W—) 2 a . oe O - 6 = c coCh. No. ‘Chapter. Lets GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 3-42 1.1. Fermat's Principle 1.2. Laws of reflection (Using Fermat's Principle) 1.3. Laws of refraction (Using Fermat's Principle) 1.4. Matrix formulation of Geometrical Optics 15. Cardinal Points () Focal Points (i) Principal Points (ii) Nodal Points 1.6. System Matrix for Thick and Thin Lenses 7. Locating Cardinal points 1.8. Dispersion 1.9. Refraction through a Thick Lens 1.10. Eyepiece 4.11. Huygen’s Eyepiece 1.12. Rarisden’s Eyepiece 4.13. Comparison of Huygen’s and Ramsden’s Eyepieces Solved Problems Conceptual Questions Multiple Choice Questions Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numerical Problems WAVE MOTION 43-76 21. Wave Motion 2.2. Spherical Waves 2.3. Plane Waves 2.4. Longitudinal and Transverse Waves 25. Difference between Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 2.6. Equation of a Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave. 27. Wave Velocity 2.8. Particle Velocity and Acceleration 29. Relation between Particle Velocity and Wave Velocity 2.10. Differential Equation of Wave Motion 2.11. Solution of Wave Equation 212. Energy in a Progressive Wave (Energy Transport) and Energy Density. 2.13, _ Intensity of Wave (Energy Current) 2.14. Pressure Variation in Longitudinal Waves 2.45. Longitudinal Wave as Pressure Wave 2.16. Intensity of Plane Progressive Longitudinal WaveSUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICU! ‘Group Vecoty Felson bebweon Gov Vel rap vce ol Gr Wav, ‘Group Vecary of Surface Wa Solved Problems ‘Concept! Guestions tiple Chiee Questions ‘Chaper sta Glance Long Answer Questions ‘Unaoived Humeical Problems rocty and Wave VEOOY ILAR HARMONIC 77-115, OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE lle sect nets ot 1. Suponten of mo Pores mia 1+ aia ead) eae djcular simple harmonic motions Ot 32 Siamese mo tenes abo Aaya Heb ees ae narmonic. motions 33, Someta 2 ae a amen met 34, Sepapor oi ene presin te ao 11 (Gael Mae) aad! jculer simple harmonic motions of dit- 95 Sporto We agentur 12 (ooo eo as Becrongrte Nate of Ut BE, Dato an Prpues of Wve Ft 3 Huygens Perce Bo Ee areuon or te ba o Hagens Teo. So. Uneaten eno bs of Hogs TOY, SI, fensclon ro apres venta a concave sts i 342, Tenor! ad Spat Coteence Sohed Probes Concept Qvstons tune Coes estons Chastr ate Gee Short Anne eros anor Ousons Unueved Numer Pretlems UNIT-IT INTERFERENCE 119-158 4a Divison of Ampltide and Wavetrent Yeung’ Deuble Sit Export oye Minor Fresnets Bipm Phase change on raflecon Stoke's teatnent Intertronce in Thin Pale Fis Ra Inteerenee in Wedge-Shaped Fis 49. Fringes of Equal Incnation (Haldinger Finges) 440. Fringes of Equal Thickness (Fzeau Fringes) 411. Newton's Rings 412, Measurement of wavolongih and Refractive Index Solved Problems ‘Conceptual Questions Mutiple Choice Questions (Chapter ta Glance Short Answer Questions ‘Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numerical Problems 5. INTERFEROMETER 51. Nichelean tntrerometer (1) Idea of Form of Fringos (2) Determination of Wavelength (9) Wavelength Diterence (4) React index and () Villy of Fengos 52. Fabry-Perot inetorometee Solved Problems Conceptual Questions ‘Muttple Chote Questions CChaptor ata Glance Short Answer Questions Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numerical Problems UNIT-IIT 6, FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 61. Dithacon of Light Fraunhoter Ditracton ata Single Sit 63, FraunoterOitracton at Crear Aperture 64. Resohing Power of a Telescope 65. Frauhoter Direction at a Daub Sit 88. —_Difracton at N sits (ie. Muloie St) 87. Pano Ditracton Grating 68. Rosohing Power of Grating Solved Problems ‘Conceptual Questions Multiple Choice Questions. Chapter ata Glance Short Answer Questions Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numerical Problems 7. FRESNEL DIFFRACTION TA. Fresnets Assumptions 72, Fresnefs Hal-period Zones for Plane wave 159-180 183-217 218-24(chapter ne sea, pinata of Resins Prepagsion oF TA, Tony oa Zone Pate 1, tpl Fei! @ Zoe Ps 18. Fresnels Integr 7 Frstl iacton Pat of 3 Si 78, Fresnel Diacion Pater of & ‘Solved Problems ‘Conceptual Questions utile Choice Questions Chapter ata Glance Short Answer Questions Long Answer Questions ‘Unslved Numerical Problems UNIT-IV ‘SUPERPOSITION OF COLLINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS ‘81. Pfiiple of Superpostion and Unsaity Cehtaten of To Colne Hamre = Speen oe conn Heme sar wh et Fer re ° ) eat ta, Cras fn Colne Ham Os ah us a Sraight Edge and a Wie Cosilains having Eval Frequencies cua Sues ase aoe om Calar Haron Oslin wih Ea Fra eee Sone cbs cnet oetens Mon cs omens Chopra nee Shor reve wsons tng Ane Ovo Ueded aerate VELOCITY OF WAVES 81, Veloty of Tansvese Vibrations of a Stetched Sting 82 Voloty of Longtudnal Waves in Gases (Fuld) 83. Newtor's Fomua for Veloty of Sound 84, Laplace's Conecton 95. Factors Atecing Vel of Sound Solved Problems Conceptual Guestions ‘Multiple Choice Questions ‘Chapter ata Glance ‘Short Answer Questions Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numata! Problems successive 269-286 —r ue Ca 10. 104, 102, Cn = SUPERPOSITION OF TWO HARMONIC WAVES, 287-346 Progressive Wav Stationary Waves 103, 104, 105, 108. 107. 108. 103. 10:10, 10.1. 10:12 1012, 10.14, 1038, ‘Stanng Waves on a Sting of Fixed Length Dierntal Equation of Standing Wave ‘Standing Wave Ratio Volos in Wave Mon Changes with Respect to Postion and Time General Form of Wave Equation Solution of the Wave Equation Sirileanee off (e+ vf and & (x= v9) Characterste Impedance ot a Sting Energy of Viating Sting Puckod And Sek Sting Melde's Experiment Longiuinal Standing Waves Solved Problems ‘Conceptual Questions Chapter ata Glance Mutiple Choice Questions Hint/Sctatione ‘Short Answer Questions Long Answer Questions Unsolved Numerial Problems HintrSottonsEEE] Geometrical optics ‘ Wave Motion Superposition of Two Perpendicular Harmonic 1 Oscillations and Wave Optics 5] |CHAPTER A shar ECOMETRIGAL Ly aS = Opies) Optics can be divided in two branches = 1, Geometrical optics and ° 2. Physical Optics In geometrical optics, we consider the propagation of light in the form of ray (i. Toy theon}) Sine reflection and teraction are the only processes involved in geometrical opis dergoing, reflection and Te Leon of geomrcal optics Gels eth study of Tight rays un ‘ aoe een oe uamens, The geometrical optics fais to explain interference, difraction and polarisation. ‘The physical optics deals with various optical phenomena considering w: light. In physical optics, the size of abstacle (or object) is almost comparable to, wa of light used. We study interference, diffraction and polarisation under physical optics. 1.1, FERMAT'S PRINCIPLE. In its original form, it is stated as follows When a ray of light travels from one point to another through a set of media, it always follow a path along which the time taken is minimum or the least. This is also called Fermat's fave nature of volength principle of least time. However, in certain cases, it has been found that time taken is maximum in place of minimum. Therefore, in modified form "Fermat's Principle of Least Time” is known as “Ferman's principle of stationary time” or “Fermat's principle of extremum path”. It is stated as follows: 'A ray of light travels from one point to another through a set of media, it always follows fa path for which the time taken is either minimum or maximum or stationary. Let a ray of light travels from A to B in a homogeneous and istropic medium (ie, = constant), then Fermat's principle in mathematical form may be written as= — , eer. insight ine aN OE IN any gg 5 minimum I en soa evel pean A ints, 2 8 4s principle in mathema which means tat between 0 Po gem FP eg istorie ph : Fora non-omogeeoss 24 form may be won ° . vss « 2 mii im or stoner cor mani i wds =O ray between two po. aja and ses ve pa of © Poing rs which mean “or refraction tog Fe, ees = ee ¥ re i TaD ava nore ‘ray of ight traveling trough @ medi ‘or maximum or stationary. FERMAT'S LAWS OF REFLECTION (USING i the refit ‘are in one First Law It states that, the incident 19) ee ray and the normal at the point of incidence meas ormal £0 point ne To prove this law, the pnd moras shown in i beta A Hs image fored ae mr sow ae ae N is point of incidence in the plane woneider & point Non the plane of mir bat not on he plane PORS Tet AN’ is the incident ray and N'A" the reflected ray Draw perpendicular NN’ on plane PORS. Thus N isthe foot Fhe perpen en plane PORS fs ANN’ and ATNN’ ave right angled tages. From t. cal 8 ANN’ AN’ > AN From ral 4 ANN’ NAY >A’ Therefore incident ray AN’ is reflected along N'A‘. Therefore, the path IN’ + N'A" i gente than the path AN + NA’ whi fo ngainct Fermat's principle whi stats that path lord by ay of ight must be shortest fight would not tavel aang path N'A. Therefore, N' must cine with io the path obeanimur, Hence, shoes path is ANA’ where point of incidence N lis an the plane PORS. Hence, AN, NA and normal to Point Nall ie im the same plane. Tis proves te fist of ce, considera plane FORS fray Let Abe a ection fa Fane ae iF (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS = -SEOMETRICAL OPTICS eT Second Law : It states that angle of incidence (i is equal to angle of reflection (7. To prove the second law of reflection, let MM’ isa reflecting plane. A is a point object and A’ its image formed after reflection from reflecting lane mirror MM’. AN is the incident ray and NA is the reflected ray. NL is the normal to plane mirror MM’ at point of incidence N. Let angle of incidence is i and angle of reflection r as shown in Fig. (12) Let distances AP = a, A'P" =, PN = xand PP'= The ray of light travels in air from A to A’. Hence, path length (or optical Path) ANA’ is given by S + AN+Na’ (an) From rt Zat 4 APN, AN =VAP?+PN, an = Va? +a? From rt. al A A’NP’ Na’ = JA'P?4NP? war =¥e+(-x)? Putting the values of AN and NA’ in eq, (1), (2) 8 avites? 4 (FH bx It is clear that path from A to A’ remains same even if point of incidence N shifts. The shifting of N only changes x. ‘According to Fermat's principle, the path must be minimum or maximum. In other Words, differentiation of $ wrt x must be Zero, & ’ ano ENGTE ero] 0 L(A) + (Fo) 2x 2-2) avert 2ese—y "° x Veet (using eq. (1.2) (o-2) ese 7 x (b—x) te et +e-x? (1.3)Fe WAVES AND OPTies Tar ® b-a -Meser Fat Nav Puting thee values in 9. (13) SE saiesar of ple of reflection reflection of ‘As shown in fig. (12 7 s Angle of incidence = ADé ‘This proves second law of LAWS OF REFRACTION First Law: I states that te incident ray and the normal atthe point of inc same plane, wo “To prove this law, XY isan intsfce SeP=PSS media. Let an incident ray AN staring 0m PT incident onthe interface XY at pain! 4 Abie the other media, Let MNME is roma 02Y. and r be the angle of incidence and angle ofr respectively as shoven in Fig. (13) na Let us assume thatthe ray follows the path Al instead of ANB Tt is evident from Fig. (13) that AN’ > AN and N'B> NB Therefore, path AN’ + N'B is greater than path AN + NB which is against Fermat’ principe ‘According to Fermat's principle, the path followed by ray of light must be shortest. Hence, ray of ight wou rot travel along path AN'B. Therefore, N’ must coincide vith N forthe path to be minimum. Hence, shortest path is ANB. It is inaccordance with Fermats principle and proves the ist law of eration. Second Law : It states that ratio of sin {to sin is equal to refractive index of second medium with respect {0 first medium To prove second law, consider XY as interface }X separating two media of refractive indices and fy Let ‘Avis a point object in fist medium. AN and NB are incident ‘and ceractid rays Lett and 7 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. N is point of incidence and MNM"isrormal o interface XY. Draw AP L XY and BQ 4 XY as shown in Fg. (1.4) Let distances PA 0, QB €;PN = 2,7Q= b ‘Then NQ* (6-9) (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS z Since ray of light travels a distance AN in first medium of refractive index jy and distance NB in second medium of refractive index 2 Therefore, optical path from A to B is given by S = ys (AN) + 2 (NB) (14) From rt. Zed 4 APN, AN = VPATHPN? AN = Vea? From rt. Zed A NOB, NB = (QBF+NG ne = (240-97 Putting the values of AN and NB in e4. (14), Sau Vee + ay fe + b- 3 ‘According to Fermat's principle, optical path $ should be minimum. as For $ to be minimum, “> must be zero. ae és a Boo Ditfereniatng $ wt MF a Fro-7] =o me ab) ao} Veer [ese-3* . ‘As shown in Fig. (1.4), From rt. Zeal A APN, PN an 7 i ri 1.6) VF +3? From rt. Adal A BON, NQ ie (3) [t+ (b— x AL?)a_i Putting the values From eqs. (1.6) and (17) in €@ 5) msn fein sa sai ay! int my jum. This manne th respet to fst mem where 21" is the refractive index of the second medium with TAPS ine, proves that second law of refraction is in accordance with Fermat® P 1.4, MATRIX FORMULATION OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS _——— I. Matrix Formulation Consider a set of two equations a1 ant by 2 nt dye We can write these equations in matrix form as 8) ie oof] «ES AE) ” From eqs. (1.8) and (1.9), [2] te as Ale] (1.10) Further again if ene o-E at 4 0 ts £3] an Combining eqs. (1.10) and (1.11), we get x1 > (ae + bg) 21 + f+ bh) xp = (ce+ dg) 21+ (f+ dh) 22 1, Cardinal Points Three pairs of points form six cardinal points of an optical system. Following are three pairs of conjugate points (First and second focal points (i) First and second principal points (i) First and second nodal points (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS ai Re TT we seond od vce hs sd be ps fan eal a cdc Rp pg a" ig oe rina Beata Ti fr pnt sa zt on he pica of an opt tom a lj cs at sy sang ter es af Fa sat oe pa et ‘pine nl ppl ts seh pee fe el goat cla aa rhs naa epilepsy St led ne pia “epitope alte et a 2 et ne po Fon te pcp rac, wel ee nem, hh Fragen ye edi pr a i ater, TH, ag al te ni focal plane Similariy, an incident ray “passing through a point F, on the principal axis ater refraction trough the opti system becomes paral fo the principal axe a= shown in Fs (45). The point Fi called the fafa point maybe died he ject pot on te pricpl tis for woh Image pit Tes a ing. i Principal Points and Principal Planes: Principal pont are defined as pir of conjugate points on the principal as of an opti yctem having unt poste linear magneton Consider 2 convergent co-axial optical system, with principal als XX Let an incident ray AB parallel to principal axis after refraction through the optical system, proceeds along Cy and meet the principal axe at Fs called second focal point The incident and emergent 13s, when produced intersect at Ha The plane through Hy and perpendicular to principal axis is called second principal plane and its point of intersection P, with pringpal axs is called the second princi point ss shown in Fig (1.7)rading emergent je or pa and Heap oh Han Sey FO uo rt a yt ntescton PWN ty pal 0 po lg poe Pepspad si aed the fst RIF nat the correspon is sen tha ER aoa EL lies at the same distance above cin * pal as Seis pt Hi . at a FD ae comergig Oa sat AL app to terse HOM PO ee ere image of Hh and MH = PAE ay Thay and He ave the conte FS 2p plan roe an abet pen A PN Bans ery age fhe same ae would POT ane ee pane (ye lnse magico GD Noda Ponts and Nodal Panes: The dl 7) ane poate te a pl as of eee 2 ra eat este angular rif "ola points re such that an incident ay ects} toward Ene nda pont emerges paral tH erin ‘pra Ghrugh th second nooal pont. i Fg, 18) 0 Son al pons the emerge ra NO i parallel 2nd) Medea toy. Planes through Ny and No pet edt to princpl as are called ol plas IM. System Matrix for Thick and Thin Lenses ete arerrte a tick lene bounded by two surfoes Zand Let XX’ ff OPA | avs, Let 1 i ees of ens is, Let the refacive index of the medio In which bet Sse be yy and the refacive index ofthe medium sn which TE forned be, Lat 5s placed be and he rand section of output pane be TT” Lt nce’ 2 aaa tf rttacton from surface 1 at point Q and after reaction ope along Q5. To a ther cekacon at pont § from surface Hand roves along Sy af refraction. Let point T lies on the output plane as shown in Fig. (19). a a Opn 8 airs on principal ny directed 1 Let co-ordinates of points P, Q, $ and T are P (ys A). Q (a Bib S Wr eee a re P (Ys BD. Q (vo Br) § ys fa). T Wo Ba) wen, fo np plane fo xp plane under he allowing steps cn be Se {GEOMETRICAL OPTES [4] - G8] where Th, is translation matrix: Cees [i] =f] where Ry is refraction matrix (Second translation from Q to § [A] -=f8] where Typ is translation matrix (ie) Second refraction at S (5) =e [2] where Ry is refraction matrix (») Third translation from $ to T [i] -* G8) ‘where Tyy is translation matrix ‘Multiplying matrix equations (1.12), (1.13), (1-4), [fe] =a Ram Pos] [a] -%-65] where Sy =F, Roy Tap Bmp Tap. ~(18) is a 2% 2 system matrix which re combined effet the system as a whole “Thick lens matrix (System matrix for thick Tens) : Consider a thick lens of thickness 1 and Pade tra of reactive index jr Let Ry and Re ae the radi of two surfaces Yan IT repuctivl Let the reftoctive index of the medium on bot sides of lens is same (3) fi) Tn Re cee the ray passing through the lens suffers two refractions, one from first suraee oe ace crevature Ry ara second at the second surface of radius of curvature Re and one translation Uough a distance 1 in the medium of refractive index i 132) (113) (hI) (1.3) (1.16) (125) and (1.16), we Bet (117) presents the Here, Ho = Hi= Hu > Ho Hence system matrix for a thick len can be writen as Sq nay =Big Ton Ri 1.19) were yy and Ry are refraction matrices andy is ranslation matin, Weng the valves Ri and RyPTS z (1.20) (1.21) and (1.22) ik esi Putting the values of Ryy Rey and Tyg in 2, (119) the canon ee 1 0 1 (1.2: Se Be ) Pay Tee) 2| ee) Rea a” Ri ea H From above equation we can derive the system matix for thick lens. Thin tes ma Ste matt fr thin Hea) For thin en 1 = 0 one (1.23) cos alias (1.24) Since focal length of the lens f is given by ies) | ‘GEOMETRICAL OPTICS. a ~ Cg) 4 Hence eq, (1.24) can be written as 10 Sw iy -| 7 | ‘Tris is system matzix for thin lens WV, Locating Cardinal Points Consider an optical system with opti : stem with optical axis XX’ and refactive index Let refractive index of medium on lef side of optical system is and the refractive index ofthe medium on right side of optical system yup, Let F, and F, are the focal points, P, and P2 the principal points and Ns and Nj the nodal points of the optical system as shown in Fig. (140) Second Ovi princi plane Pane (0.25) Input Fist prncpal sane pa Emergent ay Dee pe cl pos of foil system. Ut ard OO oN ee ree eee planes pong ough pol Poms Fae eee ee epee ge ant dnd sod pesca pare respec rmader nen! ay EA rcugh Fy emerge tf opel stem pele 10 op i ‘Let the co-ordinates of point A on incident ray be (y,, fi) and co-ordinates of point B on te re Oe Then we wie emetic equation as Ke) -b4 & (126 yin spt Our ‘The coresponding equations can be writen as yo = 0H Bh 027WAVES AND OPTICS” ————ee zi ¥ y axis it Ao Borie By Since the emengent ay is paral © OPS Hence eg, (1.28) becomes Oe cyt th au a From rt Zal 3 FAL ty 7A For paraial ray, 9, is small é tn A = 2 Putting this value in eq, (132) La crea Since LA © y;and LF; = ~ 2 a shown in Fig. (110) 269, (133) becomes am ‘where ~ ve sign is due to sign conventions From eqs. (131) and (134) This is the distance of first focal point F from input axis I’ From rt. ded A PRT Br m8 ae wm g =e =h For paral ray, is smal tm fi = fi Poting this vale in op. (136, a -¥ (1.23) (0.30) (sn) (132) (1.34) (0.35) (1.36) as shown in Fig. (1.10) (137) ——— {GEOMETRICAL OPTS Sling the valor of TTS, Putting the value of 3p from eq (27) in ey 3) fy = EB, ad-be as We know that determinant of system refraction matrix is equal to a Jeb) 2 fe 4] tg ad be = HE Ho Putting this value in eq, (139) Hence 4) f-(B): For ray 2 fi-0 Potting this value in egs. (1.27) and (128), we get yor my Bo = a4 Dividing oq, (142) by eg, (41) Bo Mi vy a oe n> 41.38) (139) (0.40) (143) ast)From rt. Zed & MDF: mm fo tm fo = 3) For paraxial ray, By is small tun fo = Ao Putting this value in eg. (145) Which is distance of second focal From rt. dal A PES, Sine for paris ay, is sali. fo =f Eg. (1.48) becomes From eqs. (144) and (1.49) é Hence (Gi) Principal planes oF unit planes : From Fig. (1.10) PF, = Py + LF, WAVES AND OPTICS: (1.45) (1.46) 1.47) (0.48) (149) (Using eq. (1.41)] (1.50) ~ (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS v7 ~via nou-h Putting the values of x and fi from eqns. (1.35) and (140) in eq, (151), we get asy (a3) Also Pak = MPs + My See ara as) Putting the values of 2 and fy from eqns. (L47) and (1.50) in eq, (153), we get a,t awed ( - ) (58) (Gl) Nodal Points : Let XX’ is the optical axis and Ny and Nz are the nodal points of the optical system as shown in Fig. 111. An incident ray directed towards the frst nodal point NN; after refraction through the optical system emerges parallel to incident rey as if it is coming from second point Ne. In this case, Bi = fo= B (say) ‘Therefore, equations (1.27) and (1.28) can be written as Yo = ayi+ BB and Brat B From rt el A LN,E, n (1.55) (1.56) Le 57) in, For parva ray, is smal 2 tn fi = Bi Pating this value in eq, (157) Le in, tan fiFrom o.(138) 7 p-Bem pa-a-% rly 4 yin og 58) Putting this value of This locates first From rt. Zal A MN3K. MK wt Be FN For paraxial ray, fio is small 7 ‘un By ~ Bo Eq, (1.60) becomes Putting the value of yp fom eq, (155) in eq. (1.62) (ay, +08) Putting the value of y; from (1.59) in eq, (163), we get b ale(*4 +8] 4 _ | % “Ag (1.69) (1.64) Ey Serene feel b [ee] pp erate 6%) BE “ i 1e determinant of system refraction matrix is equal to 7° Sine the determinant of syst weraction mate fs equal fo Jeb) oa am [2a] He in (5) Biven dy ~ 5, Fea small angled psn ane of devon ig) Dope power (a) = = on oA w=} IE 1 is the refractive index of material of prism for mean light. where A = Angle of + of sed light Then, deviation suffered by mean light is ‘ince fee evo tO aan am Heber wilt he wl ser gan acorn thr ae Putting the values of (8,~ 4,) and 6 from eqs (1.69) and (1.71) in eq, (.70), we get Other colors deviate iu ans inet ff Bh isersive Power fo) = Alo= He) amid 17) Yellow light called mean light having eth By POWER 1.6, ANGULAR DISPERSION AND DISPERSIVE ays 1.7. REFRACTION THROUGH A THICK LENS et For study of refraction through a thick lens proceed as explained in article (14 It) and abiain the system matrix for thick lens. Thus, system matrix for refraction through a thick lens according to eq. (1.23) is given by reo 1 o Sw wis = £(24) [0 4] 2 (4-1) nu) Rie A Ry Ha, whee ja isthe refractive index of material of thick lens, is the refactive inde of medium in which thick lens is placed, 1 = thickness of lens Ry and Ry are rai of curvature of first and second surfaces ofthe lens t (2-1) fe “Angiar dispersion for any fo clos yb ie os fees fy too coors while passing trough te pris Consider a small angled prism with angle of pris A ‘The Fig. (1.13) represents the deviations produced by the prism for volt, yellow and ved as flight AS show in Fig. (113, the constituent colours of white light disperse in an angle The angle 6 between two extreme colours red and violet produed by the prism is called angular dispersion. Let dan 3, be the deviations for volt andre rays respectively. a op fae ct] Then, angular dapenion for volt and red rays is given by eee aT (: -.) wal] Ra) ae — 0 =4,-¢, (168) Ril) mi} 2/4) Wale ays the angle of deviation produce by smal angled prism is Ry Ma 1s =A (ty ~1) [using eq. (1.67) veh (ten Ryle (1.73) ‘here iy ~ refractive index of material of pris for violet rays Similarly, deviation produced for red rays ~ 4 =A 1) =ep ARTSANDOPTIS ©“ GEOHETRIORC OFTIGS = a es of optical system is Power of a thick lens + 5 on bt = ‘As aeody expla in ale 1a, mes For thick lens, from eq. (176) same, then focal length ofthe sytem is gH fusing e9- (140) Ppen[dede LO $e FOR Ra RR, . Powter of thick fens is given where ¢ isthe element ofthe sytem matrix (1.74) nehcared s» =[t 4] } Comparing ys (179) and (1.7) 8 a ] { digi eat] - RRR i ; SR Ged wey 1.78) ) eo 78) Power for second refacting surace of lens A175 . a) 7 a Polting these values in eq (L78), we get on pan sp, DR 79) x 1.8, EYEPIECE Eyepiece isa specially designed which gives a more perfect and magnified image a= obtained bya single Tens of equal focal length. It consists of two converging lenses separated _ By'artain distance The lens toward the objet is called fe ens and other lens towards the Shes alled eye lens Tris used in telescopes and microscopes to magnify the image formed by {fe objective. The focal lengths of field lens and eye lens and separation between them s such thn te dhometie and spherieal aberrations are minimiim. Spherical aberrations are further feduced by replacing the fald Tens and eye lens by two plano-convex lenses and the convex Side faces the incident eam, ‘The eye pice is preferred over a single enes because: {) The magnified image produced is fee from chromatic and spherical aberrations. (i) The field of view is lage 1 Special (176) 1,9, HUYGEN’S EYEPIECE special Case 2 fama a | Construction : Huygen’seye-pioce consists of two plano-convex lenses made ofthe same material. The focal lengths of field lens and eye lens are respectively, The Eq, (176) becomes selal the foal lengths of field lens and eye lens are 3f and f respectively. The two lenses Foy oa ene in ther convex faces fumed towards the incident light. The feld 1 itneand eye lone are separated by a distance 2f as shown in Fig. 1.14 7 am|waves a Working ; Let the optical Feldlens instrament placed with object Facing the object The objective (rat Shown in Fig 118) converge te bam oming tom the object on the Held lens of epic. The ose formed by the etectve serves te objet forthe el enc and image sored by the fed fers The nage fs theft focal plane of je rs (eat a sane it front of aye lens) and final image is fonned by eyepiece at int (a) For the combination of two Tenses off lengths fj and ft be achromatic tom thematic esion),econdinon aromas) ston of Eeuivalont ions fee (2.80) 7 Here frm Sfand fp f | (180) becomes Sfts _ af of (1.81) = (b) The spherical aberration is alo totally absent since (i. condition of spherical aberration) d=fi- fi d= 3- fn oF (0) Optical separation beeen to lenses an fis hd } BH fy any (2) Distance of fed ens (from image Is (acting as object for ld esis given by . aaa 0.82) In this case, mage ly by fd lens form at focal length f ie fh = Yard b= Puating these values in eq (182), (183) | eS ‘This shows that the image I; due to objective lies on the same side of the field lens as image h, (©) Position of cross-wires : Cross-wires must be placed in the position of real image ly midway between the field lens and eye lens, However, cross-wires are not provided in Huygens eyepiece. (D The system matrix for eye-piece which is combination of two lenses as shown in Fig. (1.14) is given by, Se] a vd | fh fh fh Putting fi = 9f fa» fand d = 2f 1.84) where () Equivalent focal length of the system is given by 1 F 7 efusing eq. (150) or F = -3f 3f pee (3f) pad G) vt (i) Locations of cardinal points requires the locations of two principal points, two nodal points and two focal points. (0 Two focal points Fy and Fz are governed by values of their distances x, and x from field lens and eye lens respectively Using. eq. (1.35) (1.85)a a aay Incent igh sely aus ia = He Noda As shown in Fig. 115 alent oto pil pm {Gd Two nodal points (Ny and Ns) ar equ points are goveened by distances and from id Jens and eve ns 1 From eq, (1.60) (Since 4) * Ho) (18) {using eq. (1.65)] (0.89) & Gi) (it Two principal points P; and Py are governed by distances rj and ry fom feld lens and eye lens respectively t Since mah Using eq, (152) using, (1.88)1 Using ea 154 (1.90) fusing eq, (1.89)] (1.91) | gs. (1.88), (1.89), (1.90) and (1.91) show that net and n= h a j (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS = Hence two pringpal points (P, and P This, we show by taking Nj (P,) and Ne (Pz) in Fig. (1-33) Poa sno-convex lenses mado of the same material of focal “Setance 21 Their convex facos are towards incident 2 are equivalent to the two nodal points (Ny and Ns) Huygen's eye piace consists of two pa lege fend respect, spurte by . 1.10. RAMSDEN'S EYEPIECE two plano-convex lees each of focal length f and separated by a distance It consists of the distance 2 such that convex sides facing each other. According to achromatic condition, 3 Betwveen two lenses should be a -fth AS eee In other words, the field lenses should be in focal plane of the 'f- Although this distance is less than f yet the ‘piece has low spherical aberration and fairly wire or some measuring scale are desired cee lens. But in Ramsden’s ‘eye piece the distance between two lenses is 2 srr anniv ont lage THB dep: a ES ee ee ee anal rea ag: The optical Pe ope fang em Te Se ee ane Se eT oat pice sit ea eed i oe ee oe et se ere oye ees fe taal ingh dee aoe ee coe tee dee and ee les is 2. Thee age fa Eye ens Postion of Equivalent lens ce £ in front of field lens. The eye piece when adjusted for normal vision forms the final distan image at infinity. (a) For removal of spherical aberration, the distance between two Tenses should be x fi- fir f- fro spherical aberration is reduced Obviously, this condition is not satisfied. Although toa great extent by placing field lens and eye lens with their curved face's towards ‘each other.NTI SY x oy Opa pens anfth At . 2 Spout ) APPT ST, gone spain no ts 8 Bey “Hence, optical separation bet (@) The distance of fied lens (u) from image ls « fF Ff 4 feof il lens as image h, ‘This shows that image I; due to objective lies on the same side 7 (a) Position ofthe erss-wires + The crosswvires (or micrometer seal) 378 Phced othe postion of real image hy that is distance infront of field lens. Eye Pisce ‘magnifies both image Iy and the scale (placed tere). Thus, an acrurate measirement can be taken, (0) The sytem matrix for eyepiece which is combination of two eres 3s shown i Fig (1.16) is given by Putting fet we get Sn = or Se =) é je | where ® Ey GEOMETRICAL OPTICS Equivalent focal length of the system is given by 1 using eq, (150)) (1.95) (g) Locations of cardinal points requires the locations of two principal points, two focal ppoints and two nodal points {i) Two focal points F, and Fy are governed by values of their distances xj and 2 from field lens and eye lens respectively. 1 aga osy nate Gg 99 £ ie (Ge $ from field lens in ~ ve direction a8 per sign conventions) Js as From eq. (147), xz 4 af ie. © trom eye lens in positive direction, as por sign conventions as shower in Fig. 17, (@) Two principal points and Py are govered by values oftheir distances ry and ry from felt lens and eye bens respectively Since Hi Ho Using oy (152) ci 198) Using eq. (L54), 1.99) ie. © from eye lens in ~ ve direction) as shown in Fig, (1.17) by two principal points Py and Pp respectively.Fed ens el) Fs oftheir distances and y (i) Two nodal points Ny and Nz are governed by v2 from field lens and eye lens From eq, (160), £ (0.09 5 J (1-101) af FF Hence, two principal points (Py and Fs) ae equivalent o two nodal This, we show by taking Py (Ni) and Py (Na) ia Fig (1) 1.11. COMPARISON OF HUYGEN’S EYEPIECE AND RAMSDEN'S EYEPIECE Ramsden's Eyepiece 1 does ct sts the minimum spherial aberation conn, hence it has mor sphercal aeration tan Huygens eyepiece, points (Ny and Ng) ‘Huygen’s Eyepiece 1, It satisfies the minimum spherical aberration | 1 condlion d= f;~ f 80 this aberration is Small 2 completely satisfies the condtion of | 2. It does nat saity the condi achromatsm meee at ti he condton of 3. Inthe, ee pee ensates are Sto the placed out Gly ated MO RO mechanical 4. Sco ous whe aye ice, hope MRS out sido th an te suse for trent psons Oyo oes cet ee, eee between Is. it we use cross-wires in this eye piece, it ‘shouldbe placed midway between two lenses. This involves mechanical dificult. |4. Since the cross-wires are placed midway ‘betwaen two lenses, the eye piece is adjusted permanently for persons of normal vision. $a Eee a ‘GEOMETRICAL OPTICS RETO OFS Huygen’s Eyepiece Famaden's Eyepiece I5. Tho use of a micrometer scale In place of cross-wires for measurement is not advised because image and scale wil be unequally magrite. tis usad in microscopes which are used for only biological work and not for taking ‘measurements 7. itis only used to examine an image. le. Tho final image is convex towards the eye. lo. The image formed by objactve les between field lens and eye les. 10. The nodal points coincide with the principal pins. ‘A micrometer scale can be used in place of ‘ross-wires for accurate measure-ments tis used in telescopes and microscopes fited in optical instruments. Itcan be used as a magnifier to examine real ‘objects 8. The final image i lat. 9, The image formed by objective is in font of field tens. “The nodal points coincide with the principal point +0, Solved Problems Problem 1. As shown in Fig. 118, B is « point diameterically 0 point A and after reflection fr the inner surface of the sphere eulate the length of hypothetical path API of light starts from reaches point B. Ca Fermat's principle Is the path minimum? ily opposite to point A. A ray om a point on 3B ave find the actual path wsing ‘Soliton. Lot radius of sphere = 5 If hypothetical length of path followed by light [= AP + PB aay Let BAC = 8 A y ZAPB = 9° From righted A APB, AP AP nos 8; AP = AB cos 0 ape A ‘AP = 2r cos 8 PB in @; PB AB sin @=2r sin 0 AB Putting the values of AP and PB ine q. (1.111) [= 2r cos 8+ 2rsin 0 1 =2r (cos 6+ sin 0) path length I should be either According to Ferma’ principle, the ; a oe ao a io al =o fi Fp os (1112) + minimum of maximum. +sin 6] «ny = 2rEsin 8+ 005 )=0OO Pye ok oss ead Putting this value in eq, (1112), we get 11 } et 1 22 (need) (BH = V2 x diameter of sphere in difeeniating (1.119) soar Nar rere Sng hr bsn ore Oh 2 00s 8 = sin 6) = 27 (05 O45 -p{in $02) La 2r| AL) 2-21) =- 22 (ata) vec i a negative quantity. Hence ia tis ase pth minut Problom 2 Evtabish the condition of total neal refection sig Feats Princip Solution. While studying laws of refraction using Fermat's pincpley we have Proved sine a cart esin =u 1 medium 2 s rarer as compared to medium 1 he ue <1 sini For r= 90°, sin rw 1, then sin i= yu? Problem 2. The refactce nics of run and fit glasses for Ble nd ed ny are 1.523 1518 and 1773, 1713 reopectiey.Caeunt the dprsie poe ofthe to lass, ‘Solution, For crown glass : My = 15B, wy 1513 | Refractive index for mean light | <1 Hoty _ 152341513 =45 7 1518 | Dispersive power for crown glass 1523-1513 _ 0010 By Mee # = 1518-1 051g “003 For fight glass : My = LTB, fy = 1793 a Seovererent oories Refractive index for mean light pp a Moths = BHI «175 2 2 Dispersive power for flint glass @ ofthe yal 32 Problem 4. Show that whether matrix [3 4] és « system matrix of optical system. Cnet eee eee: 2 2 -12-e-6 1773-1743 _ 0030 1758-10758 = 0.0396 Since determinant of a system matrix should be unity . Hence, the above matrix can not be system matrix of optical system. Problem 5. A thick lens of material of refractive index 1.5 and radii of curoature of 0 ‘surfaces are + 10 cm and ~ 15 om. Locate cardinal points if its thickness is 5 cm. ‘Solution. ‘The system matrix of a thick lens is given by Be t x m lfeg my) mf 7H Here 1-15 _ 05 R75 15 = 1 = 0.467 = 0833 1p, _ x05) =, (1-421) -- 005 - ons 6-33 =~ 005 ~ 033 (1 - 0.267) = ~ 005 ~ 0.033 (0833) = ~ 005 - 0.0275 = ~ 0.075 5x 0033 0.165 om = 089 15 15 Principal points = d=1_ 089-1 © 00775 an 0.0775 = 1419 = 14cm PH Tea, 1-088, OE Ae aor © =00778 amis = 21am Foal points: ase a 0.0775 Ss on = 115 om Fy we <”=a0775 = 1035 on = 108 om Nodal points Ny and Nz coincide with reeblon 6. es cman uf and principal pottis: = °° fab ed] Problem 6. A comoex len is of thick the focal length ana position of focal pot Solution, The system matrix of a thick lens is [ At a 1B iH Sa =p, {1-%) 1- a(t 3) # Rp=— Wan f= 6am p15 Here R=8em pete BSet OS 5 08 95 0 0375 « 1 025 = 0.75 15 - 02-08 5 07) == 0065 00975 «01 2 e101 : a” Principal points: ye 8 ent and 10 0m. Fig a Find jengths 3f and f respecitvely sey 3 (GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 028 25cm [or Focal points : 875 2 75.cm Tor fp2- Wem fa--05 fo=~ 05 (- 20) = 10 em Problem 7. The equivalent focal length of an Huygens eye length of the field lens. Solution. Huygen’ eye piece is 6 om. Caleualte focal piece consists of two lenses ie Field lens and eye Fens of focal ;parated by distance d = 2f ‘The equivalent focal length F is given by gf=2F =2 x 6= 120m «+ Focal length of field lens = 3f = 12 em Problem 8. Two thin plaxo-convex lenses of the same material in am Huygen's eye Pite® are 10 cm apart, Find the focal lengths of the lenses and equivalent focal length of eye Piece. Solution. Here ~ 10 cm, Focal length of eye lens f=? Focal length of field lens. f=? Equivalent focal length Fe? In Huygen’s eye piece Focal length of eye lens, fe Focal length of field lens, 3f=3 x 5 = 15 cm 3 | Equivalent focal length Fad yadx Problem 9, The focal length of each lens of Ramsden’s eye piece és 12 om. Caleulate equivalent focal lengths of the eye piece. | Solution. Let f, are fy are focal lengths of field lens Here fiz he fr em 8 o75em and eye lens>! ‘GEOMETRICAL OPTICS ih of Rasen’ Bye ie riven? fale by Sb fem Focal points 3 = p =3xn2=9em q 7 ie $e nd 122 Tec Pree 10 Fc! ts ofl of ene aE ie bet Md Goyal pits Nand Nz cane wh pine pone be ed by eye PIECE Let and 1 be the distances of object and image I from first and second principal point Py and Ps respectively RO=- (2 +6)*-18 cn Find the positions of cardinal points infront of the field lens, find the positon of the image Solution, Here fi an f= 4am _ 124416 gon 2eoumy cea? ea As derived above F = + 6m system mai ft hn ees spared by ase ## Et die i sel hg tld a LAGE ee 2 | me Hee : Ud LEAL 29-4 5c east ene cass ena ie aie = CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS 1. Wat is Fra’ pricpe of least tine ? ‘Ae I te tas of ight even fom one ned point to another fed point by number of reflections and refractions follows a particular path for which the time taken is leas. 2, What is Fermat's principle of stationary time ? ‘Ans. It states that a ray of light travelling from one fixed point to another fixed point by number of reflections and refractions follows a path for which time taken is either a eo‘maximum of 2 mir Of enn fe 2 Ne al Ysa distance * ‘an. When a say of ight 12 = scl ical and pysiet ie Saum of ry. The rele the prac ur called opi th 4, What isthe derencebetoen geome ier on pics In geometrical opt sel gt [Ans Geometrical optics deals with popes 2A Section are the processes into the size of object is much larger than ee i esa seni pc Tai cs en wih sisal ENTE sea OS, I hy Tht We study interference, faction and gobi of ight ws ‘ys Secs the sie of object is almost comparable © 5. Wat is matrix method ? Ans. To overcome the conventional proce feamation with any composite opal st Tr eonsists of to steps ee {) We tnmar uations fr te cardia of he put OF Gi) Then these equations ae transformed ito 2 suitable ADS 6 What is dispersion of Hight? ‘ans. The splitting of white light into i cos prism is caled dispersion of light 7. What is dispersive posse of material of «prism ? ‘ans The dispersive power of material of pis fra {aio of angular dispersion for these colours to the deision 8. What isan eyerizce? ‘Ane It isa device used in a croscope oe tale eld and eye lens. Ti used t0 view a magifed 9, Name diferent types of eyepiece. ‘Ans. Huygen’s eyepiece and Ramsden’s eyepiet 10, Why Ramensden's eye piece i called positive ? ‘Ana, Bocuse in this ease, the fst principal Focal pare is cutie ae oti mgring de Hs led pose oa ple megnfing dev. Hct scaled positive 11. Can woe cll Haygen’s and Ramsden’s eye pieces perfect ore fer exery use ? An No Sgr ye pe per beat ono eats} tareontc er ephededsberations) Ramsden efe pe areronteicn tesco Ce ee pin be score ie pana ee ents, [MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS sn ofefactve Index p,q a nei re difficulties it dealing with the final ima ati os a ser aera siwent colours on passing, through two colows is defined as thy suifered by mean light pe: cass of two ses (plano-conve) and cer image of an object Power of a lens is given by formula 100 o CC) Fiore —____a.. | © Fin mete Finem | “| | ‘GEOMETRICAL OPTICS \ 2 3. 10, nm 2. 1B. The achromatic condition for two Tens 1. The condition of achromatism and minio Units of power of a lens is = (@ am (6) metre Rainbows are formed by (@) reflection and diffraction (0 dispersion and total intemal reflection (@) interference only The axial points having unit posit (0 dioptre (d) None of these (@) refraction and scattering in a lens system is called = (a) centres of curvatures tive angular magnification tive linear magnification (6) principal points (@) focal points (0) nodal points A pair of conjugate points on the axis ofa ens having unit Pos! are known a8 (6) focal points {@) principal points (nodal points (a) centres of curvatures Cardinal points of a lens system cover {}) only two principal points (@) only two focal points (6 only two nodal points {@ two focal points, two principal points and two nodal pola es of foal eng fae f separated by distance wren oth Ach civrration fort thin lenses dis Ath “The condition for minimum spherical and fy separated by distance d is a= fi-k focal lengths fi fith 2 (d= fi @ a= firth 1 spherical aberration are fully satisfied in (a Ramsden's eyepiece () Huygen’s eyepiece {6 both Ramsden’s and Huygen’s eyepieces (i) neither Ramsden’s nor Huygens eyepiece (0 rramaden’s eyepiece consists of two plano-convex lens of focal Tength £ (ofeach (@) different focal lengths (6 may be both equal or diferent focal lengths (@) none of these If focal length of eye lens in Ramsden’s eyepiece is 2 ws wf or ox IF he focal Tength of eye lens of Hiaygen’ eyepiece f then fcal length ofthe field lens and separation between two lenses respectively = ‘J, then separation between two Fenses is: oye Aas ory OF “The equivalent fc lng of Huyge’s eyepiece i oa length of ee ers J 2 3 £ @ 3f wf ag ey ey“ia Te equivalent focal Feng of Ramsden 4 Fen by ; oy wit oF of 9.0) 10. z@ 62 () 2 41. (0) 12.(a) 13. (0) 14, (0) CHAPTER ATAG tio anoter through a sep sh. Femat Pipe: A ay fight raves OMFS er ini" OF MAX th for which the time ‘be writen 35 ‘media, always follow a pat fr stationary. 2. Format principle in mathematical form may Jess im ic 0] -8 43. Format principle for a non-homogeneous medium i fucdS = minimum or maximum or sionay ie 8 Juas ‘ arial points : Three pairs of conjugate points form six cardinal points of an optical (i) First and second focal points (i) First and second principal points «tia and seed nodal poi Dispersion of light : When a beam of white li Dispesion of ih beam of white light is passed though a prism, it splits 6. Angulae dispersion for two extreme colours, through a 0 -5r = A ip Hy) Saree senmas 7, Dispersive power ofa prism is given as ate yet 8, Focal length for a thick lens is given as | ar ‘GEOMETRICAL OPTICS or dip eye Tens. Its used to magnify the To, Eye ee consists of io ess (fel as and (9 Er ey ie cnve fa miceszope of # RIBCOPS 7 i ae rade of the same material with 111, Huygen’s eye-piece consists of two plano-convex lenses their convex faces tured towards the incident light. 412, The focal lengths of field lens and eye lens of Huyger lenses are separated by a distance of 2f. 1a, Ramaden’s eye piece consists of two plano-conwex lenses with their convex sides facing ceach other. 1M. The focal lengths of each field lens and eye lens is J ‘ross-wires are placed outside the eye piece _ pl placed midway between two Tenses which in 1s eye plece are 3f and f- The two 2 and separated by a distance 5 f but in case of wolves 415. In Ramsden’s eye Pi Huygen’s eye piece cross-wires are mechanical difficult. | LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS 1 Fermat's principle of refraction of light. f reflection and refraction with its help. that law of reflection is the special 1. (@) Define optical path. (@) State and explain Fermat's priné Stationary time) and use it t0 det 12. Discuss Fermat's principle in brief and prove laws of 3, What do you understand by Fermat's principle. Show t case of it 44. (@) Define cardinal points of a lens system. {(b) Show that distance between principal points is the ‘nodal points. (@) Principal and nodal points coincide ifthe medium at both sides of ens © same. 15 Plot the formation of image in a lens system using cardinal points. 6. What is matrix method and its usefulness ? S$, What is a system matrit ? Hovis it related to input and output matrices ? jeal system. Obtain the expression for 8. Define system matrix and cardinal points of an optic ‘Chivaent focal length of an optical system in terms ofthe elements ofthe syster) al 9, Divine system matty of an optical system. Obtain the system matrix fr a thick Tens and Gerive the lens formula for thin lens from the system matrix. 40, Obtain the system matrix fr thick lens and ence obtain the system matrix fora thin Jens. 11 Define cardinal points of a system of co-axial lenses, State their properties. 12, What is meant by dispersion ? Explain angular dispersion and dispersive power of a prism. Fe oat be the construction and working of a Ramsden’s eye-piece. What are its merits and demerits? 14, Describe the construction, working and ray diagram of ciple of extremum path (or same as the distance between system is the Ramsden’s eye-piece. Describe its 415, Describe the construction, working and ray diagram of a Huy its merits and demerits ? and Huygen's eye-pieces. 416, Diseuss the construction and working of Ramsden’ “e ? What are its merits and demerits? 17, Why Huygen’s eye-piece is called negative eye piect sgen’s eye-piece. What areWAVES AND 0; e lens of equi single ens of eauvaeny gS piece and show thy 2 Te an han pepe a “om length ? va working TBE aic SbEANIONS. Obtain t 19, Describe the const a spherical chi ing Dest ee of ain ees Seen foal ngth and poston of 9 piece. Discuss the rely | | ee iy they and ws 20 Gi the cs of Hayes and Rams cain the an te pans of carina pois Of \ a cy tis Ov 2 ae mak te posons of te ol OBLEMS. UNSOLVED NUMERICAL ne asa speed of 5 mise 4. A man wate on a sandy ground wit) 2 p04 13 20 andy an Bard round bower of ST can reach the tree A ieee rey round rates a the Borde! should wal 'm along the fer and then make a1 way the Fe a ee a ya dad es oa 2. Hub tn coos lense of eal ents 10m at 1S 20 hn ss enh of te combinant PT Ty 10 rs combination having, wo ses oiferent Focal avg ag {Ans zenj 9,1, WAVE MOTION. — molon a ene ofthe most important methods of transfer ro pet eleromagretic radiations 3. Find the power of ae Kept at a distance equal to sum of thir focal lengths Coenen Soe ower of rom an int spr fom te CHOWN al = 1662 and st, = 164 ‘The physical concept of sa cot encrny Various forms of energy, for instance sound. lh Meoor tne place to another with the help of wave motion ‘veh travels through the medium due to repeated the hard ground. Suppose he is wishes fo reach a tree situated 0” walking 100 m along the border and For exown glass? tp 1.522 ancl t, = 1514; For fit gs: Ho 6 0% : ars. For crown glass 0 = 0015 For fint glass © = 01 engin arn postons of foal pints andthe pci pi. The ive Soden = 18 are main form of Suan heh ae rose he eta ote si mt Erbach popes energy and momentum frm one ple 10 other pendent [Ans. f= 818 ems B18 cm, + 818 cr (cl poi index 15 pled in ai, Thickress Of lens ynhou the trensport of mate. he Pa ch the energy is tansmsted must satiy following three inde 6. A plano-convex lens of material of refractive i ¥ curvature of spherical surface of lens is 25 em. Light is incident the medium to return to its original condition iS Emm and rads of On the cured surface f lon, Deteanine te stem ma 4 conations 0920 0.400), To" elastsity: There mast be tendency for fas ty tendency Nees eet [5 fa) se Find the oa ength ap postions of ti pot of ply aso eat (ees fe'mediam must be capable of storing up energy inde 5 tan of carne of Ge curs ue eeg cua ine 1 Ce eet Tein onder to minimise the damping of esiotory mover eee a Sc ero geal (2) Minima fon nce cmensional, according tothe numberof dimensions eS a eae ease Wealinni se ete whieh they propagete energy: Waves moving afong strings, are one "dimensional. Surface re 3 ch pe ag rte oF HP® om water ae two denon we Sound Aghe waves travelling out Fans ott source are three dimensions 9 The equivalent focal length of an Huygens an Huygen’s eyepiece 5 1 ST ean mts tas on stn ae oe) 2:2, PRERICAL WANES 1e focal length of each lens of a Ramsden‘s ey is [Ans ian oct vcs 1 Glan de qin 2 SPHERICAL WA Da. The foal length of ih more convergent Tens of (ins. 75 en] 5 em Cael the foal gh ofthe eyepiece and ects tY8EN' eyepiece is its focal points (Ans. F= + 075 on y= g7sc8 9m the positon omy Fy = + 0.25 —_—____—_—.€@,__ is the centre of disturbance n, setting the particles ‘point source of light phase, ‘According to wave theory of light, from which waves spread out in all directions in a homogeneous median from ih we Nbration, The disturbance reaches all those particles of the medium Chich are located at the same distance from the source.nS WAVES ee are R$ $$$ im which (i) Transverse waves : The transverse waves are those toaves in which particles of the medium = ses of the eed! The loos of al he pics of waves i eibrate at right angle tothe direction in which wave propagates, The examples of transverse waves ae: 7 (@) Water waves ( Waves in a string and in wwavetront same phase is called gh sich 2 Os the (0) Blectromagnetic waves Consider a point source © sotropic medium all th detions in 3 homoqerees peed. Aer ct Formation of Transverse Wave To tae hgh the medium wh a us Te understand the formation of a transverse wave waves reach the points lying wavefront at that el ei we at prelarnstant epeets 29 grea in an elastic medium, consider nine particles at Thon spherical wavefront is produced BH 2 POT aistant fom ‘equal distances along a straight line. Let the Tis 2 Be ocus ofall such points, wich are time period of the disturbance is T sec and the pint source 2 phe 25 show cs ofa le oEEe disturbance takes 7 sec to travel from one ‘Thus, spherical waves are thew cal wa particle to next patticle. The velocity of the ee pees, For spi, Ny se mei a 3 cet oi Fag Pell gj ae shel way, Fre cme Soa rene posto. The Fe eergon of waves from an intense and coherent PORE © velocity of the particle is maximum at mean ‘the medium vibrating in me ing sec 8 more than half of amplitude as it {goes from mean position, This is because, the velocity goes on decreasing as it goes toward ‘extreme Position and goes on increasing as it ‘comes to mean postion Suppose at time t= 0, the particle 1 is disturbed so as to perform a simple harmonic oscillation at right angle to this lin. As particle ‘moves up, the parils 2 3 ae dragged on fone after the other. Suppose at ("> when particle 1 has attained its maximum upward 2.3, PLANE WAVES al wavefront originating 00° ‘A small part of aspherical wavefront org distant source of light will appear pla een Fig, (22). Hence, the corresponding waves will be BNE We “Mathematically, if the wave number or propagation may fa ‘i -which denotes the direction is denoted by. ard aunt vector of propagation of wave. The, the condition fk 2 0and ixkeo / In this case, the displacement vector j) of wave has components bah pre a perpendicular tothe dizection of propagation of wave. This ype ot mixed wav plane Mave Example of plane wave is ippls or surface wares displacement, the disturbance reaches particle 3 which is now just to start. At f =z, the article 1 comes to its mean position, particle 3 attains its extreme postion upward and P Position pa P TS particle § is just disturbed. At # “5, the particle 1 attains its maximum downward displacement, particle 3 comes to its mean positon, particle 5 attains its maximum upward an are cilled mechanical waves. In the Gisplacement and particle 7 is just disturbed. At ¢ = T, the particle 1 once again comes to its play an important role. That is why, mean (equilibrium) position completing one full oscillation and the disturbance reach particle 9, The paticle 9 nov oscillates in the same phase as the particle 1. As the particle 1 performs sind waves re faa xampes of mechan wes, Oe cao st on moon oF Sound silation agin an again a wae tani propagated inthe medium as shee in Fig. 23) oe oe are ae eeaae mo medion for its propaentiog “Elasticity” and “inertia” of medium play important roles in the propagation of wave. gnetic waves, : igh vacuum, are MOM The elasticity brings the particles momentarily at rest in their extreme positions, while inertia 2.4, MECHANICAL WAVES ‘Waves which require medium for their propaga propagation of mechanical waves, elasticity and inertia fhese waves ate also called Elastic aves, Waves on stings and springs scismic waves or mechanical aves ‘Apart from mechanical and non-mechanil waves, mater wavs are another Kind of Ties Wem across thei equim positions, waves which represent waves lke propetis of pate which ae governed by laws of THe Maximum displacement ofeach partic in ether direction is called ampli of the wave quantum physic. The listance between two nearest particles oscillating in the same phase is called the uroeieigth (2). The number of oscillations made in one second by a particle is called the 2.5. LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES frequency (0), ‘The waves can be eased into two types spastic completes one osillation, the wave covers a distance @). Hence, velty of (©) Transverse waves and Langa waves propagation of the wave is given by reDistance Distane T Time frequency of osclotions Velocity (22) in which the parties waves 8 We am of ng 1 Laon, where 1 5 ft Sine ¢ : 1 Longitudinal Waves : Longit the medium vibrate along the direction (@) Sound waves Formation of Longitudinal Wie To understand the formation of longitudinal wave Jet us take nine particles in a straight ine which are equally paced in an elastic medium as shown in Fig. 24)-In this case particles will move forwad and Backward about their mean positions. Let time period is T ee Divide the time period Tinto ight equal parts, Let in © sec the particle wll cover mort than. half the amplitude, because the velocity of particles is maxims at mean position and zero at ‘extreme position. Let the wave travel froma particle to nex i. parle to next particle in see ‘At t=0, all the particles are ‘at mean position. Let Ist particle at mean post left to right. T ‘at +=, the Ist particle goes to its intermediate poston in the frward direction and the disturbagce moves to 2nd particle, which just starts its motion fram mean position wT ny t= BET te in prt gest ts extreme poston ad cons for a more and particle Goes intermediate poston and 3nd patie js! sas its motion from mes pestion In ths way, the dsurbance (wave) waves fom IS pu oe paride in se Pale ing sa} sdinal waves a2 ‘of propagation tion just starts its motion at time 1 = 0, from at at =22 sec, the Ist particle goes back to intermediate Psion, 2nd particle ile goes cxteme posto, 3 particles gos t intermediate positon, Te patticle, which just starts ts motion from mean position disturbance moves to 48) ee oe WAVE MOTION Z| T ‘At += sec, the Ist particle comes back to mean postion, moving in backward direction ane patice’Lomes back to intermediate postion, Sed. pate goes fo extreme positon £8 3 particle which just tats its particle goes to intermediate postion. The disturbance moves t0 > bration of Ist particle is competed in > Sec Proceeding in this way, at t= T see, the Ist particle completes one vibration, ot particle gocstollsintemedat postion, 3d particle goes to extreme position, th Partie to intermediate Sion an particle nt ean postion, sb parle i at intermediate postion, 7 particle vr and oth particle just starts its fs at extreme position, 8th particle at intermediate positios » sion from mean poston. ence, in one complete time period of 1st particle, he longitudinal moti avels Tron Ist particle to 9th particle as shown in Fig. (24) along, with rons of Satpressions and roelacions.Patles Ist and Shae in phase Particles Ist and 5th are out of phase. ‘The compression is the portion of mediui pence ct density for pressure) takes place when a longitudinal wave passes Hous pen eta rego tne medium in wich parties come to distance les than Ne nel stance between them. The rarefaction is the portion of the medium where 9 Pare petease in volume and hence decrease in density (or pressure) takes place wien & Tongitudinal incre ees trough the medium. In this region, the patls of the medium get spar {9 tistance greater than normal distance between thers. Generally, if a wave is longitudinal it is mechanical wave, it may of may not be longitudinal. Also, if a wave is non-mecha a wave is transverse, it may or may not be non-mechanical “The nature of medium and mode of excitation determine whether & mechanical W transverse or longitudinal. In strings, mechanical waves are always transvers ‘mechanical waves are always longitudinal ih solide mechanical waves can be ether transverse of Tongituinal depends the mode of eaton: For example, incase of a vibrating tuning, fork the waves in 1h PRINS sre transverse while in the stem. are longitudinal. Also, in case of seismic waves, produced by earthquakes are both transverse and longitudinal waves, ‘Mathematically, types of waves can be distinguished, if we know the ‘motion from mean position, Thus, half of the vi im where a temporary decrease in volume and ‘but if a wave is mechanical, ical it is transverse but if fe in nature. In gases and liquids, wave number oF i which denotes the direction of propagation constant denoted by and unit vector wgitudinal waves are propagation of wave. The condition for the propagation of Lon f.keo and i.k=0 ‘The condition for the propagation of transverse waves are fik=0 and ixkeo ‘The above conditions imply that for a longitudinal wave, the displacement Yee", cannot have any component at right angles tothe direction of propagation of W2¥" Similarly, Fee terse wave, the displacement vector y cannot have any component along the direction of propagation of wave,————a==—— (WAVES AND ORD ee eee FE TT INAL WAVE MOTION w JONGITUDINAL Way, Tove diference) of pate Prt ‘TRANSVERSE ‘more and more away from point . If is the phase lag (i. I rae b 2.6, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN particle a hen the dipscement of parle at point Pat any ome 1 gen PY bate to y =Asin (ot 9) “f Transverse Waves fan via 1 ang 4 1 Tre sions along the ci ice» win phase for distance x, willbe Te aricesc aun vata abouts poate Oe ti Since for a distance 2, phase changes by 2, the change in pt postions in direction perpendicular ae et on Grech propagation fave re ne oty ae 2, Traycanteltweugnvaoun | 5 tp coe Oe] puting this value in eq, 24), we get ‘3 They can travel with the veloc of Fat 2 25 Sanaa he sry taint TF COMPTON y =Asin(ot-7x) oy Jin be orm of rests and truss. | 4 ee. reels oan two CONSECURVG coy If T is time period of vibration, then 5, Thedstance between wa consecuve cress | 5. Th STE Pens caled waveeng 2 cor troughs is called wavelength. irs ye poe T 6, They can be poiarized. 6, They carte in the density of mectuy Putting this value in eq, (2.5) +, Trew rochenge'n deetyotmedumdurng | 7. Tee 330 moons higher 7 transverse wave mation uring La epeet nd owerin rarefied region] y Asin [> i | 4 easnax(! 26) =Asin2a (4 JUATION OF A PLANE PROGRESS! T i a From wave equation, uring. propagation of wave in @ at Meee eee ea ‘medium, particles of medium execute simple Ci Bd frmeonc motion, then the wave i said to be . : oo a single hannonie progessive wate and also it T the amplitude of such a wave remains Patting this value in eq, 2), unchanged, it f said to be single harmonic : ne pregesive oe. sinzx(¥-3) A wave which travels in a medium an contin in hse dition witout any change yw Asin (ot) in is ample i called plane progressive ze a Rae or Te quantity 2k cle propeption conte transverse of longitsinal in nature Z Leta simple harmonic wave tavels fom ‘Therefore, eq, 27 becomes arigin © slong postive direction of Xaxs in a continuous hanogeos medium. AS the y= Asin k (ot) 7 ‘wave proceeds, each successive particle of the medium is st in simple harmonic oscillation. y= Asin (kot - kx) 28) Fig, 23) shows displacement () ofthe patiles agains i posins() at a particular iran Let the tie is counted from the instant the parce pt pases ooughts mean | Since postion in postive direction. Then, displacement of this parc at any inant fis given by | y = Agi of 23), where A is ample of motin nd «= 2 i he angling, Let us find the displacement of parce Pata distance + fom eign 0 at ‘A particle on postive Xaxs receives a disturbance, at define age pe), e Putting this value in eq, 28), ) proceeding it. Therefore, phase lg of particles wt particle at Ogesn nm than that y = Asin (at - kx) ‘nveasing as we move eee nlee SERRISERUROSNIIEGL GUIS St aoooeeoneeeee os iim TT Cy ED ial form of eq: (29) is The exponential fom of C2.) ae , wve wave Propa, c term is wave velocity (2) where vat he equation of 2 PRE progressive AVE PROP ABA a iy Fe9) and (210) represents the eat sa eqtton of 5 angie Scion Eg aren C8 then 9 Ping ened ty substan ~ * 2.9. PARTICLE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION, Qty The individual partcies which make up the medium do not travel through the median with the waves. They simply oscillate about their equilibrium positions. The instantancous ve travelling > known Ut ave may Be obtained BY progressive wave may be ing wave A100 Posty ‘velocity of an oscillating particle of the medium, through which a w Hence, 69. (29) becomes Pea sin tt ine 0 fs the inal phase, then equation of plane Pr 1 6 is the iil phase then eo ag ™ “Pie velo mat ood “The equation of a plane progressive wave is ! y = Asin (at &2) 2.14) The velocity of any particle in its vibratory motion is obtained by differentiating this dlirecion of X-axis becomes y Asin [lot ‘equation wrt. time # keeping x constant. h the medium. AS ihe 4 uot = [Asin(ot—e0) 15) 2.8. WAVE VELOCITY wg “vane veo she veloc wh wi he Pons) travel Wi way dean er eat and trough (compressions al TE, we can say that 1 eae DrOpazey els at te rest. atte tough 2 i ae 7 w phase travels with the wave velocity: Therefore, ave vee is sends oF he Rate oe ore aa oe se cs paticle velocity ra give meu i const, ene maximum value of cos (a! ~ kx) = 1, hence maximum particle velo rite ate vlc oa eee meagan rere, ofS ‘ee = 02.16 ‘ethucing the waves. Mathematical, wave velocity i give BF q ‘The acceleration of any particle at any time in its vibratory motion is _ 13) «28424 tae cos (ot) ° aed U (ot ao whew o is the angular velocity and & is the wave number. @ =~ Ao? sin (ot - kx) ‘Since @ = 2an, where 1 is frequency a= oy [Using eq. (2-14)) on ioe ince maximum value of y is amplitude A, so maximum acceleration is and k= 25, where 4 is wavelength of peel ye sean Wave velocity is given b AND y est v 10, RELATION BETWEEN PARTICLE VELOCITY. WAVE VELOCITY Tet us consider a plane simple harmonic wave traveling through @ medium along X-axis (2.18) 2an The wave equation is y = Asin (ot - ka) a patticle at the point x of medium. vem Wave velocity = Frequency * Wavelength whore y is instantaneous displacement of ‘Thus, the wave velocity is the veloaty at which a plane wave advances with constant ‘Avwand Fare amplitude, angular frequency and propagation constant of wave respectively phase (ot ~ The instantaneous velocity of the particle at point + is If phases constant, then nae? [Asin (ot b) A phaxy =0 Aoi) ar at ap (Phase) oo U or ub = Aw cos (wt kx) 2.19) aft ar | Now differentiating eq. (2.18) wart x, we get or onke = or ane wy 8 BD aA asin(wt- é& | = FIA sin (otk) | a | oor ge 77 Ak aw (ot bd) (2.20) a eT ____ a