1

SHOCK ABSORBER
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

• M. CHIRANJEEVI

• AJAY GOPINATH. K

• MOHAMMED ALTAF PATEL

• VIJAY KUMAR

• B. BALA BHASKAR RAO

• AKHILESH KUMAR

• NAGARAJU

in partial fulfillment for the award

of

THE DIPLOMA
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU GOVT. POLYTECHNIC,

RAMANTHAPUR, HYDERABAD.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work titled “SHOCK

ABSORBER”
is a bonafide work carried out by _________________________
bearing pin number _____________________ under my
supervision and submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering, by State Board of Technical
Education and Training, Andhra Pradesh during the academic year
2010-2011 in the department of Mechanical Engineering.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT GUIDE

SIGNATURE

PRINCIPAL EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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Jawaharlal Nehru Govt. Polytechnic, Ramanthapur

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A summer project is a golden opportunity for learning and self development.

We consider ourselves very lucky to be honoured to have so many
wonderful people lead us through in the completion of this project.

Sir T.S MANIKYA PRABHU, Head of department, monitored our

progress and arranged all facilities to make life easier. We choose this
moment to acknowledge his contribution gratefully.

Sir K. CHANDRA SHEKHAR, whose patience, we have probably tested

to the limit. He was always so involved in the entire process, shared his
knowledge, and encouraged us to think. Thank you, Dear sir.

We are also very thankful to Sir CHAGANTI SUBBA RAO, Principal, for
his timely help during the project work.

Last but not the least, there were so many who shared valuable information
that helped in the successful completion of this project.
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LIST OF CHAPTERS

Shock absorber
 Description
 Explanation
 Applications
 Vehicle Suspension
 Electrical generation

Types of shock absorbers

 Air shock absorber
 Coil over shock absorber
 Damper shock absorber
 Dashpots
 Twin tube shock absorber
 Mono tube shock absorber
 Shocks with reservoir
 Sport shock absorber
 Spring shock absorber

Suspension systems in automobiles

 Mac Pherson strut
 Double wishbone suspension
 Torsion bar suspension
 Magnetic semi-active suspension
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LIST OF FIGURES

• Rear shock absorber and spring of a BMW R75/5

motorcycle
• Air shock absorber
• Coil-over shock absorber
• Damper shock absorber
• Mono tube damper
• Twin tube damper
• Low pressure gas filled twin tube damper
• High pressure gas filled mono tube damper
• Dashpot
• Linear dashpot
• Twin tube shock absorber
• Mono tube shock absorber
• Shocks with reservoir
• Sport shock absorber
• Spring shock absorber
• Mac pherson strut
• Double wishbone suspension
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• Torsion bar suspension

• Magnetic semi active suspension system

SHOCK ABSORBER
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Shock absorber
Shock absorber is a mechanical device designed to smooth out or damp shock
impulse, and dissipate kinetic energy. It is a type of dashpot.

Description
Pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers commonly take the form of a cylinder
with a sliding piston inside. The cylinder is filled with a fluid (such as hydraulic
fluid) or air. This fluid-filled piston/cylinder combination is a dashpot. Shock
absorbers include cushions and springs.

Explanation
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The shock absorber's function is to absorb or dissipate energy. One design

consideration, when designing or choosing a shock absorber, is where that
energy will go. In most dashpots, energy is converted to heat inside the viscous
fluid. In hydraulic cylinders, the hydraulic fluid heats up, while in air cylinders, the
hot air is usually exhausted to the atmosphere. In other types of dashpots, such
as electromagnetic types, the dissipated energy can be stored and used later. In
general terms, shock absorbers help cushion vehicles on uneven roads.

Applications
Shock absorbers are an important part of automobile and motorcycle
suspensions, aircraft landing gear, and the supports for many industrial
machines. Large shock absorbers have also been used in structural engineering
to reduce the susceptibility of structures to earthquake damage and resonance. A
transverse mounted shock absorber, called a yaw damper, helps keep railcars
from swaying excessively from side to side and are important in passenger
railroads, commuter rail and rapid transit systems because they prevent railcars
from damaging station platforms. The success of passive damping technologies
in suppressing vibration is demonstrated by its market size—around US$4.5
billion.
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Rear shock absorber and spring of a BMW R75/5 motorcycle

Vehicle suspension
In a vehicle, shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground,
leading to improved ride quality and increase in comfort. While shock absorbers
serve the purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their intended
sole purpose is to dampen spring oscillations. Shock absorbers use valving of oil
and gasses to absorb excess energy from the springs. Spring rates are chosen
by the manufacturer based on the weight of the vehicle, loaded and unloaded.
Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use.
Along with hysteresis in the tire itself, they dampen the energy stored in the
motion of the unsprung weight up and down. Effective wheel bounce damping
may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance.

Spring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though
torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well. Ideal springs alone, however,
are not shock absorbers, as springs only store and do not dissipate or absorb
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energy. Vehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs or
torsion bars. In this combination, "shock absorber" refers specifically to the
hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration.

Electrical Generation
Modern hybrid cars may eventually be able to generate useful energy from the
displacement of the fluid in a shock absorber.

Types of Shock Absorber

There are different types of shock absorbers which are classified according to
their configuration and usage. Following are some of the important varieties of
shock absorbers:

• Air Shock Absorber

• Mono Tube Shock Absorber
• Coil-Over Shock Absorber
• Shocks with Reservoirs
• Damper Shock Absorber
• Sport Shock Absorber
• Dashpots
• Spring Shock Absorber
• Twin Tube Shock Absorber
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Air Shock Absorber

Air shock absorber makes the use of compressed air for the spring which is an
integral part of the shock. The addition of air in the shock make the shock
absorber stiffer. Air is added by using standard schrader valve to add air. This
shock absorber provides normal dampening action and on placing the heavy load
on the rear of the vehicles, the rubber air cylinder can be put under pressure to
aid the suspension springs. Due to this reason, the air shock absorber is also
called as load-adjustable shock absorbers.

Air shocks or air shock absorber consist of separate, sealed air chamber inside.
However this chamber is sealed therefore it is not subject to aeration. This
results in better and smoother ride than gas shocks. Air shock absorbers can
also be used for load leveling.

Working Principle

The air shock absorber consists of air chamber which contains valve coming off
it. Depending on the situation, the air chamber can be both inflated or deflated.
Filling the air to the rear shocker gives better steering control to the boat. In some
navigator, the system makes an adjustment and inflates or deflates the air
shocks accordingly.

Features

Air shock absorber consists of following general features:

• All Weather Fluid of the air shock absorber reduces friction and ensure
smooth rod reaction.

• For smooth and controlled ride there is better valving range available on
both the compression and extension cycles of the unit.

• Air shock absorber also contains sintered Iron Piston which enhances the
durability for long service life.

• Air sleeves of the shock absorber are generally lubricated that reduces
friction for longer service life.
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• The air fittings of the shock absorber prevents air leakage.

• The volume of the air chamber is quite large that can well inflate with
loaded vehicle and deflates for normal driving.

Coil-Over Shock Absorber

Safe vehicle is one that has smooth and responsive suspension system. Coil-
over shocks are simple designed shock absorber that gives effective control and
smooth riding to the vehicle. It comes in various heights depending on the
requirements of the vehicle. The coil over shock absorber is engineered in such a
way that it reduces chassis flex when your vehicle is cornering. The shock
absorber is capable of giving good absorption and dampening levels. Simply
speaking coil spring is adjusted over and around the shock body. Through this an
additional spring rate is added to the shock absorber.

In this type of shock absorber both the spring and

shock absorber is assembled as a single unit and
if there is any problem in the spring the shock
absorber, it is replaced as a unit. Coil over shock
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absorber is known for its effective damping without torsional loads. It can be also
adjusted to different ride height and hardness.

Depending on the vehicle's suspension design there are different types of spring.
Coil spring, however is the most common types of spring used in suspension
system. A coil spring stores energy and releases when required. It is also
capable of handling shocks and maintaining the force between two contacting
surfaces.

As a unit, coil spring and shock absorber is of great value. Coil spring
compresses and stretches, thereby giving one safe drive, whereas, the shock
absorber keeps the road noise, bumps, and vibrations away.

Advantages

Coil over shock absorber has certain advantages which are as follows:

• It gives optimal damping.

• Good handling and braking.

• Comfortable ride.

• Comes in different heights.

• It is available for different types of vehicles.

• Durable and lasts longer.

• Suitable for different road conditions.

Damper Shock Absorber

Damper shock absorber or simply damper is device that is designed for providing
absorption of shock and smooth deceleration in linear motion applications. The
dampers can be either mechanical or rely on a fluid. Dampers like other shock
absorber absorbs shock by controlling the flow of the fluid from outer to inner
chamber of a cylinder during piston actuation. The damper shock absorbers can
be adjusted to different road conditions and provides good balance to the
vehicles.
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Features of Damper Shock Absorbers

Some of the important features of the damper shock absorbers are:

• They have good adjustable configuration.

• The force capacity can be reduced by letting out the gas.

• The position of the dampers can be locked easily either at the ends or at
the middle of the stroke.
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• In case of fluid dampers, valve is used for increasing or decreasing fluid

volume or pressure.

Types of Damper Shock Absorbers

Mono Tube Damper

Mono tube damper consists of two valves.

One of the valves get opened when the
damper compresses the other when it
extends. Over small/low speed bumps,
larger orifices allow greater oil output. In
multiple high speed bumps the
components in the valving is actuated for
making the orifice smaller thereby
reducing the oil output which not only
gives better control but also keeps the
tyre in contact with the ground.

Twin Tube Damper

Twin tube damper work effectively where

there is limited working space. The tubes
are designed with smaller diameter. The
damper makes the use of two valves which
increases the effectiveness of the damper.
One of the valve is fitted with piston rod
whereas the other valve is built into the
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inner tube bas. The valve fitted with the piston rod deals with the rebound control
and the inner tube valve deals with bump control. The oil is forced in the outer
reservoir in bump mode whereas in the rebound mode, it is pushed through the
piston-mounted valve.

Low Pressure Gas Filled Twin Tube Damper

In low pressure gas filled twin tube damper, the air is

replaced by the gas usually with Nitrogen gas. The air
in the damper mixes with the oil and results in the
aeration of the oil and hence foaming thereby reducing
the overall performance of the damper. The nitrogen
gas prevents this aeration and foaming and improves
the performance of the damper.

High Pressure Gas Filled Mono Tube Damper

High-pressure gas-filled mono-tube damper not only

eliminates the bump but also gives rebound control. Due to
this the damper is designed with quality components. Th
nitrogen is used in place of air. The nitrogen is inserted
under high pressure at the base of the damper. Oil and the
gas is separated by the floating piston. The design is
capable of improving the performance by eliminating the
aeration and foaming. Using superior valve and better
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design, 'self adjusting' damper can be produced. The sleek design with mono
tube also eliminates the problem of tyre rubbing.

Linear Damper

Linear damper is used as a secondary suspension element for different types of

vehicles. This damper is used mostly in place of passive dampers that are used
in seat suspensions. The diameter of the damper vary according to the
requirement and applications. The valve of the linear damper is magnetically
controlled. The valve is located in the internal piston and regulates the flow of MR
fluid within the damper. Linear damper like shock absorbers can be hydraulic, air,
gas spring, or elastomeric. The linear damper too works in both the compression
and the extension cycle. Before purchasing linear damper, one should test it on
the following parameters like absorber stroke, extended length, maximum force
(P1), compressed length, and maximum cycles per minute.

Dashpots
Dashpots utilizes viscous friction for resisting motion. Dashpots consist of
piston which moves through a viscous fluid in conjunction with a spring, in
shock absorbers. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the
movement. During motion this damping force reacts in the opposite direction.
This movement in the opposite direction the damping force so created
counteracts the motion and absorbs energy. There are two specifications that
characterized dashpots.
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Dashpots Specifications

These specifications are:

• The stroke and the damping coefficient.

• Linear displacement of the dashpot is measured by the stroke whereas

damping force per velocity is measured by the damping coefficient.

• Dash pot is commonly used as shock absorber in various vehicles.

• It is also used in door closer device.

In a dashpot, velocity produced is always linearly proportional to the force

applied. Symbolically it can be represented as:

f(t)= µv(t)

µ= dashpot impedance

f(t)= is the applied force at time t

v= the velocity

Purpose Served by Dashpots

Purposes served by the dashpots are:

• It keeps the piston steady by preventing the piston following air

fluctuations at low engine speed.

• Prevents the piston rising in unison with the opening of the throttle.

Types of Dashpots

There are two types of dashpots that are used commonly.

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Rotary Dashpots

Rotary dashpots consist of damping coefficient(force per velocity) in torque per

angular velocity.

Linear Dashpots

Specifications of the linear dashpots consist of stroke and damping coefficient

where stroke measures the amount of linear displacement and damping
coefficient is the measure of force per velocity.

Twin Tube Shock Absorber

A twin tube shock or the Twin tube shock absorber is a low pressure shock
having tube inside the outer shock body which contains the piston assembly. In
order to create damping force, different coil springs inside the shock body are
used. The inner tube is known as pressure tube whereas the outer tube is known
as the reserve tube. The reserve
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tube is used for storing different types of hydraulic fluid. The mounts used for the
shock absorber are many but the most popularly used rubber mount is rubber
bushings between the shock absorber and the suspension for minimizing
suspension vibration.

The piston rod passes to the upper end of the pressure tube through rod guide
and the seal. The rod guide assist the piston to move freely inside whereas the
oil is kept inside by the seal. The movement of the fluid is controlled by the base
valve which is located at the bottom of the pressure tube.

Working of a Twin Tube Shock Absorber

The pushing of the piston results in the flow of the oil without resistance from
below the piston through different outlets to the area above the piston. The oil
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displaced the rod flows into the reservoir tube filled with air. The oil encounters
the resistance while passing through the foot valve thereby generating the bump
damping.

The oil above the piston is pressurized when the piston rod is pulled out which
the flows through the piston. The oil when encounters an resistance while
passing through the piston, generates the rebound damping.

Types of Twin Tube Shock Absorber

Twin tube shock absorber can be of different types depending on the mechanism
used. Some of the popular types are as follows:

Gas Charged Twin Tube Shock Absorber

Gas charged shock absorber solved many problems associated with driving. The
design uses low pressure charge of nitrogen gas in the reserve tube. The
pressure of the gas may vary and depends upon the amount of fluid in the
reserve tube.

The gas helps in minimizing the aeration of the hydraulic fluid. The creation of
foam is prevented because the gas compresses air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid.
Reduction of aeration enhances the working capacity of the shocks. This shock
absorber gives more flexibility to the engineers to design valve. The additional
advantage of the shock absorber is that it creates a mild boost in spring rate to
the vehicle.

Benefits of Gas Charged Twin Shock Absorber

• The handling is improved through roll reduction and the reduction of sway
and dive.

• It reduces aeration and give smooth control in different types of road

conditions.
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• The heat may lead to the reduction of damping capability in the shock
absorber however in gas charged shocks this is reduced to a considerable
extent.

Position Sensitive Damping (PSD) Twin Tube Shock Absorber

Twin tube shock PSD design is a new technology in the field of shock absorber.
In this twin shock absorber, the position of the valve within the pressure tube is
taken into account. The pressure tube contains the tapered grooves which
enables optimal ride comfort and added control. The grooves in effect creates
two zones within the pressure tube.

In the first zone, the tapered grooves allow hydraulic fluid to pass freely around
and through the piston thereby reducing the resistance on the piston and
ensuring a smooth, comfortable ride. The first zone is utilized in case of normal
ride. In case of demanding situations, second zone called as control zone is
utilized. The fluid flow towards the piston valving for more control of the vehicle's
suspension which gives better control.

Advantages

• Give fine and smooth ride.

• It can adapt itself quickly to different road and weight conditions.

• It has two shocks in itself that is-comfort and control

Acceleration Sensitive Damping (ASD) Twin Tube Shocker

Twin tube ASD shocker brings the benefits of both the comfort and the control.
Twin tube ASD design shocker uses the compression valve which provides a
bypass to fluid flow around the compression valve. The compression valve is
designed in such a way that it senses a bump in the road and adjust the shock
automatically to absorb the impact thereby giving greater control to the shock.
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Mono Tube Shock Absorber

Mono tube shock absorber or monotube shock regulates the flow of the oil
between the compression and compensation chambers by using mechanically
fixed base valve. The shock also utilizes compressible bladder in the
compensation chamber for allowing volume compensation. The use of base
valve and the compressible bladder together eliminate the need for pressurized
gas and a floating piston which were the important features of the traditional
monotube dampers.

How It Works

In mono tube design, the damping force is created by deflective discs which are
heat treated stainless spring steel. The discs are generally stacked in a pyramid
pattern. The shim with the largest diameter faces the piston. The disc which is in
close proximity to piston open first and allows the flow of the oil. The rate of the
shock both on compression and rebound can be changed by increasing
thickness and sometimes diameters.

Monotube shock absorber consists of two chambers which are stacked on each
other and are separated by a "floating piston". Both the piston are filled with oil
and gas respectively. In the oil filled chamber damping forces are created. The
gas chamber is separated by a floating piston. The compression of shock results
in the compression of the air chamber by the floating piston which displaces the
volume of the shaft. This type of pressure creates the rod-pressure.
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The pushing of piston rod also forces the floating piston towards downwards
thereby increasing pressure in both gas and oil section. This also results in the
flow of the oil through the piston. This type of resistance generates the bump
damping.

Rebound damping is produced when the oil between piston and guide is forced
to flow through the piston. This happens when the piston is pulled out
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Benefits

• Gives good control and smooth ride.

• Monotube Shocks Can be mounted at any angle.

• It is lighter as compared to equivalent twin tube designs.

• Has high severity life.

• Adjusts to road conditions automatically.

Features

The features of the mono tube shock absorber include:

• It has distinctive mono disc design.

• The vehicle can be assembled easily.

• Weight is light.

• Element of lag and fade is absent.

• Reliable and durable.

• It also comes in controlled ride application.

Shocks with Reservoirs

Reservoir shocks or shocks with reservoir are mainly designed for serious off-
road use in the most complicated and difficult applications. It is effective in
variable road conditions and provides comfort and hassle free ride. In this type of
shocks, external reservoir is used for housing extra needed air space during a
shocks compression cycle. But this is not air but nitrogen.
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The reservoir also holds some extra fluid. However the design of reservoir
shocks or shocks with reservoir is different from the traditional shock absorber.
The complete body of the reservoir shock is completely submerged in the shock
oil. Every shock absorber in order to work properly, uses little space for proper
working. Some shocks have dead air at the top of the valve body whereas some
other use twin-tube model for the required expansion.

The external reservoir in this type of shock absorber is utilized for storing the
extra needed dead air space. Using metal tube or the flexible hose the reservoir
is connected to the main shock body. When the shock is compressed the extra
oil is forced into the reservoir body through the connecting tube. Modern
reservoir shock absorber are designed in such a way that oil and air is not
allowed to mix. This reduces the incidence of foaming thereby giving the shock
absorber more consistency.

General Characteristics

Shocks with reservoir or reservoir shocks have some general Characteristics

which are as follows:
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• The capacity of external reservoir is good.

• Reservoir hose is made of Stainless steel.

• Dissipates heat more effectively.

• Superior handling and performance due to large piston diameter.

• Valves are reacts quickly to changing surface conditions giving maximum

comfort and control.

• Valving of the shock absorber is engineered in such a way that it performs

well in all type of road conditions.

• Oil foaming, shock fade and performance loss is minimized due to the
pressure of Nitrogen.

Advantages of Reservoir Shocks

The advantages of reservoir shocks are:

• Easy to mount in a convenient place.

• Consist of High/Low speed compression that can be easily adjusted.

• Many reservoir shock can easily adjust the preload.

• The cooling property is excellent thereby providing constant shock

absorption and longer life. It these shock absorbers are generally of light
weight and use of high quality materials.

• Length is adjustable.

Sport Shock Absorber

Sports Shock Absorber is an ideal replacement for the
standard dampers of your car. It is slightly shorter and is
designed to match the sport spring. It also firm up the cars
suspension and improves the cars handling. Sport shock
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absorbers and lowering springs provide the car superb road-holding qualities and
gives look and the feel of the real sports car.

Sport shock absorber along with the lowering springs results in the lowering of
the the center of gravity of the car. These combined with good suspension
system, results in better steering qualities and reduced body movement.

Using sports shock absorbers you can uprate your cars handling and driving feel.
Generally these shock absorber are used along with lowering springs for good
results. Sports shock absorbers are also compatible with your standard springs
which once fitted, helps in handling and holding the car than what it did as
standard.

Sports shock absorber used in the car worked are of two types - gas charged
sport shock absorber and oil based shock absorber. The oil shock absorber
functions against hydraulic fluid in the pressure tube whereas gas based shock
absorber contains nitrogen gas at its one end
that reduces foaming and hence the better
performance.

The shortened bodies of the sports shock

absorbers are generally compatible with all
lowered and uprated suspension systems.

Spring Shock Absorber

Spring shock absorber as the name suggests is used to absorb the jerks or
bumps by using coil spring. The spring
shock absorber is given stiffer character by
tightening the spring. The center of the
spring shock absorber usually contains
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rebound dampening unit. As the shock absorber changes the length the flow fluid
inside the shock absorber starts.

Springs length is usually controlled by turning the disc at the bottom of the spring
on the threads. The shorter spring length increases the preload, making the rear
wheel more resistant to upward motion. The dampening is both controlled and
adjusted in the spring shock absorber by controlling the fluid reservoir. If the
dampening is increased the motion of the shock is slowed down.

The spring type of shock absorbers are usually utilized for protecting the delicate
mechanisms, like instruments, from direct impact or or loads that are applied
instantaneously. These types of springs are often made of rubber or similar
elastic material.

The springs that are used in different spring based shock absorbers are coil
springs or leaf springs. In torsional shocks, torsion bars can be used. In most of
the vehicles, springs or torsion bars as well as hydraulic shock absorbers are
used.

Benefits

Spring Shock absorbers have certain benefits which are as follows:

• The damping effect is good.

• Smooth ride due to fine handling and braking.

• For different purposes, springs of different height are used.

• Used in various types of vehicles.

• Usually manufactured from the durable materials.

• Functions excellently in all road conditions.

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Suspension systems in Automobiles

MacPherson strut
The MacPherson strut is a type of car suspension system which uses the axis
of a telescopic damper as the upper steering pivot. It is widely used in modern
vehicles and named after Earle S. MacPherson, who developed the design.

History

Earle S. MacPherson developed the design of the strut in 1949 partially based on
designs created by Guido Fornaca of FIAT in the mid-1920s. It is possible the
MacPherson was inspired by the suspension on the French Cottin-Desgouttes
that used the same design, but with leaf springs. Cottin-Desgouttes front
suspension was in turn inspired by J. Walter Christie's 1904 design and he was
inspired by plants.

The first car to feature MacPherson struts was the 1949 Ford Vedette, and it was
also adopted in the 1951 Ford Consul and later Zephyr. MacPherson originally
created the design for use at all four wheels (Mitsubishi Starion, for example), but
production applications used it only for the front suspension, where it provides a
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steering pivot (kingpin) as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel. In 1957
Colin Chapman of Lotus applied the design to the rear suspension of the Lotus
Elite. As a result, strut suspension at the rear of an automobile are now
commonly called Chapman struts.

Design

MacPherson struts consist of a wishbone or a substantial compression link

stabilized by a secondary link which provides a bottom mounting point for the hub
or axle of the wheel. This lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal
location of the wheel. The upper part of the hub is rigidly fixed to the inner part of
the strut proper, the outer part of which extends upwards directly to a mounting in
the body shell of the vehicle.

To be really successful, the MacPherson strut required the introduction of

unibody (or monocoque) construction, because it needs a substantial vertical
space and a strong top mount, which unibodies can provide, while benefiting
them by distributing stresses. The strut will usually carry both the coil spring on
which the body is suspended and the shock absorber, which is usually in the
form of a cartridge mounted within the strut (see coilover). The strut also usually
has a steering arm built into the lower inner portion. The whole assembly is very
simple and can be preassembled into a unit; also by eliminating the upper control
arm, it allows for more width in the engine bay, which is useful for smaller cars,
particularly with transverse-mounted engines such as most front wheel drive
vehicles have. It can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll
bar (torsion bar) for the radius arm. For those reasons, it has become almost
ubiquitous with low cost manufacturers. Furthermore, it offers an easy method to
set suspension geometry.
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Advantages and Disadvantages

Although it is a popular choice due to its simplicity and low manufacturing cost,
the design has a few disadvantages, with regards to the quality of ride it provides
and how it affects the handling of the car. Geometric analysis shows it cannot
allow vertical movement of the wheel without some degree of either camber
angle change, sideways movement, or both. It is not generally considered to give
as good handling as a double wishbone suspension, because it allows the
engineers less freedom to choose camber change and roll center. Another
drawback is that it tends to transmit noise and vibration from the road directly into
the body shell, giving higher noise levels and a "harsh" feeling to the ride
compared with double wishbones, requiring manufacturers to add extra noise
reduction or cancellation and isolation mechanisms. Also, because of its greater
size and robustness and greater degree of attachment to the vehicle structure,
when the internal seals of the shock absorber portion wear out replacement is
expensive compared to replacing a simple shock absorber.

Despite these drawbacks, the MacPherson strut setup is still used on high
performance cars such as the Porsche 911, all current BMWs (including the new
Mini) except the 2007 X5, 2009 7-series, 2010 5-series and 5-series GT, the Alfa
Romeo Mito and 2010 Giulietta, and several Mercedes-Benz models.

Double wishbone suspension

In automobiles, a double wishbone (or upper and lower A-arm) suspension is
an independent suspension design using two (occasionally parallel) wishbone-
shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points
to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle. The shock absorber and coil spring
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mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. Double wishbone designs

allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout
suspension travel, controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle,
toe pattern, roll center height, scrub radius, scuff and more.

Implementation
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The double wishbone suspension can also be referred to as double 'A' arms, and
short long arm (SLA) suspension if the upper and lower arms are of unequal
length. A single wishbone or A-arm can also be used in various other suspension
types, such as MacPherson strut and Chapman strut. The upper arm is usually
shorter to induce negative camber as the suspension jounces (rises). When the
vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in positive camber gain on the inside wheel.
The outside wheel also jounces and gains negative camber due to the shorter
upper arm. The suspension designer attempts to balance these two effects to
cancel out and keep the tire perpendicular to the ground. This is especially
important for the outer tire because of the weight transfer to this tire during a turn.

Between the outboard end of the arms is a knuckle with a spindle (the kingpin),
hub, or upright which carries the wheel bearing and wheel. Knuckles with an
integral spindle usually do not allow the wheel to be driven. A bolt on hub design
is commonly used if the wheel is to be driven.

In order to resist fore-aft loads such as acceleration and braking, the arms need
two bushings or ball joints at the body.

At the knuckle end, single ball joints are typically used, in which case the steering
loads have to be taken via a steering arm, and the wishbones look A- or L-
shaped. An L-shaped arm is generally preferred on passenger vehicles because
it allows a better compromise of handling and comfort to be tuned in. The
bushing in line with the wheel can be kept relatively stiff to effectively handle
cornering loads while the off-line joint can be softer to allow the wheel to recess
under fore aft impact loads. For a rear suspension, a pair of joints can be used at
both ends of the arm, making them more H-shaped in plan view. Alternatively, a
fixed-length driveshaft can perform the function of a wishbone as long as the
shape of the other wishbone provides control of the upright. This arrangement
has been successfully used in the Jaguar IRS. In elevation view, the suspension
is a 4-bar link, and it is easy to work out the camber gain (see camber angle) and
other parameters for a given set of bushing or ball joint locations. The various
bushings or ball joints do not have to be on horizontal axes, parallel to the vehicle
 35

centre line. If they are set at an angle, then antidive and antisquat can be dialed
in.

Advantages & Disadvantages

The advantage of a double wishbone suspension is that it is fairly easy to work

out the effect of moving each joint, so you can tune the kinematics of the
suspension easily and optimize wheel motion. It is also easy to work out the
loads that different parts will be subjected to which allows more optimized
lightweight parts to be designed. They also provide increasing negative camber
gain all the way to full jounce travel unlike the MacPherson strut which provides
negative camber gain only at the beginning of jounce travel and then reverses
into positive camber gain at high jounce amounts.

The disadvantage is that it is slightly more complex than other systems like a
MacPherson strut. Due to the increased number of components within the
suspension setup it takes much longer to service and is heavier than an
equivalent MacPherson design.

Uses

The double wishbone suspension was introduced in 1935 by Packard Motor Car
Company of Detroit, Michigan on the Packard One-Twenty, and advertised as a
safety feature. Prior to the dominance of front wheel drive in the 1980s, many
everyday cars used double wishbone front-suspension systems, or a variation on
it. Since that time, the MacPherson strut has become almost ubiquitous, as it is
simpler and cheaper to manufacture. In most cases, a MacPherson strut requires
less space to engineer into a chassis design, and in front-wheel-drive layouts,
can allow for more room in the engine bay. A good example of this is observed in
the Honda Civic, which changed its front-suspension design from a double
wishbone design to a MacPherson strut design after the year 2000 model.

Double wishbones are usually considered to have superior dynamic

characteristics as well as load-handling capabilities, and are still found on higher
performance vehicles. Examples of makes in which double wishbones can be
 36

found include Alfa Romeo, Honda and Mercedes-Benz. Short long arms
suspension, a type of double wishbone suspension, is very common on front
suspensions for medium-to-large cars such as the Honda Accord, Peugeot 407,
or Mazda 6/Atenza, and is very common on sports cars and racing cars.

Torsion bar suspension

A torsion bar suspension, also known as a torsion spring suspension and
incorrectly as a torsion beam, is a general term for any vehicle suspension that
uses a torsion bar as its main weight bearing spring. One end of a long metal bar
is attached firmly to the vehicle chassis; the opposite end terminates in a lever,
mounted perpendicular to the bar, that is attached to a suspension arm, spindle
or the axle. Vertical motion of the wheel causes the bar to twist around its axis
and is resisted by the bar's torsion resistance. The effective spring rate of the bar
is determined by its length, cross section, shape and material.

Usage
 37

Torsion bar suspensions are currently used on armoured fighting vehicles or

tanks like the T-72 (Many tanks later in World War II used this suspension),
trucks and SUVs from Ford, Dodge, GM, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan and Toyota.
Manufacturers change the torsion bar or key to adjust the ride height, usually to
compensate for heavier or lighter engine packages. While the ride height may be
adjusted by turning the adjuster bolts on the stock torsion key, rotating the stock
keys too far can bend the adjusting bolt and (more importantly) place the shock
piston outside the standard travel. Over-rotating the torsion bars can also cause
the suspension to hit the bump stop prematurely, causing a harsh ride.
Aftermarket forged torsion key kits use reclocked adjuster keys to prevent over-
rotation, as well as shock brackets that keep the piston travel in the stock
position.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of torsion bar suspension are durability, easy adjustability
of ride height, and small profile along the width of the vehicle. It takes up less of
the vehicle's interior volume compared to coil springs. A disadvantage is that
torsion bars, unlike coil springs, usually cannot provide a progressive
 38

Spring rate. In most torsion bar systems, ride height (and therefore many
handling features) may be changed by simply adjusting bolts that connect the
torsion bars to the steering knuckles. In most cars with this type of suspension,
swapping torsion bars for a different spring rate is usually an easy task.

Leveling

Some vehicles use torsion bars to provide automatic levelling, using a motor to
tighten the bars to provide greater resistance to load and, in some cases
(depending on the speed with which the motors can act), to respond to changes
in road conditions. Height adjustable suspension has been used to implement a
wheel-change mode where the vehicle is raised on three wheels and the
remaining wheel is lifted off the ground without the aid of a jack.

History

Before World War II, the front wheel drive Citroen Traction Avant (1934) had
independent front torsion bar suspension and a flexible trailing dead axle, also
sprung by torsion bars. The flexibility of the axle beam providing wheel location
features like a twist beam axle. The Czechoslovakian Tatra cars designed by
Professor Hans Ledwinka in the mid-1930s used all round independent torsion
bar suspension, along with air cooled rear engines. Also in the 1930s, prototypes
of the first Volkswagen Beetle incorporated torsion bars—especially its
transverse mounting style. Ledwinka's concept had been copied by Ferdinand
 39

Porsche, whose successors later had to acknowledge the influence of

Ledwinka's sophisticated Tatra models on the Porsche-designed Kdf-Wagen of
1938 (later renamed the VW Beetle), a post-war lawsuit resulting in a
DM3,000,000 settlement paid by Volkswagen to Ringhoffer-Tatra in 1961.

The system was applied to many new armored fighting vehicle designs during
the Second World War. It was used extensively in European cars Renault,
Citroën and Volkswagen, as well as by Packard in the 1950s. The Packard used
torsion bars at both front and rear, and interconnected the front and rear systems
to improve ride quality. The then revolutionary Jaguar E-Type introduced in 1961
had a unique torsion bar front suspension and an independent coil spring rear
suspension using four shock absorbers with concentric springs.

The most famous American passenger car application was the Chrysler system
used beginning with the 1957 model year, although Chrysler's "Torsion-Aire"
suspension was only for the front; the same basic system (longitudinal mounting)
was maintained until the 1981 introduction of the K-car. A reengineered torsion
bar suspension, introduced with the 1976 Dodge Aspen, introduced transverse-
mounted torsion bars (possibly based on the Volkswagen Type 3 passenger car)
until production ended in 1989 (with Chrysler's M platform). Light duty Dodge
trucks however continue to use torsion bars on their front suspension.

General Motors has used torsion bars since 1966, starting with the E-platform
vehicles (Oldsmobile Toronado, Cadillac Eldorado), 4 wheel drive S-10 pickups &
Astro vans, and since 1988, full size trucks (GMT400, GMT800, and GMT900
series).

Porsche used torsion bar suspension for their 911 series from 1963 until 1989
with the introduction of the 964.

Variations

Some front-wheel drive automobiles use a related type of torsion beam

suspension, usually called a twist beam rear suspension, in which the rear
wheels are carried on trailing arms connected by a laterally mounted torsion
 40

beam. The torsion beam functions both as wheel locating arm and as an anti-roll
bar to resist lateral motion of the wheels as the body leans in turns. Its
advantages are that it is inexpensive to manufacture and install, and engages a
minimum amount of interior volume, leaving more space for the carriage of
passengers, cargo, and other components. Because the torsion beam acts in the
lateral plane, not vertically, the twist beam axle cannot provide ride height
adjustment, and it suffers, to some extent, similar car handling limitations as
other beam axle suspensions. However these limitations may not be apparent on
the road, because of the trend towards firmer, more sporty suspension setups
with more limited wheel travel. Twist-beam rear suspensions were pioneered on
the Volkswagen Golf in the early 1970s, and remain common on compact cars
and minivans.

Other uses

Torsion bars were sometimes used instead of conventional coil valve springs in
some older motorcycles, such as the Honda CB450. They were also used in the
door mechanism of the DeLorean DMC-12 automobile.

Magnetic Semi active Suspension system

 41

It adapts the damping characteristic to the profile of the road and the driver's
gear-shifting habits within just a few milliseconds. This is used in Audi TT. The
shock absorber pistons on the Audi TT do not contain conventional oil, but a
magneto-rheological fluid – a synthetic hydrocarbon oil in which microscopically
small magnetic particles measuring between three and ten microns are enclosed.
When a voltage is applied to a coil – by means of a pulse delivered by a control
unit – a magnetic field is created in which the alignment of the particles changes.
They position themselves transversely to the direction of flow of the oil, and so
inhibit its flow through the piston channels. This alters the characteristic of the
damping characteristic much faster than is the case in conventional adaptive
dampers.

This magnetic ride provides the right degree of damping force at each individual
wheel in every situation. The control unit, supplied by complex sensing
technology, constantly analyses the situation. Starting from the "Normal" setting,
the driver can also activate the "Sport" mode via a button on the center console.
These two programs establish clearly distinctive characteristics.

In the basic mode – when the oil is more viscous and the degree of damping less
pronounced – the TT rolls surprisingly smoothly; this is ideal for long-distance
driving or uneven road surfaces. In the Sport mode, by contrast – when the oil is
less viscous – it reveals an extremely dynamic character that is manifested by a
resolutely firm grip of the road surface. Rolling movements are suppressed from
the very moment the steering is turned even more effectively than in the basic
suspension setting, and the steering response is further improved. The self-
steering behaviour is further optimised by the specific stabilisation provided for
each individual wheel, resulting in a driving feel reminiscent of a go-kart.

This Magnetic Ride is based on a magneto-rheological principle. When in a

magnetic field, small iron particles in the suspension fluid align themselves in the
direction of the magnetic flux. The electromagnetic coil is integrated into the
damper piston in such a way that when it is energized the magnetic flux runs
 42

exactly transversely to the admission ports in the damper piston. If the piston
moves, the aligned iron particles create flow resistance in the flowing suspension
fluid.

The greater the energy applied and the stronger the magnetic field, the greater
the resistance and damping power. The energy is controlled in relation to driving
dynamics and impulses from the road. This means for every road situation
optimal damping power is available. This damping power produces – according
to OEM desire – a more comfortable feel or sportier vehicle handling.

Audi uses the magneto-rheological dampers for both – comfort and sport. In its
basic mode, the suspension allows for a more comfortable vehicle feel. In sports
mode, the vehicle offers a sportier ride, thanks to a push of a button. Because of
the lower level of damping force in basic mode, the total path of the springs is
fully utilized. This assures top comfort over long distances and when driving over
uneven surfaces.

The greater damping of the sports mode results in tighter, sportier handling along
with better control in the threshold. It also optimally suppresses the rolling
tendency of the car’s body in corners.

Since no mechanical parts must be moved, this technology responds extremely

spontaneously. The damping force is only dependent on the power applied to the
magneto-rheological fluid and can be adjusted up to 1,000 times a second.
Thanks to the variable control of the power, the damping force can also be set
infinitely. This means the magneto-rheological dampers respond almost in real
time with great sensitivity to impulses from the road. The control system loop with
Skyhook algorithms ensures the greatest possible road-to-wheel contact in the
case of uneven road surfaces with the least impulses to the car body. This
means the Audi TT with Magnetic Ride has the greatest possible driving
dynamics and allows for comfort.

Magneto-rheological monotube damper requires roughly the same space

requirements as conventional dampers or struts. If required, it supplies the
 43

complete semi-active system with dampers and struts including the sensors and
the control unit.

For Audi, the low energy requirements of the system are another benefit. On
average, a damper requires just 5 watts of electrical capacity (25 watts at a
maximum).