PRESSURE

PRESSURE

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 Pressure
• Pressure refers to force acting perpendicularly per unit area.
• Since force is measured in newton and area in square metre,
then the SI unit of pressure is the newton per square metre
symbol is (N/m2) or the pascal (Pa). (N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa)
• Formula for pressure

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 Pressure in Solids
• Force exerted by a solid resting on a surface is equal to the
weight the object.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
The force is spread across
a large enough area that
the pressure is reduced
sufficiently that it can't
pierce the skin or balloon.
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 Factors Affecting Pressure in Solids
 Weight of the solid (force)
• If the area of contact between solid and surface is constant,
pressure increases with weight.
 Area of contact of the solid with surface.
• The smaller the area, the higher the pressure if same force is
applied. Therefore pressure can be reduced by increasing the
area of contact.

Tractors have wide Elephants have Easier to walk on sand

wheels to reduce wide legs to reduce with flat shoes rather than
pressure exerted on pressure exerted on
shoes with a sharp heel:
the ground the ground
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Example 1
A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his
shoes and floor is 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝐜𝐦𝟐 , determine the average pressure he exerts on the
floor.
(𝐓𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐠 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐍𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 )
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Pressure =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚
Force = weight of the man
= 84 x 10 N
= 840 N
Area = 420 𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝟒𝟐𝟎
=
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.042 𝐦𝟐
𝟖𝟒𝟎
Thus pressure =
𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟐
𝟖𝟒𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
=
𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟒𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= = 𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍𝐦−𝟐
𝟒𝟐
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Example 2
A metallic block of mass 40 kg exerts a pressure of 20 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
on a flat surface. Determine the area of contact between the
block and the surface.(𝐓𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐠 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐍𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 )

Force = weight of the block

= 40 x 10 N
= 400 N

𝐅 𝐅
Since P = ;𝐀 =
𝐀 𝐏
𝟒𝟎𝟎
=
𝟐𝟎
= 20 𝐦𝟐

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Example 3
A brick 20cm long, 10cm wide and 5cm thick has a mass of 500g. Determine
the:
(a) Greatest pressure that can be exerted by the brick on a flat surface.
(b) Least pressure that can be exerted by the brick on a flat surface.
(𝐓𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐠 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐍𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 )
(a) Dimensions of the brick are 0.20 m, 0.10 m and 0.05 m.
𝟓𝟎
Weight of the brick = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎
=5N
𝐅
from the formula 𝐏 = 𝐀
P is greatest when area A is smallest.
Area of the smallest face of the brick
= 0.10 x 0.05
= 0.005 𝐦𝟐
𝐅
Therefore, 𝐏 = 𝐀
𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐭
𝟓
= 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓
= 1 000 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
(b) Pressure is least when area A is greatest.
𝟓
Therefore, 𝐏 = 𝟎.𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟎.𝟏𝟎= 250 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
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Factors Affecting Pressure in Liquids
Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
This is the reason as to why walls of a
dam are thicker at the bottom than at
the top as shown below. Thick walls at
the bottom of the dam withstand high
pressure due to water at the bottom.

Pressure increasing with depth of liquid

explains why a diver at the bottom of
the sea experiences more pressure due
to more weight of water above him
than a diver near the top/ surface of the
sea. 8
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Factors Affecting Pressure in Liquids
Pressure in liquids increases with density of the liquid.
 Consider two identical containers filled with water (of density
1000kg/m3) and oil (of density 800kg/m3) respectively.
 Pressure at point in water is greater than pressure at same point in oil
because water is denser than oil and exerts more pressure than oil.

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 To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure density of Liquids
 Consider a transparent glass vessel filled with water and a thistle funnel
connected to a u-tube filled with water to some level dipped into it.
 It is observed that the deeper the funnel goes below the surface of water,
the greater the difference in levels of water in the two limbs of the
u- tube, h. This is due to increase in pressure with depth.
 When glycerine is used in place of water it is observed that at the same
depth the difference in levels, h is greater than when water is used. This
is because glycerine is denser than water and therefore its pressure at
same depth is higher than that of water.

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Liquid levels
When a liquid is poured into a set of open and connected vessels
with different shapes (and area of cross-section), it flows until
the levels are the same in all the vessels, as shown in figure
below.
This shows that the liquid flows to find its own height regardless
of the shape of the vessel.

Fig 4.5

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 To Demonstrate that Pressure at Equal Depth,
Acts Equally in All Directions
• Consider a tin with two similar holes on its side at same height
as shown alongside.
• When the tin is filled with water, it is observed that water travels
out of the holes equal horizontal distances from the can.
Therefore pressure exerted at equal depth is same in all
directions.

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 Deriving the fluid pressure formula
• Consider a container with cross- section area, A, filled with a liquid of density, ρ, to
the height, h, as shown alongside

• The pressure p, exerted at the bottom (base) of the container by the weight
of the liquid above it is given by:
𝑭 𝒘(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅)
𝑷= =
𝑨 𝑨(𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓)
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒘 = 𝝆𝑨𝒉𝒈
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒉 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑨𝒉𝝆𝒈
∴𝑷=
𝑨
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂.
• From the formula it is clear that pressure in fluids does not depend on
cross- section area of the container holding the liquid.
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The Principle of Transmission of Pressure in Liquids
 Pascal’s principle states that pressure applied at one part in a
liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts of the enclosed liquid.
Demonstrating Pascal’s Principle
• Consider a liquid under pressure due to force, F, acting on the piston as
shown below.
• Note: The holes are of equal diameter.

• When the piston is pushed in, water jets out of the holes with equal force.
This shows that pressure generated by the piston on the water is
transmitted equally to all other parts of the liquid.
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 Applications of Pascal’s Principle
 Pascal’s Principle is applied in
the working of the hydraulic
machines. These machines
include:
a) Hydraulic press used to
compress textile products
like blankets for packing.

b) Hydraulic lift used to hoist

cars in garages.

c) Hydraulic brake system used

for braking in cars.
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Pressure Transmission in Hydraulic Machines
• Note that pressure at same level in the liquid is the same as seen earlier.
• Consider the hydraulic machine below consisting of a small piston, S, and a large
piston, L, of cross- section as shown alongside.

• Pressure exerted on the liquid by piston, S due to force, FS, is PS.

𝑭𝑺
𝑷𝑺 =
𝑨𝑺
• By Pascal’s principle this pressure PS is equal to pressure PL exerted by
liquid on piston, L.
𝑭 𝑭𝑳 𝑭𝒍 𝑨𝑳
𝑷𝑺 = 𝑷𝑳 ; 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔
𝑨𝒔
= 𝑨𝑳
and also =
𝑭𝒔 𝑨𝒔
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Example 6
A small force of 100 N is applied on the small piston area 𝐀 𝟏
equal to 0.25 𝐦𝟐 produces a bigger force 𝐅𝟐 on a larger piston
of area 𝐀 𝟐 equal to 𝟏𝟎𝐦𝟐 . Calculate 𝐅𝟐

Solution

𝐅𝟐 𝐀 𝟐
=
𝐅𝟏 𝐀 𝟏

𝐀𝟐
𝐅𝟐 = 𝐱 𝐅𝟏
𝐀𝟏

𝟏𝟎
= 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

=4 000 N
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Exercise
The figure below shows a simple hydraulic press used to compress a bale.
The cross-section areas of A and B are 0.002𝐦𝟐 and 0.30𝐦𝟐 respectively.

Determine the:
(a) Pressure exerted on the oil by the force applied at A.
(b) Pressure exerted on B by the oil.
(c) Force produced on B compressing the bale.

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 Hydraulic Brake

System

When a small force is applied on the brake pedal, it pushes the piston of the
master cylinder inwards. This produces a pressure that is equally transmitted
to the pistons in the slave cylinders. The pressure generates a force which
pushes the pistons of the slave cylinder outwards. The pistons then push the
brake shoes and therefore the brake lining outwards. The brake lining touches
and stops rotating wheel drum.
The return spring returns the brake shoes into their original position after
force on brake pedal has been removed. 19
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 Properties of hydraulic fluids
Properties of the Hydraulic Brake Fluid
a) It should not corrode parts of the system.
:water is not usable since corrodes
b)It should be highly incompressible
:air is not used since compressible and hence do not
transmit pressure equally
( c) It
should have a low freezing point and
high boiling point.
:heat produced during braking may vaporize the fluid and
fluid may freeze at low temperatures
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• Atmospherics pressure .
• This is the pressure exerted on the earth’s surface by the column of air
around it.
• To Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric Pressure
• Consider a tin container with some water in it. The container is heated for
some time while open and closed after withdrawing heating. Cold water is
then poured on it immediately.
steam
Lid
water
Observation
During cooling, the container is crushed in.

Explanation
Steam from boiling water drives out most of the air inside the container .
When the cork is first replaced, the steam pressure inside the container
balances the atmospheric pressure outside. On cooling, the steam
condenses. A partial vacuum is therefore created in the container. Since
pressure inside the container is less than atmospheric pressure outside, the
container is crushed.
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To Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric
The force caused by the atmospheric
pressure acts on the surface of the
cardboard is greater than the weight of
the water in the glass.

When water is sucked up a straw as in

figure , the air pressure inside the straw
reduces.
The atmospheric pressure acting
on the water surface is now greater
than the pressure inside the straw.
Water is thus pushed up the straw by
the atmospheric pressure.
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The syringe
The syringe works on the existence of
atmospheric pressure. When the nozzle
of a syringe is dipped in a liquid and its
piston is withdrawn, the pressure inside
the syringe barrel is lowered. The
greater atmospheric pressure acting on
the surface of the liquid pushes the
liquid up into the barrel

When the sucker is pressed into

place, the air inside is forced out. As
a result, the pressure inside the
sucker become very low. The sucker
is then held in position by the high
atmospheric pressure on the outside
surface.
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 Measurement of atmospheric pressure

Fig (b) Fig (b)

Fill glass tubes of different lengths completely with water and invert them in
water . The water column will be very large.
If mercury which is much denser than water is used, the column supported is found
to be much shorter, see figure (b). In this figure, the mercury column in the tube
exerts pressure at point B. for the height of this column to remain constant, there
must be a counter pressure to hold it up. This counter pressure is provided by the
atmosphere. At sea level, the atmospheric pressure supports approximately 76 cm
of mercury column or approximately 10 m of water column.

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 Mercury Barometer
 It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 It applies the fact that atmospheric pressure supports a
column of liquid in a tube.
Construction of Mercury Barometer
 It is made of a thick- walled glass tube of about 1m long
sealed at one end.
 The tube is then filled carefully with mercury to the top.
 Any bubbles of air in the tube are removed by closing the
open end and inverting the tube severally. Presence of air
bubbles make barometer faulty.

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 The tube is then inverted into a dish filled with mercury.
 Mercury is preferred in the construction of barometer to
other liquids because its has higher density.

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 Testing the Vacuum in the Barometer
• The vacuum is tested by tilting the tube. If the tube is fully
filled then the space is a vacuum but if the tube is not fully
filled then the space is not a vacuum; it has some air occupying
it and therefore, the barometer is faulty.

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 Calculations on Atmospheric pressure
Example 1
A girl in a school situated in the coast region (sea level)
plans to make a barometer using sea-water of density 1030
𝐤𝐠𝐦−𝟑 . If the atmospheric pressure is 103 000 𝐍𝐦−𝟑 ,
determine the minimum length of the tube that she will
require.
Pressure in liquid is given by P = hpg
But P = atmospheric pressure
Therefore, hpg = atmospheric pressure
h x 1030 x 10 = 103 000
103000
So. h= = 10m
10300

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Example 2
• A sea diver is 18 m below the surface of sea water. If the
density of sea water is 1.03g/cm3 and g is 10N/ kg,
determine the total pressure on him. (Take atmospheric
pressure pa = 103 000N/m2).

Pressure in liquid is given by P = h𝜌g

But total pressure = atmospheric pressure, Pa + liquid
pressure
= Pa + h𝜌g
= 103000 + 35 x 1030 x 10 Nm−2
= 463 500 Nm−2

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Example 3
• A sea diver is 35 m below the surface of sea water. If
the density of sea water is 1.03g/cm3 and g is 10N/
kg, determine the total pressure on him. (Take
atmospheric pressure pa = 103 000N/m2).

Pressure in liquid is given by P = h𝜌g

But total pressure = atmospheric pressure, Pa + liquid

pressure
= Pa + h𝜌g
= 103000 + 35 x 1030 x 10 Nm−2
= 463 500 Nm−2

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Example 4
The air pressure at the base of a mountain is 75..0 cm of
mercury while at the top it is 60.0 cm of mercury. Given that
the average density of air is 1.25𝐤𝐠𝐦−𝟑 and the density of
mercury is 13 600 𝐤𝐠𝐦−𝟑 , calculate the height of the
mountain.
Solution
Pressure difference due to column of air (height of mountain)
= Pressure difference due to mercury column
Pressure at the top of the mountain
= 0.60 x 13600 x 10
= 81 600 𝐍𝐦−𝟐 =20 400 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
Pressure at the base of the mountain Pressure due to column of air
= 0.75 x 13600 x 10 = 20400 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
= 102 000 𝐍𝐦−𝟐 𝐡𝐚 𝐞𝐚 𝐠 = 𝟐𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
Pressure difference 𝟐𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝐡𝐚 =𝟏.𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝐦
= 102 000 - 81600 The height of the mountain is 1 632 m

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 U- Tube Manometer
 It is used to measure gas pressure.
 It consists of u- tube filled with suitable liquid to some level.
 Consider u-tube manometer below in which one limb is connected
to gas supply.

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 Siphon
• Siphon is used to transfer liquid from one container to
another.
• The use of siphon to transfer liquid due to pressure
difference is called siphoning. Consider the siphoning
arrangement shown below.

• Pressure at A is equal to pressure at B and it is the

atmospheric pressure, Pa
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 Siphon
 Pressure at c is equal to pressure at B plus pressure due to
water column , h, i.e. 𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑩 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
 Pressure difference between B and C (i.e. 𝑷𝑪 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈) is
what makes the liquid to flow from the upper container to the
lower one.
Conditions under which Siphon Works
1) The tube must be filled with the liquid first. This creates a
pressure difference.
2) There must be a difference in levels of liquid in the two
containers.
3) The end of the tube must remain below the liquid surface of
the upper container.

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The Lift Pump

To start the pump working it is first primed by pouring some water on to the
to of the plunger. This makes a good air seal and prevents leakage of air
past the plunger during the first few strokes which are needed to fill the
pump with water.
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 The Lift Pump
Upstroke
When the plunger moves up during the upstroke, valve A closes due to its
weight and pressure of water above it. At the same time, air above valve B
expands and its pressure reduces below atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure on the water in the well below thus pushes water up
to past valve B into the barrel.
Down stroke
During down stroke, valve B closes due to its weight and pressure of water
above it.
Limitations of the Lift Pump
In practical, the possible height of water that can be raised by this pump is
less than 10m because of
a) Low atmospheric pressure in places high above sea level,
b) Leakage at the valves and pistons

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 The Force Pump
• This pump is used to raise water to heights of more than 10m.

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The Force Pump
Upstroke
 During upstroke, air above the valve B expands and its pressure reduces
below atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure on water in the
well pushes water up past valve B into the barrel. Pressure above valve A is
atmospheric. Hence, this valve does not open in this stroke.
Down stroke
 During the down stroke, the valve B closes. Increase in pressure due to
water in the barrel opens valve A and forces water into chamber S so that
as water fills the chamber, air is trapped and compressed at the upper part
at C. During the next upstroke, valve A closes and the compressed air
expands ensuring a continuous flow.
Advantage of Force Pump over the lift pump
 It enables a continuous flow of water.
 The height to which it can raise does not depend on atmospheric pressure.
Factors Affecting Working of the Force Pump
 Amount of force applied during the downstroke.
 Ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the
column of water in chamber S.

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1. Figure 2 shows a liquid being siphoned from one beaker to another. Refer to
this diagram where answering the question.

Indicate on the diagram the direction of flow of the liquid

2. Figure below shows a U tube containing two liquids L1 and L2 of densities
0.8 g cm-3 and 1.8 cm-3 respectively in equilibrium. Given that h2 = 8 cm
determine the value of h1

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3. The height of the mercury column in a barometer at a place is 64cm. What
would be the height of a column of paraffin in barometer at the same place?
(Density of paraffin = 8.0 x 102 kgm-3, Density of mercury = 1.36 x 104 kgm-3)
4. State one advantage of fitting wide tyres on a vehicle that moves on earth
roads.
5. State the reason why it may not be possible to suck liquid into your mouth
using drinking straw on the surface of the moon.
6. The total weight of a car with passengers is 25,000N. The area of contact of
each of the four tyres with the ground is 0.025m2. Determine the minimum car
tyre pressure.
7. The reading on a mercury barometer at a place in 700mm. What is the
pressure at the place Nm-2 (Density of mercury is 1.36 x 104 kgm-3)
8. State the pascal’s principle of transmission of pressure in fluids.
9. Some water in a tin can was boiled for some time. The tin can was then
sealed and cooled. After some time it collapsed. Explain this observation

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10. A can with a hole on the side is filled with water to a certain height. Water
jets out as shown in Fig. 4(a). a second identical can is filled with water to the
same height and a block of wood floated on the water as shown in Fig. 4 (b)
State the reason why the maximum distance of the jet, d2 is greater than d1

11. Figure below shows a conical flask 15cm high, filled with a liquid of
density 1200kgm-3. The atmospheric pressure of the surrounding is 8.4 x
104Pa.Determine the pressure at the point marked X, at the bottom of the
flask.

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12. In an experiment to demonstrate atmospheric pressure, a plastic bottle is
partially filled with hot water and the bottle is then tightly corked. After some
time the bottle starts to get deformed.
i) State the purpose of the hot water.
ii) State the reason why the bottle gets deformed
iii) Explain your answer in c (ii)

13. Figure below shows some air trapped by mercury in a glass tube. The tube
is inverted in a dish containing mercury. Given that the atmospheric pressure is
760mmHg and the height of mercury column in the tube is 600 mm, determine
the pressure of the air trapped in mmHg.

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14. Figure below shows two cylinders of different cross-sectional areas with a
tube. The cylinders contain an incomprehensible fluid and are fitted with
pistons of cross-sectional areas 4cm2 and 24 cm2. Opposing forces P and Q
are applied to the pistons such that the pistons do not move. If the pressure on
the smaller piston is 5 Ncm-2, determine force Q

15. Figure below shows a defective straw used to suck milk from a glass. It was
observed that upon sucking the straw, milk did not rise up the straw. Explain
this observation.

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