate the speed of the proton upon entering the magnetic field and the radius of its
subsequent path.
b) How would the results of part a) be modified if it were an alpha particle, whose mass is
approximately four times that of the proton and whose charge is twice that of the proton?
e = 1.6 · 10 - 19 C; m p = 1.7 · 10 - 27 kg
SOLUTION: b) v = 1.06.10 6 m/sr = 2.2 cm b) ?

Problem 13º In a region of space there is a uniform magnetic field in the negative direction of the Z axis.
Indicate, with the help of a diagram, the direction and direction of the magnetic force in the following
cases:
a) a particle p moving in the positive direction of the X axis;
b) a particle a that moves in the positive direction of the Z axis.
SOLUC: a) ? B) ?

Problem 14º A current of 20 A flows through an indefinite straight conductor, resting on a horizontal
plane.
a) Draw the lines of the magnetic field produced by the current and calculate the value of said field
at a point located vertically from the conductor and 2 cm from it.
b) What current would have to flow through a conductor, parallel to the previous one and located 2
cm above it, so that it would not fall, if the mass per unit length of said conductor is 0.1 kg/m?
u 0 = 4 T x 10 -7 N·m 2 ·A -2 g = 10 m s -2
SOLUC: a) B = 2.10 -4 T b) 5000 A

Problem 15º Two straight, indefinite, parallel conductors through which currents of equal intensity, I,
flow, are separated by a distance of 0.1 m and repel each other with a force per unit length of 6 •10 -9 N m
-1
.
a) Explain qualitatively, with the help of a diagram in which you draw the field and the force that
acts on each conductor, the direction of the current in each of them.
b) Calculate the value of the current flowing through each conductor.
µ 0 = 4 t • 10 - 7 T m A -1
SOLUC: b) 0.055 A

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Problem 16 Two long, parallel metal wires, through which currents of 3A

and 4A flow, pass through the vertices B and D of a square
of side 2 m, located in a perpendicular plane, as illustrated
in the figure. The direction of the currents is indicated by
the symbols × = enters the paper, • = leaves the paper.
a) Draw a diagram showing the mutual
interactions and the resulting magnetic field at vertex A.
b) Calculate the numerical values of the
magnetic field at A and the force per unit length exerted on
one of the wires.
u 0 = 4T X 10 -7 N·m 2 ·A -2
- -- -
SOLUTION: b) If the square in the figure were parallel to the XY plane: B = -3.10- 7 iT B
j
D =-4.10-7 T
Problem 17º A Na + cation penetrates a uniform magnetic field
of 0.6 T, with a speed of 3 •10 3 ms -1 , perpendicular to the
direction of the field.
F F
BD DB = 8.5.10-7 N / m
-
LD LB
a) Draw the force that the field exerts on the Na + cation and calculate its value.
b) Draw the path that the Na + cation follows within the magnetic field and determine the radius of
said path.
m Na+ = 3.8 •10 -26 kg ; e = 1.6 • 10 -19 C
SOLUC: a) 2,88.10 -16 N b) r = 1.18.10 -3 m

Problem 18 A proton, a deuteron ( 2 H + ) and an alpha particle, accelerated from rest by the same
potential difference V, subsequently penetrate a region in which there is a uniform magnetic field, B ,
perpendicular to the speed of the particles.
a) What relationship exists between the kinetic energies of the deuteron and the proton? And
between those of the alpha particle and the proton?
b) Calculate the relationship between the radii of the trajectories of the deuteron, the alpha particle,
and the proton.
m alpha = 2 m deuteron = 4 m proton q alpha = 2 e
SOLUC: to) Eqd = ecp Ecα = 2 ecp b) rd = √ 2 rp rα = √2 rp
Problem 19º An electric current of 50 A flows through a long straight wire. An electron, moving at 10 6 ms
-1
, is 5 cm from the wire. Determine the force acting on the electron if its velocity is directed:
a) Towards the wire.
b) Parallel to the wire. What if the speed was perpendicular to the two previous directions.
e = 1.6 ·10 -19 C ;
u 0 = 4n·10 -7 NA - 2
SOLUC: a) 3.2.10 -17 N b) 3.2.10 -17 N 0N

Problem 20º In a region of space, a uniform electric field of 5000 V m -1 (directed in the positive direction
of the X axis) and a uniform magnetic field of 0.3 T (directed in the positive direction of the Y axis) coexist:
a) What speed (modulus, direction and sense) must a charged particle have so that it passes through
said region without deviating?
b) Calculate the intensity of a uniform electric field capable of communicating this speed to a proton
at rest after moving 2 cm.
e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; mp = 1.7 · 10 -27 kg

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--
SOLUC: a) v = 1.67.10 4 km / s b) 73.1 n/c

Problem 21. Suppose two long, straight, parallel metal wires, perpendicular to the plane of the paper and
60 mm apart, through which currents of 9 and 15 A flow in the same direction.
a) Draw on a diagram the resulting magnetic field at the midpoint of the line joining both conductors
and calculate its value.
b) In the region between the conductors, at what distance from the wire carrying the 9 A current will
the magnetic field be zero?
u 0 = 4t ·10 -7 NA -2
--- -
SOLUTION: a) If the currents flow upward and the wires are placed in a plane parallel to the XY plane: B = B 1 + B2 - 4.10 5
kT
c) At 22.5 mm from I1 (Therefore, at 37.5 mm from I2)

Problem 22 Two very long, parallel, rectilinear conductors, 10 cm apart, carry currents of 5 and 8 A,
respectively, in opposite directions.
a) Draw on a diagram the magnetic field produced by each of the conductors at a point on the
plane defined by them and located 2 cm from the first and 12 cm from the second and calculate
the intensity of the total field.
b) Determine the force per unit length on one of the conductors, indicating whether it is
attractive or repulsive.
µ 0 = 4n · 10 -7 NA -2
SOLUTION: a) If the wires are placed in a plane parallel to the XY plane, the 5 A current flows upwards and the 8 A current flows downwards: --- -
B - B i + B2 - 3,7,105 kT
--- = 8.10 7 i N / m Repulsion L 2 L 1

Problem 23º A straight thread, of length 0.2 m and mass 8 · 10 -3 kg, is located along the OX axis in - -
presence of a uniform magnetic field B - 0.5 kT
a) Reason the direction that the current must have so that the magnetic force is in the opposite
direction to the gravitational force.
b) Calculate the intensity of current necessary for the magnetic force to balance the weight of
the thread.
g = 10 ms – 2

SOLUC: a) Negative direction of the axis b) 0.8A

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Problem 24 Two long, parallel metal wires, through which currents of 10 A flow, pass through two
opposite vertices of a square of side 1 m located in a horizontal plane. Both currents run perpendicular to
said plane and upward.
a) Draw a diagram showing the mutual interactions and the resulting magnetic field at one of the
other two vertices of the square.
b) Calculate the numerical values of the magnetic field at said vertex and the force per unit length
exerted on one of the two wires.
u 0 = 4T X 10 -7 N·m 2 ·A -2
SOLUC: a) The drawing of the situation may vary from one student to another. The answer given here is for the situation described in the
following figure:

I1
@

—-------•
B1 I
2

-"---
B, B = B, + B

-- -
b) B i = 2.10-6 iT B2 = 2.10-6 kT B = B i + B 2 = 2.10-6 i + 2.10-6 kT

12
Of attraction
- = — 21 = 1.41.0 —5
N/m

Problem 25º A current of 25 A flows through a straight conductor located on the OZ axis in the positive
direction of said axis. An electron passes 5 cm above the conductor with a speed of 10 6 ms -1 . Calculate
the force acting on the electron and indicate, with the help of a diagram, its direction and sense, in the
following cases:
a) If the electron moves in the negative direction of the OY axis.
b) If it moves parallel to the OX axis. What if it moves parallel to the OZ axis?
e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; u 0 = 4T · -7 -2 10 NA

--- - -
SOLUTION: a) F = 1,6.10 17 KN b) F = 0 N If it moves in the positive direction of the z axis: F = 1.6.1017 j N

Problem 26º A current of 150 A flows through a very long straight conductor, resting on a horizontal
plane.
a) Draw the lines of the magnetic field produced by the current and calculate the value of said
field at a point located vertically from the conductor and 3 cm from it.
b) What current would have to flow through a conductor, parallel to the previous one and
located 0.8 cm above it, so that it would not fall, if the mass per unit length of said conductor
is 20 gm -1 ?
μ 0 = 4π · 10 -7 T m A -1 ; g = 10ms -2
--
SOLUTION: a) If the conductor is located on the x-axis and the current flows to the right: B = 10-3 KT b) 53.3 A

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TOPIC 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Magnetic flux through a surface

2. Faraday experiments: electromagnetic induction
3. Faraday-Lenz law
4. Alternating current generation
5. Transformers
6. electromagnetic self-induction
7. Analogies and differences between the electrostatic field and the magnetic field

ISSUES

ISSUES

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INTRODUCTION

In the previous topic we have seen that electric currents (electric charges in motion) generate a
magnetic field around them. In this topic we ask ourselves if a magnetic field is capable of generating an
electric current. The answer is yes but, under certain conditions.

1. MAGNETIC FLOW THROUGH A SURFACE

When a surface S is placed inside a magnetic field B, this surface is crossed by a certain number of
lines of force. In Physics there is a physical magnitude whose value is directly proportional to the number
of lines of force that cross a certain surface.

Let us assume a uniform magnetic field B, and a flat surface S , placed inside said field. The
magnetic flux of the field B, through the flat surface S, is defined as the scalar product of the magnetic
field B and surface S vectors.

Ó= B . S =B1.151.cos(B,5) [5.1]

The surface vector s is a vector perpendicular to the surface and modulo the value of its area.

Figure 5.1

From the definition of magnetic flux through a surface, we can deduce the following
characteristics:

1st.- The magnetic flux is a scalar physical quantity since it is defined by the scalar product of two
vectors.
2nd.- The unit of magnetic flux is the unit of magnetic field times the unit of surface area which, in
the SI of units, would be Tm 2 . This unit is called weber (Wb).

1Wb = 1 T m 2

3rd.- If we observe the expression of the flow, we can see that it depends on three factors: the
intensity of the field
B |, the size of the surface
S, and the orientation of the surface with respect
to the magnetic field cos (B,S). Therefore, if we want to modify the magnetic flux through a surface, we
can modify any of these three factors.
4th.- The magnetic flux can be positive, negative or zero.

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• The flux through a surface is positive if cos (B, S) > 0, and this implies that the vectors ByS
form an acute angle. From a physical point of view this means that there are a net
number of lines of force that are protruding from the surface.

• The flux through a surface is negative if cos (B, S) < 0, and this implies that the ByS vectors
form an angle greater than 90º. From a physical point of view this means that there is a
net number of lines of force that are incoming to the surface.

• The flow through a surface is zero if cos (B, S) = 0, and this implies that the vectors ByS are
perpendicular, that is, that the surface is placed parallel to the lines of force. From the
physical point of view this means that the surface is not crossed by any line of force or
that the number of lines that cross the surface in both directions is the same.

5th.- The flow is maximum and positive when cos (B, S) = 1 , that is, the number of lines of force
that crosses the surface is maximum and outgoing. If cos (B, S) = -1, The flow is maximum and negative,
that is, the number of lines of force that crosses the surface is maximum but incoming.

6th.- If the surface is closed, the flux through it is zero, since the surface is crossed in both
directions by the same number of field lines.

Figure 5.2

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7th.- The definition we have given is for a uniform magnetic field and a flat surface. But, what if
the field is not uniform and/or the surface is not flat.
In these cases the surface is divided into infinite elementary surfaces so that each of these
infinitesimal surfaces can be considered flat and the magnetic field constant in each of them. We would
then calculate the elemental flow dφ carried out in each
—• —•
elemental surface through the scalar product d = B. dS and we would add all these fluxes to obtain the
total flux across the entire surface. This summation is carried out through a mathematical operation
called integral and is written like this:

Figure 5.3

0= J A B deb - J A
B
B • dS [5.2]

Example 1

A square loop with a side of 10 cm, initially located in the YZ plane, can rotate around one of its sides,
which is located on the y axis, as indicated in the figure. In this region there is a uniform magnetic field of
0.1 T, in the positive direction of the x-axis.

a) Calculate the value of the magnetic flux through the surface of the loop for when the loop has
rotated the following angles: 0º, 30º, 60º, 90º, 120º and 180º.

b) If we assume that the loop has an angular velocity of w = π rad/s, calculate the expression that
would provide the value of the magnetic flux at any instant.

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2. FARADAY EXPERIENCES: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

In the previous topic, we saw how an electric current generates a magnetic field around it. The
English scientist Michael Faraday and the American physicist Joseph Henry demonstrated separately in
1832 and 1831, respectively, with their experiences, how magnetic fields, under certain circumstances,
are capable of generating electric currents. Let's analyze some of them.

First experience

By bringing a magnet closer or further away from a loop connected to a galvanometer (a device
that detects the passage of electric current in a circuit), it is observed that it measures the passage of
electric current through the loop. However, when the magnet is left at rest, the flow of current through
the loop ceases.

Figure 5.4

Second experience

If in the first experiment the magnet is replaced by a loop through which a certain electric current
passes and it approaches or moves away from the loop connected to the galvanometer, it will detect the
passage of electric current in this last loop. If the loops remain at rest with respect to each other, no
current will appear in the galvanometer loop.

Figure 5.5
Third experience

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By confronting two circuits, one of them connected to a current generator and a switch
(primary coil), and alternately closing and opening the switch, the appearance of electric current is
observed in the other circuit (secondary coil). No current appears in this second circuit if the switch is
kept closed or open.

Coil Coil
secondary primary

Figure 5.6

electromagnetic induction

In all the previous experiences, there is one fact in common: the variation of the magnetic
flux that crosses the circuit in which the electric current appears.
Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon that consists of the creation of an electric
current, called induced current, in a circuit ( armature ) using a magnetic field. For this phenomenon
to occur, it is not enough to simply use a magnetic field; it is necessary that there be a variation in the
magnetic flux through the circuit in which we want to induce the current.

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3. FARADAY-LENZ LAW

This law characterizes (quantifies) the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and allows
determining the value and direction of the induced current that appears in a certain circuit. For this
current to appear, it is necessary to generate the energy for it. The energy communicated to the unit
of electric charge that circulates through the armature is called induced electromotive force (emf) .
Its SI unit is the volt (V).

Faraday's Law

It allows you to calculate the value of the induced emf and its statement is as follows:

The electromotive force induced in a circuit is proportional to the speed with which the magnetic flux
passing through it varies.

[5.3]

The absolute value allows us to obtain the value of the induced emf without a sign regardless
of whether the magnetic flux increases or decreases.

• Observations on Faraday's law

o If the magnetic flux varies uniformly over a certain time interval (Δt) or we can only
know its initial and final values, the value of the emf will be determined with the
expression:

[5.4]

o As the flux depends on three factors (value of the magnetic field, surface of the induced
circuit and angle formed by the field and the normal to the surface of the circuit), the
variation of any of them allows current to be generated in the armature.
o The greater or lesser value of the induced emf does not depend on how large or small
the magnetic flux is, it depends on the greater or lesser speed in the variation of the
flux, regardless of whether it is large or small.
o If the armature consists of a coil (winding of N turns), the value of the emf will be:

in/2 or
8=
NH
o If R is the ohmic resistance of the induced circuit, the induced current intensity can be
determined by Ohm's law:

Lenz's Law

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It allows determining the direction of the induced current and its statement is as follows:

The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes, with its effects (generation of an induced
magnetic field), the cause that produces it.
This means that the direction of the induced current is such that its magnetic field will oppose the
increases or decreases in flux that caused it.

• Observations on Lenz's law

o If the inducing magnetic flux increases, the induced current will produce a magnetic
field that tends to oppose the effect of the inducing field, so it will have a direction
opposite to it (see upper diagram of figure 5.4).
o If the inductive magnetic flux decreases, the induced current will produce a magnetic
field that tends to oppose the effect of the inductive field, so it will have the same
direction as it (see lower diagram of figure 5.4).

Faraday-Lenz law

It consists of the joint application of Faraday's law and Lenz's law, its expression being:

do Ad

where the sign “-“ expresses the opposition of the induced emf to the variation of the magnetic flux
that generates it.

Example 2
A coil is made up of 100 rectangular coils measuring 20x30 cm on each side, and is located
perpendicular to a variable magnetic field of value B = t 2 + 4t T
a) Calculate the magnetic flux through one of the turns of the coil as a function of time.
b) Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil as a function of time.
c) Calculate the induced emf in the coil.
d) Draw the graph of the magnetic flux and the induced emf in the coil as a function of time.

Example 3
A coil is made up of 500 circular coils of 50 cm radius each, and is located within a magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the coils. The magnetic field is initially worth 1 T and decreases linearly
until it disappears in 10 s.
a) Calculate the expression of the magnetic field as a function of time.
b) Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil as a function of time.
c) Calculate the induced emf in the coil. Would there be another way to calculate the
induced emf? Which?
d) Reason the direction of the induced electric current.

Example 4

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A rectangular loop is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 1 T. The loop has a mobile
side that moves with a constant speed of 1 m/s, due to an external agent, as indicated in the figure:

Calculate: a) The instantaneous expression of the magnetic flux that passes through the loop.
b) The induced emf in the loop.
c) The value of the induced electric current if the resistance of the loop is 2 Ω.
d) The direction of the induced current.

Example 5
A square loop of side 20 cm approaches with constant speed towards a region in which there is a
uniform magnetic field B, perpendicular to the loop.
a) Reason when and why electromagnetic induction will occur in the loop since it
approaches the field, penetrates it and leaves it.
b) When electromagnetic induction occurs, reason the direction of the induced current.

x xx x x x x x
x xx x x x x x
x xx x x x x x
x xx x x x x x
x xx x x x x x
x xx x x x x x

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4. GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current consists of the periodic variation of both the induced emf and the current
intensity that appears in the induced circuit.
One way to generate it consists of arranging, within a uniform magnetic field B, a loop that
rotates with constant angular velocity ω (MCU) around a certain axis (figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7

Under these conditions, the value of the angle θ that the magnetic field forms with the normal to
the loop varies with time according to the expression θ = θ 0 + ω·t, where θ 0 is the angle initially
formed by the field and the normal to the coil. If we assume that initially the magnetic field and
surface vectors formed 0º, we can then write the expression for the magnetic flux through the loop in
the following way:

Φ(t) = B . S = | B | . | S | .cos( B , S ) = B·S·cos (ω·t)

If it is a coil made up of N turns, all of the same surface area, the instantaneous flux through the
coil would be:

Φ (t) = NBS·cos (ω·t) [5.6]

Applying the Faraday-Lenz law, the instantaneous induced emf will be:
do
ԑ (t) = NBSω·sin (ω·t)

Calling maximum emf ԑ 0 to the NBSω term, it results:

ԑ (t) = NBS ω . sin (ω·t) = ԑ 0 · sin (ω·t) [5.7]

Applying Ohm's law, the expression for the induced current looks like this:
& NBSwsen(Gt) . ,
I(t) = = = I0· sin (ω·t) [5.8]
__________K_______________K_________________________________

where I 0 is the maximum intensity (

Io - $0).
R

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As can be seen in the instantaneous expressions of the emf and intensity, these vary periodically
with time, and therefore, the electric current induced in the previous device is an alternating current
and the previous device is called ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR. or ALTERNATOR.
Remember that for a battery or direct current generator (c. c) a symbol consisting of two small
parallel lines of different lengths is used for an ac generator. or alternator, a symbol is also used and is
the following:

+-
DC generator or battery AC generator or alternator

With the following table of values we can graphically represent both physical quantities:

Ij irnindueida also alematharen- The integrity of every feeling

Ir i piari dal medLa slelta s sira del
tuatim

t (s)
•
2m.
—t ( rad )
sin(ω·t) ԑ (t) = ԑ 0 ·sin (ω·t) (V) I (t) = I 0 ·sin (ω ·t) (A)
0 0 0 0 0
2 zt T
T/4 —zt
T4—2
1 ԑ0 I0
T/2 Π 0 0 0
3T/4 3π/2 -1 -ԑ0 -I 0
T 2π 0 0 0
Figure 5.8
As we can see, the sign of the emf changes twice in a period, therefore, the direction of the
electric current also changes twice in a period.
It might be thought that this change in the direction of the intensity of the ca It assumes that the
electrons move along the conductor in one direction or the other alternately, however, what actually
happens is that the electrons in the conductor begin to vibrate around a fixed position.

Example 6
A coil of 1000 circular turns of 5 cm radius each, placed perpendicular to a uniform and
horizontal magnetic field of 0.2 T, rotates around a vertical axis at a rate of 1200 rpm.
a) Calculate the instantaneous expressions of the flux, the induced emf and the intensity in
the coil, if its resistance is 20 Ω.
b) Calculate the value of the three previous magnitudes for t = 1s.
c) It graphically represents the flow, the induced emf and the intensity as a function of time.

Example 7
Calculate at what angular velocity a coil of 10,000 square turns with a side of 20 cm should
rotate within a magnetic field of 1 T to produce a maximum emf of 220 V. Express it in rpm.

5. TRANSFORMERS

Alternating current must be transported from where it is produced to where it is used. In this
transport, energy losses occur due to the Joule effect in the conductor cables through which it

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circulates. Specifically, the power dissipated in a conductor of resistance R through which an ac

circulates. of intensity I is:
P = ^R
If you want to reduce energy losses, you can choose between two options: reduce the resistance
of the conductor cable that carries it, or reduce the intensity that circulates through it.

The first option involves increasing the thickness of the conductor (remember that the resistance
of a conductor is given by the expression: R = p L ). This implies a greater expense in the installation,
as S
increase the amount of metal to be used and increase the weight that the holding towers would have
to support.

The second option, reducing the circulating intensity, can be achieved by increasing the ddp in the
conduction cables. This is explained because the power carried (energy per unit of time) by an electric
current is given by:

= V . Yo
So for a certain value of power, the lower the intensity, the higher the ddp will have to be.

This second option requires transporting the ca at a very high potential. In power plants the ca It
is produced at about 20,000 V and in cables it is transported at up to 400,000 V. This requires having a
device that is capable of increasing the AC voltage. at the exit of the power plants, and then reduces
the voltage when reaching the places of consumption (e.g. and. 220 V in homes). This device is the ac
transformer

A transformer is a device that consists of a metal core (usually iron) to which two conductors are
wound, forming two circuits: a primary circuit with N 1 turns (primary winding), and a secondary
circuit with N 2 turns (secondary winding). (figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9

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By connecting the primary circuit to an alternating current source of maximum voltage V 1 , it

generates a variable magnetic field whose field lines are conducted along the iron core until they
cross the turns of the secondary circuit. As the intensity of the ca of the primary is variable over time,
the magnetic field it creates will also be variable, and therefore, the magnetic flux through the
secondary, giving the necessary condition for the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction to occur
in this last winding, that is, , in the secondary there will appear an induced electric current that will
also be alternating.

It can be shown that the relationship between the input voltage V 1 and the output voltage V 2 is
the following:
V1—V2
N.N2 [5.9]

The last expression tells us that the voltage in each circuit is directly proportional to the number
of turns that form it. This fact allows the alternating current to be transformed so that:

• If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary, then the voltage at the output of
the transformer is greater than at the input, that is, the transformer acts as a voltage booster:

If N 2 > N 1 , then V 2 > V 1 and we will talk about a voltage booster or high voltage
transformer .

• If the secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary, then the voltage at the output of
the transformer is lower than at the input, that is, the transformer acts as a voltage reducer:

If N 2 < N 1 , then V 2 < V 1 and we will speak of a voltage reducer or low voltage transformer .

In the same way, if we assume ideal behavior of the transformer, there will be no power loss,
fulfilling:
P 1 = P 2 E V 1 ·I 1 = V 2 ·I 2 E — = — 1 2 11 22

where we observe that the current intensity in each circuit is inversely proportional to the number of
turns in each one. Therefore, a step-up transformer will be a current reducer and, on the contrary, a
step-down transformer will be a step-down transformer.

Figure 5.10
IMPORTANT:
A transformer cannot be used in DC, since, if a DC reaches the primary, its magnetic field
would not produce a flux that varies over time in the secondary and, therefore, in this winding the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction would not occur. , that is, no induced current would
appear in the secondary.

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Example 8
an ac transformer It is made up of a winding of 100 turns and another of 1000. Calculate what the
output voltage will be if it is connected in one way or another to an alternating voltage of 220 V.

6. ELECTROMAGNETIC SELF-INDUCTION

Until now, in the induction phenomena that we have studied, the magnetic field that we used to
produce the variable flux in the induced circuit was external to this circuit, that is, we used a magnet
or the electric current of the circuit as the source of the magnetic field. inductor. But can a circuit
through which an electric current circulates produce induction phenomena to itself, that is, can a
circuit be both the inductor and the armature at the same time? The answer is yes, and the
phenomenon would now be called ELECTROMAGNETIC SELF-INDUCTION . Let's see it.

Let's imagine a circuit through which a variable electric current circulates (p. and. a ca). Because
the intensity of the current is variable, it will create a variable magnetic field around it over time. This
variable magnetic field will produce a variable flux through the surface of the circuit itself, and
therefore, according to Henry and Faraday, the conditions are met for electromagnetic induction
phenomena to occur in the circuit itself, that is, in addition to the current electric current that was
already in the circuit, a second current appears, an extra current, the induced current (self-induced
current).
As we have seen in the previous reasoning, for the phenomenon of self-induction to occur in a
circuit, it is necessary for a variable electric current to circulate through it. According to this, it could
be thought that the phenomenon of self-induction only occurs in AC circuits. However, it also occurs
in DC circuits for a short period of time when the circuits are connected or disconnected.
Let's imagine an open DC circuit When you close the switch, the intensity of the current flowing
through it varies, going from 0 to a value I in a short time interval At. This time interval is when
autoinduction occurs, and it disappears when the intensity stabilizes. The same happens when, once
connected, the circuit is disconnected, because there will also be a brief time interval in which the
intensity will vary to go from the value I to the value 0. These self-induced currents are called closing
and opening extracurrents.

+-

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7. ANALOGIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD

If we analyze the expressions of the electric field and the magnetic field created by a point
charge, we observe different analogies and differences:

2 Q (field vector) E =K
|Q 1 |
(module of the field
Q
E= K r 2
1
ur r2
vector)
—
_ uQ c B = H. Q I .v (module of the field vector)
B = — .^.vxu (field vector)
47 r 2
4n . r 2 . vxu r
ANALOGIES

1st.- The two fields are inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates
each point from the source charge.

2nd.- The interaction forces in both fields can be attractive or repulsive depending on the sign
of the electric charges that interact (electric field) or the poles that interact (magnetic field).

3rd.- They are not contact forces, but rather interactions at a distance that act both in a
vacuum and in the presence of material media. The presence of a charge or a moving charge
produces a “deformation” that gives the space a certain property at each of its points, thus
creating the corresponding fields. This “deformation” of space is only revealed when a
moving charge or witness charge is placed at those points.

4th.- In both fields the medium plays an important role through the electric constant K, in the
electric field, and the magnetic permeability µ in the magnetic field.

5th.- Both fields present induction phenomena.

DIFFERENCES

1st.- A charge at rest or in motion can create an electric field. However, a charge has to be in
motion to create a magnetic field.

2nd.- While the electric field can act on charges at rest or in motion, the magnetic field can
only act on charges in motion.

3rd.- The electric field is central since its direction is that of the line that joins each point with
the charge that creates the field. However, the magnetic field is not, it is perpendicular to the
radial direction and the speed of the charge that creates it.

4th.- The electric field is conservative, but the magnetic field is not, that is, while we can
associate a potential energy and a potential to the electric field, we cannot associate the
magnetic field.

5th.- The electric field lines are open, but the magnetic field lines are closed.

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LINES OF FORCE OF A POINT CHARGE + LINES OF FORCE OF A POINT CHARGE -

Lines of force of a magnet Lines of force of a rectilinear electric current

6th.- While in the electric field the positive and negative charges can be isolated from each
other (electric monopoles), in the magnetic field the north pole and the south pole always
appear together (magnetic dipole), that is, they cannot be separated , there are no magnetic
monopoles.

7th.- The electric field is maximum in a vacuum. However, the magnetic field is not maximum
in a vacuum. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic media the magnetic field is greater than in a
vacuum, but in diamagnetic media it is lower.

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ISSUES
Question 1 A loop passes through a region of space in which there is a uniform, vertical and upward
magnetic field. The loop moves in a horizontal plane. a) Explain whether or not current flows through the
loop when: i) it is penetrating the field region; ii) while moving in said region; iii) when it is leaving. b)
Indicate the direction of the current, where it exists, using a diagram.

Question 2 Reason whether the following statements are true or false: a) The electromotive force
induced in a loop is proportional to the magnetic flux that passes through it. b) An electrical transformer
cannot be used with direct current.

Question 3 a) Comment on the following statement: If the magnetic flux through a loop varies with time,
an electromotive force is induced in it. b) Explain various procedures to achieve the above situation.

Question 4 a) Write the expression for the electromotive force induced in a loop under the action of a
magnetic field and explain the origin and characteristics of said electromotive force. b) If the loop is at
rest, in a horizontal plane, and the magnetic field is vertical and upward, indicate in a diagram the
direction of the current that circulates through the loop: i) if the intensity of the magnetic field increases;
ii) if said intensity decreases.

Question 5 Reasonably justify, with the help of a diagram, the direction of the current induced in a loop in
each of the following assumptions: a) the loop is at rest and a magnet is approached, perpendicular to its
plane. by its south pole; b) the loop is penetrating a region in which there is a uniform magnetic field,
vertical and upward, keeping the loop horizontal.

Question 6 A loop moves in a horizontal plane and penetrates a uniform vertical magnetic field. a) Explain
the characteristics of the current induced in the loop when entering the field region, when moving in it
and when leaving it. b) Reason in which stages of the described path an external force would have to be
communicated to the loop so that it would advance with a constant speed.

Question 7 Answer reasonedly to the following questions:

c) If there is no magnetic flux through a surface, can you be sure that there is no magnetic
field in that region?
d) Is the electromotive force induced in a loop greater the greater the magnetic flux that
passes through it?
Question 8 A square loop is close to a straight and indefinite conductor, carried by a current I. The loop
and the conductor are in the same plane. With the help of a diagram, reason in which direction the
induced current flows in the loop: a) If the current in the conductor increases. b) If, leaving the current in
the conductor constant, the loop moves away from it while remaining in the same plane.
Question 9 Consider the following two experiences: i) a magnet in front of a loop with an ammeter and ii)
the loop with an ammeter in front of another loop with an electric current generator and a switch:
a) Copy and complete the following table:

Is there B in the Does the magnetic flux Is there induced current in

loop? through the loop vary? the loop?
Magnet
approaching
still magnet

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Magnet moving
away
open switch

Switch closed

When opening or
closing the switch

From the results of the previous table, reason, with the help of diagrams, the cause of the appearance of
induced current in the loop.

Question 10 a) Explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and state Faraday's law Henry. b) A
circular loop is located perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. Reason what electromotive force is
induced in the loop, when rotating with constant angular velocity around an axis, in the following cases: i)
the axis is a diameter of the loop; ii) the axis passes through the center of the loop and is perpendicular to
its plane.

Question 11 a) State the Faraday-Lenz law and explain whether an induced electromotive force can be
produced in a loop with a constant magnetic field.
b) A straight conductor is connected to a direct current generator for a certain time and then
disconnected. Near the conductor there is a loop. Reason, using a diagram, if at any instant an
electromotive force is induced in the loop and explain its characteristics.

Question 12 a) A circular loop rotates around one of its diameters in a uniform magnetic field. Reason
whether an electromotive force is induced in the loop if: i) the magnetic field is parallel to the axis of
rotation; ii) is perpendicular. b) When a magnet approaches a loop, an electromotive force is generated in
it. Reason how this electromotive force would change if: i) the magnet moved away from the loop; ii) the
poles of the magnet were reversed; iii) the magnet remained fixed.

Question 13 b) A loop, contained in the horizontal plane XY and moving in the direction of the Reason
whether electric current is induced in the loop and indicate its direction in each of the following cases: i)
when the loop penetrates the field; ii) when it moves inside; iii) when it leaves the magnetic field.

Question 14 Two circular spirals “a” and “b” are facing each other with their parallel planes. i) A current
begins to circulate through loop “a” in a clockwise direction. Explain with the help of a diagram the
direction of the current induced in loop “b”. ii) When the current in loop “a” reaches a constant value,
what will happen in loop “b”? Justify the answer.

ISSUES
Problem 1. A square loop with a side of 5 cm is located inside a uniform magnetic field, in a direction
normal to the plane of the loop and of variable intensity with time: B = 2t 2 (T).
a) Derive the expression for the magnetic flux through the loop as a function of time.
b) Plot the induced electromotive force as a function of time and calculate its value for t = 4 s.
SOLUC: a) φ(t) = 5.10 -3 t 2 Wb b) ε(t = 4 s) = 0.04 V

Problem 2: A square loop measuring 10 cm on a side, initially horizontal, rotates at 1200 revolutions per
minute, around one of its sides, in a uniform vertical magnetic field of 0.2 T.

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a) Calculate the maximum value of the electromotive force induced in the loop and represent, as a
function of time, the magnetic flux through the loop and the induced electromotive force.
b) How would the electromotive force induced in the loop be modified if the rotation speed were
reduced by half? What if the direction of the magnetic field were reversed?
SOLUC: a) εmax. = 0.25 V b) ?

Problem 3. A circular loop 10 cm in diameter, motionless, is located in a region in which there is a

magnetic field, perpendicular to its plane, whose intensity varies from 0.5 to 0.2 T in 0.1 s.
a) Draw the loop, the field and the direction of the induced current on a diagram, reasoning the
answer.
b) Calculate the induced electromotive force and reason how the induced electromotive force
would change if the field strength increased instead of decreased.
SOLUC: b) ε = 0.024 V

Problem 4 A loop of 20 cm 2 is located in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T.

a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop and explain how the value of the flux varies when
the loop is rotated through an angle of 60º.
b) If the time invested in the rotation is 2 X 10 -3 s, what is the average electromotive force induced
in the loop? Explain what would have happened if the loop had been turned in the opposite
direction.
SOLUC: a) φ0 = 4.10 -4 Wb φf = 2.10 -4 Wb b) ε = 0.1 V

Problem 5º A square loop of side 2 m is located perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T.
a) Reasonably explain whether, under these circumstances, electric current is induced in the loop.
b) Determine the average electromotive force induced in the loop if, in 0.1 s, it rotates 90º around
an axis perpendicular to the field.
SOLUTION: b) ε = 20 V

Problem 6º A square loop, 30 cm on a side, moves with a constant speed of 10 ms -1 and enters a
magnetic field of 0.05 T perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
a) Explain, rationally, what happens in the loop from the moment it begins to enter the field region
until the entire loop is inside the field. What would happen if the coil, once inside the field, left it?
b) Calculate the electromotive force induced in the loop as it is entering the field.
SOLUTION: b) ε = -0.15 V

Problem 7º The flow of a magnetic field that passes through each turn of a coil of 250 turns, between t =
0 and t = 5 s, is given by the expression:
d( t ) = 3 · 10 -3 + 15 · 10 -3 t 2 (SI)
a) Derive the expression for the electromotive force induced in the coil in that time interval and
calculate its value for t = 5 s.
b) From the instant t = 5 s onwards, the magnetic flux begins to decrease linearly until it disappears
at t = 10 s. Graph the induced electromotive force in the coil as a function of time, between t = 0
and t = 10 s.
SOLUC: a) ε(t) = -7.5 t V ε(t = 5 s) = -37.5 t V

Problem 8º A circular loop of radius 45 mm is located perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. During a
time interval of 120 · 10 -3 s the field value increases linearly from 250 mT to 310 mT.
a) Calculate the flux of the magnetic field that passes through the loop during this interval and the

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electromotive force induced in the loop.

b) Draw on a diagram the magnetic field and the direction of the current induced in the loop. Explain
the reasoning followed.
SOLUTION: a) φ(t) = 3.18.10 -3 t + 1.6.10 -3 Wb ε = -3,18.10 -3 V

Problem 9º A magnetic field, whose module is given by:

B = 2 cos (100 t) (S. l.),
It forms an angle of 45° with the plane of a circular loop of radius R = 12 cm.
a) Calculate the electromotive force induced in the loop at time t =2 s.
b) Could the electromotive force induced by rotating the loop be zero? Give reasons for your
answer.
SOLUTION: a) ε(t = 2 s) = - 5.5 V

Problem 10º A loop of radius 10 cm is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.4 T and rotated with a
frequency of 20 Hz. At the initial instant the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the field.
a) Write the expression for the magnetic flux that passes through the loop as a function of time
and determine the maximum value of the emf. induced.
b) Explain how the maximum values of the magnetic flux and emf would change. induced if the
radius of the loop were doubled. What if the rotation frequency was doubled?
SOLUC: a) φ(t) = 0.004π cos (40π t) Wb εmax = 1.58 V b) ?

Problem 11º Let there be a solenoid with a cross section of 4 · 10 - 4 m 2 and 100 turns. At the initial
instant, a magnetic field is applied, perpendicular to its cross section, whose intensity varies with time
according to B = 2 t + 1 T, which is suppressed from the instant t = 5 s.
a) Explain what happens in the solenoid and plot the magnetic flux through the solenoid as a
function of time.
b) Calculate the electromotive force induced in the solenoid at times t = 3 s and t = 10 s.
SOLUC: a) o(+
) 8.10-*t + 4.10*Wb if 0 < t < 5 b) ε(t = 3 s) = -8.10 -2 V ε(t = 10 s) = 0 V
VV / 1 0 if t > 5

Problem 12º When a circular loop, located in a uniform magnetic field of 2 T, rotates with constant
angular velocity around one of its diameters perpendicular to the field, the induced electromotive force
is:
ε (t) = -10 sin (20 t) (SI)
a) Derive the expression of the emf induced in a loop that rotates under the conditions described
and calculate the diameter of the loop and its period of revolution.
b) Explain how the period of revolution and emf would vary. if the angular velocity were half.
SOLUC: a) ε(t) = ± BSω. cos (ωt) diameter = 56 cm T = π/10 sb) ?

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TOPIC 6. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (MAS)

1. Periodic, oscillatory, vibratory and simple harmonic vibratory movements

2. Characteristic magnitudes of a MAS
3. Mathematical description of the MAS
3.1 Equation of motion, elongation or position
3.2 Vibration speed
3.3 Vibration acceleration
4. Kinematic definition and dynamic definition of a MAS
5. Oscillations on a pier
6. The simple pendulum
7. Harmonic oscillator energy

ISSUES
ISSUES

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1. PERIODIC, OSCILLATORY, VIBRATORY AND SIMPLE HARMONIC VIBRATORY MOVEMENTS

A movement is periodic if it repeats at regular time intervals, that is, when the values of the
kinematic variables of the particle (position, velocity and acceleration) repeat at regular time intervals.
They are periodic movements: the MCU, any rotational movement of the planets around the sun and of
the satellites around their planets, the oscillations of a pendulum, the movement of a body attached to a
spring, the movement of electrons in ac, the piston of a car engine, the child swinging,…

A periodic motion is oscillatory when the path is traveled in both directions. Oscillatory
movements are the oscillations of a pendulum, the movement of a body attached to a spring, the
movement of electrons in AC, the piston of a car engine, the child swinging.

Oscillatory movements can be damped, undamped or free . An oscillatory movement is

undamped or free if it remains the same over time, and it is damped if it disappears after a certain time.
In most cases the oscillatory movements are damped (think of a child swinging), but we can maintain the
movement indefinitely if we force it, continuously providing it with energy. We will study a type of
undamped oscillatory motion.

An oscillatory movement is vibratory when the path traveled in both directions is straight and
the balance point is in the center of the path. Vibratory movements are the movement of a body attached
to a spring, the movement of electrons in AC, the piston of a car engine, the child swinging.
The movement of a pendulum is not really vibratory, unless the length of the thread is very long
and the oscillations are very small, and then the trajectory of the body attached to the thread could be
approximated to a rectilinear one.

The simplest vibratory motion is simple harmonic motion (SHM) , which is that vibratory motion
in which the position, velocity and acceleration can be described by the sine and/or cosine functions.

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2. CHARACTERISTIC MAGNITUDES OF SIMPLE HARMONIC VIBRATORY MOTION (MAS)

In simple harmonic motion the following physical quantities are defined:

• Elongation (xoy) : it is the position of the particle with respect to the equilibrium position, that is,
with respect to the center of the trajectory. It is measured in m in SI units, and we represent it by
the letter x if the movement is carried out horizontally, or by the letter y if it is carried out
vertically.
The elongation will be positive when the particle is in the positive part of the path, and negative
when it is in the negative part of the path.
The elongation or position will be a function of time x(t) or y(t).

• Amplitude (A): it is the maximum elongation, that is, the maximum separation from the
equilibrium position, that is, the distance from the end of the trajectory to its center. We
represent it by the letter A and it is also measured in m.

y=A

x<0 x>0 y>0

Yo--------------1---------------1
x = -A x=0 x=A -y = 0

and < 0

y = -A

• Period (T): is the value of the time interval that the particle uses to repeat its
state of motion, that is, in giving a complete oscillation. It is expressed in seconds (s) in the SI.
• Frequency (f) : it is the number of times that the particle repeats the same state of motion
per unit of time, that is, the number of oscillations per unit of time. It is expressed in hertz (Hz) in
the SI.
Both magnitudes are related by the expression:

e 1
f = - [6.1]

• Angular frequency or pulsation (ω): is the speed with which the state of motion of the particle
changes. It is expressed in rad·s -1 in the SI. The relationship with the period and frequency of MAS
is:

G = — = 2nf [6.2]

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3. MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MAS

3.1 Equation of motion, elongation or position

The equation of elongation or equation of position or equation of motion (x or y) of a particle

that describes a MAS, is given by:

x (t) or y(t) = A·sin (ω·t + ϕ 0 ) [6.3]

where
• A is the amplitude of motion, that is, the maximum displacement of the particle from its
equilibrium position. It is expressed in meters (m) in the SI.
• ω is the angular frequency of the motion. It is expressed in rad·s -1 in the SI.

The expression (ω·t + ϕ 0 ) is known as the PHASE of the movement, and it is an angle measured in
radians in the SI.
ϕ 0 is called INITIAL PHASE, and it is the value of the phase at time t = 0. The value of the initial
phase depends on the initial conditions of the movement, that is, on the position and speed of the
particle at the initial instant. So:
o If x (t = 0) = 0, that is, if at the initial instant the particle is in the equilibrium position,
the equation of motion will be one of these two:

x (t) = A·sin (ω·t) or x (t) = A·sin (ω·t + π)

The first equation would indicate that the particle is initially in the equilibrium
position and moving towards the positive part of the trajectory (positive initial
speed), and the second that it is moving towards the negative part of the trajectory
(negative initial speed).

o If x (t = 0) = A, that is, if at the initial instant the particle is at the positive end of the
trajectory, the equation will be:

x (t) = A·sin (ω·t + π/2) = A·cos (ω·t)

o If x (t = 0) = -A, that is, if at the initial instant the particle is at the negative end of the
trajectory, the equation will be:

x (t) = A·sin (ω·t + 3π/2) = -A·cos (ω·t)

• Observations on the equation of position

Equation [6.3] can also be expressed with the cosine function, but, the initial phase of the sine
function is different from that of the cosine function to describe the same initial situation.

3.2 Vibration speed

The velocity equation is determined by differentiating position with respect to time. Taking
equation [6.3] for this, it results:
v(t) = d=d[A sin • t + 40)] e) v(t) = A·ω·cos (ω·t + ϕ [6.4]
0)
• Observations on the velocity equation

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- The maximum value of the velocity is A·ω, and it is reached at those moments of time for
which cos (ω·t + ϕ 0 ) = ±1.
- The velocity reaches its maximum value when the particle passes through the equilibrium
position, x = 0.

3.3 Vibration acceleration

The acceleration equation is determined by differentiating velocity with respect to time. Taking
equation [2.4] for this, it results:
a(t) = = [A.ω.cos (ω·t + ϕ 0 )] e a(t) = - A·ω ·sin (ω·t + ϕ 0 ) = - ω
2 2
[6.5] ·x(t)
• Observations on the acceleration equation
- The maximum value of the acceleration is A·ω 2 , and it is reached at those moments of time
for which sin (ω·t + ϕ 0 ) = ±1.
- The maximum acceleration is reached at the ends of the trajectory.
- It can be easily verified that the acceleration of a MAS is directly proportional to the position
but of opposite sign:

a(t) = - ω 2 ·x(t) [6.6]

Graphs of elongation (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a)

We can construct a table of values and graph the position, velocity and acceleration for a particle
with SMAS. We have considered the case in which the oscillator begins the movement in the equilibrium
position with positive velocity, that is, ϕ 0 = 0.

x(t) = A·sin (ω·t) a(t) =- A· ω 2 .sin (ω·t) (m/s 2

t(s) 2m, sin(ω·t) cos(ω·t)

• —t ( rad ) (m) v(t) = A. ω·cos (ω·t) (m/s) )
0 0 0 1 0 Aω 0
2 it T
T/4 xt 1 0 TO 0 -A ω 2

T4 —
2
2 7T
T/2 0 -1 0 -Aω 0
T '2 — 7
2 x 3T 3
3T/4 Yo -1 0 -TO 0 Aω 2

T 14 — 2
T 2m
T,, 7 ./ — 27 0 1 0 Aω either

x = -A x<0 x=0 x>0 x=A

Yo----------------------------1----------------------------1
v = 0 v (+ or -) v = ± Aω v (+ or -) v = 0
a = Aω 2 a > 0 a=0a<0 a = -Aω 2
Example 1

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A body performs a MAS of 8 cm amplitude and 20 Hz frequency. Considering the initial phase null, write the
instantaneous equations of elongation, velocity and acceleration. Draw the x–t, v–tya–t graphs.

Example 2
The equation of a MAS is x(t) = 0.1.sin(0.4πt + π/2) in SI units.
a) Calculate the characteristic magnitudes of the movement.
b) Draw the x–t, v–tya–t graphs.
c) Calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at 2 s.

Example 3
A body that performs a MAS takes 2 s to make 10 complete oscillations. If at the initial instant it is at rest in
the position x = 0.2 m, calculate:
a) The equation of its motion.
b) The maximum speed and acceleration.

Example 4
The frequency of a MAS is 0.5 Hz. If at the initial instant it is in the equilibrium position with a speed of 22
m/s, calculate the equation of its motion.

Example 5
The equation of a MAS is x(t) = 0.1.cos(0.4πt) in SI units.
a) Calculate the characteristic magnitudes of the movement.
b) Draw the x–t, v–tya–t graphs.
c) Calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at 2 s.

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4. KINEMATIC DEFINITION AND DYNAMIC DEFINITION OF A MAS

In the previous question we have obtained the relationship that exists between vibration
acceleration and elongation in a MAS:

a = -ω ·x or -ω ·y
2 2

This equation helps us to kinematically define a MAS, and it is the following:

Whenever in a movement the acceleration is, at all times, directly proportional to the position and of the
opposite sign, we will say that it is a MAS.
The proportionality constant coincides with the square of the angular frequency or pulsation of the MAS.

If we apply the Fundamental Principle of Dynamics or Newton's Second Law to the MAS, we
obtain the following relationship between force and position:

F = ma = m.(-ω .x) = -m. ω .x ( or -m. ω .y )

2 2 2

F = -m. ω [6.7]
The relationship obtained helps us to dynamically .x
define a MAS, and is the following:
2

Whenever in a movement the force is, at all times, directly proportional to the position and of the opposite
sign, we will say that it is a MAS.
The proportionality constant coincides with the product of the mass times the square of the angular
frequency or pulsation of the MAS.

Example 6
A particle of mass m moves with an acceleration that satisfies the relation a = -4π 2 x. If at the initial
instant the particle is 40 cm from the equilibrium position and at rest.
a) Calculate the characteristic magnitudes of the movement.
b) Calculate the equation of motion and the instantaneous expressions for the velocity and
acceleration of vibration.
c) Draw the x–t, v–tya–t graphs.
d) Calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at 2 s.

Example 7
The force acting on a particle of mass 200 g meets the following relationship F = -3.2π 2 x. If at the initial
instant the particle has maximum speed:
a) Calculate the characteristic magnitudes of the movement.
b) Calculate the equation of motion and the instantaneous expressions for the velocity and
acceleration of vibration.
c) Draw the x–t, v–tya–t graphs.
d) Calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at 5 s.

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5. OSCILLATIONS IN A DOCK

A particular case corresponds to the restoring force exerted by a spring. Let us remember that
when we move a body attached to a spring from its equilibrium position, to then release it, the force
exerted by the spring is a restoring force that is given by Hooke's Law:

F = - K·x

Where x represents the distance to the equilibrium position, and K is the so-called elastic constant of the
spring, which is measured in N/m.
As we see, the restoring force of a spring is directly proportional to the position and opposite in
sign. According to the dynamic definition of a MAS, it is a MAS.
Furthermore, the elastic constant of the spring coincides with the product of the mass times the
square of the pulsation:

K = mo2 [6.8
] and the frequency of the oscillations in a
From this expression we can deduce the pulsation, the period
spring:

mo = K E> [6.9]
6 = A km

T=— and m
[6.10]
GO T=2nV K

f=1 2TV km

As we see the angular frequency of the oscillator, the period and frequency only depend on the physical
characteristics of the oscillator: the spring recovery constant (K) and the mass of the oscillator (m).

Example 8
A spring hanging from the ceiling lengthens 5 cm when a 10 kg body is hung from it. If the spring is then
pulled 2 cm further and released, the body begins to oscillate. Calculate:
a) The elastic constant of the spring.
b) The period, frequency and pulsation of the body's oscillations. Would the above results depend on
the range of motion?
c) The equation of motion and the instantaneous expressions of the velocity and acceleration of
vibration.
d) Calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at 5 s.

6. THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of a mass suspended from a fixed point by an inextensible thread of negligible
mass.
When the pendulum is separated from the vertical, the mass oscillates around the central position and, in
the absence of friction, there would be a continuous exchange of energy from kinetic to potential and vice
versa.

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Two forces act on the pendulum, the tension of the string and the weight. If we apply the Fundamental
Principle of Dynamics, we see that the normal component of the weight cancels out with the tension of the
thread at each point of the trajectory. The tangential component of the weight is the force that produces
the movement and is: P t = mg sin α . As we see, although P t opposes the displacement at each point of the
trajectory, it is not proportional to the displacement because the trajectory is not rectilinear.
According to the drawing: x = l.sinα
And if α is expressed in radians: s = l.α
But it happens that if an angle is small and expressed in radians, the value of said angle and its sine
approximately coincide, α = sinα
So, for small deviations of the pendulum thread, we could make such an approximation, which would
assume that x = s , that is, we consider that the path followed by the mass is approximately rectilinear.

and since P t opposes the displacement:

Therefore, if the amplitude of the movement is small (small oscillation angle), the mass of the pendulum is
subjected to a force that is directly proportional to its elongation but in the opposite direction, and this is
the dynamic definition of a MAS. Furthermore, the proportionality constant is:

K= ™j
And from here we can solve for the period of oscillation of the pendulum, valid only for small
displacements compared to the length of the pendulum.

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From this expression we deduce very interesting aspects:

T=2

:l
g of the mass m that is attached to the
- The period of oscillation of a pendulum is
thread, nor of
the amplitude of the oscillations.
imple does not
- The period depends only on the length d
depend of the gravitational field.
- The expression would allow us to
and in a simple way the value of the field
calculate gravitational e g. We would only the thread and
or and a stopwatch to measure the period
need to measure the oscillations.
the value

7. HARMONIC OSCILLATOR ENERGY

The force exerted on a harmonic oscillator, which complies with Hooke's law, is conservative,
from which it follows that the (total) mechanical energy of the oscillator remains constant throughout the
different oscillations. This means that in each oscillation there is a continuous transformation of elastic
potential energy into kinetic energy. Let's see the expressions of these energies both as a function of time
and as a function of position.
A body that describes a MAS has kinetic energy and elastic potential energy

Kinetic energy

The kinetic energy of a harmonic oscillator is:

r_1 2
Ec = —m·v c

where m is the mass of the oscillator and v the value of its instantaneous speed. Taking equation [6.4]
results:
E c = m·ω 2 ·A 2 ·cos 2 (ω · t + ϕ 0 ) {K = m·ω 2 } E c = 1K·A 2 · cos 2 (ω · t + ϕ
0 ) [6.12]
At the ends of the trajectory the kinetic energy is 0 since there the particle has 0 speed. The kinetic energy
of the particle is maximum when it passes through the center of the trajectory, since at that point the
speed is maximum, and is:

E cmax = 2m·ω ·A = 2 2 2
[6.13
K·A 2 ]

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elastic potential energy

The elastic potential energy of a harmonic oscillator subject to a spring of constant K has the
expression:

AND 1 2
Ep= 2Kx 2
[6.14]

where x is the position of the oscillator with respect to its equilibrium position. Taking equation [6.3]
results:

E p = K·A ·sin (ω · t + ϕ 0 )
2 2
[6.15]

At the center of the trajectory the potential energy is 0, since at this point the elongation is zero. At the
extremes of the trajectory, the elastic potential energy of a harmonic oscillator is maximum, since the
elongation is maximum there, and is valid:

E1
2
E=_ 2
[6.16
p. max = ]

Which as we see coincides with the maximum kinetic energy.

Mechanical energy

If the movement is undamped, that is, the absence of friction, then there would be no work of non-
conservative forces and the PCEM would be fulfilled, that is, the mechanical energy of the particle would
remain constant at any point of the trajectory and in the successive oscillations. . This means that in each
oscillation there is a continuous transformation or exchange of elastic potential energy into kinetic energy
and vice versa.

As the mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the elastic potential energy of the
oscillator. Thus, when performing this sum with equations [6.12] and [6.15] it results:
E m = E c + E p = I K·A · cos (ω · t + ϕ 0 ) + 2 K·A ·sin (ω · t + ϕ 0 ) = 1 K·A
2 2 2 2 2

1
Em=Ec+Ep=~ [6.16
K·A 2 ]
with which it is verified that the mechanical energy of the oscillator is constant once the values of the
recovery constant, K, and the amplitude, A, have been set.

Energy graph of the harmonic oscillator

This graph has represented the variations in kinetic and potential energy of the harmonic oscillator
throughout an oscillation as a function of the position x. It shows how a continuous transformation of one
form of energy into another occurs, so that the mechanical energy remains constant.

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x = -A x<0 x=0 x>0 x=A

v=0 v (+ or -) v = ± Aω v (+ or -) v = 0
Yo----------------------------1----------------------------1

Ec=0 E cmax = 2mA 2 ω 2 = 2KA 2 Ec=0

2
E p. max. = 2KA Ep=0 E p. max. = 1KA
2

We can highlight in the graph that there are two symmetrical points on either side of the equilibrium
position, in which the particle has the same kinetic energy as potential energy, and which we can locate as
follows:
1111 1 11
Ec=Ep=2Em
2Kx2=2•2KA2 x2=2A2 x=
± 2 ·A
√
x =± 2 ·A
—2 [6.17]

which, as we observe, are points that are closer to the ends than to the center of the trajectory.

Example 9
The equation of a harmonic oscillator of mass 0.15 kg is x(t) = 0.2 sin(30t). If the magnitudes are measured
in SI units, calculate:
a) The recovery constant of the oscillator.
b) The values of its kinetic, potential and total energies at 0.6s.

Example 10
A 400 g block attached to a spring with elastic constant K = 80 N/m oscillates with an amplitude of 5 cm.
Calculate the kinetic, potential and mechanical energies of the block when it is 2 cm from the equilibrium
position.

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ISSUES
Question 1 A particle describes a simple harmonic motion of amplitude A and frequency f. a)
Graphically represent the position and speed of the particle as a function of time and explain the
analogies and differences between both representations. b) Explain how the amplitude and
frequency of the motion and the mechanical energy of the particle vary by doubling the period of
oscillation.
Question 2 A simple harmonic motion is described by the expression:
x (t) = a sin ( or t +8)
b) Indicate the physical meaning of each of the magnitudes that appear in it.
c) Write the velocity and acceleration of the particle as a function of time and explain if
both magnitudes can cancel simultaneously.
Question 3 a) Explain the energy variations that occur in a harmonic oscillator during an
oscillation. Is the energy of the oscillator conserved? Give reasons for your answer. b) If the
mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is doubled, how does the amplitude and frequency of
the oscillations vary? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 4 Indicate whether the following statements are true or false, reasoning your answers:
a) If the acceleration of a particle is proportional to its displacement with respect to a point and
in the opposite direction, the movement of the particle is simple harmonic. b) In a simple
harmonic motion the amplitude and frequency increase if the energy increases.
Question 5 a) Graphically represent the kinetic, potential and mechanical energies of a particle
that vibrates with simple harmonic motion. b) Would the mechanical energy of the particle be
doubled if the frequency of simple harmonic motion were doubled? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 6 a) Demonstrate that in a simple harmonic oscillator the acceleration is proportional to
the displacement but in the opposite direction. b) A particle performs a simple harmonic motion
along the OX axis and at the initial instant passes through the equilibrium position. Write the equation
of motion and reason when the acceleration is maximum.
Question 7 a) Describe simple harmonic motion and comment on its kinematic and dynamic
characteristics.
b) A mass oscillates vertically suspended from a spring. Describe the types of energy
involved and their respective transformations.

Question 8 a) Describe simple harmonic motion and comment on its dynamic characteristics.
b) A simple harmonic oscillator is formed by a spring of negligible mass and a particle of mass, m,
attached to one of its ends. A second oscillator is constructed with a spring identical to that of the first and
a particle of different mass, m'. What relationship must exist between m' and m so that the frequency of
the second oscillator is twice that of the first?

Question 9 a) Describe simple harmonic motion and comment on its kinematic characteristics.
b) A particle of mass m is attached to one end of a spring and performs simple harmonic motion on a
horizontal surface. Determine the expression for the mechanical energy of the particle as a function of the
spring elastic constant, k, and the amplitude of the oscillation, A.

ISSUES
Problem 1: When suspending a 0.5 kg body from the free end of a spring that hangs vertically, an
elongation of 5 cm is observed. If you then pull the body down, until the spring is extended by 2 cm
more, and release it, it begins to oscillate.

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a) Do an energy analysis of the problem and write the equation of mass motion.
b) If, instead of stretching the spring by 2 cm, it is stretched by 3 cm, how would the equation of
motion of the body be modified?
SOLUC: a) y(t) = 0.02 sin (14t + 3π/2) UI b) y(t) = 0.03 sin (14t + 3π/2) UI

Problem 2. A 0.5 kg body is placed on a horizontal surface, attached to one end of a spring that is
fixed at the other. When the body is pulled until the spring is extended by 10 cm and released, it
begins to oscillate with a period of 2 s.
a) Do an energy analysis of the problem and calculate the values of the kinetic and potential
energies at the extreme points of the oscillation and at the equilibrium point.
b) Represent the position of the body as a function of time. How would this representation
change if the mass of the body were 2 kg?
SOLUC: a) Extremes: Ec = 0 J Ep = 0.025 J Balance point: Ec = 0.025 J Ep = 0 J b) ?

Problem 3: A 0.5 kg particle, which describes a simple harmonic motion of frequency 5

Hz, initially has a kinetic energy of 0.2 J and a potential energy of 0.8 J.
T
a) Calculate the initial position and velocity, as well as the swing amplitude and maximum
velocity.
b) Make an analysis of the energy transformations that take place in a complete cycle. What
would be the displacement at the instant when the kinetic and potential energies are equal?
SOLUTION: a) x0 = x(t = 0) = ± 0.18 m v0 = v(t = 0) = ± 0.9 m/s A = 0.2 m vmax. = ± 2 m/sb) x = ± 0.14 m

Problem 4 A 2 g particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion of 4 cm amplitude and 8 Hz

frequency and at instant t = 0 it is in the equilibrium position.
a) Write the equation of motion and explain the variations in kinetic and potential energies of
the particle during a period.
b) Calculate the kinetic and potential energies of the particle when the elongation is 1 cm.
SOLUC: a) x(t) = 0.04 sin (16πt) UI b) Ec =3.75.10 -3 J Ep = 2.5.10 -4 J

Problem 5º A particle describes a simple harmonic motion, between two points A and B that are 20
cm apart, with a period of 2 s.
a) Write the equation of said simple harmonic motion, knowing that for t = 0 the particle is at
the midpoint of segment AB.
b) Explain how the kinetic and potential energies vary during a complete oscillation.
SOLUC: a) x(t) = 0.1sin (πt) UI

Problem 6º A vertical spring lengthens by 2 cm when a 10 kg body is hung from its lower end. Said
body is moved downwards and released, so that the system begins to oscillate with an amplitude of 3
cm.
a) Calculate the spring recovery constant and the period of the movement.
b) Make an analysis of the energy transformations that take place in a complete oscillation and
calculate the value of the kinetic and elastic potential energies when the displacement is 1.3
cm.
g = 10ms -2
SOLUC: a) x(t) = 0.11 sin (20t) UI

Problem 7 A 50 g particle vibrates along the The study of its movement has revealed that there is a
simple relationship between the acceleration and the position it occupies at each instant: a = -16 T 2 x.

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a) Write the expressions for the position and velocity of the particle as a function of time,
knowing that the latter began to be measured when the particle passed through the position
x = 10 cm.
b) Calculate the kinetic and potential energies of the particle when it is 5 cm from the
equilibrium position.
SOLUC: a) x(t) = 0.11 sin (4πt + π/2)) UI v(t) = 0.4π cos (4πt + π/2)) UI b) Ec = 2.96.10 -2 J Ep = 9.87.10 -3 J

Problem 8 A 0.2 kg particle describes a simple harmonic motion along the x axis, with a frequency of
20 Hz. At the initial instant the particle passes through the origin, moving to the right, and its speed is
maximum. At another instant of the oscillation the kinetic energy is 0.2 J and the potential energy is
0.6 J.
a) Write the equation of motion of the particle and calculate its maximum acceleration.
b) Explain, with the help of a graph, the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy during an
oscillation.
SOLUC: a) x(t) = 0.023 sin (40πt) UI amax. = ± 355.3 m/s 2

Problem 9 A 0.5 kg block hangs from the lower end of a spring with elastic constant k = 72 N m -1 .
When the block is moved vertically downward from its equilibrium position, it begins to oscillate,
passing through the equilibrium point with a speed of 6 ms -1 .
a) Reason the energetic changes that occur in the process.
b) Determine the amplitude and frequency of oscillation.
SOLUTION: b) A = 0.5 mf = 6/π Hz

Problem 10 A body performs a simple harmonic vibratory movement.

a) Write the equation of motion if the maximum acceleration is 5π 2 cm s -2 , the period of the
oscillations is 2 s, and the elongation of the body at the beginning of the movement is 2.5 cm.
b) Graph elongation and velocity as a function of time and discuss the graph.
SOLUC: a) y(t) = 0.05 sin (πt + π/6) UI

TOPIC 7. WAVES OR WAVE MOTION

1. Definition of wave or undulatory movement. Classification of waves

2. Harmonic waves and characteristic magnitudes of a harmonic wave
3. Mathematical description of a harmonic wave: wave equation
4. Double periodicity of the wave function
5. Vibration speed and vibration acceleration in a wave
6. Spatial phase difference and temporal phase difference
7. Energy and intensity of a wave: Attenuation and absorption of waves
8. Huygens principle
9. wave interference
10. Standing waves
10.1 Definition
10.2 Experimental results
10.3 Equation of a standing wave
10.4 Study of a standing wave on a rope
10.5 Differences between a standing wave and a traveling wave
11. Reflection and refraction
12. Total reflection and limit angle. Optical fiber
13. Diffraction

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14. light dispersion

15. Wave polarization
16. The Doppler effect and its applications
17. Sound
17.1 Sound waves (acoustic waves)
17.2 Sound qualities
17.3 Sound intensity level
17.4 Noise pollution and quality of life
18. Electromagnetic waves

ISSUES
ISSUES

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1. DEFINITION OF WAVE OR WAVE MOTION. CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES.

A wave movement originates when at a certain point in space a disturbance occurs in its
physical state, which then propagates in space to be perceived later at other points in it. This
disturbance involves a transfer of energy to the medium that is transmitted to the different points of
the medium without them substantially modifying their original position after the disturbance passes
through them. Therefore:

A wave or undulatory movement consists of the propagation of a disturbance from some points to
others in space, and this implies a transport of energy and momentum from some points to others in
the medium without there being a net transport of matter.

So that:

• If we drop a stone in the center of a pond, its kinetic energy is transmitted to the water,
producing a disturbance in its particles that will make them move vertically from their
equilibrium position, a displacement that will successively propagate to the rest of the
particles. surface of the water producing a wave movement.
• If we move the end of a rope up and down, we will be transferring energy to it, disturbing the
physical conditions of the rope, which will result in a wave movement that will be transmitted
along it.
• If we hit an object, its vibrations can be transmitted to the air, whose particles will vibrate in
the same way, transmitting these vibrations from some particles to others in the medium,
which will cause sound.
• The light produced in a light bulb (bulb, sun, etc.) also spreads throughout space, even
traveling long distances, as is the case with stars, including our sun.

In the first two examples, the disturbance that occurs at the focus and then propagates to the
rest of the medium are variations in the positions of the water molecules or the rope, respectively.

In the third example the disturbance consists of small variations in pressure in the air.

In the case of light, the disturbance that propagates is a variable electromagnetic field, it is
—•
that is, two variable fields of forces simultaneously: an electric field E and a field
——
magnetic B. For this reason these waves are called electromagnetic waves (or. and. m.). In addition to
light, they are also o. and. m. radio and TV waves, X-rays, ϒ-rays, etc.

In a wave movement we can distinguish between pulse and wave:

Pulse : it is the result of the propagation of an instantaneous disturbance produced at a certain

point in the medium.

Wave : it is the result of the propagation of a continuous disturbance produced at a point in the
medium.

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figure 7.1 Distinction between pulse (top) and wave

(bottom)
For all of the above, the mathematical function ( equation or wave function ) that is used to
describe the physical property that is disturbed in a wave movement will depend in any case on two
variables: the position of the point at which the disturbance reaches and the instant of time
considered.

• CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES

Waves can be classified according to different criteria.

A) According to the relationship between the direction of propagation and the direction of
vibration

We distinguish between:

- Transverse waves : are those in which the particles of the medium move in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Examples:
transverse waves in a taut rope, surface waves in water, or. and. m.,…

Wave vibration direction

Direction of wave propagation

- Longitudinal waves : are those in which the particles of the medium move in the
same direction as the propagation of the wave. Examples: longitudinal waves on a
spring, sound waves,…

Wave vibration direction

Direction of wave propagation

B) Depending on the form of energy transmitted

We distinguish between:

- Mechanical waves : are those in which mechanical energy (kinetic and potential)
is transmitted from one point to another in the medium, for which a material
medium is necessary for its propagation. Examples: waves on a taut string, sound
waves,…

- Electromagnetic waves : they are those that can propagate through a vacuum,

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that is, they do not need the presence of a material medium to propagate. The o.
and. m. They are the only ones who can do it. In them, what is transmitted is
electromagnetic energy as a result of the simultaneous propagation of two
electric and magnetic fields, for which a material medium is not necessary, and
can propagate through a vacuum. Examples: radio and TV waves, light, x-rays, …

C) Depending on the number of dimensions in which the energy propagates

We distinguish between:

One-dimensional waves : These are those in which the energy propagates in a

single direction. Examples: waves on a taut rope, waves on a spring,…

Two-dimensional waves : these are those in which energy propagates in a plane.

Example: surface waves in water, in a metal sheet,…

Three-dimensional waves : they are those in which energy spreads in the three
directions of space. Examples: sound waves, light,…

D) According to the shape of the wave when advancing

Depending on the shape of the wave front, the waves can be circular, spherical, flat, elliptical,
etc.

circular wave front

2. HARMONIC WAVES AND CHARACTERISTIC MAGNITUDES OF HARMONIC WAVES

A wave is said to be harmonic when the disturbance that occurs at the focus is of the simple

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harmonic type, that is, when the disturbance that occurs at the focus can be described by the sine
and/or cosine functions and, therefore, The wave can also be described by the sine and/or cosine
functions.

The characteristic magnitudes of a harmonic wave are:

Disturbance
It is the physical magnitude that is disturbed at the focus and that is transmitted from one point
to another in space. In the case of waves on a rope or on the surface of water, the disturbance is an
elongation, that is, displacements of the points of the rope and of the molecules on the surface of the
water from their equilibrium position. In the case of sound, the disturbance that propagates is small
variations in air pressure. In the case of OEMs, the disturbance consists of two fields of varying forces,
an electric field and a magnetic field.
We will represent the disturbance by the letter y, and it will be a function of two variables, the
distance to the focus and the time, y(x, t), since the value of the disturbance will depend on each
point of the wave and each instant.
The units of the disturbance will be the same as those of the physical magnitude whose variation
propagates along the wave:
- In the case of waves on a string or on the surface of water, the disturbance will be
measured in m in the SI.
- For sound, the disturbance will be measured in pressure units: Pascals in the SI or any
other pressure unit: atm, mmHg, bars, etc.
- In light or any other oem it will be measured in N/C for the electric field, and in T for the
magnetic field.

Amplitude (A)
It is the maximum elongation with which the particles of the medium vibrate. It is represented by
the letter A, and is measured in the same units as the disturbance y.

Vibration speed
The speed of oscillation or vibration (v) is the derivative of the disturbance with respect to time y
and its value also depends on the distance to the focus and time:

Period (T)
It is the time it takes a particle of the medium to oscillate around its equilibrium position. It is
measured in s in SI units.

Frequency (f)
It is the number of oscillations that a particle of the medium makes in a unit of time. Therefore:

e1
f=- [7.1]
-1
It is measured in Hz = s in SI units

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Angular or pulsation frequency (ω)

It is the number of periods contained in 2π units of time. Therefore:

O==2T;f[7.2]
-1
It is measured in rad/s = rad.s in SI units.

Wavelength (λ)
It is the minimum distance between two points in the medium with the same state of vibration. It
is represented by the letter λ, and is measured in m in SI units.
The wavelength coincides with the distance that the wave travels in a time interval equal to the
period.

Figure 7.2 Wavelength

Wave number (k)

It is the number of wavelengths contained in 2π units of length. Therefore:

, 2n
k= - [7.3]
-1
It is measured in rad/m = rad.m in SI units.

Propagation speed or phase speed (v p )

It is the speed with which the wave advances, and therefore, the speed with which energy is
transmitted from one point to another in the medium.

_ space traveled by wave _ A

P time spent T [7.4
]
Do not confuse the propagation speed or phase speed of a wave with the speed of vibration.
The speed of wave propagation can also be expressed as follows:

2T
_ space traveled by the wave _ k 0
Q time spent T 2 "¡7 [7.5]
K
For the OEM in a vacuum this speed is represented by the letter c and is 3.10 8 m/s

v p of light in vacuum = c = 3.10 8 m/s

For the rest of the media, this speed depends exclusively on the characteristics of the medium:

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elasticity and rigidity. In homogeneous and isotropic media, its value is the same in all directions.
As an example we give the expression for the speed of propagation of a wave along a taut rope:
v, = JI [7.6]
where T is the tension of the rope in N and η its linear density in kg·m -1 .

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3. MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A HARMONIC WAVE: WAVE EQUATION

Harmonic waves are those that consist of the propagation throughout a medium of a simple
harmonic oscillatory movement produced at a certain point called the focus .

Harmonic wave equation

We are going to focus our study on one-dimensional harmonic waves. To do this, we assume
that the direction of propagation is the OX axis, so the position of a particle will be given by a single
coordinate, x, with respect to the origin, in which we assume the focus of the disturbance is located.
Let us also assume that the wave is transverse so that the displacement of the particles of the
medium is in the OY direction. It will be a question, therefore, of deducing the expression of said
displacement or elongation , y, as a function of the position x and time t:

y = f(x, t)

To deduce the equation of this type of waves, we start from the equation of the simple
harmonic motion originating at the focus (x = 0) in the case in which at the initial instant the
disturbance is worth 0:

y (0, t) = A·sin (ω·t)

After a time t', the disturbance will reach the particle located in position x, so its state of
motion will be the same as that of the focus at instant t-t'. So we can write:

y (x, t) = A·sin [ω·(t-t')]

If v p is the speed with which the wave motion propagates, we can write t' = v p , which results
in:

y (x, t) = A·sin [ω·(t - )]

v
p

Operating parentheses and using equation [7.5], we deduce:

y (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x) [7.7]

Equation [7.7] constitutes the harmonic wave equation that indicates the displacement or
elongation, y, of the particle of the medium located in position x at the instant of time t.

Observations on the harmonic wave equation

1. The expression in parentheses (ω·t – k·x) constitutes the phase ϕ of the wave motion and
indicates the state of motion of the particle located in position x at an instant of time t. An initial
phase ϕ 0 will be added to this expression, the value of which will depend on the initial conditions
of the movement; In this case, equation [7.7] can be written as follows:

y (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x + ϕ 0 ) [7.8]

2. The wave equation can also be expressed in terms of the cosine. The choice of one or another
trigonometric function will depend on the initial conditions of the movement that allow us to

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consider ϕ 0 = 0.

3. The “-” sign of the phase indicates that the wave propagates in the positive direction of the OX
axis; If it spreads in the opposite direction, it is enough to change said sign to a “+”.

4. Taking into account the relationships between the magnitudes of a wave, the harmonic wave
equation can also be expressed in the form:

y(x,t) = A • sin Í27T (±1)+P0 [7.8

____________________xj____AZ_____ ]
which can also be expressed as a function of the cosine but, with a different initial phase.

5. The speed of oscillation or vibration (v) of a given particle at a given instant (instantaneous speed
of a particle with which it moves around its equilibrium position) is determined by deriving the
wave equation with respect to time, considering constant the x position of the particle:

_ dy
V dt

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4. DOUBLE PERIOCITY OF THE WAVE FUNCTION

The equation of a harmonic wave or wave function depends on two variables, position and time:
y (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x + ϕ 0 )

The harmonic wave equation is doubly periodic since:

If we fix the position in the wave equation, the wave equation describes the state of vibration of
that point of the wave. If it is a string, it would describe the state of motion or MAS of that point on
the string.

Figure 7.3 Temporal periodicity of the wave function

As can be seen, the state of motion of a particle in the medium is repeated every time a time
interval elapses that is equal to an integer multiple of the period, n·T (n = 1, 2, 3, ...). This fact is
known as temporal periodicity . Mathematically:

y(x,t + nT) = y(x,t)

In the same way, if we set the time, the wave equation describes the state of vibration of all the
points of the wave at that instant. If it is a rope, it would describe the value of the elongation of all the
points of the rope at that instant.

Figure 7.4 Spatial periodicity of the wave function

As can be seen, the state of motion of two particles separated by a distance equal to an integer
multiple of wavelengths, n·λ (n = 1, 2, 3, …), is the same. This fact is known as spatial periodicity .
Mathematically:

y(x + nλ,t) = y(x,t)

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5. VIBRATION SPEED AND VIBRATION ACCELERATION IN A WAVE

Let us consider a one-dimensional harmonic wave that propagates along the x axis in a
positive direction:

y (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x + ϕ 0 )

The instantaneous speed of vibration of any point on the wave is the derivative of the wave
equation with respect to time:
v(x,t)=d=d A • sin (co • t – k • x + (Po) = A • 0 • cos (co • t –kx+(o)
The instantaneous vibration acceleration of any point on the wave is the derivative of the
wave's vibration speed with respect to time: [7.9
]
a(x, t) = ~ A • 0 • cos (co • t – k • x + (Po)] = —A • co 2 • sin (co • t – kx + cp 0 )|
[7.[10]

Example 1
The equation of a sinusoidal harmonic wave that propagates along the x-axis in a positive direction is
given by the following expression in SI units:

y (x, t) = 0.4 sin (10πt – 2πx)

Calculate:
a) frequency, period, wavelength and phase speed or propagation of said wave.
b) The instantaneous state of vibration of a point on the wave located 25 cm from the focus.
Represent the y – t graph.
c) He state vibration of any point on the wave at o.2 s. Represent the y – x graph.
d) The speed of vibration of the wave at any point and at any instant.
e) The speed of vibration snapshot of the wave point located 50 cm from the focus.
f) The speed of vibration from any point on the wave at 4 s.
g) The speed of vibration from the point located 50 cm from the focus at 2s.
h) The accelerationofvibration snapshot of any point on the wave.
i) The accelerationofvibration snapshot of a point on the wave locatedto 2m from the
focus.
j) The accelerationofvibration from any point on the wave at 3 s.
k) The accelerationofvibration from the point of thewave located 1 m from the focus the
0,5 s.

Example 2
In the center of a circular pool of 10 m radius we drop a stone that gives rise to a harmonic wave on
the water surface. The wavelength of this motion is 0.75 m and it takes 10 s for the wave to reach the
shore. Calculate:
a) The propagation speed or phase speed.
b) The period and frequency.
c) The number of waves and the angular frequency.
d) The amplitude of the wave, knowing that 0.25 s after the disturbance occurs, the elongation
in the center of the pool is 4 cm.
e) The wave equation.
f) The elongation of a point located 6 cm from the emitting focus after 12 s.
g) The vibration speed of that point at that instant.

Example 3

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The equation of a transverse harmonic wave on a string is: y (x, t) = 1.5·cos (0.5πx – 30πt), where x
and y are measured in m, and t in s. Calculate:
a) The angular frequency and the number of waves.
b) The wavelength, period, frequency and propagation speed or phase speed.
c) The instantaneous speed of vibration of any point on the string.
d) The vibration speed of the point on the string located 5 m from the focus at 10 s.

Example 4
A transverse wave of amplitude 3 m propagates from right to left at a speed of 100 m/s. If the
wavelength is 10 m, calculate:
a) The wave equation.
b) The maximum transverse velocity of a midpoint.
c) The maximum transverse acceleration of a point in the middle.

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6. SPATIAL PHASE DIFFERENCE AND TEMPORAL PHASE DIFFERENCE

In a harmonic wave, the angle of the sine or cosine function is called

phase:
y (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x + ϕ 0 ) WAVE PHASE: (co • t – kx + (pg)

A) Space phase difference

It is the phase difference between two different points on the wave at the same instant and is
valid

spatial phase difference = (co • t – kx1+ Po) — (co • t – k • x 2 + Po) = k(X2 - X1)
spatial phase difference = k(x2 — X.) =É(x2- X,) =-.d [7.11]
___________________________________________________________________________2_________________________2________

where d is the distance that separates the two points of the

wave.
It is said that TWO POINTS OF THE WAVE ARE IN PHASE when the difference between their phases is
ainteger multiple of 2π radians, that is:

diff. of spatial phase = k (x -x

)= (x-x2n

From the previous expression it can be deduced that for two points to be=in2n •d
between
they have to be an integer multiple of wavelengths.
1 21 λ
phase, )
the (nseparation
= n.2n = 0,1,2,...)
λ

2π
•d = d = nA (n = 0,1,2,...)
n.2T
THE PHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONTO of points in phase of a wave assumes that, at any instant, the points
have the same value of the disturbance (elongation if it is a wave on a string), the same speed of
vibration and the same value of the vibration acceleration. It can be seen in the following figure:

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It is said that TWO POINTS OF THE WAVE ARE IN OPPOSITION OF PHASE when the difference
between their phases is an odd multiple of π radians, that is:
2π 2π
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...)
21 λ21 λ

From the previous expression it can be deduced that for two points to be in phase opposition, the
separation between them has to be an odd multiple of half-wavelengths.
2 IT d = (2n+1).
2n
•d = (2n+1).7 (n = 0,1,2,...)
2
The PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF POINTS IN OPPOSITION OF PHASE of a wave assumes that, at
any instant, the points have opposite values of the disturbance (elongation if it is a wave on a string),
the speed of vibration and the acceleration of vibration. It can be seen in the following figure:
POINTS IN OPPOSITION OF PHASE

POINTS IN OPPOSITION OF
PHASE

POINTS IN OPPOSITION OF
PHASE

B) Time phase
difference

It is the phase difference of the same point on the string at two different instants of time and is valid

temporal phase difference = (co • t 2 –k • x + Po) —(wt – k • x + Po) = w(t2 - t1)

2TC 2TC

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temporal phase difference = <d(t 2 ~ t x ) = — (t 2 — t x ) = — • t [7.12]

where t is the time elapsed between the two instants of time.

Example 5
The period of a wave motion that propagates along the x axis in a positive direction is 3.10 -3 s.
The distance between two consecutive points whose phase difference is π/2 rad is 30 cm. Calculate:

a) The wavelength.
b) The speed of propagation.
c) The distance between two consecutive points whose phase difference is 3π/2 rad.

Example 6
The equation of a plane wave is:y(x,t) = 3sin2m-(5- ) in SI units. Calculate:

a) The period and the wavelength.

b) The propagation speed or phase speed.
c) The phase difference between two points that are 40 m apart.

Example 7
A wave of 500 cycles/s has a phase speed of 350 m/s.

a) What phase difference is there between two points on the wave 35 cm apart?
b) What is the phase difference between two displacements that occur at a certain point with
an interval of 10 -3 s?

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7. ENERGY AND INTENSITY OF A WAVE: ATTENUATION AND ABSORPTION OF WAVES

Let us remember that a wave or wave movement consists of the propagation of a disturbance
from some points to others without net transport of matter but of energy. In this question we are
going to study the energetic aspects of a wave.

It can be shown that the energy of a wave is directly proportional to the square of its frequency
and the square of its amplitude:
E α f 2 . To 2
However, to energetically describe a wave, a new physical quantity called wave intensity is
usually used. The wave intensity at a point is the energy that passes through the unit of surface per
unit of time placed perpendicular to the direction of propagation, that is, it is a measure of the flow of
energy that the wave transports per unit of time and unit of surface. . It is represented by the letter I
and is measured in J/sm 2 . By definition, the intensity of a wave is also directly proportional to the
square of the frequency and the square of the amplitude of the wave.
I α E α f 2 . To 2
It is an experimental fact that the intensity of a wave weakens as it propagates. In most cases,
this decrease in intensity is due to a decrease in its amplitude since its frequency does not usually
change.

Figure 7.5 Decrease in the intensity of a wave as it propagates

The weakening or decrease in intensity can occur due to two different phenomena: attenuation
and absorption.

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A) ATTENUATION
The attenuation of a wave consists of the decrease in its intensity as it propagates, but not due to
energy losses, but because the energy carried by the wave is distributed among more and more
points in the medium as it propagates.
Think, for example, of a circular wave or a spherical wave. As the wave propagates, its wave front
becomes larger and the energy emitted by the focus has to be distributed among a greater number of
points in the medium (see figure).

Figure 7.6 Attenuation of a circular and spherical wave

Let us assume a point source emitting waves that emits with a power P e . At a certain distance from
the focus, the intensity of the wave will be given by:

Yo Pe
4 πr 2 [. ]

where 4πr 2 is the surface of a sphere of radius r centered at the emitting focus.

As can be seen, due to the attenuation phenomenon, the intensity of a wave decreases with the
square of the distance from the emitting focus.

Taking into account the previous relationship and, since the intensity of a wave is directly
proportional to the square of the amplitude, we can find the relationship between the amplitudes of

wave at two points in the middle at different distances from

located

the
As can be seen, due to the attenuation phenomenon, the relationship between the wave amplitudes at
two points is inverse to their respective distances from the emitting focus.

Example 8
A sound spotlight emits a power of 20 W.
a) Calculate the sound intensity at two points located 10 m and 20 m from the focus.
b) What is the relationship that exists between the amplitudes of the wave at both points?

Example 9
The Sun has an approximate emission power of 2.7.10 20 Mw.
a) What light intensity do we receive on the Earth's surface?

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b) And on Mars? What is the reason for this difference?

DATA: dT-S = 1.5.10 11 m dM-S = 2.28.10 11 m
SOLUC: a) 955 w/m 2 b) 417 w/m 2

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B) ABSORPTION
The absorption of a wave consists of the decrease in intensity that a wave experiences as it
advances, due to the energy losses due to the friction of some particles of the medium with others,
that is, part of the energy carried by the wave is left behind. along the path as the wave progresses
through the absorbing medium.

It can be shown that the decrease in the intensity of a wave due to absorption is given by the
following law:
I = I 0 . e - β.x [7.15]
Where:
C) is the initial intensity of the wave.
I is the intensity of the wave when it has traveled a distance x in the absorbing medium.
β is a constant characteristic of each medium for each wave and is called the absorption
coefficient. It is measured in m -1 in SI units.

The law of wave absorption, I = I 0 . e

- β.x
, is an exponential decay law that if we represent it
graphically as a function of the distance traveled, x, in the absorbing medium, would look like this:

Figure 7.7 Exponential decrease in the intensity of a wave due to absorption

The distance that the wave has to travel in the absorbing medium for its intensity to decrease by
half, that is, for it to decrease by 50%, is called semi-absorption thickness , and is calculated as
follows:

I = I 0 . e - β.x E - = I 0 . e - β.x
sem
1 1
2
> - = e- β.x
2
sem
Ln 2 =Ln(e - β.x )
sem

1 1
Ln 2 =-β .Xsem. Ln(e) Ln - =-β .Xsem.
2 • - Ln2 =-β .Xsem.

_ Ln2
x wk. =
β
[7.16
OBSERVATION
]

Generally waves suffer both phenomena, that is, the decrease in their intensity, while they
propagate, is due to both attenuation and absorption. However:

- Plane waves do not suffer attenuation since their energy is distributed among the same
number of points as their wave front advances.

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- The OEM ones do not suffer absorption when they travel through a vacuum since there will
be no energy losses due to friction.

Example 10
A wave is represented by the equation:y(x,t)=2-cos2n(+) where x and y are given in cm and t in s.

a) Indicates the characteristics of the wave described by the previous equation.

b) The characteristic magnitudes of the wave.
c) The phase difference for two positions of the same medium particle when the elapsed time
interval is 2 s.
d) The phase difference of two points on the wave 120 cm apart.
Example 11
The intensity of a plane wave is reduced by 25% when passing through 5 cm of an absorbing
material. Calculate:
a) The absorption coefficient of the medium.
b) The distance that the wave has to travel in said medium for its intensity to be reduced by
half.

Example 12
A wave motion propagating through an absorbing medium reduces its intensity by half after
traveling a distance of 6.93 cm.

a) How far should it travel to reduce its intensity to 10% of its initial value?
b) What distance should it travel to reduce its intensity by 10% of its initial value?

8. HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

It is a geometric method that the Dutch scientist C. Huygens proposed it in 1678 to explain
the wave nature of light. This construction is valid for any type of waves and also allows us to explain
how energy propagates through the medium.
Before explaining this principle, we must be clear about two concepts:

Wave front : geometric locus of space formed by points in phase. In homogeneous and isotropic
media, the wave fronts are spherical. In such media, they will be flat when the points are very far
from the focus; In the latter case we talk about plane waves.
Ray: oriented segment that indicates the direction and direction of wave propagation. The rays
are perpendicular to the wave fronts at each of their points.

Huygens' principle states:

“Every point on a wave front is the emitting center of new elementary waves whose envelope is the
new wave front.”

In Figure 7.8, the points on the wave front at t 0 = 0 are emitting centers of elementary waves

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whose envelope forms the wave front at t.

Figure 7.8

This principle explains wave phenomena such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference.

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9. WAVE INTERFERENCES

Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves coincide at a
point, that is, interferences are phenomena produced by the encounter of two or more wave
movements that, starting from the same focus or from different foci, arrive simultaneously. to the
same point in the medium in which they propagate.

This phenomenon is characteristic of waves, as demonstrated by the fact that after the
encounter, that is, once the interference points have been passed, the amplitude, frequency and
speed of propagation of each wave are the same as they would be if they had not met. found, that is,
each wave continues its path as if nothing had happened (let's realize that this does not happen to
particles after they have collided).

The fact that the waves act independently of each other means that the motion of any
particle of the medium, at a given moment, is simply the sum or superposition of the motions that
would be given by the individual waves taken separately. This fact constitutes the principle of
superposition for waves according to which:

y=y1+y2+…+yn

In general, when two waves interfere at a point, the interference will be constructive when
the resulting disturbance is greater than the initial disturbances, and it will be destructive when the
resulting wave is smaller than the initial ones.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

The difference of roads

is a

odd m of semiwavelengths

The most important case of interference consists of the coincidence at the same point of
coherent waves, that is, waves with the same characteristics (amplitude, frequency and wavelength).
In these cases, two extreme situations can arise:

• Fully constructive interference

It occurs when the waves arrive in phase at the interference point, so the amplitude of the
resulting wave, A r , is twice that of the individual waves, A, that is: A r = 2A. This case will
occur whenever the difference between the distances to the respective foci is an integer
multiple of wavelengths:

x 2 – x 1 = n·λ

• Totally destructive interference

It occurs when the waves arrive in phase opposition to the interference point, so the

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amplitude of the resulting wave, A r , is zero, that is, A r = 0, producing a cancellation of the
wave movement. This case will occur whenever the difference between the distances to the
respective foci is an odd multiple of semiwavelengths:

x 2 – x 1 = (2n – 1)·λ/2

Both light and sound interferences are occurring in the classroom. However, neither our eyes
nor our ears are capable of detecting such interference, that is, we do not detect points where the
light or sound intensifies more (constructive interference), and other areas where the light or sound
intensity decreases (destructive interference). In fact, at any point in the classroom light waves (light
interference) and sound waves (sound interference) coincide, but the phase difference of the waves
that interfere at a given point is not constant, it varies with time and varies so quickly that the
Interferences are not stable and neither our eyes nor our ears are able to detect these fluctuations.

INTERFERENCE CONDITIONS

For the interferences to be stable, detectable and usable, it is necessary that the sources that
emit the waves are coherent , that is, that the waves emitted by them maintain a constant phase
difference and this is achieved when the interfering waves have the same frequency and equal
wavelength (this is what is called monochromatic waves in the case of light waves).
If they also have the same amplitude, points of totally constructive interference and others of
totally destructive interference may occur.

A procedure to obtain light interference is the one carried out by the English physicist T.
Young in 1801, called the double slit experiment , with which two coherent light beams are achieved
whose interferences occur on a screen F, showing a bright central stripe and other dark and bright
ones parallel to the first.

Figure 7.9 Young interferences

10. STANDING WAVES

10.1. Definition of standing wave

A standing wave is a particular case of interference and is the result of the interference of two
identical waves that propagate in the same direction and opposite directions within a limited
medium.

A simple way to achieve a standing wave is to subject a MAS to the free end of a rope that is

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attached to a fixed point at the other end. The agitation produced at the free end will propagate like a
wave along the rope so that when it reaches the free end of the rope it will be reflected, producing a
wave with the same characteristics as the incident wave but traveling in the opposite direction to the
incident wave. and interfering with it.

This is also the case of a guitar string: the waves that are formed on said string when pressed are
reflected at the fixed ends in such a way that at all times there are waves moving in both directions,
giving rise to a standing wave.

In general, a standing wave can be achieved when two or more waves are confined in a region of
space by boundaries, these waves are reflected back and forth on these boundaries, such as a guitar
string that is held at both ends, or a sound tube.

These waves are called stationary because the wave profile does not move due to the existence
of fixed points for which the amplitude is zero, as we will demonstrate below.

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10.2. Experimental results

When the standing wave is experimentally made by shaking the free end of a rope that is held
at the other end, the following is observed:

Figure 7.10 Standing wave

1st.- There are points on the string that do not vibrate. These points are called NODES . At
these points the waves interfere in phase opposition and produce totally destructive interference.

2nd.- The rest of the points of the string all vibrate with a MAS of equal frequency but
different amplitude.

3º.- Between every two nodes there is a point that vibrates with maximum amplitude. These
points are called WELLIES OR ANTINODES . At these points the waves have interfered in phase and
produce a completely constructive wave, the vibration amplitude being twice the amplitude of the
interfering waves.

4º.- All rope points reach the equilibrium position simultaneously.

5º.- The separation between two nodes or two consecutive bellies is half a wavelength.

6º.- The separation between a node and a consecutive belly is a quarter of a wavelength.

7º.- The number of nodes and bellies depends on the frequency of agitation, increasing with
this. Furthermore, the standing wave is only achieved for certain frequencies.

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10.3. Mathematical description of a standing wave

Let's study the phenomenon quantitatively:

Let y 1 (x, t) = A·sin (ω·t – k·x) be the wave that propagates on a rope. Upon reaching one of its
fixed ends, the wave is reflected, giving rise to another equation:
y 2 (x, t) = -A·sin (ω·t + k·x)
We calculate the resulting wave at any point of its interference by applying the principle of
wave superposition:

y (x, t) = y 1 (x, t) + y 2 (x, t) = A sin (co t – k x) + A sin (co t + k x)

Applying the trigonometric relationship of the sum of the sines of two angles:

A—B A+B
sin A + sinB = 2 cos------------sen---------
2 2

the standing wave equation results:

y (x, t) = 2 A cos (k x) sin (CO t) [7.17]
The resulting disturbance corresponds to that of a MAS of frequency ω and variable
amplitude since the amplitude of each point on the string depends on its distance from the focus and
is:
A r = 2 A cos (k x) [7.18]
We can therefore write:
y (x, t) = A r sin (CO·t) [7.19]
There will therefore be points of maximum amplitude (A r = 2 A) called bellies or antinodes
and points of zero amplitude (A r = 0) called nodes . If we analyze the expression of the resulting
amplitude, we can locate the bellies and the nodes:

• Position of the bellies

2T
A r = ±2 A ci> cos (k·x) = ± 1 ci> k·x = 0, π, 2 π, 3 π, …rad ci> k·x = n·π ) --- x = n·π •
TO

N
l=> x = n (n = 0, 1, 2, …)
The distance between two consecutive bellies is half a wavelength.

• Node position

TT 3TT 5TT 2T
At r = 0 = cos (k·x) = 0 = k·x = , , ,… rad = k·x = (2n + 1)·π/2 = — x = (2n + 1)·π/2 =
22 2 TO

ex = (2n + 1) (n = 0, 1, 2, …)
4

The distance between two consecutive nodes is half a wavelength.

10.4. Study of standing waves in a rope fixed at both ends

Suppose the string is arranged horizontally along the OX axis. We can take the origin x = 0 at
one of the ends of the rope so, if L is its length, the other end will be at the position x = L. Since both

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ends of the rope are fixed, the boundary conditions lead us to say that both points will be nodes.
Thus, the length of the string will be an integer multiple of half a wavelength:

Knowing that v p = λ·f, it results:

The previous expression tells us that the possible frequencies or modes of vibration of the
points of the string are an integer multiple of a certain value called the fundamental frequency , f 1 :

The rest of the possible frequencies are called harmonics .

Figure 7.11 First harmonics in the standing wave of a rope held at both ends

The number of nodes will depend on the harmonic in which the string is vibrating and this, in
turn, will depend on the speed of propagation which, for a given string, will depend on the tension to
which it is subjected: the higher the tension, the higher the frequency. For this reason, the strings of a
guitar are tuned by varying their tension.
10.5. Differences between standing waves and traveling waves

• Standing waves are not waves per se since they do not transmit energy from one point to
another in the medium since this is prevented by the nodes that are continuously at rest.
• The amplitude of the oscillations of the points of the medium in a standing wave depends on
their position, while in a traveling wave that propagates without losing energy, the amplitude
of the oscillations is the same for all points of the medium.
• In a traveling wave, all the points it passes through will always be oscillating, while in a
standing wave there are points (nodes) that do not oscillate once the wave is formed.

Example 13

The equation of a wave on a string is given by the following expression:

y(x, t) = 3 cos(0.5Tx) sin(50Tt)

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where x and y are measured in cm and t in s.

a) Characteristics of the wave described by the previous expression.

b) Determines the amplitude and speed of the waves whose interference gives rise to the
previous wave.
c) Instantaneous vibration speed of the rope points.
d) Calculate the speed with which a point on the rope located 3 cm away moves. Comment the
result.
e) Calculate the speed with which a point on the rope located 4 cm away moves at time 2 s.
Comment the result.

Example 14

The equation of a wave on a rope of length L held at both ends is given, in SI units, by the following
expression:

y(x, t) = 0.05 sin(2Tx) cos(50Tt)

a) Characteristic of the wave described by said expression.
b) Instantaneous vibration speed of the rope points.
c) If the above equation corresponds to the fundamental frequency, what is the length of the
string?

11. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. LAWS OF REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

When a wave propagates through a medium and encounters another medium of a different
nature in its path, generally what happens is that a part of the wave changes its direction of
propagation in the first medium, and the other part of the wave passes through the second medium. ,
spreading through it. The first phenomenon is called reflection and the second refraction.

11.1 REFLECTION

It is defined as the change of direction within the same medium that waves experience when
hitting the separation surface (interface) between two media.
It is explained by Huygens' principle according to which the points of the interface are
emitting centers of elementary waves that propagate through the same medium changing
direction. Therefore, the reflected wave will have the same propagation speed, frequency, period
and wavelength as the incident wave.

Snell's laws of reflection

1. The incident and reflected rays, as well as the normal, are in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence (i) and the angle of reflection (r) are equal.

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Figure 7.12 Snell's law of reflection

Observe that if the wave is incident perpendicular to the separation surface (i = 0º), the reflected
wave will have the same direction as the incident wave but in the opposite direction (r = 0º).

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11.2 REFRACTION

It consists of the change in the direction of propagation of a wave when it reaches the
separation surface between two different media to continue propagating through the second
medium.
It is explained with the Huygens principle according to which the points of the interface are
emitting centers of elementary waves that continue to propagate through the second medium,
changing direction and speed of propagation, since the characteristics of this are different from
those of the first. half.
The frequency of the refracted wave is the same as that of the incident wave since the
interface points emit elementary waves with the same frequency with which the focus emitted
the incident wave (frequency is an invariant).
Since v p = λ·f, as the propagation speed changes and the frequency remains invariant, the
wavelength of the refracted wave will change with respect to that of the incident wave as the
propagation speed changes.

Snell's laws of refraction

1. The incident and refracted rays, as well as the normal, are in the same plane.
2. The quotient between the sines of the angles of incidence (i) and refraction (t) is equal to the
quotient between the propagation velocities in the respective media 1 and 2.

sin i
sin t V2

refracted ray

Figure 7.13 Snell's law of refraction

If it is an oem such as light, Snell's Law of refraction can be put in terms of a new physical
quantity called the refractive index.

Refractive index

For light, each medium is characterized by a parameter called absolute refractive index n ,
which is defined as the ratio between the speed of light propagation in vacuum c and the speed v of
propagation in said medium:

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From the definition of the refractive index of light in a medium, the following consequences
are deduced:
either Is a dimensionless magnitude since it is the ratio of two
velocities.
either In In a vacuum, the refractive index is 1 ( no = 1).
either In any other medium the
refractive index of light is greater than 1 (n >1),
already that the speed of light
propagation is maximum in a vacuum, and
therefore so much,
The denominator will always be less than the numerator.
o We can express the refractive index of light in a medium as a function of
wavelength:

where λ 0 is the wavelength of light in a vacuum and λ is the wavelength of light in a given medium.

It is said that a medium is more refractive than another when it has a higher refractive index.

Depending on the refractive index, Snell's Law of refraction can be expressed as follows:
sin i _ V! sin i feel c.sin i c.sin t
sent v 7
Saw
you
Saw n 1 ·sin i = n 2 ·sin
t
From Snell's Law of refraction the following can be deduced:
o If a wave passes from one medium to another with a lower speed (in the case of light,
from one medium to another more refractive), then the angle of refraction is less
than the angle of incidence, that is, the refracted ray approaches to normal:

If v 1 > v 2 (n 1 < n 2 ) sin i > sin t i>t the refracted wave approaches the
normal.

Figure 7.14 Refraction of light from one medium (air) to another more refractive
(water)

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o If a wave passes from one medium to another with greater speed (in the case of light,
from one medium to another less refractive), then the angle of refraction is greater
than the angle of incidence, that is, the refracted ray moves away from the normal,
approaching the separation surface:

If v 1 < v 2 (n 1 > n 2 ) sin i < sin t i<t The refracted wave moves away from the
normal.

incident
lightning

reflected ray

refracted ray

Figure 7.15 Refraction of light from one medium to another less refractive

Observe that, regardless of the value of the refractive index between the two media, if the wave is
incident perpendicular to the separation surface (i = 0º), the refracted wave will have the same
direction and direction as the incident wave (t = 0º):

n 1 sin i = n 2 sin t n 1 sin 0º = n 2 sin t n 1. . 0 = n 2 sin t 0 = n 2 sin t

sin t = 0 t = 0º

incident
lightning

reflected ray

refracted ray

Figure 7.16 Reflection and refraction with an angle of incidence

of 0º
12. TOTAL REFLECTION AND LIMIT ANGLE. APPLICATIONS

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In the second of the previous cases (v 1 < v 2 on 1 > n 2 if it is an OEM), as we increase the angle
of incidence, the angle of refraction will also increase, the value of the latter being greater. For a
certain angle of incidence, called the limit or critical angle i L , the angle of refraction t is 90°,
giving rise in this case to the so-called grazing refraction .
For angles of incidence i greater than the limiting angle ( i > i L ), the light is totally reflected, a
phenomenon known as total reflection .

Figure 7.17 Total reflection and limit angle

The determination of the limiting angle is done with the second law of refraction making t =
90°:
. r\r\o . • n2 . • n2
n 1 ·sin i L = n 2 ·sin 90° F sin i L = — F i L = arcsin —

Let us realize that for angles lower than the limit angle, reflection and refraction occur and
this means that the energy of the incident wave is distributed between the reflected wave and the
refracted wave. But when it is incident at an angle greater than the limit angle, only reflection occurs
and, therefore, the reflected light has practically the same energy as the incident light.

A current application of total reflection is optical fibers, which are used for the transmission
of electromagnetic waves over long distances. The fiber is a flexible cable made of transparent
material and a high refractive index in which light always hits its internal faces at an angle greater
than the limiting angle. In this way, the light experiences successive internal reflections and can be
directed and transmitted over long distances with hardly any energy losses (see figure).

Figure 7.18 Multiple total reflections on the internal faces of an optical fiber
Example 15th

A light ray falls on one of the faces of a sheet of glass with plane-parallel faces 10 cm thick at an angle

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of 30º. Knowing that the refractive index of light in air is 1 and in the glass sheet is 1.5:

a) Trace the path of the light ray from when it hits the first part of the prism t until it exits
through the other.
b) Calculate the angle at which the light emerges through the second face of the prism.
Comment the result.
c) Calculate the time it takes for the light ray to pass through the glass sheet.

Example 16

A mirror is located at the bottom of a 2m deep pool that is filled with water (n = 1.33). A light ray falls
at an angle of 30º on the surface of the pool water.

a) It traces the path that the light ray follows from when it hits the surface of the water until it
emerges back into the air.
b) Calculate the angle at which it emerges from the water into the air.
c) Calculate how long it takes for the lightning bolt to leave the water.

Example 17

a) Calculate the limiting angle for a light ray that passes from glass (n = 1.5) to air (n = 1).
b) Analyze what happens with angles greater or less than the limit angle.
c) Calculate the angle of refraction of a light ray that passes from glass to air with an angle of
incidence of 60º.

Example 18

A light ray falls from air to water. Determine what the angle of incidence must be so that the reflected
and refracted ray form a 90º angle between themselves.

Example 19

I don't know if you are aware that the actual depth of a pool is always greater than the apparent
depth. Could you explain this phenomenon with the help of a light ray path diagram and based on
Snell's Law of refraction?

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13. DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the phenomenon that occurs when the wave encounters an obstacle or hole in
its path whose dimensions are of the order of its wavelength. This phenomenon is exclusive to waves
and consists of their wave front undergoing a distortion so that the wave skirts the hole or obstacle
and reaches points where it seemed impossible for it to reach.

The following diagram represents what happens to the wave front of a plane wave that
encounters an opening in its path:

Figure 7.19 Diffraction of a plane wave in a slit

When the opening is large enough with respect to the wavelength, the waves that reach the
slit are not distorted and continue their straight path. By reducing the size of the aperture, the wave
front begins to distort and propagate in other directions. When the slit is made of a size similar to the
wavelength, the wave front is completely distorted and the wave borders the corners of the hole,
propagating in all directions.
The following two images show how, after the opening, the wave propagates in other
directions than the initial one.

Figure 7.20 Explanation of diffraction using Huygens' principle

The phenomenon can be explained with Huygens' principle according to which the points of
the obstacle or hole become emitting centers of new wave fronts, causing the wave to skirt the
obstacle or continue propagating behind the hole.

This is a typically wave phenomenon that has historically served to demonstrate whether a
certain phenomenon has a wave character or not. For example, it served to demonstrate the wave
nature of light and, later, also of electrons.

Furthermore, it serves to determine the order of length of the wavelength of a wave, since it
is of the same order as the size of the hole or obstacle that produces diffraction.

This phenomenon is why sound can go around obstacles, that is, it explains why we can hear

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sounds even though the emitting sound source is behind a corner. This is because sound has
wavelengths between a few cm and several meters, which are the dimensions of the obstacles.
However, sound cannot overcome obstacles such as a building or a mountain, since these obstacles
have dimensions that exceed the range of their wavelengths.

We might wonder why we don't see objects behind the corners. The reason is that the
wavelength of visible light is very small compared to the dimensions of the obstacles.

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14. DISPERSION

Light dispersion is the phenomenon that occurs when a beam of white light hits one of the
faces of an optical prism and consists of the white light, when passing through the optical prism,
decomposed into the different colors that make it up. .

The formation of the rainbow is due to the dispersion of sunlight when it hits rainwater
droplets suspended in the air, which act as an optical prism.

To explain the phenomenon of light dispersion we must take into account the following:

• Generally, the refractive index of a transparent medium is a function of the wavelength of the
light propagating through it; specifically it decreases with wavelength. This type of media is
called dispersive .
• As a consequence of the above, if a beam of light rays of different wavelengths falls on a
refracting material, each monochromatic radiation, according to Snell's Law of refraction, will
be deflected at a different angle.
• As white light is formed by a mixture of radiation of different wavelengths, when said light
falls on one of the faces of an optical prism (a system formed by two flat refracting surfaces,
the faces of the prism, which form a dihedral angle called the refractive angle of the prism), it
is decomposed into the different monochromatic radiations since each of these is refracted
with different angles, emerging separately on the other side of the prism. If we collect these
radiations on a screen, we will observe a continuous succession of colors called the white
light spectrum .

Figure 7.21 Light dispersion in an optical prism

The optical prism causes a different deviation angle δ for each monochromatic radiation, with
red light being the one that suffers the least deviation and violet light being the one that suffers the
greatest deviation.

The color of each monochromatic radiation depends on its frequency and because it does not
change during refraction, the color will not change either when it hits a refracting medium.

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15. POLARIZATION

Remember that one of the possible classifications of waves was based on how the directions
of propagation and vibration of the wave were relative to each other: if both directions coincide, the
waves are longitudinal, but if both directions are perpendicular, the waves are transverse. .
Wave vibration direction

transverse wave Direction of wave propagation

Wave vibration direction

Longitudinal wave Direction of wave propagation

In longitudinal ones there is only one direction of vibration, which is that of wave
propagation. However, in transverse waves there are infinite possible directions of vibration: all of
which are contained in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

When the transverse wave propagates vibrating in all possible directions of vibration, the
transverse wave is said to be unpolarized . But, if by some mechanism, we manage to select a single
direction of vibration from all the possible ones, we say that the transverse wave is polarized .

A longitudinal wave cannot be polarized because it already is, since it only vibrates in a single
direction, the direction of propagation. Therefore sound cannot be polarized since it already is
polarized as it is a longitudinal wave.

The phenomenon of polarization is of special importance in oems and, in fact, the polarization
of light served to demonstrate that they are transverse waves, that is, the oscillations of the electric
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Natural light is not polarized, that is, the electric and magnetic fields vibrate randomly in all
permitted directions. But, there are various mechanisms to polarize light. Among them we highlight
the following two: Polarization by absorption and polarization by reflection.

polarized light non-polarized

light

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Absorption polarization:

There are various substances called polaroids that have the peculiarity of acting as a filter
since they absorb light that vibrates in all directions except that which vibrates in a certain direction
(direction of polarization or transmission axis), as represented in the figure. .

Figure 7.22 Polarization of natural light by absorption

Let us realize that if we then place another polarizer with its transmission axis perpendicular
to the one preceding it, it will absorb all the light that reaches it and, behind it, there will be no light.

Polarization by reflection:

We know that when a light wave hits the surface separating two media, part of the wave is
reflected and another part is refracted. Well, the reflected light is partially polarized.

Brewster angle

Figure 7.23 Polarization of natural light by

reflection
It happens that when the reflected and refracted ray form an angle of 90º, the reflected light
is completely polarized.

The angle of incidence for which the reflected and refracted rays form 90º and therefore the
reflected light is completely polarized, is called Brewster's angle .

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Example 20º
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Calculate the angles of incidence and refraction when the light
reflected by a glass surface is fully polarized.
SOLUC: 56.3º and 33.7º

Example 21
At what angle above the horizontal must the Sun be for the light reflected from the surface of a still
lake to be completely polarized? ( refractive index of water 1.33).
SOLUC: 36.94º

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16. THE DOPPLER EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The Doppler effect is the phenomenon by which the frequency of the waves perceived by an observer
varies when the emitting focus or the observer themselves move with respect to each other, that is,
the Doppler effect consists of the apparent change in frequency perceived by the observer. receiver of
a wave when there is a relative movement between the emitting focus of said wave and its receiver.
This phenomenon was first observed in sound waves by the Austrian physicist Christian Andreas
Doppler (1803 - 1853), in 1842, when he noticed how the tone (frequency) of a locomotive's whistle
became higher pitched as it approached and became louder. serious when he walked away.
In the first figure it can be seen that if there is no relative movement between the focus and the
observers, they perceive the emitted wave with the same frequency with which it is emitted. But in
the second image it is evident that when the focus moves with respect to the observers, the
frequency perceived by them is different from what the wave emitted by the focus actually has. The
observer who sees the focus approaching receives the waves at a higher frequency than the real one,
while the opposite happens to the observer who sees the focus moving away.

Figure 7.24 Without focus-receptor relative movement, the Doppler effect does NOT occur

Figure 7.25 With relative focus-receiver movement, the Doppler effect DOES occur

The Doppler effect occurs in all wave movements. What happens is simply that humans can only see
this effect reflected in reality when it comes to sound waves.
Surely more than once you have heard the siren of a car or the engine of a motorcycle pass in front of
you. When the sound is at a great distance and begins to approach, it is extremely sharp until it
reaches us. Then when it continues its journey and moves away, what we hear is a much deeper
sound.

Figure 7.26 Doppler effect in sound

As can be seen in the previous image, although the two vehicles emit sound waves of the same
frequency, the microphone captures the sound produced by the green car, which is moving away
from the receiver, with a wave of lower frequency than the real one, that is, less intense and less

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acute. On the other hand, the orange car, which is moving towards the receiver, presents waves with
a higher frequency than the real one and therefore also sharper and more intense.
However, the Doppler effect acquires special relevance in the case of light and its application in
Astrophysics. The observed frequency of the light in the event that the focus and the observer are
approaching is greater than the frequency observed if they were at relative rest, which translates into
a blueshift in the frequency observed by the observer . receiver (higher frequencies). On the contrary,
if there is a relative distance between the focus and the receiver, there is a redshift in the frequency
observed by the receiver (lower frequencies). Precisely this red shift of the light that reaches us from
galaxies is one of the arguments used by defenders of the theory that the universe is expanding.

Figure 7.27 Doppler effect in light: redshift and blueshift

It can be shown that the frequency, f r , measured by an observer at rest when the emitting focus
moves with respect to him with a certain speed, v f , is given by the following expression:

f = r
f
0

1± v f
v

The positive sign corresponding to the case in which the focus moves away from the receiver and the
negative sign to the case in which it approaches it.
It can be shown that the frequency, f r , measured by a moving observer, v r , when the emitting focus
remains at rest is given by the following expression:

the positive sign corresponding to the case in which the receiver approaches the focus and the
negative sign to the case in which it moves away from the focus.
From the previous expressions we must highlight that the same result is not obtained if it is the
focus that moves as if it is the receiver that does so, that is, the movements of the sender and the
receiver are not equivalent. Furthermore, if both the focus and the receiver move, the previous
formulas must be combined with each other.

The Doppler effect is also applied in the operation of radars. Thanks to the Doppler effect it is
possible to measure the speed at which a car is traveling, for example. To do this, the radar
continuously emits waves at a certain frequency (f 0 ) . These waves are reflected in the cars, trucks
and motorcycles that cross the road. This reflection means that, from a theoretical point of view,
cars can be considered moving lights . The radar, again, has a receiver, at rest , that measures the
frequency of the reflected wave, which will be slightly different (f) from the emitted one. From the

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frequencies f and f 0 , and the speed of the wave in the medium, v , the radar "solves" the speed of
the focus, v f (the moving car).
Ultrasounds are based on the same principle. Blood velocity is a parameter that is altered in heart
valve obstructions. This is the basis of diagnosis through the Doppler effect. When ultrasound is
emitted into the bloodstream, red blood cells act as reflecting elements, in a similar way to how
cars reflected the waves coming from radar. Thus, the analysis of the received signal sheds light on
the speed of the bloodstream and on possible associated pathologies.

Example 22
A cyclist is resting on the side of the road when he hears the siren of an ambulance. The frequency of
the sound emitted by the siren is 600 Hz and it approaches with a constant speed of 72 km/h.
Assuming that the speed of sound propagation in air is 340 m/s, Calculate:
a) The frequency of the sound the cyclist hears as the ambulance approaches.
b) The frequency the cyclist hears as the ambulance drives away.
c) The frequency perceived by the cyclist if he rides his bicycle and chases the ambulance
with a speed of 36 km/h.
d) What would happen if the cyclist pursued the ambulance with the same speed as the
ambulance, but at a certain distance behind it?
e) What if the cyclist moved with the same speed as the ambulance, but next to it?
SOLUC: a) 637.5 Hz b) 566.7 Hz c) 583.3 Hz d) ? f) ?

Example 23
Calculate the speed of a train and the natural frequency of its whistle, if it is observed that when the
train approaches the station, the perceived frequency of the whistle is 800 Hz and when it moves
away at the same speed, it is 650 Hz.
SOLUC: 35.17 m/s and 717.24 Hz

Example 24th
Determine the speed, assumed constant, of a Formula I car as it passes through the middle of the
grandstand straight, knowing that when it approaches, the noise of its engine is perceived at a
frequency of 300 Hz and when it moves away, at 200 Hz.
SOLUC: 244.8 Km/h

Example 25º
A speedboat approaches a vertical cliff and the pilot observes that the sound of his boat's engine
reflected by the cliff varies in pitch from 440 Hz to 495 Hz. Considering that the speed of sound in air
is 320 m/s, calculate the speed of the boat.
SOLUC: 18.8 m/s

Example 26th
Two trains run in opposite directions on two parallel straight tracks. As a greeting, the train drivers
sound their sirens. Assuming that one of the trains (A) moves at 108 km/h and the other (B) at 72
km/h and that the siren of both emits at 800 Hz, calculate the frequency of the sounds perceived by
the drivers of both trains.

SOLUTION: A perceives its siren at f = 800 Hz, and B perceives it at f = 925 Hz

B perceives its siren at f = 800 Hz, and A perceives its siren at f = 929 Hz

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17. SOUND

17.1 Sound waves (acoustic waves)

A sound wave can be thought of as a pressure fluctuation that propagates through any medium that is
elastic enough to allow its molecules to move toward and apart from one another.
This disturbance can be detected by the human ear or by certain instruments. For this disturbance to
be detected by the human ear, the spectral composition of said wave must fall within the frequency
range that the ear detects, which is between 20 and 20,000 Hz, this range depending on each person
(many people begin not to hear). from 15,000 Hz). Frequencies lower than audible are called
infrasound, and frequencies higher than audible are called ultrasound.
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves: mechanical because they need a material medium
for their propagation (If we create a vacuum in a glass bell in which there is an alarm clock ringing, as
the air leaves, the sound fades away until it disappears. at all) and longitudinal, the displacement of
the particles with respect to their equilibrium position occurs in the same direction of propagation of
the disturbance.
They can spread in solid, liquid and gaseous media. The speed at which sound propagates does not
depend on its intensity or qualities, but only on the properties of the medium. Sound propagates
faster in more rigid media, so the speed of propagation is greater in solids than in liquids and gases.

STATE HALF SPEED OF SOUND (m/s)

Are (20°C) 340

Hydrogen (OC) 1 286
Gaseous
Oxygen (OPC) 317
Helium (0PC) 972
Water (25°C) 1 493
Liquid
Sea water (25°C) 1 533
Aluminum 5 100
Copper 3 560
Solid Iron 5130
Lead 1 322
Rubber 54
Empty Empty 0
Figure 7.28 Speed of sound in different media
17.2 Sound qualities

1- Intensity: Sensation associated with the way in which sound is received by humans. Sounds
can be classified as strong or weak, depending on whether their intensity is high or low. The
human ear can detect sounds when the I is at least 10 -12 W/m², called HEARING THRESHOLD
INTENSITY . Sounds with intensity equal to or greater than 1W/m² are audible, but cause pain
in the ears and is called THRESHOLD INTENSITY OF PAIN .

J- Tone or height: of a sound indicates whether it is high (high, many vibrations per second, that
is, high frequency) like that of a violin or low (low, few vibrations per second, low frequency)
like that of a drum. The lower the frequency the lower the tone and vice versa.

1.1 Doorbell: Allows you to distinguish between two sounds in which the intensity and frequency
are the same, but which have been emitted by different sources. Normally, sounds are not
pure, that is, the waves are not perfectly sinusoidal but the result of several periodic
movements superimposed on the fundamental wave, which are called harmonics or
overtones. Thus, each sound coming from a musical instrument or person is a composite
wave and has specific characteristics that differentiate it from the others. The timbre depends

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on the shape of the wave

17.3 Sound intensity level

As the range of intensities of the human ear is very wide, from 1 W/m 2 (threshold intensity) to 10 -12
W/m² (pain intensity), a logarithmic scale is usually used to measure intensity, which is called SCALE.
SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL .

The INTENSITY LEVEL OF A SOUND WAVE is defined as:

6 = Log

I is the intensity of the existing sound wave.

I 0 is the threshold intensity, that is, 10 -12 W/m², which is the minimum sound intensity detected by
the human ear.

Comments:
1st.- In the scale defined above, the intensity level is measured in decibels (dB).
2nd.- When the intensity of the sound is equal to the hearing threshold, then the intensity
level is 0 dB.

( 10-12N
( 1'l
- =10 Log
1, =10Log =10Log(1)=0 dB = hearing threshold
3
1012
3º.- When the intensity of the sound is equal to the pain threshold, 1 W/m 2 , then the
intensity level is 120 dB.

(T) 'll
SiI=lW/m - P =10 Log — =10 Log 10-2 -10Log(102)-120 dB - pain threshold
2

We call sound sensation a subjective factor that involves the physiological and psychological
processes that take place in the ear and the brain. This is what leads us to classify sounds as weak,
strong, unpleasant…. It depends on the intensity and frequency. For example, a 1000Hz signal with an
intensity level of 40 dB causes the same sound sensation as a 100 Hz sound with 62 dB.

17.4 Noise pollution and quality of life

International acoustic bodies recommend that ambient sound does not exceed 55 dB during the day
and 35 dB at night. Noise pollution is considered to occur when the sound exceeds 70 dB for
prolonged intervals of time.
Prolonged exposure to high noise levels can cause hearing problems (irreversible loss of hearing
ability), irritability, lack of concentration, stress, fatigue, respiratory rhythm alterations, digestive
problems...
The problem is greater in urban areas (high traffic density) or near airports, leisure venues
(discotheques, pubs...), work centers (industries...). Noise pollution is covered by occupational safety

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and hygiene regulations.

The authorities are the ones who dictate the measures against noise pollution:

• Passive or Palliative: they try to dampen the propagation of sound or its impact. Ex.
Soundproofing of premises or homes, shielding walls located on urban roads, green
barriers, use of noise helmets.
For example, Spanish legislation obliges leisure venues to isolate their premises from adjacent
premises using absorbent materials to avoid the noise pollution they produce. Premises that have an
I=100 dB transmit 65 dB to the outside.

• Active (preventive): they act against the sources of noise. Mufflers and filters for
engines, reduction of traffic in some areas of urban areas, promotion of public
transport.

But we must not forget the EDUCATIONAL MEASURES , that is, the training of citizens in a favorable
attitude toward maintaining an environment without noise pollution.

Example 27th
A point sound spotlight with a power of 10 W emits sound waves that propagate equally in all
directions. Calculate the intensity of the sound and the intensity level at a point 10 m from the focus.

SOLUC: I = 8.10-3 W/m2 β = 99 dB

Example 28th
A speaker emits sound with a power of 40 W, which spreads equally in all directions.

a) Calculate the sound intensity 10 m from the speaker.

b) Calculate the intensity level at that point.
c) At what distance will that sound stop being audible? (ignoring absorption).
d) What is the reason for this decrease in intensity?
SOLUC: a) I = 3.18.10-2 W/m2 b) β = 105 dB c) 1784 Km

Example 29
An explosion occurs in mid-air, releasing 5000 J in one hundredth of a second. If the sound wave
originated has a wavelength of 50 cm and its propagation speed is 330 m/s, calculate, ignoring
absorption:
a) Frequency of the sound wave.
b) Intensity and intensity level of the wave 50 m from the explosion.
c) Intensity and intensity level of the wave 100 m from the explosion.
d) Relationship between the amplitudes of the sound at those two points.

SOLUC: a) 660 Hz b) I = 15.92 W/m2 β = c) I = 3.98 W/m2 β = d) A2 =A1 /2

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18. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves (oem) are transverse waves in which the disturbance that propagates
is formed by two simultaneous and variable fields of forces: an electric field E and a magnetic field B,

»= Wavelength (Dstanca
between successive
peaks}

f = Frequency
ILIE
speed
(Number of cides per second
passing through a fixed point)

perpendicular to each other in phase.

Figure 7.29 Electromagnetic wave

Characteristics of electromagnetic waves

• They are caused by accelerated electrical charges.

• They consist of a periodic variation of the electromagnetic state of space: a variable electric
field produces a variable magnetic field, this in turn causes an electric field and so on, both
propagate in space.
• The fields propagate in phase, that is, they reach their maximum, minimum and null values
simultaneously
• They do not need material support to propagate since electric and magnetic fields can exist in
a vacuum.
• In these waves, the vectors of the electric E and magnetic B fields vary periodically with time
and position in planes perpendicular to each other. The direction of propagation is the
straight intersection of both planes and the direction is determined by the vector product EX
B. If there is no attenuation, the modules of both fields will be sinusoidal functions of position
and time, like the harmonic wave function. Furthermore, the amplitudes of both fields satisfy
the following relationship:

where v is the speed of light in the propagation medium.

• The relationship between the electric E and magnetic B fields of an oem allows said wave to
be described by a single wave equation, either that of the electric field E or that of the
magnetic field:

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E = E or sin(ú)t ± kx + Po) or B = B or sin(ú)t ± kx + Po)

• The speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves depends on the propagation medium

according to the expression:

_1
√E • 1

where ԑ is the dielectric constant of the medium and µ is the magnetic permeability of the
medium. In the particular case of a vacuum, the speed of light is c = 3·10 8 ms -1 and is its
maximum possible value.
• Electromagnetic waves also comply with the relationships between speed, wavelength and
frequency studied in the topic of waves.

Electromagnetic spectrum

There are different types of OEMs and the set of all of them is called the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is the set of all known electromagnetic waves, arranged
according to their wavelength or frequency.

Figure 7.30 Electromagnetic spectrum

All electromagnetic waves have their nature in common. However, each group of waves,
characterized by a certain range of wavelengths and frequencies, has its own way of production, and
also specific practical applications.

Radio and TV waves

They are the OEMs with the lowest frequency and therefore the lowest energy.
o Origin: oscillating electrical circuit
o Applications: radio, television, telecommunications, …

Microwave
o Origin: high frequency oscillating circuits
o Applications: telephony, radar, radio astronomy, ovens, …

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Infrared
They are also called thermal waves since they are produced by incandescent bodies. They are
easily absorbed by matter and in living beings they provide the sensation of heat.
o Origin: thermal radiation of bodies
o Applications: biological, medical, chemical and industrial research, photography, …

Visible
It is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see and includes the
frequency range between 4.10 14 Hz and 8.10 14 Hz.
Each frequency produces the corresponding color sensation. In increasing order of frequency
and therefore energy, they are the following colors:

frequency
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 700

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________400

Infra red | White light | Ultraviolet

◄---------
Wavelength
Figure 7.31 Visible spectrum in nm

The wavelength range for the visible spectrum in a vacuum can be calculated using the
relationship:
c = Xf

José Escudero Martínez.................................................................1

uv = | u | .| v | .cos( u , v ).........................................................11
v A u =- u A v.......................................................................13
cos(u,v) = ^'v ?......................................................................................................17
u v
A ==( u and v . z...............................................................................................................17
J i +(u z v . x.........................................................................................................................17
| to |..............................................................................................................................27
=v I a I 2 I a t I 2...........................................................................................................27
x() = t 2 - 6 t + 1..................................................................................................................28
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ... + F n = ma.................................................................................................37
- -.....................................................................................................................................37
> F i = ma........................................................................................................................37
Yes F RTE . = 0= F RTE . = ma = 0 ^ ma = 0 ^ a = 0 ^ v = cte ^ rest or MRU.......37
>F = ma.......................................................................................................................48

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>F = ma = N+...........................................................................................................53
If W A B FNC = 0 = ΔE m = 0 = E m = cte. = ΔE c = - ΔE p [2.9].........................................76
ISSUES...................................................................................................................................82
+ g n...................................................................................................................................100
M..........................................................................................................................................100
/2...............................................................................................................................................100
V= —P.......................................................................................................................110
V r B................................................................................................................................113
— f B F............................................................................................................................117
> =>................................................................................................................................125
é =j d
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
ó=f g . dS.......................................................................................................................122
J g . dS = J g . dS .cos(180º) — — g dS — — g . S — — 4 n GM Total =g — 4 n GM
Total 126
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 z GM Total =..................127
I g . dS =g . dS .cos(180º) = — g I dS = — g . S = — 4 7 GM Total =.................128
4.................................................................................................................................128
j E dS = j E . dS .cos(0º or 180º) = E . j dS =ES = 4 , KQ................=E = + 4 " KQ Total
135
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................152
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................158
--- - -- --......................................................................................................................167
1.................................................................................................................................175
1 1..........................................................................................................................175
1 11........................................................................................................................175
/ /...........................................................................................................................189
/..................................................................................................................................190
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................193
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................194
= V . Yo.........................................................................................................................212
V1—V2.............................................................................................................................213
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................217
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................218
K = mo2.....................................................................................................................228
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................233

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ISSUES.................................................................................................................................233
diff. of spatial phase = k (x........................................................................................248
) = 2n •d = n.2n (n = 0,1,2,...)......................................................................................248
2π...............................................................................................................................248
•d = n.2T....................................................................................................................248
TO.................................................................................................................................248
2π 2π....................................................................................................................249
diff. of spatial phase = k (x, - X ) =—(x, - X ) = —d = (2n + 1). π (n = 0,1,2,...).....249
2 IT............................................................................................................................249
2n
•d = (2n+1).7..............................................................................................................249
d = (2n+1). 2..............................................................................................................249
4 πr 2 [ . ]...............................................................................................................252
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................289
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................292
11...............................................................................................................................314
s '...............................................................................................................................314
ISSUES...............................................................................................................................317
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................315
ISSUES.................................................................................................................................317
226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C..............................................................................................330
N=N,se-ht [10.4]...............................................................................................................331
235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n..............................................................................................335
H+H- He + In..........................................................................................................................336
235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln.......................................................................................................337
AND M.M2 ■..........................................................................................................339
92 U+ 0 n -» 133 Sb + 99 Nb + 4 1n...............................................................................349

Let us highlight that the wavelength range obtained for visible light is only for a vacuum. In
any medium the wavelength range would be different, since, although the frequency range is
invariant, the speed of light propagation is different for each medium and, therefore, the wavelength
of each frequency would be different for each medium. each medium.

o Origin: electronic transitions in atoms

o Applications: lighting, laser,…

Ultraviolet
They are OEM whose frequency is above the visible and therefore have more energy than

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visible light. They are responsible for tanning the skin.

o Origin: electrical discharges in gases and the Sun
o Applications: medicine, biology,…

X-rays
They are high frequency OEM and therefore high energy. They can pass through the tissues of
living beings and therefore must be protected from them.
o Origin: collisions of high energy electrons with metal atoms causing their deceleration
o Applications: medicine, metallurgy, crystallography, …

ϒ rays
They are the OEMs with the highest frequency and therefore the highest energy. They are
absorbed by living beings, producing serious effects on them when exposed to high doses and
prolonged times.
o Origin: radioactive nuclear emissions
o Applications: medicine, metallurgy,…

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ISSUES
Question 1 a) Explain the spatial and temporal periodicity of waves and their interdependence. b) A
wave of amplitude A, frequency f, and wavelength Describe the movement of a particle of the string,
indicating its characteristic magnitudes.
Question 2 a) What does wave refraction consist of? State your laws. b) What characteristics of the wave
vary when passing from one medium to another?
Question 3 a) What does the wave polarization phenomenon consist of? b) Can sound be polarized?
Give reasons for your answer.
Question 4 a) Do a qualitative analysis of standing waves, indicating how they are produced, what
characterizes them and what differentiates them from traveling waves. b) A standing wave is formed on
a string. Explain why energy is not transmitted along the rope.
Question 5 Consider the equation: y(x,t) = A cos (bx) sin (ct)
c) What do the coefficients A, b, c represent? What are their units? What is the meaning of the
factor A cos (bx).
b) What are bellies and nodes? What is the difference between bellies and consecutive nodes?
Question 6 Consider the following wave equation: y(x,t) = A sin (bt – cx)
a) What do the coefficients A, b, c represent? What are your units?
d) What interpretation would you have if the function were “cosine” instead of “sine”? And that
the sign inside the parentheses was + instead of –?
Question 7 The equation of a harmonic wave in a taut string is: y(x,t) = A sin ( o t - kx)
a) Indicate the meaning of the magnitudes that appear in said expression.
b) Write the equation of another wave that propagates on the same string, in the opposite
direction, with half the amplitude and double the frequency of the previous one.
Question 8 a) Explain the differences between longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Cite an example
of each of them. b) Describe qualitatively the phenomenon of polarization. What type of waves, of those
mentioned above, can be polarized?
Question 9 Indicate whether the following statements are true or false, giving reasons for your answers:
a) The speed of propagation of a harmonic wave is proportional to its wavelength. b) When a wave
impinges on the separation surface of two media, the reflected and refracted waves have the same
frequency and the same wavelength as the incident wave.
Question 10 a) Define: wave, propagation speed, wavelength, frequency, amplitude, elongation and
phase. b) Two traveling waves propagate through the same medium and the frequency of one is double
that of the other. Explain the relationship between the different magnitudes of both waves.
Question 11 a) Explain the phenomena of reflection and refraction of a wave. b) Do the incident,
reflected and refracted waves have the same frequency, wavelength and propagation speed?
Question 12 Two physical phenomena are described by the following expressions:
y = A sin bt y = A sin (bt – cx)

in which “x” and “y” are spatial coordinates and “t” is time. a) Explain what type of physical
phenomenon is involved in each case and identify the parameters that appear in said expressions,
indicating their respective units. b) What difference would you point out regarding the periodicity of
both phenomena?
Question 13 When throwing a stone into a pond of water and plucking the string of a guitar, wave

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phenomena are produced. Reason what type of wave has been produced in each case and comment on
the differences between the two.
Question 14 a) Reason what characteristics two waves that propagate along a taut rope with its two
fixed ends must have, so that their superposition causes a standing wave. b) Explain what values of the
wavelength can be given if the length of the string is L.
Question 15 a) Write the equation of a harmonic wave that propagates along the X axis and indicate the
meaning of the magnitudes that appear in it. b) Write the equation of another wave that propagates in
the opposite direction and has double the amplitude and half the frequency of the previous one. Reason
whether the propagation speeds of both waves are the same.
Question 16 Reason if three visible light beams of blue, yellow and red colors, respectively: i) have the
same frequency; ii) they have the same wavelength; iii) they propagate in a vacuum with the same
speed. Would any of these magnitudes change when propagated in water?
Question 17 a) What is meant by light interference? b) Why don't we observe the interference of light
produced by the two headlights of a car?
Question 18 a) What is an electromagnetic wave? B) Do the characteristic magnitudes of an
electromagnetic wave that propagates in air change when it penetrates a glass block? If you change any,
does it increase or decrease? because?
Question 19 a) State the laws of reflection and refraction of light. Explain the difference between both
phenomena. b) Compare what happens when a beam of light falls on a mirror and on a window glass.
Question 20 a) Electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum with speed c. Does its speed of
propagation change in a material medium? Define the refractive index of a medium. b) Place, in
increasing order of frequencies, the following regions of the electromagnetic spectrum: infrared, X-rays,
ultraviolet and visible light. Can two colors of the visible spectrum: red and green, for example, have the
same intensity? and the same frequency?
Question 21 a) X-rays, visible light and infrared rays are electromagnetic radiation. Arrange them in
increasing order of their frequencies and indicate some differences between them. b) What is an
electromagnetic wave? Explain its characteristics.
Question 22 Two rays of light hit a point. Can they produce darkness? Reasonably explain this fact.
Question 23 a) The refractive index of water with respect to air is n>1. Reason which of the following
magnitudes change, and how, when a beam of light passes from air to water: frequency. Wavelength,
and propagation speed. b) How would you best characterize an electromagnetic wave, by its frequency
or its wavelength?
Question 24 a) What does light dispersion consist of? Does this phenomenon depend on the refractive
index of the medium and/or the wavelength of the light? b) Explain the dispersion of light through a
prism, using a diagram.
Question 25 a) What is meant by refraction of light? Explain what the limiting angle is and, using a ray
diagram, indicate how it is determined. b) An optical fiber is a transparent thread along which light can
propagate, without going outside. Explain why light "does not escape" through the walls of the fiber.
Question 26 A laser beam passes from one medium to another, with a lower refractive index. Explain if
the angle of refraction is greater or less than the angle of incidence. Could there be total reflection?
Question 27 a) Explain what total reflection consists of. Under what conditions is it produced? b) Why is
the actual depth of a pool full of water greater than the apparent depth?
Question 28 A ray of light passes from one medium to another, where it propagates at a higher speed.

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a) Indicate how the wavelength, frequency and angle that said ray forms with the normal to the
separation surface vary when passing from the first to the second medium.
b) Reason whether the light ray will pass into the second medium, regardless of the value of the
angle of incidence.
Question 29 A flat surface separates two media with refractive indices n 1 and n 2 and a ray of light is
incident from the medium with index n1. Reason whether the following statements are true or false: a) if
n 1 > n 2 , the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence; b) if n 1 < n 2 , from a certain angle of
incidence the phenomenon of total reflection occurs.

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ISSUES
Problem 1º The equation of a wave that propagates on a rope is:
y (x,t) = 0.5 sin T (8t – 4x) (in SI units)
a) Determine the speed of wave propagation and the speed of a point on the string and explain the
meaning of each of them.
b) Graphically represent the position of the points on the rope at time t = 0, and the elongation at x
= 0 as a function of time.
SOLUC: a) v = 2 m/sv(x,t) = 4π cos π(8t – 4x) (UI)

Problem 2 The equation of a wave that propagates along a taut rope is:
y (x,t) = 4 sin T(50t – 4x) (in SI units)
a) Calculate the amplitude, wavelength and period of said wave. What physical meaning does the
minus sign that appears inside the parentheses have?
b) Determine the speed of wave propagation. Do the middle points move with that speed?
SOLUTION: a) A = 4 m λ = 0.5 m T = 0.04 s b) v = 12.5 m/s

Problem 3. A harmonic wave that propagates along a rope in the negative direction of the X axis has a
wavelength of 25 cm. The emitting focus vibrates with a frequency of 50 Hz and an amplitude of 5 cm.
a) Write the equation of the wave explaining the reasoning followed for it.
b) Determine the maximum velocity and acceleration of a point on the rope.
SOLUC: a) y(x,t) = 0.05 sin (100πt + 8πx) (UI) b) vvib. max. = 5π m/s vvib. max. = 500π 2 m/s 2

-3
Problem 4 A speaker produces a sound wave with an amplitude of 10 m and a frequency of 200 Hz,
which propagates with a speed of 340 ms -1 .
a) Write the equation of the wave, assuming that it propagates in only one direction.
b) Represent the spatial variation of the wave, at instants t = 0 and t = T / 4.
SOLUC: a) y(x,t) = 0.001 sin (400πt – 20/17 πx) (UI) b) Two graphical representations must be made: y(x,t =0 s) and y(x,t =0.00125 s)

-1
Problem 5º A harmonic wave of amplitude 0.3 m propagates along a rope with a speed of 2 ms and a
wavelength of 0.25 m.
a) Write the equation of the wave as a function of x and t.
b) Determine the velocity of a point on the rope located at x = 13/16 m, at time t = 0.5 s.
SOLUC: a) y(x,t) = 0.3 sin (16πt – 8πx) (UI) b) v(x = 13/16 m, t = 0.5 s) = 0 m/s

Problem 6º The equation of a transverse wave that propagates along a rope is:
y (x,t) = 0.06 cos 2 t(4t – 2x) (YEAH)
a) Calculate the phase difference between the vibration states of a particle of the string at times t =
0 and t = 0.5 s.
b) Make an approximate graphical representation of the shape the rope takes at the previous
moments.
SOLUC: a) 4π rad b) Two graphical representations must be made: y(x,t =0 s) and y(x,t =0.5 s)

Problem 7 The period of a wave that propagates along the x axis is 3·10 -3 s, and the distance between
the two closest points whose phase difference is T/2 radians is 20 cm.
a) Calculate the wavelength and speed of propagation.
b) If the period were doubled, what would happen to the magnitudes in the previous section?
SOLUTION: a) λ = 80 cm v = 266.7 m/s b) ?

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Problem 8º A plane wave is given by the equation:

y (x,t) = 2 cos (100πt –5πx) (in SI units)
where x and y are Cartesian coordinates.
a) Make a reasoned analysis of the wave movement represented by the previous equation and
explain whether it is longitudinal or transversal and what is its direction of propagation.
b) Calculate the frequency, period, wavelength and wave number, as well as the magnitude,
direction and sense of the speed of propagation of the wave.
SOLUC: a) ? b) f = 50 Hz T = 0.02 s λ = 0.4 m K = 5π rad/mv = 20 m/s to the right

Problem 9 The equation of a wave is:

y (x,t) = 4 sin (6t – 2x + t/6) (YEAH)
a) Explain the characteristics of the wave and determine the elongation and speed, at the initial
instant, at the origin of coordinates.
b) Calculate the frequency and speed of wave propagation, as well as the phase difference
between two points 5 m apart, at the same instant.
SOLUC: a) ? y(x = 0, t = 0) = 2 mv(x = 0, t = 0) = 20.78 m/s b) f = 3/π Hz v = 3 m/s dd phase = 10 rad

Problem 10 The equation of a wave that propagates on a rope is:

y(x,t) = 0.04 sin (6t - 2x + π/6 ) IF
a) Explain the characteristics of the wave and determine its amplitude, wavelength, period, and
frequency.
b) Calculate the speed of wave propagation and the speed of a point on the rope located at x = 3 m
at time t = 1 s.
SOLUC: a) ? A = 0.04 m λ = π m T = π/3 sf = 3/π Hz b) v(x = 3 m, t = 1 s) = 0.21 m/s

Problem 11 The equation of a wave on a string is:

y (x,t) = 10 cos (T/3)x sin 2Tt (in SI units)
a) Explain the characteristics of the wave and calculate its period and wavelength. What is the
speed of propagation?
b) Determine the speed of a particle located at the point x = 1.5 m, at time t = 0.25 s. Explain the
result.
SOLUC: a) ? T = 1 s λ = 6 mv = 6 m/s b) v(x = 1.5 m, t = 0.25 s) = 0 m/s

Problem 12º In a taut rope there is a wave with the equation:

y (x,t) = 5·10 -2 cos (10Tx) sin (40Tt) (in SI units)
a) Reason the characteristics of the waves whose superposition gives rise to the given wave and
write their equations.
b) Calculate the distance between nodes and the speed of a point on the rope located at position x
= 1.5·10 -2 m, at time t = 9/8 s.
SOLUC: a) ? b) 10 cm v(x = 1.5.10 -2 m, t = 9/8 s) = -1.78π m/s

Problem 13 The guitar string vibrates according to the equation:

y (x,t) = 0.01 sin (10Tx) cos (200Tt) (in SI units)
a) Indicate what type of wave it is and calculate the amplitude and speed of propagation of the
waves whose superposition can give rise to said wave.
b) What is the energy of a particle on the string located at the point x = 10 cm? Give reasons for
your answer.

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SOLUC: a) ? b) 0 J because……….

Problem 14º A transverse harmonic wave of amplitude A = 5 cm and frequency f = 2 Hz propagates

along a taut rope (along the x axis) with a propagation speed v = 1.2 ms -1 .
a) Write the wave equation.
b) Explain what type of motion is performed by the point on the string located at x = 1 m and
calculate its maximum speed.
SOLUC: a) y(x,t) = 0.05 sin (4πt – 4π/1.2 x) (UI) b) vvib. max. = 0.2π m/s

Problem 15º An antenna emits an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 50 Hz.

a) Calculate its wavelength.
b) Determine the frequency of a sound wave of the same wavelength. c = 3·10 8 ms -1 ; v s = 340 ms -
1

SOLUC: a) λ = 6.10 6 mb) f = 5.6.10 -5 Hz

Problem 16 The visible spectrum in air is between the wavelengths 380 nm (violet) and 780 nm (red).
a) Calculate the frequencies of these extreme radiations. Which of them propagates the fastest?
b) Determine which wavelengths the visible spectrum of water, whose refractive index is 4/3, falls
between.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 3.8.10 14 Hz (red) - 7.9.10 14 Hz (violet) b) 2.85.10 -7 m (violet) – 5.84.10 -7 m (red)

Problem 17º An electromagnetic wave has, in a vacuum, a wavelength of 5·10 -7 m.

a) Determine the frequency and wave number.
b) If said wave enters a certain medium, its speed is reduced to 3c/4. Determine the refractive
index of the medium and the frequency and wavelength in the medium.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) f = 6.10 14 Hz K = 1.26.10 7 rad/mb) n = 1.33 f = 6.10 14 Hz λ = 375 nm

Problem 18º A ray of yellow light, emitted by a sodium lamp, has a wavelength in vacuum of 580·10 -9 m.
a) Determine the propagation speed and wavelength of said light inside a quartz fiber, whose
refractive index is n = 1.5.
b) Can there be values of the angle of incidence for which a beam of light, propagating through the
interior of a quartz fiber, does not exit to the outside? Explain the phenomenon and, if
applicable, calculate the values of the angle of incidence for which it occurs.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) v = 2.10 8 m/s λ = 387 nm b) i > iL = 41.81º

Problem 19º A ray of light passes from water to air with an angle of incidence of 30º with respect to the
normal.
a) Draw the incident and refracted rays on a diagram and calculate the angle of refraction.
b) What should be the angle of incidence so that the refracted ray was parallel to the water-air
separation surface?
(Refractive index of water with respect to air: n = 1.3)
SOLUC: a) t = 40.54º b) i = iL = 50.28º

Problem 20º The visible spectrum has frequencies between 4·10 14 Hz and 7·10 14 Hz.
a) Determine the wavelengths corresponding to these frequencies in a vacuum.
b) Do these values of frequencies and wavelengths change when light propagates through water?

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If yes, calculate the corresponding values.

(Refractive index of water with respect to air: n = 1.3) ; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 430 – 750 nm b) Frequency no; The wavelength yes: 330 – 575 nm

Problem 21º When a ray of light propagates through water (n = 1.33) it emerges into the air for certain
values of the angle of incidence and not for others.
a) Explain this phenomenon and indicate for what values of the angle of incidence the ray
emerges.
b) Would a similar event be expected if light passes from air to water?
SOLUTION: a) i < iL = 48.75º b) ?

Problem 22º A diamond is submerged in water and a ray of light falls at 30º on one of its faces.
a) Make a diagram of the path that the light ray follows and determine the angle at which it is
refracted within the diamond.
b) What is the limiting angle for light passing from diamond to water? What if the diamond passes
through the water?
n (diamond) = 2.41 ; n (water) = 1.33
SOLUC: a) t = 16.02º b) iL = 33.5º; From water to diamond the phenomenon of total reflection would not occur

Problem 23º A sheet of glass with parallel faces, a refractive index of 1.54 and a thickness of 10 cm, is
placed in the air. A ray of light falls on one of its faces with an angle of incidence of 30º.
a) Make a diagram of the path of the ray and determine the time it takes to traverse the sheet.
b) At what angle is the ray refracted on the second face? Compare this result with the angle of
incidence.
c = 3 X 10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 5,42.10 -10 sb) t = 30º

Problem 24 A ray of yellow light, emitted by a sodium vapor lamp, has a wavelength in vacuum of 5.9 X
10 -9 m.
a) Determine the frequency, speed of propagation and wavelength of light inside an optical fiber of
refractive index 1.5.
b) What is the minimum angle of incidence so that a ray that hits the inner wall of the fiber does
not go out to the outside? What is this angle called?
c = 3 X 10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) f = 5.1.10 6 Hz v = 2.10 8 m/s λ = 392 nm b) i = iL = 41.8º

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Problem 25º A harmonic electromagnetic wave of 20 MHz propagates in a vacuum, in the positive
direction of the OX axis. The electric field of said wave has the direction of the OZ axis and its amplitude
is 3 · 10 - 3 N/C
a) Write the expression for the electric field E (x, t), knowing that at x = 0 its module is maximum
when t = 0.
b) Represent on a graph the fields E (t) and B (t) and the direction of wave propagation. c = 3 · 10 8
ms – 1
SOLUC: a) E(x,t) = 3.10 -3 sin ( 40.10 6 π t - 2π/15 x + π/2 ) E in N/C; t in s; x in m

Problem 26º A beam of monochromatic light of frequency 5 •10 14 Hz propagates through the air.
a) Explain what characteristics of light change when it penetrates a sheet of glass and calculate the
wavelength.
b) What must be the angle of incidence on the sheet so that the reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other?
c = 3 • 10 8 ms -1 ; n glass = 1.2
SOLUC: a) λ = 5.10 -7 m = 500 nm = 500 A b) i = 50.19º

Problem 27º A ray of monochromatic light emerges from the inside of a glass block into the air. If the
angle of incidence is 19.5º and the angle of refraction is 30º.
a) Determine the refractive index and the speed of propagation of light in the glass.
b) As you know, there can be angles of incidence for which there is no refracted ray; That is, no
light comes out of the glass. Explain this phenomenon and calculate the angles for which it
occurs.
c = 3 10 8 ms -1 ; n air = 1
SOLUTION: a) n = 1.5 v = 2.10 8 m/s b) i > iL = 41.8º

Problem 28º A sheet of glass, with a refractive index of 1.5,

with parallel faces and a thickness of 10 cm, is placed in the
air. A ray of light falls on one of its faces, as shown in the
figure. Calculate:
a) The height h and the distance d marked in the
figure.
b) The time it takes for light to pass through the sheet.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUTION: a) h = 11.5 cm d = 7.1 cm b) t = 6.12.10 -10 s

Problem 29º A ray of light that propagates through a medium at a speed of 165 km s -1 penetrates
another medium in which the speed of propagation is 230 km s -1 .
a) Draw the path that the ray follows in the second medium and calculate the angle it makes
with the normal if the angle of incidence is 30º.
b) In which medium is the refractive index greater? Justify the answer.
SOLUC: a) t = 44.18º b) ?

Problem 30 a) What is the wavelength of a radio station that broadcasts with a frequency of 100 MHz?
b) If the emitted waves propagated through water, reason whether they would have the same frequency
and the same wavelength. In the event that any of these quantities vary, determine its value.
c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; nagua = 1.3
SOLUC: a) λ = 3 mb) λ = 2.3 m

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Problem 31º A beam of light traveling through the air falls on a glass block. The reflected and refracted
beams form angles of 30º and 20º, respectively, with the normal to the surface of the block.
a) Calculate the speed of light in glass and the refractive index of said material.
b) Explain what the limit angle is and determine its value for the case described. c = 3 · 10 8 ms -
1

SOLUC: a) v = 2.05.10 8 m/sn = 1.46 b) There is no total reflection

Problem 32º A light ray that propagates in the air hits the water of a pond at an angle of 20º with the
normal.
a) What angle will the reflected and refracted rays form with each other?
b) By varying the angle of incidence, could the phenomenon of total reflection occur? Give
reasons for your answer.
n air = 1 ; n water = 1.33

SOLUC: a) 145.1º b) ?

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TOPIC 8. GEOMETRIC OPTICS

1. Introduction and basic concepts.

2. Formation of images in plane mirrors.
3. Formation of images in concave spherical mirrors.
4. Image formation in convex spherical mirrors.
5. Convergent and divergent lenses.
6. Image formation in converging lenses.
7. Image formation in divergent lenses.
8. Equations of thin lenses.

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1. INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

The optical phenomena of reflection and refraction can be interpreted if we consider only
that light is made up of rectilinear rays that come from an emitting focus. Through the approximation
of rays, these phenomena, treated geometrically in a simplified way that facilitates their
interpretation, are the object of study of geometric optics .

Geometric optics is the part of optics that studies the path of light rays through mirrors and
lenses, and the formation of images in these optical systems.

Among the basic concepts of geometric optics we highlight:

• Optical system: It is a set of surfaces that separate transparent, homogeneous and isotropic
media of different refractive index.
• Real image of an object point: It is the image formed by an optical system by intersection at a
point of the converging rays coming from the point object after passing through the optical
system.
• Virtual image of an object point: It is the image formed by intersection at a point of the
extensions of the divergent rays formed after passing through the optical system.
• Image of an extensive object: The image of an extensive object is formed by the point images
of each of the points of the object. It can be real (to see it it must be registered on a screen)
or virtual (it can be seen directly and cannot be registered on a screen).
• Diopter: It is a surface that separates two transparent media with different refractive index.

Along with the previous concepts, we must take into account the following considerations:
o Light rays are reversible, that is, the path taken by a ray to go from one point A 1 to another
A 2 after passing through an optical system is the same as that taken to go from A 2 to A 1
after passing through the same system .
o The rays are drawn starting from the object point as if it were the light source.

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2. IMAGE FORMATION IN PLANE MIRRORS

Mirrors are smooth, polished surfaces capable of reflecting light rays. They can be flat or
spherical depending on the surface.

To construct the image of an extended object formed by a flat mirror, we choose the extreme
points of it and from them we make two rays:
o A ray perpendicular to the mirror surface that will be reflected without changing direction.
o A ray that forms a certain angle with the normal to the mirror that will be reflected with the
same angle.

Mirr
flat
or

object and image

1 _ and'
d d' optical axis

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3. IMAGE FORMATION IN CONCAVE SPHERICAL MIRRORS

A spherical mirror is concave if the reflecting surface is the inner face of the mirror.
In spherical mirrors we must take into account the following elements:
• Center of curvature, C: center of the spherical surface. This point has the particularity that
any ray that hits the mirror passing through it, does so with an angle of incidence of 0º and
therefore will be reflected in the mirror in the same direction but in the opposite direction.
• Vertex, O: vertex of the spherical surface.
• Optical axis: straight line that passes through the center of curvature and through the
vertex.
• Focus, F: is located at the midpoint between the center of curvature, C, and the vertex, O,
that is, ar/2 of the mirror vertex. The distance between O and F is called the focal length f
and its value is half the radius of curvature r of the mirror.

The importance of the focus is twofold because:

• º. Any ray that falls on the mirror parallel to the optical axis will be reflected passing
through the focus.
• º. Any ray that hits the mirror passing through the focus will be reflected parallel to the
optical axis.

Figura 8.2
Elements of a concave spherical mirror

To graphically construct the image obtained in a concave spherical mirror, we will trace two of the
following three rays that start from the upper end of the object:

o A ray that passes through the center of curvature C and is reflected returning along its path,
without deviating.
either A ray parallel to the y axis that is therefore reflected in the direction passing
through the focus F.
either A ray whose direction passes through the focus F and which, therefore, is
reflected parallel to the
axis.

Depending on the position of the object with respect to the mirror, five cases can occur:

1st. Image of an object located at a distance greater than the radius of curvature (d > r).

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Figura 8.3
Image of an object located at a distance greater than the radius of curvature of the mirror (d > r)

The image given by a concave spherical mirror of an object that is at a distance greater than the radius
of the mirror has the following characteristics:
o It is a real image because it is formed by the intersection of the reflected rays and not their
extensions.
o It is an inverted image because it has the same direction as the object but in the opposite
direction.
either The image is smaller than the object, that is, y' < y.
either The image is formed at a closer distance from the mirror than the object is. that is, d' <
d.

2nd. Image of an object located at the center of curvature (d = r).

Figura 8.4
Image of an object located at the center of curvature of the mirror (d = r)

The image given by a concave spherical mirror of an object that is at a distance greater than the radius
of the mirror has the following characteristics:
o It is a real image because it is formed by the intersection of the reflected rays and not their
extensions.
o It is an inverted image because it has the same direction as the object but in the opposite
direction.
o The image has the same size as the object, that is, y' = y.
o The image is formed in the same place as the object. that is, d' = d.

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3rd. Image of an object located between the center of curvature and the focus (f < d < r).

Figure 8.5
Image of an object located between the center of curvature and the focus of the mirror (f < d < r)

The image given by a concave spherical mirror of an object that is between the center of curvature and
the focus has the following characteristics:
o It is a real image because it is formed by the intersection of the reflected rays and not their
extensions.
o It is an inverted image because it has the same direction as the object but in the opposite
direction.
o The image larger than the object, that is, y' > y.
o The image is formed at a greater distance from the mirror than the object is. that is, d' > d.

4th. Image of an object located in focus (d = f). No image is formed or it is formed at an infinite
distance, since the reflected rays are parallel and do not intersect.

Figure 8.6
Image of an object located at the focus of the mirror (d = f)

If the object is in focus, the reflected rays come out parallel to each other and do not intersect. No
image is formed or it is said that the image is formed at infinity.

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5th. Image of an object located between the focus and the vertex of the mirror (d < f).

Figure 8.7
Image of an object located between the focus and the vertex of the mirror (d < f)

The image given by a concave spherical mirror of an object that is located between the focus and the
vertex of the mirror (d < f) has the following characteristics:
o It is a virtual image because it is formed by the intersection of the extensions of the reflected rays.
either Is a right
image because it is oriented in the same direction and direction as he object.
either The image is larger than the object, that is, y' > y.
either The image is
formed at a closer distance from the mirror than the object is. that is to say, d' < d.

Figure 8.8
Image of an object located at different distances from the vertex of a concave mirror

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4. IMAGE FORMATION IN CONVEX SPHERICAL MIRRORS

In a convex mirror the center of curvature. C, and the focus, F, are on the other side of the
mirrored surface.

Figure 8.9
Elements of a convex spherical mirror

To graphically construct the image obtained in a convex spherical mirror of an object, the same
procedure is followed as for concave mirrors, that is, we will trace two of the following three rays that
start from the upper end of the object:

o A ray that passes through the center of curvature C and is reflected returning along its path,
without deviating.
either A ray parallel to the y axis that is therefore reflected in the direction passing
through the focus F.
either A ray whose direction passes through the focus F and which, therefore, is
reflected parallel to the
axis.

The image that a convex spherical mirror gives of an object always has the same characteristics,
regardless of the distance at which the object is from the mirror, and they are the following:
o It is a virtual image because it is formed by the intersection of the extensions of the reflected
rays.
either It is a straight image because it is oriented in the same direction and sense as the
object.
either The image is smaller than the object, that is, y' < y.

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Convex mirrors are often used in car rearview mirrors and at intersections or curves with poor
visibility due to their wide field of vision and the fact that they always offer virtual images.

5. LENSES

They are optical systems formed by a transparent medium with a different refractive index than
the external medium and which is limited by two surfaces or diopters, one of which, at least, must be
spherical.
Depending on the shape of the limiting surfaces, the lenses can be converging or divergent.

• Converging lenses: they are thicker in the central part than at the ends.
Schematically they are represented with a line ending in arrowheads.

a. Biconvex
b. Planoconvex
c. Convergent meniscus
d. Representation

Figure 8.11
Converging lenses

• Divergent lenses: they are thicker at the ends than in the central part. Schematically they are
represented with a straight line ending in inverted arrowheads.

Figure 8.12 Divergent lenses

6. IMAGING IN THIN CONVERGING LENSES

A thin lens is one in which the thickness is negligible compared to the radius of curvature of the
spherical surfaces that make up the lens. Its characteristic elements are the following:

• Optical center, O: point of the lens that has the property that any ray that passes through it
passes through the lens without deflection. It coincides with the geometric center of the
lens.

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• Optical axis: straight line perpendicular to the lens that passes through its optical center.
• Object focus, F: point on the optical axis that meets the property that all rays whose
direction passes through this point emerge from the lens parallel to the optical axis. The
distance f from the center of the lens O to point F is the object focal length .
• Image focus, F': point on the optical axis where the directions of all refracted rays that come
from incident rays parallel to the optical axis converge. The distance f' from the center of the
lens O to point F' is called the image focal length .

Figure 8.13
Characteristic elements of a converging lens

In thin lenses the two focal lengths are equal if the same material medium is on both sides of the
lens; thus, f = f' = f.

The graphic determination of the image given by a converging lens of a linear object, located
perpendicularly on the optical axis, is carried out by tracing two of the following three light rays that
start from the end of the object:

1st. A ray that hits the lens parallel to the axis passes through it and, once refracted, the ray
passes through the image focus F'.
2nd. An incident ray that passes through the optical center O, passes through it, and is refracted
without suffering any deviation.
3rd. An incident ray that passes through the object focus F and emerges from the lens parallel to
the optical axis once refracted.

The characteristics, size and nature of the image obtained in a converging lens depend on the
position of the object on the optical axis, and five different situations can occur:

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a) Image of an object located at a distance greater than twice the focal length (d > 2f)

Figure 8.14
Image of an object located at a distance greater than twice the focal length of a converging lens

The image given by a converging lens of an object located at a distance greater than twice the
focal length (d > 2f) has the following characteristics:

o It is a real image because it is formed by the intersection of refracted rays.

o It is an inverted image because it is oriented in the same direction as the object but in
Wrong Way.
o The image is smaller than the object, that is, y' < y.
o The image is at a closer distance from the lens than the object, that is, d' < d.

b) Image of an object located at a distance equal to twice the focal length (d = 2f)

Figure 8.15
Image of an object located at the same distance as twice the focal length of a converging lens

The image given by a converging lens of an object located at a distance equal to twice the focal
length (d = 2f) has the following characteristics:

o Isa real image because it is formed by the intersection of rays refracted.

o Isan inverted image because it is oriented from the same address as heobject but in
Wrong Way.
o The image is the same size as the object, it is say, y' = y.
either The image is
from the lens at the same distance as the object, that is, d' = d.

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c) Image of an object located between twice the focal length and the focus (f < d < 2f)

Image of an object located between twice the focal length and the focus of a converging lens

The image given by a converging lens of an object located between twice the focal length and the
focus (f < d < 2f), has the following characteristics:

either Is a real image because it is

formed byintersection of the rays refracted.
either Isan inverted
image because it is oriented in the same direction as heobject but in
Wrong Way.
either The image is larger than the object, it is
say, y' > y.
either The image is further away from
the lens than the object is say, d' > d.

d) Image of an object located in focus (d = f)

•---------•—
2F F 2F'

Figure 8.17
Image of an object located at the focus of a converging lens

If the object is at the focus of the lens d = f, either no image is formed or an infinite distance is
formed.
e) Image of an object located between the focus and the optical center of the lens (d < f)

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AND' AND
AI
-and- ---and-- .-----and- -•-----
2F FO F 2F'
AND'

Figure 8.18
Image of an object located between the focus and the center of a converging lens

The image given by a converging lens of an object located between the focus and the center (d <
f) has the following characteristics:

o It is a virtual image because it is formed by the intersection of the prolongation of the refracted
rays.
either It is a straight image because it is oriented in the same direction and direction as the
object.
either The image is larger than the object, that is, y' > y. In this case, the call is given
magnifying glass effect.
o The image is at a greater distance from the lens than the object, that is, d' > d.

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7. IMAGING IN THIN DIVERGENT LENSES

A diverging lens has the same elements as a converging lens, but in divergent lenses the object and
image foci are inverted (see figure 10.17):

The graphic determination of the image given by a divergent lens of a linear object, situated
perpendicularly on the optical axis, is carried out in the same way as for a converging lens, that is, by
tracing two of the following three light rays that start from the end of the object. :

1st. A ray that hits the lens parallel to the axis, passes through it and, once refracted, the ray
passes through the image focus F' (in reality it is the extension of the refracted ray).
2nd. An incident ray that passes through the optical center O, passes through it, and is
refracted without suffering any deviation.
3rd. An incident ray that passes through the object focus F (actually directed toward the object
focus) and that emerges from the lens parallel to the optical axis once refracted.

The image given by a divergent lens of an object always has the following characteristics,
regardless of the distance at which the object is from the lens:

o It is a virtual image because it is formed by the intersection of the extensions of the refracted
ones.
either It is a straight image because it is oriented in the same direction and sense as the
object.
either The image is smaller than the object, that is, y' < y.

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o The image is at a greater distance from the lens than the object, that is, d' > d.

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The following diagrams show the different cases described above.

Figure 8.21
Image of an object in converging and diverging lenses

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8. EQUATIONS OF THIN LENSES

To quantitatively study Geometric Optics, certain sign criteria must be established. For the case at
hand, the criterion is the following:

1st. In the horizontal axis, optical axis, the vertex of the lens is taken as the origin of coordinates. In
this way, the distances are positive if they are measured to the right of the vertex of the lens, and
negative otherwise.

2nd. In the vertical axis, perpendicular to the optical axis, the distances are positive if they are
measured upwards and negative otherwise.

Furthermore, as a general criterion, it is established that to represent the different characteristics of

the object and the image, the same letter is used, but adding the “prima” sign to it in the case of the
image.

It is very common to use s and s' to identify, respectively, the positions (distances from the
vertex of the lens) of the object and image on the optical axis.

y and y' are usually used for the size of the object and image, respectively.

And, finally, f and f' are used to represent, respectively, the object and image focal lengths,
which in thin lenses have the same absolute value since the object foci F and image F' are
symmetrically located on the optical axis with respect to the vertex of the lens.

Figura 8.22
Sign criterion in converging lenses

Figura 8.23
Sign criterion in divergent lenses

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To characterize a lens, ophthalmologists and opticians use POWER instead of focal length.

The power of a lens is the inverse of the image focal length , as long as the latter is expressed in
meters.

Its unit is m -1 and is called diopter . A converging lens whose image focal length is 40 cm has a power
of + 2.5 diopters. If the lens were divergent, its power would be – 2.5 diopters, since its image focal
length would be – 40 cm.

For thin lenses there are two equations: one relates the positions of the object and image (called the
Gauss equation), and the other relates the sizes of the object and image, that is, the magnifications.

GAUSS FORMULA or FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF THIN LENSES .

The equation for thin lenses that relates the positions of the object and image on the optical axis is:

111 1 11

- - H.H f' s'

F
From the Gaussian equation for thin lenses we can solve for the inverse of the image distance:

111
--- —------1- -
s'f 's

And this expression clearly shows that only in converging lenses can real images be achieved. To do
this, it is enough to reason with the sign criteria.

The thin lens equation that gives us hands of object and image is:
relate the ta

y 's ' ys

Example 1

a) Can we easily distinguish a converging lens from a divergent lens? As?

b) Calculate the focal length of a lens whose power is -2 diopters. What type of lens is it?

Example 2

An object 1 cm high is placed on the optical axis of a converging lens, 50 cm from its optical center. If

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the lens power is 4 diopters:

a) Calculate the position of the image and the focal length of the lens. Consider that the lens is
placed in the air.
b) Calculate the size of the image.

Example 3

An object is located 80 cm to the left of a diverging lens and the image is located 40 cm to the left of
the lens.

a) State the characteristics of the image and determine the focal length of the lens.
b) If the object has a size of 3 cm, calculate the size of the image.

Example 4

The objective (converging lens) of a photographic camera has a focal length of + 50 mm. With this
camera, a photograph is taken of a child who is 1.2 m tall and who is standing 2 m away. Calculate:

a) The distance that must be between the lens and the film so that a sharp image is formed on
it.
b) The height of the child's image in the film.

ISSUES
Question 1 Can a real image be formed with a convex mirror? Reason your answer using the
diagrams that are considered appropriate.
Question 2 a) Indicate what is meant by focus and focal length of a mirror. What is a virtual
image? b) Using a ray diagram, describe the image formed by a convex mirror for an object
located between the center of curvature and the focus.
Question 3 a) If we want to see an enlarged image of an object, what type of mirror do we have
to use? Explain, with the help of a diagram, the characteristics of the image formed. b) Snow
reflects almost all the light that falls on its surface. Why don't we see ourselves reflected in it?
Question 4 a) Explain what a real image and a virtual image are and point out any observable
differences between them. b) Can a virtual image be formed with a concave mirror? Reason your
answer using the graphic constructions you consider appropriate.
Question 5 Draw the course of the rays and indicate the type of image formed with a converging
lens if:
e) The object distance, s, is equal to twice the focal length, f.
f) The object distance is equal to the focal length.
Question 6 It is common to use convex mirrors as rear-view mirrors in cars and trucks or in
warehouse surveillance, in order to provide a greater angle of vision with a mirror of reasonable
size.
a) Explain with the help of a diagram the characteristics of the image formed in this

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type of mirrors.
b) These mirrors usually indicate: “Attention, objects are closer than they seem.” Why
do they seem to be further apart?
Question 7 a) Explain the formation of images and their characteristics in a divergent lens. b) Can
virtual images be formed with converging lenses? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 8 a) Formation of images in mirrors. b) Manufacturers of automobile rearview mirrors
warn that objects may be closer than they appear in the mirror. What type of mirror do they use
and why does this effect occur? Justify your answer using a ray diagram.
Question 9 a) Construct the image formed with a converging lens of an object located at a
distance, s, from the lens equal to twice the focal length, f, and comment on its characteristics.
b) Can virtual images be formed with converging lenses? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 10 a) Explain the formation of images by a convex mirror and, as an example, consider an
object located between the center of curvature and the focus. b) Explain the differences between
virtual image and real image. Explain whether a real image can be formed with a convex mirror.

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ISSUES
Problem 1. An object is in front of a plane mirror at a distance of 4 m from it.
a) Graphically construct the image and explain its characteristics.
b) Repeat the previous section if the flat mirror is replaced by a concave one with a radius of
2 m.
Problem 2 a) An object is at a distance of 0.6 m from a thin converging lens of 0.2 m focal length.
a) Graphically construct the image that is formed and explain its characteristics.
Repeat the previous section if the object is placed 0.1 from the lens.

Problem 3 Construct the image of an object located at a distance between f and 2f from a lens:
a) Convergent.
b) Divergent.
Explain in both cases the characteristics of the image.

Problem 4 Build the image graphically and explain its characteristics to:
a) An object located 0.5 m in front of a thin biconvex lens of 1 m focal length.
b) An object located at a distance less than the focal distance of a concave mirror.
Problem 5th Graphically construct the image of:
a) An object located 0.5 m away from a concave mirror of 2 m radius.
b) An object located at the same distance in front of a plane mirror.
Explain the characteristics of the image in each case and compare both situations.

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TOPIC 9. PARTICLE WAVE DUALITY

1. Theories about the nature of light

2. Black body radiation: Planck hypothesis (optional)
3. Photoelectric effect
4. Atomic Spectra: Bohr's Postulate (optional)
5. Wave-particle duality: De Broglie hypothesis
6. Heisenberg's uncertainty or indeterminacy principle

ISSUES
ISSUES

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INTRODUCTION

At the end of the 19th century it was thought that any physical phenomenon could be
explained with the three basic pillars of what would later be called Classical Physics: Classical
Mechanics, Thermodynamics and Electromagnetism. However, the discovery of a series of
phenomena that could not be explained with the ideas of Classical Physics marked the beginning of its
crisis from which it would emerge thanks to the opening of new exciting paths unsuspected until
then. The so-called Modern Physics was deployed in three directions: the theory of Relativity,
Quantum Mechanics and Nuclear Physics.

The main phenomena that questioned Classical Physics were thermal radiation, the
photoelectric effect and atomic spectra. These three phenomena were key to the development of the
so-called quantum revolution.

On the other hand, until the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific community
considered the electron as a particle and electromagnetic radiation as a wave. However,
electromagnetic radiation behaves, when interacting with matter, like a set of corpuscles called
photons. This fact, along with other experimental results obtained around 1900, was not in
accordance with what had been established until then by the scientific community. This led physicists
of the time to develop a new theory, quantum mechanics . In this topic we will describe two
characteristic aspects of this theory: wave-particle duality and the indeterminacy principle .

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1. THEORIES ABOUT THE NATURE OF LIGHT

The determination of the nature of light has given rise to one of the most exciting
controversies in the history of Science. The various hypotheses, formulated at different historical
moments to justify the phenomena known until then, were discarded or modified as new knowledge
was achieved.

The first scientific hypotheses worthy of attention emerged simultaneously during the 17th
century and were proposed by two great scientists: the Englishman Isaac Newton (1642 1727) and the
Dutch Christian Huygens (1929-1695). The two hypotheses, apparently contradictory to each other,
have been called, respectively, Newton's corpuscular theory and Huygens's wave theory , and have
served as the basis for all subsequent opinions.

Newton's corpuscular theory

In his work Optics , published in 1705, Newton stated that light has a corpuscular nature :
light sources emit tiny particles that propagate in a straight line in all directions and, when they
collide with our eyes, produce the sensation of light.
The corpuscles, different for each color, are capable of passing through transparent media
and are reflected in opaque bodies.
This hypothesis justified phenomena such as the rectilinear propagation of light and
reflection, but did not clarify others such as refraction: why are some luminous corpuscles reflected
by the surface of a body at the same time as others penetrate it by refracting?
In order to justify this, he assumed that light traveled at a higher speed in liquids and glass
than in air, which was later proven to be false.

Huygens wave theory

Prior to Newton, Huygens, in his work Treaty of Light , published in 1690, proposed that light
consists of the propagation of a wave disturbance of the medium. Huygens believed that these were
longitudinal waves, similar to sound waves, which require a special medium for their propagation, the
ether , both rigid and sufficiently elastic, which occupies everything.
This hypothesis easily explained certain phenomena such as reflection, refraction and double
refraction, discovered at that time.
Despite this, it was not commonly accepted. Most scientists adhered to Newton's corpuscular
theory, given its prestige. Likewise, the existence of ether and its special properties was not fully
accepted either.
Another added difficulty lay in the fact that typically wave phenomena such as diffraction had
not yet been observed in light. Today we know that the wavelength of light is so small that these
phenomena, although they occur, are not easy to observe.

Fresnel wave theory

At the beginning of the 19th century, various advances revalued the wave hypothesis of light.
Some of them were: the experiences, in 1801, of the English doctor and physicist T. Young (1773-
1829) on luminous interferences ; the discovery, in 1808, of the polarization of light or the
experiences, in 1815, of the French physicist A. J. Fresnel (1788-1827) on diffraction .
Fresnel showed the insufficiency of corpuscular theory to justify these discoveries and made a
new proposal: light is made up of transverse waves .
Later, in 1850, the French physicist J. Foucault (1819-1868) measured the speed of light in
water and found that it was lower than in a vacuum, which invalidated Newton's justification for
refraction.
The corpuscular hypothesis, after 150 years of acceptance, was practically abandoned.

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Maxwell's electromagnetic theory

In 1864, the Scottish physicist and mathematician J. c. Maxwell (1831-1879) established the
electromagnetic theory of light, which would eventually become the classical theory of light.
Anticipating the experimental verification of the existence of electromagnetic waves, carried out in
1887 by the German physicist H. Hertz (1857-1894) proposed that light is not a mechanical wave that
requires any material medium, including ether, but a high-frequency electromagnetic waveform .
Therefore, light waves consist of the propagation, without the need for any material support, of an
electric field and a magnetic field, perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation.
This theory was generally accepted and, apparently, could be considered the definitive theory
about the nature of light.

Corpuscular nature of light according to Einstein

However, around 1900, three phenomena related to the interaction of electromagnetic

radiation with matter appeared that cannot be explained by the wave theory, but can be explained by
the corpuscular theory. These three phenomena are: BLACK BODY RADIATION, THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT and THE COMPTON EFFECT .

Dual nature of light

Given this situation, a new theory is proposed about the nature of light and electromagnetic
radiation in general, which encompasses the previous two. This new theory, called wave-particle
duality, encompasses the two previous theories and accepts that light has a double nature:
corpuscular and wave . Thus, light will manifest its character as an electromagnetic wave in typically
wave-like phenomena (reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, etc.) or its corpuscular
character in its interaction with matter or in certain energy exchange phenomena (photoelectric
effect).

However, light does not manifest both characteristics simultaneously, since in a specific
phenomenon it behaves as a wave or as a particle; They are, therefore, complementary behaviors.

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2. BLACK BODY RADIATION: PLANCK'S HYPOTHESIS (Non-mandatory)

When an iron bar is heated, it changes color as its temperature increases: at first it only emits
infrared radiation, which we do not see; Then it begins to emit red light and, at higher temperatures,
it appears white, and even bluish white.
The electromagnetic energy emitted by a body due to its temperature is called thermal
radiation .
This thermal radiation varies with both temperature and body composition. There is,
however, a set of bodies whose thermal radiation only depends on its temperature. They are called
black bodies and are considered both ideal emitters and absorbers of light. Its radiation has the
following characteristics:

- The total power P emitted at temperature T by a surface S complies with the Stefan-Boltzmann
law :

P = σ·T 4 ·S

where σ = 5.6703·10 -8 W·m -2 ·K -4 is the Boltzmann constant.

The wavelength λ max for which the greatest energy emission occurs is inversely proportional
to the temperature T, according to Wien's displacement law :

λ max ·T = 2.897755·10 -3 m·K

Planck hypothesis

In the early 1900s two English physicists, Rayleigh and Jeans, used the principles of classical
electromagnetism and thermodynamics to describe blackbody radiation. They obtained a
mathematical expression (Rayleigh-Jeans law) in which the energy of radiation decreases with
increasing wavelength, but increases indefinitely with decreasing wavelength.
On the other hand, according to experimental results, the energy tends to zero for very small
wavelengths, such as those corresponding to ultraviolet, which was the highest energy area of the
electromagnetic spectrum known at that time. This failure of classical theory was so important that it
was called the ultraviolet catastrophe .

Wavelength of the emitted radiation

Fig. 9.1

At the end of that same year, the German physicist Max Planck (1858-1947) formulated the
following hypotheses as a starting point to explain black body radiation:

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- The atoms that emit the radiation behave as harmonic oscillators.

- Each oscillator absorbs or emits radiation energy in an amount proportional to its oscillation
frequency f:

E 0 = h·f

where h = 6.625·10 -34 J·s is Planck's constant.

Thus, the total energy emitted or absorbed by each atomic oscillator can only have an integer
number n of energy portions E 0 :

E = n·E 0 = n·h·f (n = 1, 2, 3, …)

The energy packets h·f were called quanta , so the energy of the oscillators is said to be
quantized and n is a quantum number .
By developing this quantum hypothesis, Planck obtained an expression that allowed him to
reproduce the energy distribution observed experimentally (fig. 8.1).

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3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: EINSTEIN'S THEORY

3.1 Definition and experimental results

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons by a metal when electromagnetic

radiation corresponding to the visible spectrum falls on it.

Figure 9.2

This phenomenon was discovered by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894). In
1887, Hertz discovered that when certain metal surfaces were exposed to the action of light (visible or
ultraviolet), they released electrons (called photoelectrons). This phenomenon is called the
photoelectric effect .

Experimentally, the following results are observed for the photoelectric effect:

1st. The photoelectric effect in a metal does not occur for any incident radiation.

2nd. The photoelectric effect in a metal only occurs if the incident radiation has a frequency
equal to or greater than a certain value called THRESHOLD FREQUENCY OR OWN FREQUENCY
OF THE METAL, f 0 .

3rd. The threshold frequency is different for each metal.

4th. Below the threshold frequency the metal does not emit electrons no matter how much
we increase the intensity of the incident radiation, but, if the incident radiation has a
frequency equal to or greater than the threshold frequency, f 0 , the number of
photoelectrons emitted increases with increasing the intensity of the incident radiation.

5th. It has never been possible to measure a delay time between the illumination of the metal
and the emission of photoelectrons.

3.2 Failure of the wave theory

The wave theory of light cannot explain this phenomenon for three fundamental reasons:

1st. For the wave model there should be no threshold frequency, that is, any frequency
should be used to extract electrons from a metal; for this it would be enough to increase the
intensity of the incident radiation sufficiently.

2nd. If the frequency f of the incident light is greater than the threshold frequency f 0 , the
number of electrons emitted is proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation.

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However, its maximum kinetic energy is independent of the intensity of light, which has no
explanation in classical theory.

3rd. According to classical theory, if the intensity of the light is very weak, there must be a
time delay between the moment the light hits the metal surface and the emission of
photoelectrons.

3.3 Einstein's quantum theory

In 1905, the German physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) gave a satisfactory explanation of
the photoelectric effect using the corpuscular model of light, based on Planck quanta.

Thus, to explain the photoelectric effect, Einstein proposed that:

1st. Light is made up of particles called photons.

2nd. The amount of energy of each photon only depends on the frequency f of the
electromagnetic radiation to which it belongs through the expression:

E = h·f [9.1]
Being h the so-called PLANCK CONSTANT which is worth 6.63.10 -34 Js
(As we see, Einstein considers light to be formed by quanta or packets of energy)

3rd. When radiation hits a certain metal, the energy of each photon E = h·f is completely
absorbed by an electron in the metal.

In this way, Einstein's quantum theory answers the aspects of the photoelectric effect that
have no explanation from the wave point of view:

1st. When a photon is absorbed by an electron in the metal, the first transmits all its energy
hf to the second and, if this energy is equal to or greater than the ionization energy of the
metal (also called work of extraction or work function), the electron can leave the metal, but
if the energy of the incident photon is lower, the electron will not be able to leave the metal
and the photoelectric effect will not occur.

2nd. The threshold frequency f 0 is the frequency of that radiation whose photons have an
energy E = hf 0 , equal to the ionization energy of the metal or extraction work W ext. , that is, it
is the minimum frequency with which the metal must be irradiated so that photoelectrons are
emitted.
h·f 0 = W ext. [9.2]

3rd. If the incident radiation has a frequency f lower than the threshold f 0 , f < f 0 , the energy
of the photons of said radiation is lower than the work of metal extraction, hf < W ext = hf 0 ,
and therefore, the Photons cannot impart enough energy to the electrons in the metal to
make them leave it, even if the intensity of the incident radiation increases. If the intensity of

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the incident radiation increases, what increases is the number of incident photons, but not
their energy, and that is why the photoelectric effect does not occur.

4th. If the metal is illuminated with radiation with a frequency higher than the threshold, f > f
0 , the photons of said radiation will produce the photoelectric effect since its photons have an
energy greater than the work of extraction of the metal, hf > W ext = hf 0 , By increasing the
intensity of the incident light, the energy of its photons does not increase, E = hf, but rather
the number of incident photons increases proportionally and, therefore, the number of
photoelectrons emitted by the metal but not the energy kinetics of them.

5th. Because the energy needed to extract an electron is supplied in concentrated packets
(photons), the existence of a time delay does not make sense.

6th. When a photon of the incident radiation is completely absorbed by an electron in the
metal, the energy balance is as follows:

Energy of the incident photon = Work of extraction + Kinetic energy of the e

h. f = h. f 0 + -m e . v2 [9.3]
_________________V ___AND__AND

The above equation is called EINSTEIN'S EQUATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

When Einstein published his theory in 1905, there were no experimental data to confirm it.
We had to wait for the work of the American physicist Robert Millikan (1868-1953), carried out
between 1914 and 1916, to have sufficient data. At this moment Einstein's photoelectric equation
[9.3] was demonstrated.

Example 1
The threshold frequency for Na is 4.39.10 14 Hz.
a) What does this value mean?
b) Calculate the threshold wavelength of Na and interpret the result.
c) Calculate the work of sodium extraction.
d) The sodium is illuminated with a radiation of 5.5.10 14 Hz, will a photoelectric effect
occur? because?
e) If the answer to the previous section was affirmative, calculate the kinetic energy and
speed of the emitted photoelectrons.
f) Knowing that the difference in electrical potential that exists is called braking potential .
What to apply to brake and stop the photoelectrons that are torn from the metal,
calculate the stopping potential of Na.

Example 2
The threshold frequency for a given metal is within the green spectrum. Reasonably explain if:

a) Will the photoelectric effect occur in the metal if we illuminate it with blue light?
b) What if we illuminate it with yellow light?

4. ATOMIC SPECTRA: BOHR'S POSTULATES (Not mandatory)

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At the end of the 19th century, a lot of data was available on the light emitted by the atoms of
a gas excited by an electric discharge. Spectroscopic analysis of this radiation showed the appearance
of a discrete set of lines of different wavelengths (Figure 8.4). The discrete set of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the atoms of a gas is called the emission spectrum and is
characteristic of each element.

Figure 9.3

Similarly, atoms absorb some specific frequencies when illuminated with electromagnetic
radiation. In this case, a continuous spectrum is obtained in which dark lines appear in the same
positions as the lines in the emission spectrum; In this way, the corresponding absorption spectrum is
obtained.

Bohr atomic model

One of the most notable applications of energy quantization was carried out by the Danish
physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962). He carefully studied the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, verifying that
he could not interpret it from the point of view of classical theory, so he chose to apply quantum
theory. Thus, he proposed a new atomic model that took into account atomic spectra. According to
this model:

- The electron moves, without emitting or absorbing radiation, in stationary circular orbits that
can only have certain energies and certain radii.

- The electron can only change its orbit by emitting or absorbing a photon with a certain energy
and frequency. The energy of these photons is equal to the difference in energies between
the transition orbits or energy levels (figure 9.4):

ΔE = h·f

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This quantification of energy justifies that the spectral lines are separated, that is, that the
spectrum is discrete.

Energy transitions of electrons between different energy levels Figure 9.4

In the Bohr atom, the natural number, n, or principal quantum number, identifies the
stationary states of the electron. In the hydrogen atom, the state with the lowest energy (n = 1) is
known as the ground state , while the others (n > 1) are excited states .
The electron can emit a photon, going from one energy level to a lower one, or it can absorb
the same photon to go back to the higher energy level. This is the reason why the absorption and
emission spectra contain the same discrete frequencies (Figure 8.5).

Emission and absorption spectra in the electronic transitions of the different energy levels Figure 9.5
5. WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS

As we already know, there are a series of phenomena related to light (blackbody radiation,
the photoelectric effect and the Compton effect) that can only be explained by corpuscular theory.
However, there are other phenomena (polarization, diffraction, interference, etc.) that must be
explained by wave theory.

Given this situation, the question arises as to whether light is a set of waves or a set of
particles. The answer to this question is that light, and in general the rest of electromagnetic
radiation, has a double behavior: as a wave and as a particle (wave-particle duality of light), that is,
the wave model and the corpuscular model. They must be considered as complementary aspects that

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explain the real behavior of light and the rest of electromagnetic radiation.

Could this wave-corpuscle duality be extended to matter?

The answer was given, in 1924, by the French physicist Luis de Broglie (1892-1987). In his
doctoral thesis, he suggested that electrons could have wave characteristics. His hypothesis, known as
the De Broglie hypothesis or postulate , consisted of extending the dual behavior of radiation to
matter, and says the following:

When an electron moves with speed v, it has an associated wave whose wavelength is equal
to Planck's constant divided by the momentum or linear momentum of the electron:

[9.4]

As we see in De Broglie's postulate, two physical magnitudes of the electron are related, one
of them being characteristic of wave behavior (the wavelength λ), while the other is characteristic of
corpuscular behavior (the amount of motion or moment linear p).

De Broglie's hypothesis about wave-particle duality in electrons was proposed purely

theoretically due to the absence of experimental evidence. However, in 1927, the American physicists
C. Davisson (1881-1958) and L. TO. Germer (1896-1971) verified it experimentally after having
observed electron diffraction casually.

De Broglie's postulate is extended to all matter, and therefore, the following can be stated:

When a particle of mass m moves with speed v, it has an associated wave whose wavelength
is equal to Planck's constant divided by the momentum or linear momentum of said particle:

[9.5]

In practice, the waves associated with very large particles have a very small wavelength, due
to the small value of Planck's constant, h = 6.63.10 -34 Js, and the De Broglie wave associated with
these particles is negligible. and should not be taken into account.

However, for subatomic particles, although they move at high speeds, they have a very small
mass and the associated de Broglie wavelength obtained from equation 8.5 has a value that is within
the electromagnetic spectrum, and therefore the waves associated with subatomic particles must be
taken into account.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

A practical application of wave-particle duality is the electron microscope which uses the
wave characteristics of electrons with an associated wavelength of up to 3 Å, much lower than the
minimum 400 nm of optical microscopes that use visible light, achieving thereby increasing the
resolution power and achieving a sufficient number of magnifications to be able to observe very small
structures.

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The wavelength of the electrons is controlled by setting their speed; To do this, they are
driven by a potential difference V determined such that the kinetic energy E c that they acquire is
given by:

E c = e·V
1 2 p2h,
Since E c = -m • v = — yA = - then: c
h2 h
- --------—
2 = e • V =A= —
2•m•X √2 • m • e • V

Therefore, by increasing the potential difference V, it is possible to reduce the wavelength λ

of the electrons and thereby achieve a greater number of magnifications.

Example 3
An electron, initially at rest, is accelerated by a potential difference of 10 4 V.
a) Do an energy analysis of the movement of the electron while it is accelerated.
b) Calculate the kinetic energy and speed acquired by the electron.
c) Calculate the associated de Broglie wavelength of the electron.
d) Repeat all the previous sections assuming that the particle being accelerated is a proton

Example 4
Calculate the associated de Broglie wavelength of a 500 g ball that is moving at a given moment at 90
km/h.

Example 5
An electron and a neutron move with the same kinetic energy. Which of them will have the lowest
associated wavelength value? Give reasons for your answer.

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6. HEISENBERG'S PRINCIPLE OF INDETERMINATION OR UNCERTAINTY: DETERMINISM AND

PROBABILITY

De Broglie's postulate of wave-particle duality is the beginning of a new physical theory called
Quantum Mechanics or Wave Mechanics. One of the fundamental consequences of this new theory is
Heisenberg's Indeterminacy or Uncertainty Principle.

According to classical physics, the error in a measurement is due to the inaccuracy of the
measuring device. Therefore, an ideal classical apparatus could exactly determine, for example, the
position and velocity of an electron. Now, the question posed was: to what extent is it possible to
simultaneously determine the position and linear momentum of a quantum object, matter, such as an
electron, or radiation, such as a photon?

In 1927, the German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) gave the answer by stating his
Principle of Indeterminacy or Principle of Uncertainty , which provides us with limits for the
information that we can know about a quantum object. This principle has two parts:

- It is not possible to simultaneously determine the exact value of the xy position of the linear
momentum p of a quantum object. The values of the corresponding indeterminations satisfy:

Δx·Δp h
4T

From this relationship we see that a high degree of precision in the value of the position is
equivalent to a great indeterminacy in the measurement of the linear momentum (and
therefore the velocity) of the object.

- It is not possible to simultaneously determine the measured value of the energy E of a

quantum object and the time t in which it has said energy. The values of the corresponding
indeterminations satisfy:

.. h
ΔE·Δt -
411

This principle has two main consequences:

1st. It makes evident the need for quantum systems to be expressed in terms of probability.
Quantum Mechanics is a probabilistic theory (Classical Mechanics is deterministic). For
example, a particle has infinite possible trajectories, more or less probable, with the classical
trajectory being only the trajectory with the highest probability. In the same way, we cannot
speak of exact orbits like Bohr's, but only of areas of space where the electron is most likely
to be found, called orbitals .

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2nd. It induces the principle of complementarity according to which a quantum object,

such as an electron or a photon, acts as a wave or as a particle but will never show both
aspects simultaneously: they are complementary aspects.

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ISSUES
Question 1 Comment on the following statements: a) The number of photoelectrons emitted by a metal
is proportional to the intensity of the incident light beam. b) The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons emitted by a metal increases with the frequency of the incident light beam.
Question 1 a) Indicate why the existence of a threshold frequency for the photoelectric effect goes
against the wave theory of light. b) If a metal surface emits photoelectrons when illuminated with green
light, reason if it will emit them when illuminated with blue light.
Question 3 a) Explain De Broglie's hypothesis of wave-corpuscle duality. b) Explain why the idea of
duality is not commonly used when dealing with macroscopic objects.
Question 4 a) A proton and an electron have the same speed. Will the de Broglie wavelengths of both
particles be the same? Give reasons for your answer. b) A proton and an electron have equal kinetic
energy. Reason which of the two has the longest wavelength.
Question 5 In a study of the photoelectric effect, the experiment is carried out with two light sources:
one of intensity I and frequency V and others of intensity I/2 and frequency 2 V. If V is greater than the
threshold frequency, reason a) With which source are electrons emitted with the greatest speed? b)
With which source is the intensity of the photoelectric current greater?
Question 6 Reason whether the following statements regarding the photoelectric effect are true or false:
a) The emission of electrons occurs a certain time after the photons hit, because they need to
accumulate enough energy to leave the metal. b) If the frequency of the radiation incident on a metal is
tripled, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons will triple.
Question 7 a) What does the expression "wavelength associated with a particle" mean? b) If the kinetic
energy of a particle increases, does its associated wavelength increase or decrease?
Question 8 a) From the following options, choose the one you think is correct and explain why. The
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted by a metal depends on: i) the intensity of the
incident light; ii) the frequency of the incident light; iii) the speed of light.
b) Reason whether the following statement is true or false: “In an experiment on the photoelectric
effect, photons with a frequency lower than the threshold frequency cannot remove electrons from the
metal.”
Question 9 Comment on the following statements regarding the photoelectric effect: a) The work of
extracting a metal depends on the frequency of the incident light. b) The maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons varies linearly with the frequency of the incident light.
Question 10 Could the position and momentum of a particle be determined simultaneously, accurately?
Give reasons for your answer.
Question 11 Reason whether the following statements are true or false: a) The energy of the electrons
emitted by the photoelectric effect does not depend on the intensity of light for a given frequency. b)
The photoelectric effect does not take place in a certain material when blue light hits it, but does when
orange light hits it.
Question 12 Give reasons for the answers to the following questions: a) Can the position and speed of an
electron be precisely known? b) Why is the uncertainty principle of no interest in the macroscopic
world?
Question 13 a) Is it true that waves also behave like moving corpuscles? Justify your answer. b)
Comment on the following sentence: "It would be possible to simultaneously measure the position of an
electron and its momentum, with as much accuracy as we would like, if we had sufficiently precise
instruments."

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Question 14 a) An atom that absorbs a photon is in an excited state. Explain what changes have occurred
in the atom. Is this excited state of the atom stable? b) Why do only certain frequencies appear in the
spectrum emitted by atoms? What does the energy of the emitted photons indicate?
Question 15 a) Describe Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect and relate it to the principle of
conservation of energy. b) Suppose a metal on which electromagnetic radiation falls, producing a
photoelectric effect. Why does increasing the intensity of the incident radiation not increase the kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons?
Question 16 When illuminating a metal surface with light of increasing frequency, it begins to emit
photoelectrons when the frequency corresponds to the color yellow.
g) Reasonably explain what can be expected when the same material is irradiated with red light.
What if it is irradiated with blue light?
h) Reason whether a change in the intensity of the photoelectron current would be expected
when the frequency of light is varied, if the number of incident photons per unit of time and
area is kept constant.
Question 17 A Tl meson has a mass 275 times greater than an electron. Would they have the same
wavelength if they traveled at the same speed? Give reasons for your answer.

Question 18 Reason what changes could be expected in the photoelectric emission of a metallic surface:
i) by increasing the intensity of the incident light; ii) by increasing the illumination time; iii) by decreasing
the frequency of light.
Question 19 a) State the uncertainty principle and explain its origin.
b) Reason why we do not take into account the uncertainty principle in the study of ordinary
phenomena.
Question 20 When a metal is illuminated with a monochromatic light beam, photoelectric emission is
observed. a) Explain, in energetic terms, this process. b) If the intensity of the light beam that hits the
metal is varied, keeping its wavelength constant, will the maximum speed of the emitted electrons vary?
And the number of electrons emitted in one second? Reason your answers.
Question 21 Reason how the extraction work and the maximum speed of the emitted electrons would
change if the wavelength of the incident light were decreased.
Question 22 If we have green monochromatic light of weak intensity and intense red monochromatic
light, both capable of extracting electrons from a certain metal, which of them would produce electrons
with greater energy? Which of the two would extract the greatest number of electrons? Justify your
answers.

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ISSUES
Problem 1º A metal, for which the threshold wavelength of the photoelectric effect is X 0 = 275 nm, is
illuminated with light of X = 180 nm.
a) Explain the process in energy terms.
b) Calculate the wavelength, frequency, and kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1 ; h = 6.6·10 -34 J s
SOLUC: b) λ = 7.6.10 -10 m f = 1.19.10 15 Hz Ec = 2.4 eV

Problem 2 A proton is accelerated from rest by a potential difference of 50 kv.

a) Do an energy analysis of the problem and calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with
the particle.
b) What difference would be expected if instead of a proton the accelerated particle were an
electron?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; m e = 9.1·10 -31 kg ; m p = 1.7·10 -27 kg
SOLUC: a) 1.27.10 -13 mb) λe = 5.6.10 -12 m

Problem 3 The cathode of a photoelectric cell is illuminated simultaneously with two monochromatic
radiations: X 1 = 228 nm and X 2 = 524 nm. The work of removing an electron from this cathode is W =
3.40 eV.
a) Which of the radiations produces the photoelectric effect? Give reasons for your answer.
b) Calculate the maximum speed of the emitted electrons. How would said speed vary by
doubling the intensity of the incident light radiation?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; m e = 9.1·10 -31 kg ; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 428 nm b) 8,44,105 m/s

Problem 4 Let there be a photoelectric cell with a potassium photocathode, with an extraction work
of 2.22 eV. Through an energy analysis of the problem, answer the following questions reasonably:
a) Could this photoelectric cell be used to operate with visible light? (The visible spectrum is
between 380·10 -9 m and 780·10 -9 m).
b) If so, what is the wavelength associated with the highest energy electrons extracted with
visible light?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; m e = 9.1·10 -31 kg; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) Any visible radiation whose wavelength is less than 557 nm b) 1,23.10 -9 m

Problem 5. Photographic material usually contains silver bromide, which is impressed by photons
with energy greater than 1.7·10 -19 J.
a) What is the frequency and wavelength of the photon that is just capable of activating a
molecule of silver bromide?
b) Visible light has a wavelength between 380·10 -9 m and 780·10 -9 m. Explain the fact that a
firefly, which emits visible light of negligible intensity, can impress photographic film, while
the radiation from a television antenna that emits at 100 MHz cannot, even though its power
is 50 kW.
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 2.57.10 14 Hz 1170 nm

Problem 6 A beam of electrons is accelerated from rest by a potential difference of 100 V.

a) Do an energy analysis of the process and calculate the wavelength of the electrons after

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being accelerated, indicating the physical laws on which it is based.

b) Repeat the previous section for the case of protons and calculate the relationship between
the wavelengths obtained in both sections.
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C ; m e = 9.1·10 -31 kg ; m p = 1.7·10 -27 kg
SOLUC: a) λe = 1.18.10 -10 mb) λp = 2.73.10 -12 m λe = 43.2 λp

Problem 7 A beam of light with a wavelength of 546·10 -9 m penetrates a cesium cathode

photoelectric cell, whose extraction work is 2 eV.
a) Explain the energy transformations in the photoemission process and calculate the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
b) What would happen if the wavelength incident on the photoelectric cell was twice the
previous one?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) 0.28 eV b) ?

Problem 8 A lead atom moves with a kinetic energy of 10 7 eV.

a) Determine the value of the wavelength associated with said atom.
b) Compare said wavelength with those that would correspond, respectively, to a particle of
equal mass and different kinetic energy and to a particle of equal kinetic energy and different
mass.
h = 6.36·10 -34 J s ; 1 u = 1.66·10 -27 kg; m Pb = 207 u
SOLUTION: a) λ = 6,068.10 -16 mb) ?

Problem 9. When absorbing a photon, an electronic transition occurs in an atom between two levels
separated by an energy of 12·10 -19 J.
a) Explain, energetically, the process of photon absorption by the atom. Will the atom
spontaneously return to its initial state?
b) If the same photon were to hit the surface of a metal whose extraction work is 3 eV, would
photoelectric emission occur?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; m e = 9.1·10 -31 kg
SOLUC: a) ? b) YES because…..

Problem 10º When illuminating the surface of a certain metal with a beam of ultraviolet light of
frequency f = 2 · 10 15 Hz, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is 2.5 eV.
a) Determine the work of removing the metal.
b) Explain what would happen if the frequency of the incident light were: i) 2f; ii) f/2.
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C
SOLUC: a) Wext. = 5.75 eV b) ?

Problem 11. When light of wavelength λ = 620·10 -9 m falls on a photocell, electrons are emitted with
a maximum kinetic energy of 0.14 eV.
a) Calculate the extraction work and the threshold frequency of the photocell.
b) What difference would be expected in the results of part a) if the incident wavelength were
double?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; c =3·10 8 ms -1 .
SOLUC: a) Wext. = 1.87 eV f0 = 4.5.10 14 Hz
-9
Problem 12º A light beam of wavelength 546·10 m falls on a cesium cathode photoelectric cell,
whose extraction work is 2 eV:
a) Explain the energy transformations in the photoemission process and calculate the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.

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b) What would happen if the wavelength of the radiation incident on the photoelectric cell were
twice the previous one?
h = 6.6·10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6·10 -19 C; c =3·10 8 ms -1 .
SOLUTION: a) Ec = 0.27 eV b) ?

Problem 13º A beam of light of wavelength 477 •10 -9 m falls on a potassium cathode photoelectric
cell, whose threshold frequency is 5.5 • 10 14 s -1 .
a) Explain the energy transformations in the photoemission process and calculate the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
b) Reason if a photoelectric effect would occur when infrared radiation hits the previous cell.
(The infrared region includes wavelengths between 10 -3 m and 7.8 •10 -5 m).
h = 6.6 • 10 -34 J s ; c = 3 • 10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) Ec = 0.32 eV b) ?

Problem 14º A metal sheet begins to emit electrons when radiation of wavelength 5 •10 -7 m falls on
it.
a) Calculate at what speed the electrons will be emitted if the radiation incident on the sheet
has a wavelength of 4 •10 -7 m.
b) Reason, indicating the laws on which it is based, what would happen if the frequency of the
incident radiation were 4.5 •10 14 s -1 .
h = 6.6 • 10 -34 J s ; c = 3 • 10 8 ms -1 ; m e = 9.1 •10 -31 kg
SOLUC: a) ve = 4.66.10 5 m/sb) ?

Problem 15º When experimentally studying the photoelectric effect in a metal, it is observed that the
minimum frequency at which said effect occurs is 1.03 ·10 15 Hz.
a) Calculate the work of extraction of the metal and the stopping potential of the emitted
electrons if radiation of frequency 1.8 ·10 15 Hz falls on the surface of the metal.
b) Would a photoelectric effect occur if the intensity of the incident radiation were double and
its frequency half that in the previous section? Give reasons for your answer.
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C
SOLUC: a) Wext. = 4.27 eV ∆V = -3 V b) ?

Problem 16 A proton is accelerated by a potential difference of 3000 V.

a) Calculate the speed of the proton and its de Broglie wavelength.
b) If instead of a proton it were an electron that accelerates with the same potential difference,
would it have the same kinetic energy? And the same associated wavelength? Reason your
answers.
mp = 1.7 · 10 -27 kg; me = 9.1·10 -31 kg ; h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C
SOLUTION: a) vp = 7.5.10 5 m/s λp = 5.18.10 -13 m b) ?

Problem 17 It involves measuring the work of extracting a new material. To do this, the photoelectric
effect is caused by incident monochromatic radiation on a sample A of that material and, at the same
time, on another sample B of another material whose extraction work is W B = 5 eV. The braking
potentials are V A = 8 V and V B =12 V, respectively. Calculate:
a) The frequency of the radiation used.
b) The extraction work W A .
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C
SOLUC: a) f = 4.1.10 15 Hz b) WA = 8.6 eV
-6
Problem 18º On a potassium surface, whose extraction work is 2.29 eV, a radiation of 0.2 · 10 m

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wavelength is incident.
a) Determine whether a photoelectric effect occurs and, if so, calculate the speed of the
emitted electrons and the threshold frequency of the material.
d) A metal plate is placed in front of the cathode. What must be the potential difference
between it and the cathode so that no electrons reach the plate?
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C ; me = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg
SOLUC: a) 1.17.10 6 m/s f0 = 5.5.10 14 Hz b) -3.9 V

Problem 19. When illuminating a sodium photocathode with monochromatic light beams of
wavelengths 300 nm and 400 nm, it is observed that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons is 1.85 eV and 0.82 eV, respectively.
a) Determine the maximum value of the velocity of the electrons emitted with the first
radiation.
b) From the data of the problem, determine Planck's constant and the metal extraction
energy.
c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C; me = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg
SOLUC: a) 8.10 5 m/sb) h = 6.59.10 -34 Js Wext. = 2.77 eV

Problem 20º A beam of electrons is accelerated from rest with a potential difference. After this
process, the wavelength associated with the electrons is 8·10 -11 m.
a) Do an energy analysis of the process and determine the potential difference applied to the
electrons.
b) If a beam of protons is accelerated with that potential difference, determine the
wavelength associated with the protons.
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; m e = 9.1 · 10 -31 kg; c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; e=1.6·10 -19 C m p =1840 m e
SOLUC: a) ∆V = 233.7 V b) λp = 1.87.10 -12 m

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TOPIC 10. NUCLEAR PHYSICS

1. The atomic nucleus: atomic number, mass number and isotopes

2. Nuclear mass defect, nuclear binding energy, strong nuclear interaction, nuclear binding energy
per nucleon and nuclear stability.
3. Radioactivity: description of alpha, beta and gamma processes
4. Radioactive decay law: radioactive half-life, half-life and activity
5. Nuclear reactions
6. Nuclear fission and fusion
7. Main interactions in nature

ISSUES
ISSUES

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1. THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS: ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER AND ISOTOPES

The discovery of the atomic nucleus occurred in 1911 from the experiments carried out by
Ernest Rutherford and his collaborators. From this fact, Rutherford proposed an atomic model, known
as the nuclear model. According to this model, the atom consists of two parts: a central part, called the
nucleus, and the peripheral area called the cortex.

The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom. The radius of the core is
of the order of 10 -15 m = 1 fermi (fm), while the radius of the core is of the order of 10 -10 m = 1
Angstrom (A). If we compare the radius of the atom with the radius of the nucleus, we obtain that the
radius of the atom is approximately 10 5 (one hundred thousand times) greater than the radius of the
nucleus.

In the crust, electrons are found rotating around the nucleus in different orbits or energy levels.
The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, particles we call nucleons .

The charge of electrons and protons coincides in absolute value (1.6.10 -19 C). For this reason, if
the atom is in a neutral state, the number of electrons in the shell coincides with the number of
protons in its nucleus. But, if the atom is not in a neutral state, it is because in its shell there is an
excess or defect of electrons with respect to the number of protons in its nucleus, and the atom would
be a negatively charged ion (anion) or positively charged (cation). )

The mass of protons and neutrons is very similar, although that of neutrons is slightly higher.
The mass of the electrons is much smaller. The following table shows the mass and charge of the
subatomic particles:

PARTICLE BURDEN MASS

Electron (e - ) -1.6.10 -19 C 9.11.10 -31 Kg = 0.00055 u
Proton (p + ) 1.6.10 -19 C 1.6726.10 -27 Kg = 1.0073 u
Neutron (n) - 1.6749.10 -27 Kg = 1.0087 u

If we compare the mass of the proton with the mass of the electron, we obtain that the proton
has approximately 1836 times more mass than the electron. For this reason, most of the mass (more
than 99%) and all the positive charge of the atom are concentrated in the nucleus. In contrast, the
volume of the nucleus is a very small part of the atomic volume. Consequently, the core has a very high
density (of the order of 10 18 kg/m 3 ).

To measure the mass of atoms, the atomic mass unit (u) is used, also called amu, which is one
twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. The equivalence in Kg is:

1 u = 1.6605.10 -27 Kg

All atoms of the same chemical element have the same number of protons in their nucleus.
This number is called the atomic number , and is represented by the letter Z. The atomic number
identifies each chemical element and in the periodic table the elements are arranged in increasing
order of atomic number: Z(H) = 1; Z(He) = 2; Z(Li) = 3; Z(Be) = 4; …

The number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary from one atom to another for the same
chemical element. Therefore, all atoms of the same chemical element are not equal because, although
they have the same number of protons (Z), they can have different numbers of neutrons.

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The different types of atoms of a chemical element are called isotopes of the element .
Therefore, the isotopes of a chemical element are characterized by having different masses, since in
their nucleus they have different numbers of particles (or nucleons) . In fact, the isotopes of a chemical
element, although they have the same number of protons in the nucleus (the same atomic number Z),
have different numbers of neutrons.

The number of particles (or nucleons) that have the atoms of a certain isotope of a chemical
element in their nucleus is called the mass number , and is represented by the letter A. Therefore, the
mass number A of an isotope is the sum of the protons and neutrons that the atoms of said isotope
have in their nucleus:

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

A=Z+N

Isotopes of a chemical element are represented by the element symbol preceded by a subscript
and a superscript. The subscript represents the atomic number and the superscript represents the mass
number:

• atomic (2) Element symbol 4x

It can also be represented by the element symbol followed by a dash and the mass number:

Element symbol-A

For example, hydrogen has three isotopes, that is, there are three types of hydrogen atoms and
they are:
1H 2H 3H
protium deuterium tritium

The composition of an atom of each of these isotopes is:

iu ( core '1P 2 TJ (core '1P — 3 TJ (core j

Protium: 1H) (0 n Deuterium: 1H (1 n Tritium: iH (2 no.
{bark{le~ (bark{le~ (bark{le~

It must be remembered that the atomic mass of a chemical element is not the mass of an atom
of that chemical element, but rather it is the weighted average mass of the masses of its different
isotopes. Weighted means that the relative abundance of its different isotopes must be taken into
account in the average.

We call a nuclide a set of atoms that are all equal to each other, that is, a set of atoms of the
same isotope.

OBSERVATION:
Do not confuse nuclide with nucleus or nucleon.

A nuclide is represented by
2X, where X is the symbol of the chemical element to which it

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belongs. Each nuclide belongs to an isotope of the corresponding element. Isotopes of the same
element differ only in the value of A.

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2. NUCLEAR MASS DEFECT, NUCLEAR BOND ENERGY, STRONG NUCLEAR INTERACTION, NUCLEAR
BOND ENERGY PER NUCLEON AND NUCLEAR STABILITY.

2.1 Nuclear mass defect

It is an experimentally proven fact that when the mass of the nucleus of any atom is precisely
measured, it always turns out to be lower than the sum of the masses of the particles that constitute
it (nucleons). That is, when protons and neutrons join to form the nucleus, a loss of mass occurs.

This decrease in mass is called nuclear mass defect, and is calculated:

Nuclear mass defect = nucleon mass – nucleus mass > 0

Nuclear mass defect = (proton mass + neutron mass) – nucleus mass > 0

Δm = Z m p + (A – Z) m n - M N > 0 [10.1]

2.2 NUCLEAR LINK ENERGY

This mass that is lost when the nucleus forms is the mass that is converted into energy and
released when the nucleus forms. We can calculate this energy using Einstein's equation of the
equivalence between mass and energy, which is:

E = mc 2

According to the previous equation, the energy released when a nucleus forms is:

E = Δ mc [10.2]
This energy also represents the 2minimum
energy that would have to be supplied to the
nucleus to decompose it into its nucleons and therefore, this energy is called nuclear binding energy
or nuclear binding energy .

2.3 STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE

How can the stability of the core be explained? The stability of the nucleus cannot be
explained either by gravitational forces or by electrical forces. Indeed, the strong electrical repulsion
between the protons in the face of the weak gravitational attraction would produce a disintegration
of the nucleus.

The fact that protons and neutrons coexist in the nucleus suggests that another type of
interaction must exist between them, which is one of attraction and much more intense than that of
electrical repulsion between the protons. This force is called the strong nuclear force or strong
nuclear interaction .

The strong nuclear force has the following characteristics:

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• It is responsible for the cohesion of the nucleus.

• It is an attractive force that manifests itself between nucleons regardless of their electrical charge.
• It is a very intense force since it must overcome the strong electrostatic repulsion between
protons.
• It is very short range since it only appears at distances less than the size of the nucleus (10 -15 m).
• Although it is an attractive force, when the separation between the nucleons is much smaller than
its reach, it becomes a repulsive force to prevent collapse between the nucleons.
• It is a conservative force, and therefore has an associated potential energy that is the nuclear bond
energy.

2.4 NUCLEAR BONDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON AND NUCLEAR STABILITY

A nucleus is the more stable the more difficult it is to lose nucleons. Therefore, a quantitative
way to measure the stability of a nucleus is to know the energy necessary to extract a nucleon from it,
which is known as nuclear binding energy per nucleon .

The nuclear binding energy per nucleon is defined as the ratio between the nuclear binding
energy and the mass number:

Nuclear binding energy

Nuclear binding energy per nucleon = ------------------------------ 7----------
mass no.

Nuclear binding energy per nucleon = — mc [10.3]

The nuclear binding energy per nucleon represents the average energy released by each
nucleon incorporated into the nucleus, or in other words, the minimum average energy that would
have to be supplied to the nucleus to extract a nucleon.

Experimentally it has been proven that the binding energy per nucleon varies with the mass
number according to the curve in Figure 9.1.

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Figure 10.1
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number (in MeV/nucleon)

In the previous graph we can see the following:

1st. The nuclear binding energy per nucleon does not exceed 9 MeV/nucleon.

2nd. The nuclear binding energy per nucleon is maximum for those isotopes whose mass
numbers are between approximately 40 and 80 and, therefore, these nuclei are the most stable.

3rd. If we take two light nuclei and join them to form a single nucleus, this, according to the
graph, will have a higher binding energy per nucleon than the initial two and, therefore, energy will
have been released in the process. This process is called nuclear fusion .

4th. If we take a heavy nucleus and divide it into two lighter ones, these two, according to the
graph, will have more binding energy per nucleon than the initial one and, therefore, energy will also
have been released in the process. This process is called nuclear fission .

Another factor that helps stabilize a nucleus is the number of neutrons. In light nuclei it is
observed that the number of neutrons is approximately equal to the number of protons: Z = AZ (figure
9.2). However, in heavier nuclei, the number of neutrons becomes greater: AZ > Z to compensate for
the greater electrostatic repulsion.

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Figure 10.2

Example 1

For the isotope 12Mg calculate:

a) The nuclear mass defect of Mg-24 and interpret the result obtained.
b) The nuclear binding energy of Mg-24 and interpret the result.
c) The nuclear binding energy per nucleon of Mg-24 and interpret the result.
d) Calculate the minimum energy that would have to be provided to 10 g of Mg-24 to decompose
all its nuclei.
e) Which nucleus is more stable, Mg-24 or Mg-25?

Data: m p+ = 1.0073 u m n = 1.0087 u 24Mg = 23.9850 u 25Mg = 24.9858 u 1 u = 1.67.10 -27 Kg

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3. RADIOACTIVITY: DESCRIPTION OF THE ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA PROCESSES

A fundamental property of atomic nuclei is that some are stable, while others are not.
Unstable nuclei transform into others, spontaneously emitting characteristic particles and radiation.

Radioactivity is the spontaneous transformation of the nuclei of unstable isotopes into

isotopes of another or that same element accompanied by the emission of certain particles and/or
energy in the form of radiation. Natural radioactivity is that which takes place in unstable isotopes
existing in nature. Artificial radioactivity is that produced in unstable isotopes that appear in nuclear
reactions carried out by man.

Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French physicist A. H. Becquerel (1852-1908).

Becquerel noticed that some photographic plates that he had kept in a drawer wrapped in dark paper
were obscured. In the same drawer he had kept a piece of uranium ore. Becquerel verified that what
happened was due to the fact that uranium emitted much more penetrating radiation than X-rays.
They had just discovered radioactivity , a name proposed by Marie Curie (1867-1934) for this
phenomenon.

Shortly after the radioactivity of uranium was discovered, new radioactive elements were
discovered: thorium, polonium, radium and actinium. Currently more than forty radioactive elements
are known.

Rutherford, at the beginning of the 20th century, subjected the radiation emitted by
radioactive nuclei to electromagnetic fields and verified that not all emitted radiation was equal.
There are basically three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. As we will see below,
the first two radiations are actually particles, while the third is energy in the form of oem (figure 9.3).

Figure 10.3
• Alpha radiation
α radiation is a process in which a radioactive nucleus emits a He-4 nucleus, that is, it emits two
protons and two neutrons.
4
The characteristics of an α particle, which we will denote as
2, are:

Electric charge: q α = +2·q p+ = 2.e = 2.1,6.10 -19 C = +3.2·10 -19 C

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Mass: m α = 4m p+ = 6.7·10 -27 kg

When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle, the resulting nucleus decreases its atomic
number by two units and its mass number by four units. This is called Soddy's law .

The emission of an α particle by a radioactive nucleus can be represented by the following

expression:

Ax - A-4Y + He

As we can easily see, after an α emission, the resulting nucleus belongs to an isotope of the
element that occupies two previous positions in the periodic table with respect to the initial
radioactive nucleus.

The emission of α particles is characteristic of heavy nuclei and they are emitted with a kinetic
energy of the order of MeV. This assumes that α particles have a small penetrating power into matter
and, in fact, can be stopped by a sheet of cardboard and cannot pass through the skin of the human
body. These particles are not harmful.

b e ta radiation

When a radioactive nucleus emits a β particle, what it is actually emitting is a fast electron. The
electron emitted by the nucleus comes from a neutron (
or n ) of the nucleus
that disintegrates, giving rise to a proton (
1P) and an electron (
-i e — -1β ), which is the one that emits.

The characteristics of a β particle, which we will denote

_, are those of an electron:

Electric charge: q = -e = -1.6·10 -19 C

Mass: m = 9.11·10 -31 kg

When a radioactive nucleus emits a β particle, the resulting nucleus increases its atomic number
by one unit but the mass number does not change. This is known as Fajans' law .

The emission of a β particle by a radioactive nucleus can be represented by the following

expression:

2x - z-4y + -1β (6 -Qe)

As can be seen, the resulting nucleus belongs to an isotope of the next element in the periodic
table.

Their kinetic energy is on the order of MeV, but since their mass is much smaller than that of α
particles, they have a greater power to penetrate matter. They can pass through the human body,
being stopped by thin metal sheets. They are not harmful to health.

• Gamma radiation
When a radioactive nucleus emits ϒ radiation, it is emitting energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves of higher frequency than X-rays. Therefore, they lack both electric charge and mass.

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The explanation of this emission is based on the fact that nuclei, like atoms, can be in defined
energy states, so that if a nucleus is in an energy state above its ground state (excited state), it emits
the difference of energy between both states in the form of ϒ radiation.

As we can see, when a radioactive nucleus emits ϒ radiation, the nucleus does not transform into
another different nucleus, but rather remains the same isotope but in a lower energy state, that is, it
is energetically more stable (remember that when a nucleus radioactive emits an α or β particle, if a
true nuclear transmutation occurs).

The emission of ϒ radiation by a radioactive nucleus can be represented by the following

equation:
AX* - AX+Y

ϒ radiation is high energy (as we said in the last question of topic 7), between keV and MeV, and
can pass through the human body and thick metal sheets, being stopped by a thick concrete wall. In
nature there is this radiation to which our body has adapted, but an increase in the density of this
radiation together with prolonged exposure to it causes serious damage to living beings.

Finally, it should be noted that generally a radioactive nucleus does not emit a single type of
radiation, but can successively emit several α particles and/or several β particles and/or several ϒ
radiations, that is, several successive decays take place until the final core is stable. The set of all
isotopes that are part of the process constitutes a radioactive series or family.

Example 3

Radius 226 ( 288Ra) successively emits 3 α particles and two β particles. They write the corresponding
equations that represent these emissions.

226Ra 222Rn -I- 4 C

α
282Rn - 2E2Po + 2α
219Po - 21:Pb + 2 α

285Pb - 223B1 + -1 β

214Bi 214Po + q β
4. LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY: RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE PERIOD, HALF-LIFE AND ACTIVITY

When an atomic nucleus emits α, β or ϒ radiation, the nucleus changes state or is transformed
(transmuted) into a different one. In the latter case , radioactive decay is said to have taken place.
Due to the large number of nuclei in any radioactive sample, radioactive decay is a random process
governed by statistical laws.

Experimentally, it is known that radioactive decay follows the following law of exponential

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decay:

N=N,se-ht [10.4]
Being:
N 0 to the number of initial radioactive nuclei.
N is the number of radioactive nuclei that have not yet decayed after a time t.
λ a characteristic constant of each radioactive isotope called RADIOACTIVE DECAY
CONSTANT that would be measured in time units elevated to -1, that is, in the SI of
units it would be measured in s -1 .

As can be seen, the decay rate of the radioactive nuclei present in the sample will be greater the
higher the value of λ.

Figure 9.4 shows the graphic representation corresponding to the law of radioactive decay.

Figure 10.4
Radioactive decay law

The radioactive decay period or half-life is the time that must elapse for half of the initial
radioactive nuclei to decay, that is, for only 50% of the initial radioactive nuclei to remain in the
sample.

We can calculate the radioactive decay period as follows:

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Mo = N 0 . e 1
N=N0.e -
At •
-
A —=e -
A
Ln 2 =Ln(e- A .T 1/2 )
.T
1/2 .T
1/2
2
2
Ln 2 =- 1/2 .Ln(e) - Ln2 =- XT 1/2

Do not confuse the radioactive decay period of a nuclide with the half-life of said nuclide. The
half-life of a radioactive isotope is the average time it takes for a random nucleus to decay. Its SI unit
is the second (s) and is given by the expression:

[10.6]

The activity (A) or decay rate of a radioactive sample is called the speed with which said
radioactive sample disintegrates per unit of time, that is, the number of emissions or disintegrations
of a radioactive substance per unit of time. The activity of a radioactive sample is calculated by
multiplying the radioactive decay constant (λ) by the number of radioactive nuclei (N) present in the
sample at each instant.

A = X. N [10.7]

Let us realize that the activity decreases exponentially with time since the number of
radioactive nuclei (N) present in the sample does so.

In the yes Activity is measured in disintegrations divided per second and this unit is given a
special name, it is the becquerel (Bq).

Another unit for activity is the curie (Ci):

1 Ci = 3.7·10 10 Bq

IMPORTANT:

The law of radioactive decay described in equation 9.4 can also be written in terms of mass:
m = m 0 • esht

being m 0 the initial mass of the radioactive sample and m the mass of the nuclei that have not yet
decayed in a certain time t.

The activity also follows the same law of exponential decay:

A = Ao • eAt

where A 0 is the initial activity of the radioactive sample and A is the activity after a certain time t.

Example 4

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We have a radioactive sample of 80 mg of 222 Rn that has a radioactive decay constant of 0.182 days -1 .
Calculate:
a) The mass that will remain undisintegrated after a week.
b) The radioactive half-life. What does this value indicate?
c) The half-life of radon.
d) The time that must pass for 5 mg to remain.
e) The activity of the sample after two weeks.

Example 5

An oak wood tool has been found in an archaeological excavation. Subjected to the C-14 test, it is
observed that it presents an activity of 100 disintegrations/h, while a sample of current oak wood
presents an activity of 600 disintegrations/h.
Knowing that the half-life of C-14 is 5730 years, calculate the age of the tool.

Example 6

The activity of the 14 C isotope contained in the wood of a sarcophagus turns out to be 60% of that of
current wood. Dates the antiquity of the sarcophagus

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5. NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear reactions are processes in which atomic nuclei are directly involved, transforming them
into different ones.

In 1919 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen nuclei with α particles and observed how these particles
were absorbed by the nucleus and that it transformed into a different nucleus, emitting a proton. It was the
first nuclear reaction caused by humans:

14N + AHe - 170 + 1H

In every nuclear reaction the following conservation principles are met:

- Conservation of electric charge: It means that the sum of the atomic numbers is constant, that is,
said sum must coincide in reactants and products.
- Conservation of the number of nucleons: It means that the sum of the mass numbers is constant,
that is, said sum must coincide in reactants and products.
- Conservation of energy and equivalent mass: It means that the energy, E, put into play in the
reaction has its origin in the difference in mass, Δm, that occurs between the reactants and the
products. The value of said energy is given by Einstein's principle of equivalence between energy
and mass:

E = Δm c 2

where:
Δm = Σm – Σm products
reactants
represents the mass defect of the products with respect to the reactants.

Therefore:

9.5 If Δm > 0, E > 0 and the reaction will be exoenergetic, that is, it releases energy (it is the most
common situation).
9.6 If Δm < 0, E < 0 and the reaction will be endoenergetic, that is, it absorbs energy.

The most common nuclear reactions are fission and fusion reactions.

6. NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

Let us remember that the nuclear binding energy per nucleon is a good indicator to compare the
stability between nuclei. Furthermore, we saw that the binding energy per nucleon varies with the mass
number according to the curve in Figure 9.1.

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Figure 10.3

Among other things, it could be deduced that:

1st. If we take two light nuclei and join them to form a single nucleus, this, according to the graph,
will have a higher binding energy per nucleon than the initial two and, therefore, energy will have been
released in the process. This process is called nuclear fusion .

2nd. If we take a heavy nucleus and divide it into two lighter ones, these two, according to the
graph, will have more binding energy per nucleon than the initial one and, therefore, energy will also have
been released in the process. This process is called nuclear fission .

Nuclear fision

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction that consists of the division of a heavy nucleus into two lighter
ones when bombarded with neutrons. In the process, more neutrons and a large amount of energy are
released.

Nuclear fission is an exoenergetic reaction since the products are lighter nuclei and, according to the
curve in Figure 9.1, energetically more stable than the original nucleus; Thus, said reaction presents a
positive mass defect. On the other hand, the use of neutrons is fundamentally due to the fact that they lack
electrical charge, avoiding possible electrostatic repulsion by the nucleus to fission when approaching it.

In 1938, the German physicists Hahn and Strassmann managed to divide a uranium-235 nucleus
according to the reaction:

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235U+1n141Ba+22Kr+32n

Figure 10.4
Nuclear fision

The products of this nuclear reaction have a mass defect of 0.2154 u per fissioned uranium nucleus,
which corresponds to a released energy of about 200 MeV per uranium-235 nucleus.
Although uranium-235 is energetically less stable than its fission products, it does not fission
spontaneously. An activation energy is necessary, which is obtained from the capture of a neutron by the
nucleus.

The nuclei most suitable for fission are those with high atomic mass, such as uranium-235 and
plutonium-239.

Neutrons released by the fission of a nucleus can fission other nuclei, giving rise to a nuclear chain
reaction . The first of these was produced by Fermi in 1942 and can be of two types:

• Controlled : if the excess neutrons released are absorbed by a specific material (lead bars); It is
produced in nuclear power plants and in auxiliary generators of submarines and rockets.
• Uncontrolled : if there is no controlling element that absorbs excess neutrons, so the reaction takes
place explosively; It is produced in atomic bombs.

Nuclear fission has a high energy yield: 1 kg of uranium produces the same amount of energy as
2,000 tons of oil. However, it presents the risk of radioactive contamination and the difficulty of quickly and
safely disposing of the waste.

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei join together to form a heavier one. A
large amount of energy is released in the process.

Nuclear fusion is an exoenergetic reaction since the products are heavier nuclei and, according to
the curve in Figure 9.1, energetically more stable than the original nucleus; Thus, said reaction presents a
positive mass defect.

An example of a fusion reaction is the union of deuterium and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen) to
form helium-4:

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H+H- He + In
In this reaction, the products have a mass defect of 0.0189 u, which corresponds to a released
energy of 17.6 MeV per helium-4 atom.

n + 14.1 MeV
Figure 10.5 Nuclear fusion

As in fission, activation energy is required to initiate a nuclear fusion process. In this case, the
energy necessary for the nuclei to unite, overcoming electrostatic repulsions, is provided by a very high
thermal energy, corresponding to temperatures greater than 10 6 K. At these temperatures, atoms are
ionized and the plasma state is created, formed by a “soup” of nuclei and electrons.

Nuclei of small atomic mass, such as hydrogen isotopes, are the most suitable for producing nuclear
fusion.

Fusion reactions (also called thermonuclear reactions) take place naturally in the Sun and stars,
thanks to the high temperatures inside them. Artificially, the human being has achieved chain fusion in an
explosive way, which can be:

• Controlled : not yet achieved cost-effectively due to the technical difficulty of confining and keeping
plasma stable for long enough; There are currently several projects related to controlled nuclear fusion
such as the European ITER.
• Uncontrolled : produced in the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb); The energy to initiate fusion is obtained from
the explosion of an atomic fission bomb.

Controlled fusion has multiple advantages over fission:

- There are large fuel reserves since hydrogen isotopes are obtained from the oceans.
- More than three times more energy is obtained than in fission.
- No polluting waste is produced.

Example 7

In a nuclear fission reactor the following nuclear reaction takes place:

235U + 1n - 90Sr + 13Xe + aln

a) Discover the atomic number of Xe and the number of neutrons released in each fissioned
uranium-235 nucleus, indicating the conservation laws you use for this.
b) Check that it is an exoenergetic reaction.

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c) What energy is released when a uranium-235 nucleus fissions?

d) Calculate the energy that would be released by fissioning 1 g of uranium-235.
e) Calculate the mass of uranium-235 that would be consumed per hour in an 800 MW nuclear
power plant.

Data: m( 235 U) = 235.043944 u m( 90 Sr) = 89.907167 u m( 136 Xe) = 135.907294 u

m n = 1.008665 u 1 u = 1.67.10 -27 Kg

Example 8

The European project ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) was launched in 1988
and, although the European organization has its headquarters in Barcelona, its experimental facilities
are in Cadarache (France), it investigates the fusion of deuterium and tritium to give Helium-4 .

a) Write the corresponding nuclear reaction

b) Check that it is an exoenergetic reaction.
c) Calculate the energy released by each helium nucleus formed.

Nuclear masses: deuterium = 2.0136 u; tritium = 3.0155 u; helium-4 = 4.0015 u; neutron = 1.0087 u

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7. MAIN INTERACTIONS IN NATURE

All the forces known so far in nature have been able to be unified into four groups:

eitherInteraction gravitational
eitherInteraction electromagnetic
o Interactionstrong nuclear
o Interactionweak nuclear

The main characteristics of each of these interactions are:

Gravitational interaction

The force of gravitational attraction between two masses is given by the law of universal gravitation
which says:

“The force with which two point masses (M and m) separated by a distance r are attracted is directly
proportional to the values of said masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that
separates them”

AND M.M2 (force vector) F=G 1 .

r2
(force vector module)
■
Where:
G = 6.67·10 -11 N m 2 kg -2 is the so-called universal gravitation constant
- -•
“r” is the modulus of the vector r (which is the distance that separates the two masses that interact)
—•
The vector r is the vector that goes from the source mass to the control mass
—-
AND
Ur = 7 is a unit vector of the same direction and sense as the vector r and therefore a unit vector
directed from the source mass to the control mass (fig. 1.2).

The main characteristics of the gravitational force are:

o It is a universal force since it is due to the mass of the bodies.

o It is a force of attraction.
o It is a central force because its direction coincides with the direction of the line that joins the two
interacting masses.
o The gravitational force is a long-range force because it manifests itself at both short and long
distances.

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o The gravitational attraction between two masses is also independent of the medium in which they
are located since G is a universal constant, that is, its value does not depend on the medium in
which the interacting masses are located.
o Due to the small value of G, the force of gravitational attraction between two masses is only
noticeable in the case in which at least one of the two masses is of a high value.
o It is a force whose value decreases with the square of the distance that separates the interacting
masses (it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance), which allows us to
demonstrate, together with its central character, that it is a conservative force and , therefore, it
will have a potential energy associated with it.

Electromagnetic interaction

It is the force of interaction between electrically charged bodies. It would be necessary to distinguish
between electrostatic force and magnetic force.

The electrostatic force manifests itself whether the interacting charges are at rest or in motion. The
magnetic force between charges only manifests itself if they are in motion.

The electrostatic force is given by Coulomb's Law , which says:

“The force with which two charged bodies attract or repel each other is directly proportional to the
product of said charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates them.”

—• QQ |Q 1 |.|Q 2 |
electrostatic force vector F=K vector module
—— r2
F= K Q 1 r . 2 Q 2 u r
Where:
K is the so-called electrical constant.
- -—
“r” is the modulus of the vector r (which is the distance that separates the two charges that interact)
——
The vector r is the vector that goes from the source load to the witness load
——
AND
Ur = 7 is a unit vector of the same direction and direction as the r vector and therefore a unit vector
directed from the source load to the witness load.

Charges of different
signs

Figure 3.9
The electrostatic force has the following characteristics:

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o It is not a universal force since it occurs only between charged bodies.

o It is a force of attraction (charges of different signs), or repulsion (charges of the same sign).
o It is a central force because…..
o It is a long-range force.
o The electrical interaction between two charges does depend on the medium in which said
charges are located since the value of the electrical constant K is not a universal constant
since its value depends on the medium interposed between the interacting charges.
o The electrical constant is maximum in a vacuum and is approximately:
K(vacuum) = K 0 = 9·10 9 N m 2 C -2
Therefore, the electrical interaction between two charges is maximum when they are in a
vacuum, and decreases when they are in a material medium.
o It is a force whose value decreases with the square of the distance that separates the
interacting charges (it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance), which allows us
to demonstrate, together with its central character, that it is a conservative force and ,
therefore, it will have a potential energy associated with it.

If the interacting charges are in motion, the magnetic interaction appears between them, which has
the following characteristics:

o It is not a universal force since it occurs only between charged and moving bodies.
o It can be attraction or repulsion.
o It is not a central force.
o It is a long-range force.
o Magnetic interaction also depends on the medium in which the interacting charges are found.
This dependence is established through the so-called magnetic permeability µ.
o The magnetic permeability µ is not maximum in a vacuum, which is approximately:
µ (empty) = µ 0 = 4π·10 -7 UI
Therefore the magnetic interaction is not maximum in a vacuum. In paramagnetic media the
magnetic interaction is lower than in a vacuum and in diamagnetic and ferromagnetic media
it is higher.
o It is a force whose value decreases with the distance that separates the interacting charges, but
it is not a conservative force.

Strong nuclear interaction

The strong nuclear interaction is responsible for the stability of the nuclei and has the following
characteristics:

• It is responsible for the cohesion of the nucleus.

• It is an attractive force that manifests itself between nucleons regardless of their charge.
electrical.
• It is a very intense force since it must overcome the strong electrostatic repulsion between
protons.
• It is very short-range since it only appears at distances less than the size of the nucleus ( 10-15 m).
• Although it is an attractive force, when the separation between the nucleons is much smaller
than its reach, it becomes a repulsive force to prevent collapse between the nucleons.
• It is a conservative force, and therefore has an associated potential energy that is the nuclear

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bond energy.

• Its value depends on the orientation of the spin of the nucleons.

Weak nuclear interaction

It is a short-range force since it also manifests itself at the nuclear level and explains the existence of
radioactive nuclei that disintegrate emitting β radiation. It is a low intensity force.

Research in Fundamental Physics is aimed at knowing each of these forces better and better and at
searching for the “Theory of Grand Unification”, in which these four forces could be described by a single
law.

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ISSUES
Question 1 Comment on each of the following sentences: a) Isotopes are those nuclides with the
same atomic number but different mass number. b) If a nuclide emits an alpha particle, its mass
number decreases by two units and its atomic number by one.

Question 2 a) Write the law of radioactive decay and explain the meaning of each symbol. b) A
radioactive nucleus has a half-life of 1 year. Does this mean it will have completely disintegrated in
two years? Give reasons for your answer.
Question 3 a) What happens when a nuclide emits an alpha particle? And when it emits a beta
particle? b) Calculate the total number of alpha and beta emissions that will allow the completion of
the
following transmutation:
235 207 Pb
95U 82

Question 4 Answer briefly and reasonedly to the following questions: a) why was the existence of the
neutron postulated? b) Why is the mass of an atomic nucleus less than the sum of the masses of the
particles that constitute it?
Question 5 a) Compare the most important characteristics of gravitational, electromagnetic and
strong nuclear interactions. B) Explain which of these interactions would be important in a nuclear
reaction, why?
Question 6 a) Why do the protons remain united in the nucleus, even though their charges have the
same sign? b) Compare the characteristics of the interaction responsible for nuclear stability with
those of other interactions, referring to its origin, relative intensity, scope, etc.
Question 7 a) The mass of an atomic nucleus does not coincide with the sum of the masses of the
particles that constitute it. Is it greater or lesser? How do you justify that difference? b) What is
meant by nuclear stability? Explain, qualitatively, the dependence of nuclear stability on mass
number.
Question 8 Reason whether the following statements are true or false: a) Once two half-lives have
elapsed, all the nuclei in a radioactive sample have disintegrated. b) The activity of a radioactive
sample is independent of time.

Question 9 a) Write the expression of the law of radioactive decay and indicate the meaning of each
of the symbols that appear in it. b) Two radioactive samples have the same mass. Can you ensure that
they have the same activity?
Question 10 a) List the fundamental interactions of Nature and explain the characteristics of each
one. b) How is the stability of nuclei possible despite the strong electrical repulsion between their
protons?
Question 11 a) Explain the radioactive decay process with the help of an approximate graph in which
the number of untransformed nuclei is represented as a function of time. b) Indicate what the activity
of a sample is. What does it depend on?
Question 12 a) Explain the origin of the energy released in a nuclear reaction. What is meant by mass
defect? b) What magnitudes are conserved in nuclear reactions?
Question 13 a) Why is a large amount of energy released in two phenomena as different as nuclear fission

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and fusion? b) What advantages and disadvantages does obtaining energy by nuclear fusion have compared
to that obtained by fission?
Question 14 a) Some atmospheric nitrogen atoms ( N ) collide with a neutron and are transformed into
1
7
4

carbon ( 1
C ) which, by p emission, is converted back into nitrogen. Write the corresponding nuclear
6
4

reactions. b) The remains of recent animals contain a higher proportion of ( C ) than the remains of 1
6
4

ancient animals. What is this fact due to and what application does it have?
Question 15: Why can a radioactive isotope with a very short half-life (for example, two hours) not be found
in its natural state and must be produced artificially.
Question 16 a) Reason which of the following nuclear reactions are possible:
1H + 3He ^ 4 He

88Ra - 21 8 9 6Rn
+ 4 2 He
4
2
He
+ 1 7 3 Al - 3 1 0 5 P + 0
1n

b) Derive the number of protons, neutrons and electrons that a 27 Al atom has.
Question 17 Complete the following nuclear reaction equations, indicating in each case the characteristics
of X:
9 4 Be
+42 He

-162C
+ X 2 1 7 3 Al
+01 n

- 4 2 He
+X

Question 18 Justify the truth or falsity of the following statements: a) The longer the half-life of a material,
the faster it disintegrates. b) In general, stable nuclei have more neutrons than protons.
Question 19 Two samples A and B of the same radioactive element are prepared in such a way that sample
A has double the activity of sample B.
a) Reason whether both samples have the same or different decay period.
e) What is the ratio between the activities of the samples after five periods have passed?
Question 20 a) Consider two heavy nuclei X and Y of the same mass number. If X has a higher binding
energy, which of them is more stable?
b) What changes does an atomic nucleus experience when emitting an alpha particle? What would happen
if a nucleus emitted one alpha particle and then two beta particles?
232
Question 21 Th decays, emitting 6 a particles and 4 P particles, giving rise to a stable isotope of lead.
Determine the mass number and atomic number of said isotope.
Question 22 Comment on the following phrase: “due to the disintegration of 14 C, when a living being dies a
clock starts…” What does the determination of the age of archaeological sites using 14 C consist of?
Question 23 a) Complete the following nuclear reactions specifying the type of nucleon or atom
represented by the letter

210Bi

^ 81 Tl + X
83 81
24 Na
^X+B
X- 234Pa

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+B

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b) Consider the nuclides 232 Th and 232 U. If 232 Th has a higher binding energy, 90 92 90

Reason which of them is more stable.

Question 24 a) Reason what is the total number of alpha and beta emissions that allow the completion of
the
following transmutation:
235U 207 Pb
95U — 82

b) Reason the number of alpha and beta decays necessary for 226 Ra HE
transform into 206 Pb
82

Question 25 Consider two samples of the same mass of two radioactive isotopes. If the half-life of one is
twice that of the other, explain how the relationship between the activities of both samples changes as a
function of time.

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ISSUES
Problem 1 The half-life of 55 Fe is 2.6 years.
a) Explain the characteristics of the decay process and indicate the meaning of half-life and half-
life.
b) Calculate the radioactive decay constant and the time in which 1 mg of sample is reduced by
half.
SOLUC: b) λ = 0.385 years -1 T = 1.8 years

Problem 2 In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie isolated 200 mg of radium, whose half-life is 1620 years.
a) To what amount of radium have the initial 200 mg been reduced today?
b) How many percent will have disintegrated within 500 years?
SOLUC: a) m = 190.9 mg b) 20%

Problem 3 1
6
4
C decays giving 1
7
4
N and emitting a beta particle. The half-life of C is 5376 years. 14

a) Write the equation for the disintegration process and explain how it occurs.
b) If the activity due to C of the tissues found in a tomb is 40% of that of similar tissues today,
1
6
4

what is the age of those?

SOLUC: b) λ = 1,29.10 -4 years -1 t = 7100 years

Problem 4 One of the possible fission reactions of 23

9
5
2 U is the formation of 9
3
4
8 Sr and 14
5
0
4 Xe , releasing
two neutrons.
a) Formulate the reaction and do a qualitative mass balance analysis.
b) Calculate the energy released by 20 mg of uranium.
m U = 234.9943 u ; m Sr = 93.9754 u ; m Xe = 139.9196 u ; m n = 1.0086 u ; N A = 6.02·10 23 mol -1
SOLUC: a) ∆m =0.0907 u/fissioned nucleus b) E = 6.9.10 8 J

Problem 5º Tc decays, emitting gamma radiation.

9
4
9
3

a) Explain the disintegration process and define “half-life”.

b) Calculate the activity of one gram of isotope whose half-life in the initial state is 6 hours.
N A = 6.02·10 23 mol -1
SOLUC: b) A = 2.84.10 17 bq

Problem 6 a) Calculate the binding energy of the nuclei H and He . 3

1
3
2

c) What conclusion, about the stability of said nuclei, can be deduced from the results of
section a)?
m He-3 = 3.016029 u; mH-3 = 3.016049 u; m n = 1.0086 u ; 1u = 1.66·10 -27 kg; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: a) E( 3 H) = 7.875 MeV E( 3 H)/A = 2.625 MeV/nucleon E( 3 He) = 6.69 MeV E( 3 He)/A = 2.25 MeV/nucleon

Problem 7 The half-life of a radioactive nuclide, with atomic mass 200 u that emits beta particles, is 50 s.
A sample, whose initial mass was 50 g, now contains 30 g of the original nuclide.
a) Indicate the differences between the original nuclide and the resulting one and graph the
variation with time of the mass of the original nuclide.
b) Calculate the age of the sample and its current activity.
N A = 6.02·10 23 mol -1

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SOLUC: b) 36.94 s A = 1,248.10 21 bq

Problem 8 a) Indicate the constituent particles of the two nuclides H and He and explain what type of 3
1
3
2

radioactive emission would allow passage from one to the other.

b) Calculate the binding energy for each of the nuclides and indicate which of them is more
stable.
m He-3 = 3.016029 u; mH-3 = 3.016049 u; m n = 1.0086 u ; 1 u = 1.66·10 -27 kg; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
Problem 9º 2
Ra decays radioactively to give
8
26
8
222
Rn .
a) Indicate the type of radioactive emission and write the equation for said nuclear reaction.
b) Calculate the energy released in the process.
mRa = 226.0960 u; m Rn = 222.0869 u ; m He = 4.00387 u
1 u = 1.66·10 -27 kg; c = 3·10 8 ms -1
SOLUC: b) 4.88 MeV
Problem 10 a) Quantitatively justify which of the nuclides O and Po is more stable. 16
8
21
84
8

c) In the disintegration of the nucleus Po, one alpha particle and two beta particles are emitted,
2
8
18
4

obtaining a new nucleus. Indicate the characteristics of said resulting nucleus. What relationship
exists between the initial nucleus and the final one?
m O = 15.994915 u ; m Po = 218.009007 u ; m p = 1.007825 u ; m n = 1.008665 u
SOLUC: a) E( 16 O)/A = 7.99 MeV/nucleon E( 218 Po)/A = 7.75 MeV/nucleon

Problem 11 The 14 C activity (T 1/2 = 5700 years) of an archaeological remains is 120 disintegrations per
second. The same mass of a current sample of identical composition has an activity of 360
disintegrations per second.
a) Explain what causes this difference and calculate the age of the archaeological sample.
b) How many 14 C atoms does the archaeological sample currently have? Do both samples have the
same number of carbon atoms?
SOLUC: a) 9000 years b) 3,098.10 13

Problem 12 In a reactor the reaction takes place:

235U , 1n = 141 , 92Kr , 1
92 U + or n - 56 B a
+ z Kr + a or n

a) Calculate the atomic number, Z , of Kr, and the number of neutrons, a , emitted in the reaction,
indicating the conservation laws used for this.
b) What mass of U is consumed per hour in an 800 Mw nuclear power plant, knowing that the
23
9
5
2

energy released in the fission of an atom of 23

9
5
2 U is 200 MeV?
-19 23 -1
e = 1.6·10 C; N A = 6.02·10 mol
SOLUC: a) a = 3 Z = 36 b) 35.12 g/h

Problem 13º 131 I is a radioactive isotope that is used in medicine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism,
since it is concentrated in the thyroid gland. Its half-life is 8 days.
a) Explain how a 20 mg sample of 131 I has changed after being stored in a hospital for 48 days.
b) What is the activity of one microgram of 131 I?
N A = 6.02·10 23 mol -1
SOLUC: a) There are 0.3125 mg of radioactive iodine left b) A = 4.6.10 9 bq

Problem 14 In a decay process the radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle. The decay constant of
this process is 2·10 -10 s -1 .
a) Explain how the characteristics of the initial nucleus change and write the law that expresses the
number of untransformed nuclei as a function of time.

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b) If initially there were 3 moles of said radioactive substance, how many alpha particles have been
emitted after 925 years? How many moles of He have been formed after said time?
N A = 6.02·10 23 mol -1
SOLUC: b) 1.8.10 24 α particles emitted n = 2.997 moles

Problem 15 Given the nuclear fission reaction:

235U ,
1n = 90sr , 136Xe , 1
92 U +on - 389r + z Xe + a o n

a) Reasonably find the number of neutrons emitted, a , and the value of Z.

b) What energy is released in the fission of 1 gram of 235 U?
c = 3 X 10 8 ms -1 ; m ( 235 U) = 235.043944 u; m ( 90 Sr) = 89.907167 u;
m ( 136 Xe) = 135, 907294 ; m n = 1.008665 u ; 1 u = 1.7 X 10 -27 kg; N A = 6.02 X 10 23 mol -1
SOLUC: a) a = 10 Z = 54 b) 5.9.10 10 J/g = 3.71.10 23 MeV/g

Problem 16 In the hydrogen bomb, a thermonuclear reaction occurs in which helium is formed from
deuterium and tritium.
a) Write the nuclear reaction.
b) Calculate the energy released in the formation of a helium atom.
c =3 · 10 8 ms – 1 ; m ( He ) = 4.0026 u ; m ( H ) =3.0170 u ; m ( H ) = 2.0141 u ; m p = 1.0078 u ;
4
2
3
1
2
1

- 27
m n =1.0086 u ; 1 u= 1.67 · 10 kg
-12
SOLUC: b) 2.99.10 J = 18.7 MeV.

Problem 17º In a nuclear reaction, a mass defect of 0.2148 u is produced for each 235 U nucleus fissioned.

a) Calculate the energy released in the fission of 23.5 g of 235 U.

b) If 10 20 identical reactions occur per minute, what will be the power available?
1 u=1.67 · 10 - 27 kg; c=3 · 10 8 ms – 1 ; N A = 6.02 · 10 23 mol – 1
SOLUC: a) 1,26.10 25 MeV b) 51.5 MW

Problem 18º B decays radioactively in two stages: in the first the resulting nucleus is 6C* (* = excited
1
5
2

state) and in the second the 6C* is de-excited, giving 12 C (ground state).
a) Write the processes of each stage, reasonably determining the type of radiation emitted in each
case.
b) Calculate the frequency of the radiation emitted in the second stage if the energy difference
between the energy states of the carbon isotope is 4.4 MeV.
h = 6.6 · 10 -34 J s ; e = 1.6 · 10 -19 C
SOLUTION: b) f = 1.06.10 21 Hz

Problem 19 The isotope of hydrogen called tritium ( 3 H ) is unstable ( T = 12.5 years) and decays with
the emission of a beta particle. From the analysis of a sample taken from a bottle of mineral water, it is
obtained that the activity due to tritium is 92% of that presented by the water in the source spring.
a) Write the corresponding nuclear reaction.
b) Determine the time the sample water has been bottled.
SOLUC: b) 536 days

Problem 20º In a sample of wood from a sarcophagus, 13,536 disintegrations occur in one day for each
gram, due to the 14 C present, while a current sample of analogous wood experiences 920 disintegrations
per gram in one hour. The half-life of 14 C is 5730 years.

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a) Establish the age of the sarcophagus.

b) Determine the activity of the sarcophagus sample 1000 years from now.
SOLUC: a) 4000 years b) 0.14 bq

Problem 21 The radioactive nucleus 232 U decays, emitting alpha particles, with a half-life of 72 years.
a) Write the equation for the disintegration process and reasonably determine the mass number
and atomic number of the resulting nucleus.
b) Calculate the time it takes for its mass to reduce to 75% of the original mass.
SOLUC: b) 30 years

Problem 22 Consider the nuclear reaction:

92 U+ 0 n -» 133
Sb + 99
Nb + 4 1n

a) Explain what type of reaction it is and determine the energy released per Uranium atom.
b) How much of 92 U is needed to produce 10 6 kWh?
c = 3 · 10 ms ; N A = 6.02 · 10 23 mol -1 ; m U = 235.128 u;
8 -1

m Sb = 132.942 u ; m Nb = 98.932 u ; m n = 1.0086 u ; 1 u = 1.66·10 -27 kg

SOLUC: a) 3.41.10 -11 J/fissioned uranium nucleus b) 41.32 g

Problem 23 Imagine a nuclear power plant in which energy was produced from the following nuclear
reaction:
4 4
He → 16 O
a) Determine the energy that would be produced for each kilogram of helium that was fused.
b) Reason in which of the two previous nuclei the binding energy per nucleon is greater.
c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; 1 u = 1.66 · 10 -27 kg; m ( 4 He ) = 4.0026 u ;
m( 16 O ) = 15.9950 u; m p = 1.007825 u ; m n = 1.008665 u
Problem 24 The fission of a 235 U atom is produced by the capture of a neutron, the main products of this
process being 144 Ba and 90 Kr .
a) Write and fit the corresponding nuclear reaction and calculate the energy released by each
atom that fissions.
c) In a given nuclear power plant, 45 · 10 8 W are released through fission. Determine the mass
of fissile material consumed each day.
c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; m(U) = 235.12 u; m(Ba) = 143.92 u; m(Kr) = 89.94 u;
m n = 1.008665 u ; 1 u = 1.7 · 10 -27 kg
SOLUC: a) Two neutrons are released 3.85.10 -11 J/fissioned nucleus b) 3.9kg

Problem 25º A nucleus of 226 Ra emits an alpha particle and becomes a nucleus of A Rn

d) Write the corresponding nuclear reaction and calculate the energy released in the process.
e) If the decay constant of 288Ra is 1.37 · 10 -11 s -1 , calculate the time that must elapse for a
sample to reduce its activity by one fifth.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1 ; 1 u = 1.67·10 -27 kg; m(Ra) = 226.025406 u; m(Rn) = 222.017574 u ; m(He)= 4.002603 u
SOLUC: a) 7.81.10 -13 J/core b) 3725 years

Problem 26 Among some archaeological remains of unknown age is a carbon sample in which only one
eighth of the 12C carbon that it originally contained remains. The half-life of 12C is 5730 years.

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a) Calculate the age of said remains.

b) If there are currently 10 12
12C atoms in the sample, what is their activity?
8
SOLUC: a) 17328 years b) 1.2 .10 disintegrations/year

Problem 27 In the explosion of a hydrogen bomb the reaction occurs:

2H + 3H- AHe + 1n

a) Define mass defect and calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 2He.
b) Determine the energy released in the formation of a helium atom.
c = 3·10 8 ms -1 ; 1 u =1.67·10 -27 kg; m(2H) = 2.01474 u; m(3H) = 3.01700 u;
m( AHe ) = 4.002603 u ; m(1n) =1.008665 u; m(1p) =1.007825 u
SOLUC: a) 7 MeV/nucleon b) 19.23 MeV

Problem 28º In stars with hot cores, fusions of the so-called carbon cycle predominate, the last step of
which consists of the fusion of a proton with 15 N nitrogen to give 12 C and a helium nucleus.
a) Write the nuclear reaction.
b) Determine the energy required to form 1 kg of 12 C.
c = 3 · 10 8 ms -1 ; m( 1H ) = 1.007825u ; m ( 15 N ) = 15.000108 u; m( 12 C )=12,000000 u; m(
4
He ) = 4.002603 u ; u = 1.7 · 10 -27 kg
SOLUC: a) b) 4.0899.10 13 J/kg

Problem 29º The isotope 235 U , after various α and β decays, gives rise to the isotope 207 Pb .

a) Describe the characteristics of these two radioactive emissions and calculate how many α
and how many β particles are emitted for each 207 Pb atom formed.
b) Determine the initial activity of a 1 g sample of 235 U , knowing that its half-life is 7 · 10 8 years.
What will be the activity of the sample 235 U , after a time equal to the half-life?
N A = 6.02 · 10 23 mol -1 ; m ( 235 U ) = 235.07 u
SOLUC: a) 7 α and 4 β b) A0 = 2.54.10 12 disintegrations/year A = A0/2 = 1.27.10 12 disintegrations/year

Problem 30 In the accident at the Fukushima I nuclear power plant, emissions of iodine 137 Cs were
produced
and radioactive cesium into the atmosphere. The half-life of is 30.23 years. 55

a) Explain what the decay constant of a radioactive isotope is and calculate its 137 Cs value
for 55
.
b) Calculate the time, measured in years, that must elapse for the activity of 137 Cs
is reduced to 1% of the initial value.
55

-1
SOLUC: a) 0.023 years b) 200.22 years

v2
Nsinα + μ N cos α m max .
μe R

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