Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192

DOI 10.1007/s12517-013-1148-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Groundwater model to predict the impact due to textile

units at Pali
Vijai Singhal & Rohit Goyal

Received: 14 June 2013 / Accepted: 26 September 2013 / Published online: 12 October 2013
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2013

Abstract Pali in the state of Rajasthan has been identified as raised for the management of groundwater resources. It is a
one of the problem areas in the country where industrial and useful tool to assist in problem evaluation, design remedial
anthropogenic activities have caused serious environmental strategy, and conceptualize and provide additional information
degradation. Groundwater flow model has been developed for for decision making. Groundwater modeling becomes even
the Pali area in Rajasthan based on MODFLOW-2000 using more important in the areas where groundwater resources are
the preprocessor GMS and GIS database to predict the depleting at an alarming rate. Rajasthan state is among the four
groundwater flow regime of the study area. Sensitivity analy- states/union territories in India where severe groundwater
sis has been carried out using the calibrated and validated depletion is occurring as a result of human consumption rather
groundwater flow model considering variations in rainfall than natural variability (Rodell et al. 2009).
and, as a consequence, modified groundwater recharge rates. In addition to depleting groundwater resources, increasing
The study concludes that the variations in the water table are threat to groundwater quality due to human activities has
more prominent in the eastern side of the study area. However, become another matter of great concern. Part of the Pali
the area around river Bandi remains unaffected, indicating that district of Rajasthan state has been taken up as study area for
variation in rainfall does not have a significant impact on the the work presented in the paper. This area is witnessing high
post-monsoon groundwater regime in this area. The flow model rate of groundwater depletion and also experiencing ground-
developed in the study was also used to carry out analysis on water pollution due to rapid industrialization (Rathore et al.
the impact of different land uses and hydrogeological areas on 2009; Meena et al. 2009). Therefore, groundwater modeling
the change in water table in post- and pre-monsoon seasons. of this region will provide useful insight for its management.
The work presented here could be employed to develop a Textile dyeing, printing, and hand processing have been an
contaminant transport model of the area. old-age commercial activity in the western part of Rajasthan.
Pali is a famous industrial town in Rajasthan primarily having
Keywords Groundwater flow model . Rainfall variability . small-scale textile units. The pollution problem at Pali relates
Land use . Hydrogeological areas to the unregulated growth of textile processing industries. Pali
City is drained by river Bandi which is a seasonal river and
flows through the city. The industries located in and around
Introduction Pali City generate highly polluted industrial effluents which
have been regularly disposed off in Bandi River. Due to
Groundwater model is one of the most important tools that are indiscriminate discharge of effluents generated from textile
widely used around the world to answer many questions units, concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS), sulfates,
chlorides, alkalinity, and sodium absorption ration (SAR) are
V. Singhal high in the groundwater in the impact zone, indicating the
Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur, India adverse impact of textile effluent discharged into river which
e-mail: [email protected] seeps into the recharge wells at villages near the river bank
(NPC 2010). Pali has suffered heavily in terms of groundwater
R. Goyal (*)
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India pollution, land degradation, and loss of natural vegetation. It
e-mail: [email protected] has been identified as one of the problem areas in the country
5186 Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192

where industrial activity has caused rigorous environmental and concluded that the affected area along Bandi River was
degradation (CPCB 2007). 219 km2. Singhal et al. (2008) observed that surface and
groundwater quality is significantly affected in the area around
Mandiya and Punayta where major outfall exists from textile
Literature review industries. Rathore et al. (2009) demonstrated that groundwa-
ter upstream at Pali has high dissolved oxygen, low salinity,
Application of remote sensing and geographical information sodium, chloride, and sulfate. Likewise, Meena et al. (2009)
system (GIS) has fundamentally changed our thoughts and found toxic heavy metals and other parameters in Pali area
ways to manage our natural resources in general and water higher than permissible levels specified for drinking water in
resources in particular. The use of GIS in conceptualization, the Indian standards in the groundwater used for potable
characterization, and numerical simulation of groundwater purposes.
flow systems is well demonstrated (Pradhan 2009a, b; It is evident that most of the research work carried out at
Manap et al. 2012; Al Rawashdeh et al. 2013; Neshat et al. Pali is limited to survey, collection, and analysis of data related
2013; Ndatuwong and Yadav 2013). Manap et al. (2013) used to groundwater and surface waters. However, there are limited
GIS coupled with remote sensing for groundwater potential studies, if any, which have used modern tools like remote
mapping in an area of the upper Langat Basin, Malaysia. In sensing, GIS, and groundwater modeling to analyze the prob-
the present work, remote sensing and other auxiliary data have lem and suggest remedial measures.
been used to develop the GIS database of the study area.
Groundwater modeling has long been used as a scientific
tool by practicing engineers, groundwater resource planners, Study area
and decision makers in developed countries, and it is being
applied by academicians, scientists, and researchers in devel- For the present study, part of the Pali district has been taken as
oping countries also (Mondal and Singh 2005; Gurunadha Rao study area. The study area for developing groundwater model
et al. 2008; Kushwha et al. 2009; Surinnaidu et al. 2011; was defined after thoroughly studying the problem area in terms
Rahnama and Zamzam 2011; Arora and Goyal 2012). Rao of its hydrology, hydrogeology, general groundwater flow di-
et al. (2011) developed a three-dimensional steady-state finite rection, and morphological features. Aravali hill range was taken
difference groundwater flow model to quantify groundwater as a no-flow boundary on the eastern side of the study area.
fluxes and analyze the subsurface hydrodynamics in the basaltic North Sukri River and South Sukhri River were respectively
terrain for the alluvial aquifer of the Ghatprabha River, located taken as northern and southern boundaries of the study area.
in the central-eastern part of Karnataka in southern India. These rivers have been considered as specified flow boundaries.
Pali in the state of Rajasthan, India, has attracted re- Figure 1 shows the map of the study area along with various
searchers from varied fields and backgrounds, and work on boundaries as discussed above (Singhal and Goyal 2011a).
impact assessment of textile effluents on various sectors of The physical framework of the study area was defined by
physical environment has been taken up by many institutions defining the ground elevation, land use and land cover,
and individual researchers. The Rajasthan State Pollution hydrostratigraphy, and soil types of the study area. The collect-
Control Board (RSPCB 1984) provided an outline of the ed data was analyzed and thematic maps were prepared in GIS.
problem faced at Pali. The report says that major pollutants Ground elevation map of the study area was prepared using
present in the combined effluent are high alkalinity, COD, ASTER remote sensing data (ASTER GDEM website 2010).
BOD, TDS, chlorides, sulfates, etc. The Central Pollution A total of six types of land use, i.e., arable land irrigated, arable
Control Board also undertook a study in the area to carry out land unirrigated, forest land, grass and scrubland, wasteland,
inventory of the industries, assessment of pollution load being and urban areas, were identified in the study area. Figure 2
discharged in the river Bandi, and assessment of the extent of depicts the land uses and land cover map of the study area.
pollution of the groundwater (CPCB 1990). The State Ground It is observed that three different types of hydrogeological
Water Department, Government of Rajasthan, conducted a units exist in the study area with 61.5 % of the area as
detailed study on groundwater pollution due to textile indus- alluvium, 21 % as phylite, and the rest as granite. The aquifer
tries along the river Bandi and characterized the effluent system was constructed based on 28 litho logs of study area
generated from various process streams as well as the com- obtained from CGWB. For hydrological and hydrogeological
bined effluent from cotton cloth processing (SGWD 1992). analyses of the study area, data related to water level in the
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) reported inten- monitoring wells, rainfall data of the rain gauge stations, and
sive groundwater pollution along river Bandi, west of Pali stream network of the study area were gathered from different
town, due to effluent from several textile units (CGWB 1994). sources and converted into desired formats/maps.
Singh and Ram (1997) carried out a survey and sampling of river Bandi was modeled as the only source of recharge
the ground and surface water as well as the industrial effluents other than rainfall as all the treated/partially treated waste water
Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192 5187

Fig. 1 Study area

from the textile units and the domestic wastewater of Pali town groundwater table. Therefore, a methodology was developed
is discharged in the river. No data related to river head gauge is to establish correlation between average rainfall and change in
being maintained by the State Water Resources Department. In storage volume based on the historical data for different land
the absence of any data related to river head, river head was use types for monsoon and non-monsoon periods (Singhal
estimated using the data available regarding discharge from the 2012). This relationship was then used to estimate recharge
industries and domestic effluent in the river. rates for different land use and hydrogeological types.
Water budget study of the study area was carried out by
calculating recharge or extraction of groundwater based on
water balance method which uses groundwater table fluctua- Development of groundwater model
tion for finding changes in the storages. In this method, the
statistical average of rise or fall is used to determine change in Development of a representative conceptual groundwater
storage. However, the arithmetic averaging of fluctuations flow model is an important step before translating it into a
may not sufficiently address the spatial variability of the numerical model. Therefore, a conceptual groundwater flow

Fig. 2 Land use and land cover

map of the study area
5188 Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192

model for the study area was developed using spatially distrib- run, and it was observed that the RMSE value was 2.98 m
uted values for groundwater recharge instead of lump sum which is less than the specified tolerance criteria of ±3 m of the
average values normally obtained by water budgeting method observed heads. Besides the above, various error statistics
(Singhal and Goyal 2011a). Arc GIS 9.2 software was exten- were generated along with the simulated groundwater level.
sively used for preprocessing of hydrological, hydrogeological, The simulated groundwater levels have been compared with
and geological data. GIS tools have been extensively applied to the observed levels, and it was observed that there is a good
the study area to estimate the annual recharge and draft over a match between the two. Time series graphs were also prepared
4-year period (Singhal et al. 2013). for selected wells which showed reasonably good match be-
In the present work, partially penetrating ephemeral rivers tween observed and computed head values (Singhal 2012).
have been taken as model boundaries wherever more appro- Figure 3 shows one such graph for well no. 177 which
priate boundaries were not available in near vicinity. It is represents a good match between simulated groundwater
expected that the flux at these boundaries is likely to be small levels and the observed levels.
and may not vary much from time to time. However, a method
is required to calculate the average flux through such bound-
aries. Therefore, a GIS-based methodology was developed for
Prediction from groundwater model
the estimation of flux across “specified flow” boundaries and
estimation of distributed recharge for groundwater model
It was decided to run the developed groundwater flow model
using historical groundwater levels, hydrogeological, and land
considering variations in rainfall which may be expected due
use/land cover map (Singhal and Goyal 2011b).
to climate change and to carry out sensitivity analysis to
Conversion of a groundwater flow conceptual model into a
determine its impact on the groundwater flow regime.
mathematical MODFLOW-based model is a very important
Kumar et al. (2006) has stated that increase in rainfall from
step in the modeling exercise. In the present case study, Layer-
the baseline period (1961–1990) to the end of the twenty-first
Property Flow (LPF) was used as a flow package, whereas a
century ranges between 15 and 40 % among the models.
preconditioned conjugate gradient method (PCG2) was cho-
Accordingly, it was decided to develop various scenarios
sen as a solver package. Firstly, various coverages like cover-
(see Table 1) decreasing and increasing the rainfall by 25 %
age representing study area boundary, various sources/sinks,
with respect to long-term average rainfall to understand the
calibration targets, and coverages for different aquifer layers
impact of any variations in the rainfall. For comparison of
and for recharge were set up, and initial values for various
different scenarios, one of the scenarios, S1, of no change in
hydrological and hydrogeological parameters were assigned
monsoon rainfall was used. Methodology developed in the
as available in the standard literature. Apart from these cov-
present work for recharge estimation was extended with
erages, 2D scatter data sets representing aquifer layer eleva-
tions, starting head, and ground elevations were also devel-
oped. These coverages and 2D scattered data sets were then
used to set up a mathematical MODFLOW-based finite dif-
ference model. Global and LPF packages were also set up
which specify starting heads, top and bottom elevation arrays,
stress periods, and finite difference grid. Finally, MODFLOW
Model Checker was run to check for errors. It is important to
choose a correct finite difference grid and to set up the various
packages (Singhal and Goyal 2011c).
The model was calibrated using a trial-and-error method.
The calibration process was started with a root mean square
error (RMSE) value of 6.19 m. A calibration target of ±3 m of
the observed heads was used in the calibration. The calibration
process was completed with a RMSE value of 2.87 m (Singhal
2012). The sensitivity analysis and validation of the model
was performed as described by Anderson and Woessner
(1992). Water level values of post-monsoon 2003 for the
monitoring wells were used as starting head values for vali-
dation, and the water level values from post-monsoon 2003 to
pre-monsoon 2007 were used for validation targets. In the
validation process, the calibrated values of aquifer parameters,
stresses, and boundary conditions were used. The model was Fig. 3 Variations in computed head in time series for well no. 177
Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192 5189

Table 1 Various scenarios to model rainfall variability data related to the rise and fall in water table for some of the
Series Scenario Description points in the study area for all these cases pre- and post-
number monsoon with respect to water levels in 2007.
As can be seen from the table, the magnitude of change in
1 S1 Prediction of head values for normal long-term water table depth is highest for scenario S3 and lowest for
average rainfall
scenario S1. Also, the difference between pre- and post-
2 S2 Prediction of head values in the case where rainfall
is 25 % less than the normal long-term average
monsoon change in water table depths is not very significant
rainfall in scenarios S1 and S2 for most of the points. The point data for
3 S3 Prediction of head values in the case where rainfall each scenario in Table 2 was converted into layers with the
is 25 % more than the normal long-term average help of an interpolation tool in Arc GIS, and the rise/fall in
rainfall water table for the change in water table between predicted
values of post-monsoon groundwater level in year 2031 and
post-monsoon groundwater level of starting year 2007 was
varied rainfall to predict the recharge coefficients for different analyzed for all the three scenarios.
land use/land cover classes for different scenarios. A long- Figure 4 shows the change in water table between year
term average rainfall value of 452 mm was taken for the 2007 and year 2031 for all the scenarios for post-monsoon
monsoon period for district Pali on the basis of published data season. In case of scenario S1, it is evident that there is not
on rainfall by the Irrigation Department, Government of much variation in the study area in the rise/fall of water table
Rajasthan (Singhal 2012). The value was used to calculate in years 2007 and 2031. In scenarios S2 and S3, a moderate
corresponding average groundwater recharge values for vari- reduction and rise of 25 %, respectively, from the normal
ous land use types. For non-monsoon period, the average average rainfall have been envisaged. In these scenarios,
rainfall data in non-monsoon periods for the year 1999 to variations in the water table are more prominent in the eastern
2006 was calculated and used as a long-term average value side of the study area. However, the area around river Bandi
for non-monsoon rainfall. For predicting various scenarios, remains unaffected in these two scenarios, indicating that
average normal rainfall was increased or decreased based on variation in rainfall does not have a significant impact on the
the scenario considered. Accordingly, the recharge factors post-monsoon groundwater regime in this area.
were estimated for the monsoon and non-monsoon periods Likewise, three scenarios were analyzed for pre-monsoon
for various rainfall scenarios. season. The impact in pre-monsoon season was also in similar
Validation model was run from May 2007 to May 2032 for lines as in the scenario for post-monsoon season.
predicting the head values for 15-, 20-, and 25-year periods.
The values for predicted head were extracted for each scenario
by using various tools available in Groundwater Modeling Results and discussions
System (GMS). To analyze the impact of rainfall variability as
per the different scenarios on the groundwater regime, the net An attempt was made to investigate the impact of different land
rise or fall in water table as compared to water levels in 2007 uses and hydrogeological conditions available in the study area
for post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons was calculated on the change in water table depth in various scenarios
for year 2031 for all the three scenarios. Table 2 contains the discussed above for post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons.

Table 2 Change in water table depth (in meters) for some of the points in the study area for all the scenarios with respect to water levels in 2007

X coordinate Y coordinate Scenarios

S1 S2 S3

Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon

332,500 2,872,500 8.7 8.9 10.1 9.6 33.5 34.8

352,500 2,872,500 8.6 9.3 −21.5 −23.2 73.0 75.7
325,500 2,861,500 3.1 4.3 −3.9 −3.5 20.8 22.0
343,500 2,858,500 −2.3 −2.2 −12.1 −13.2 24.0 26.4
363,500 2,858,500 13.5 14.7 −21.7 −21.6 67.5 71.3
343,500 2,802,500 −2.2 −2.3 −21.8 −22.8 19.4 20.6
357,500 2,801,500 −21.0 −19.9 −22.7 −22.4 19.3 21.8
357,500 2,800,500 −21.8 −20.7 −23.2 −23.3 16.9 19.3
5190 Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192

Fig. 4 Change in water table

between predicted water level of
year 2031 and level in year 2007
for post-monsoon season

Accordingly, the mean change in water table depth for each land (unirrigated), and waste land is in the range of 9.5 to
scenario was calculated with the zonal statistics tool available in 10.5 m only. A minimum change of −0.2 m occurs in urban
the spatial analyst tool box of Arc GIS for all the land uses and area though the total urban area in the study area is only 0.38 %
hydrogeological conditions. Results for post-monsoon season and therefore has been considered insignificant. In the case of
for different scenarios for various land uses are given in Table 3 S2 and S3, forest land shows maximum decrease and increase in
(Singhal 2012). both scenarios. However, change in water table depth in arable
As can be observed from Table 3, a maximum change of land (irrigated) and arable land (unirrigated) which together
−22.5 m in water table depth in year 2031 with respect to year form about 69 % of the total study area will be to the tune of
2007 in scenario S1 in post-monsoon season occurs in forest 46.4 and 52.3 m, respectively, in scenario S3. It is therefore
land. Change in water depth for arable land (irrigated), arable evident that rainfall variability which may be expected due to
climate change will have a profound impact on water table in
Table 3 Mean change in water table depth (in meters) for different the future as predicted by the model.
scenarios for various land uses for post-monsoon season

Land use type Mean change in water table in different

scenarios (post-monsoon season) in meters Table 4 Mean change in water table depth (in meters) for different
scenarios for various hydrogeological areas for post-monsoon season
S1 S2 S3
Hydrogeological area Mean change in water table in different scenarios
1 Arable land (irrigated) 10.5 −9.2 46.4 (post-monsoon season) in meters
2 Arable land (unirrigated) 9.7 −13.2 52.3
S1 S2 S3
3 Forest land −22.5 −35.1 53.8
4 Grass and scrubland 6.4 −14.1 50.3 1. Alluvium 9.6 −10.4 47.3
5 Waste land 9.5 −7.3 41.6 2. Granite 8.3 −12.5 48.5
6 Urban area −0.2 −13.7 23.3 3. Phylite 1.3 −24.1 62.7
Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:5185–5192 5191

Change in mean water table depth for different scenarios for contamination level of pollutant in the future and how it relates
various hydrogeological areas for post-monsoon season is to the groundwater flow regime predicted by the flow model.
depicted in Table 4 which shows that change in water table depth The predictions could also be used to prepare climate change
for alluvium and granite is similar across all the scenarios though adaptation strategies for the area and could assist in preparing
the highest change is predicted for phylite for all the scenarios future water budget and allocation of water resources for various
except for scenario S1 which shows a very small increase of only competitive uses like human consumption, agriculture, industri-
1.3 m. A decrease in rainfall by 25 % in scenario S2 has resulted al, etc.
into change in water table depth to 10.4 and 12.5 m for alluvium
and granite, respectively, indicating profound impact on water
table depth in these hydrogeological areas. Similar changes were
observed in the pre-monsoon season (Singhal 2012).
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