UNIT-II

RECTIFIERS
Linear Mode Power Supply:-
Basic Building Block of Linear mode power supply:-

a.)

b.) c.)

d.) e.)

f.)
 ∴ Here, the transformer supplies ac voltage at the required
level. This bidirectional voltage is connected into a unidirectional
pulsating dc using a rectifier. The unwanted ripple contents of this
pulsating dc are removed by a filter to get pure dc voltage. The
output of the filter is fed to a regulator which gives a steady dc
output independent of load variations and input supply
fluctuations.
(a)Principle of linear mode power supply:-

Requirements of Linear mode power supply:-

(1.) The most important consideration is designing a power
supply is that dc voltage at the output. It should be able to
give minimum operable dc voltage at the rated current.
(2.) It should be able to furnish the maximum current nodded for
the unit, monitoring the voltage consistent.
(3.) The ac ripple should be low.
(4.) The power supply should be protected in the event of short-
circuit on the load side.
(5.) Over voltage (spikes and surges) protection must be
incorporated.
(6.) The response of power supply to temperature changes should
be minimum.
 Rectifier:- A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c voltage to
pulsating d.c voltage using one or more PN junction diodes.
Types of Rectifiers:- Based on the diodes using for construction.
(1.) Half-Wave Rectifier
(2.) Full-Wave Rectifier
(3.) Bridge Rectifier.
(1.) Half-Wave Rectifier:-
In Half-Wave Rectifier, rectifying element conducts only
during positive Half-Cycle of input a.c supply the negative Half-Cycle
of a.c supply are eliminated from the output.
D1

E∅C

The rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying

element, i.e. P-N junction diode, and the source of a.c voltage, all
connected in series. The input voltage to the half-wave rectifier circuit is
a sinusoidal a.c voltage, having a frequency which is supply frequency
of 50Hz.
N 2 E Sm
=
N 1 EPm

Esm=Peak value of the a.c. Secondary voltage.

Epm=Peak value of the primary a.c voltage.
 es =Esm sinwt
w=2 πf where f=supply frequency

Operation of the circuit:-

 During the positive half cycle of secondary a.c voltage
terminal (A) becomes positive with respect to (B). The
diode is forward biased. And the current flows in the
circuit in the clock-wise direction.
The current will flow for almost full positive half-
cycle. This current is also flowing through load resistance
RL. Hence denoted as iL, the load current.
 During negative half cycle, when terminal (A) is negative
with respect to terminal (B) diode becomes reverse biased.
Hence no current flows in the circuit.

a) Diode forward b) Diode Reverse

 ←D→ ←D→ ←ON→ ←OFF→

ON OFF

Secondary
input voltage e S π 2π 3π 4π

Load
Current (i L ¿

Load
Voltage (e L ¿

Voltage
across diode

← E Sm=PIV →

Average DC Load Current:-

Mathematically, Current wave form can be described as
iL =Im sinwtfor 0≤wt≤ π
iL=0 for π ≤wt≤2 π
Where Im=Peak value of load current.
2π 2π
1 1
Idc= 2 π ∫ i L d (wt )= ∫ I sin ( wt ) d (wt )
2π 0 m
0

No current flowing during negative half cycle of a.c input

voltage i.e. between wt= π to 2 π , so
 π
1
IDC= 2 π ∫ I m sin ( wt ) d ( wt )
0

I Im
= 2 mπ [−coswt ]π0 => - 2π
[cos ( π ¿-cos (0)]

I Im Im
=> - 2 mπ [−1−1]= - 2π
[-2] = π

I
Idc= πm =average value

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write

ESm
Im= R + R
f S+ RL

Where Rs=Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

RL=Load resistance
Rf =Forward resistance of diode
Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-
It is the product of average D.C load current and load
resistance RL.
EDC=IDC.RL
I ESm
EDC= πm ∗R L=> π [R ¿ ¿ f + R S + R L ]¿

The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf one

practically very small compound to RL.
 E Sm
EDC= π
[ R f + Rs
RL
+1
]
Rf + Rs
But as Rf and Rs are small compared to RL, so RL
is
negligibly small compared to 1, so
ESm
EDC≈ π

RMS value of Load current:-

R.M.S means squaring, finding num and the finding square
root. Hence R.M.S value of load current can be.

√ √
π 2 π
1 1
Irms= ∫ ( I sinwt ) d (wt )
2π 0 m
= ∫
2π 0
2 2
I m sin wt d (wt )

√ [ 1−cos ( 2 wt ) ]
√ { }
π π
1 1 wt sin ⁡(2 wt )
=Im ∫
2π 0 2
d (wt) =Im
2π 2
−
4 0

√ √
1
=Im 1 π
2π 2{ }
−0 => Im* 2π
2
∗π I m
=2

I
Irms= 2m

D.C power output (PDC):

PDC=EDC.IDC=IDC2RL

[ ]
2 2
2 Im Im
D.C power output=I DC RL= π
R L= 2 R L
π
2
Im
PDC= 2
RL
π
 ESm
Where Im= R + R
f S+ RL

2
ESm∗R L
PDC= 2
( Rf + R S + R L ) π 2

A.C power Input (PAC):-

The power input taken from the secondary of transformer is
the power supplied to three resistances namely RL, Rf, Rs.
P AC =I RMS [ R L+ R f + R s ]
2

I
IRMS= 2m
2
Im
PAC=> [R + R + RS]
4 L f

Rectifier Efficiency (ή):-

:. Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of d.c power
output to a.c input power.
D . C output power P DC
A .C input power = P AC
ή=

2
Im
RL
P DC π
2

Efficiency (ή) => =

P AC I 2m
4
[ R f + RS + R L ]

( )
4 0.406
RL
=>
(
= 1+ Rf + R S
)
2
π
Rf + RS+ RL RL

If (Rf+RS)<<RS as mentioned earlier.

Then we get maximum efficiency of half-wave rectifier circuit as

%ήmax=0.406*100=40.6%
Ripple Factor:-
Mathematically Ripple Factor is defined as the RMS value of
the a.c component in the output to the average d.c component present in
the output.
R . M . S v alueof a .c component of output
Ripple Factor (γ) = Average of d .c component of output

Iac=> R.M.S value of ac component present in the output.

Idc=>d.c component present in the output.
IRMS=> R.M.S value of total output current.
IRMS=√ I 2ac + I 2dc
:. Iac=√ I 2rm −I 2dc
I ac
:. Ripple Factor= I dc

γ=
√I 2
rm −I 2dc
I dc

γ=
√( I rms 2
I dc
−1)

√[ ]
2

( ) −1= π −1=¿ √1.4674 ¿

Im

√
2
2
γ=
4
(π)
I m

γ=1.211
 This indicates that the ripple factor contents in the
output are 1.211 times the A.C component i.e. 1.211% of D.C
component.
 Ripple Factor of half-wave is very high, which indicates that the
half-wave circuit is for converter of a.c to d.c.
Peak Inverse Voltage PIV:-
The peak Inverse Voltage is the peak voltage across the
diode in the Reverse direction i.e. when the diode is reverse biased.
In the half wave rectifier, the load current is ideally
zero. When the diode is reverse biased. Hence the maximum value of the
voltage that can be exist across the diode is nothing but Esm.

Esm
I=0

PIV of diode=Esm=Maximum value of secondary voltage.

PIV=> E DC . π ¿ I DC =0

This is called PIV rating of the diode.

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):-
The Factor which indicates how much is the utility of
the transformer in the circuit is called T.U.F.
Def: - T.U.F is defined as the ratio of d.c power delivered to
the load to the a.c power rating of the transformer.
A.C power rating of transformer =ERMS.IRMS
E Im
=> √Sm
2
.
2

E .I
=> 2Sm√2 m

D.C power delivered to the load=Idc2RL

( )
2
Im
= π
RL

T.U.F=
D .C power delivered ¿ t h e load ¿
A .C power rating of t h e transformer

(( ) )
2
Im
RL
π
T.U.F=
ESm I m
2 √2

Where Esm=ImRL by neglecting Rf and Rs.

I 2m
∗R L .2 √2
:. T.U.F => π2
=¿ √2 =0.287
2 2
2
I m RL π

NOTE: The value of T.U.F is low, which shows that in half-wave

circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
Voltage Regulation:-
The voltage regulation is the factor, which tells us about the
change in the d.c output voltage as load change from no load to full load
condition.
( V dc ) N −( V dc ) F
Voltage Regulation: L

( V dc ) F
L

If ( V dc ) N =D.C voltage on no load.

L

( V dc ) F =D.C voltage on full load.

L

ESm
( V dc ) N =
L
π

I E Sm
( V dc ) F =Idc.RL= m ∗R L= ∗R L
L
π π [ R f + RS + R L ]

E Sm E Sm RL
− .
π π [ R f + R S+ R L ]
%Regulation=> E Sm RL
∗100
.
π R f + R S+ R L

RL
1−
Rf + RS+ RL Rf + RS
=> RL = RL
∗100

Rf + R S + R L

:. Neglecting the winding resistance

Rf
%R= RL
∗100
 Note: Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the
performance of rectifier circuit.
Im
RMS value 2
Form Factor:- Form Factor=> Average Value =I
m
π

π
=> 2 =>1.57
Im
Peak Value
Peak Factor:- R . M . S va lue => m =2
I
2

Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier Circuit:-

(1.) The Ripple factor of half wave rectifier circuit is 1.21, which is
quite high. The output contains lot of varying components.
(2.) The maximum theoretical rectifier efficiency is found to be 40.6%,
the practical value will be less than this. This indicates that half
wave rectifier circuit is quite in efficient.
(3.) The circuit has low transformer utilization factor showing the
transformer is not fully utilized.
Note: Because of all these disadvantages, half-wave rectifier circuit is
normally not used as a power rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier:-
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and
negative half cycles of input a.c supply.
 In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c input, two diodes are used
in this circuit.

Operation:-
During the positive half of time of the input signal, a node of
the diode D1 becomes positive and at the same times the node of diode
D2 does not conduct, the load current flows through D1 and the voltage
drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
 During the negative half cycle of the input, the node of diode D 1
becomes negative and the node of D 2 becomes positive. Hence, D1
does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through
D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.

← Reverse biased

Current flow during positive half cycle Current flow during negative half cycle
Output wave forms: -

E Sm Secondary voltage
D1 on D2 on D1 on D1 off
D2 off D1 off D2 off D2 on

Id 1

Im

Id 2

iL
Im

eL
Em

Maximum Load current:-

Rf=Forward Resistance of diode
RS=Winding resistance of each half of secondary
RL=Load resistance
 eS=Instantaneous a.c voltage across each half of secondary
eS=ESmsinwt
ESm
Im= Rf + RS+ RL

Im=Maximum value of load current iL

Average D.C load current (IDC):-
Imsinwt -Imsinwt
↓ ↓

π 2π

Consider one cycle of load current i L from 0 to 2 π to obtain the

average value which is d.c value of load current.
iL=Imsinwt 0≤wt≤ π
iL=-imsinwt; π ≤wt≤2 π
2π
1
Iav=Idc= 2 π ∫ i L d (wt )
0

[∫ ]
π 2π
1
¿ I m sinwt d ( wt )+ ∫ −I m sinwt d ( wt )
2π 0 π

[∫ ]
π 2π
I
= 2 mπ sinwt d ( wt )−∫ sinwt d ( wt )
0 π

I
= 2 mπ [ (−coswt )π0 −(−coswt )2π π ]

I
= 2 mπ [-cos π +cos0+cos2 π -cos π ]

I
= 2 mπ [-(-1)+1+1-(-1)]
 4 Im 2Im
2π
=> π

2Im
:.Idc= π

Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-

2Im
EDC=IDC*RL= π
∗R L

Substituting the value of Im

2 E Sm R L
EDC= π [ R + R + R ]
f S L

2 E Sm
=π
[ 1+
Rf + RS
RL ]
Rf + RS
But as Rf and RS<<RL hence RL
<<1

2 E Sm
:. EDC= π

RMS load current (IRMS):-

√
π
1
IRMS= ∫ i2 d (wt )
2π 0 L

√
π
2
IRMS= ∫
2

2π 0
[ I m sinwt ] d (wt )

√ [ ]
π
1 1−cos 2 wt
=I m ∫
π 0 2
d (wt )

√ [ ( )]
π
1 ( )π sin 2 wt
=I m 2π
wt 0 −
2 0
 √ 1 Im
=I m 2π
( π )=>
√2
I
:. I RMS=¿ √m2

DC power output:-
P DC= I 2dc R L

( )
2
2Im
= π
∗R L

4 2
P DC= I ∗R L
2 m
π

Substituting the value of Im we get

2
4 ( ESm )
:. P DC= ∗R L
π [ R f + RS + R L ]
2

DC power input (PAC):-

P AC = I 2RMS [ Rf + R S + R L ]

( )[
2
Im
= R f + R S + R L]
√2
I m [ R f + RS + R L ]
2
P AC =
2

:. Substituting the value of Im we get

2
( E Sm )
∗1
P AC = [ R + R + R ]2
f S L

2
[ Rf + RS + R L ]
 2
ESm
:. P AC = 2 R + R + R
[ f S L]

Rectifier Efficiency:-
4 2
I R
2 m L
P DC output π
ή= P input = I 2 [ R + R + R ]
AC m f S L
2

8 RL
ή= π 2 [ R + R + R ]
f S L

But Rf+RS<<RL, neglecting it from the denominator.

8 RL
ή= 2
π RL

8
=π2

8
:.% Lmax = π 2 ∗100=81.2%

Ripple Factor:-

Ripple Factor=
√( I DC )
I rms 2
−1

Im 2 Im
I rms =
√2
and I DC =
π
 √[ ]
2

( )
Im
γ= √2
2Im √
−1=
π2
8
−1

:. Ripple factor = γ = 0.48

:. This indicates that the ripple contents in the output
are 48% of the d.c. which it much less than that for the half wave circuit.
Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):-
PIV of diode=2ESm
= π EDC
:. When the diode drop is considered

PIV=2ESm-0.7

Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F):-

Secondary T.U.F=
D .C power ¿ t h e load ¿
A . C power rating of secondary
2
I R
=> E DC. I L
RMS RMS

( )
2
2Im
RL
π
= E Sm
∗I m
√2
√2

 Neglecting forward resistance Rf of diode

ESm=ImRL
 4 2
2
∗I m R L
π 8
Secondary T.U.F= I 2 R = π 2 =0.812
m L
2

T.U.F for primary winding= 2*T.U.F of half wave circuit

=2*0.287=0.574
The average T.U.F for full wave circuit will be
T . U . F of primary+T .U . F of secondary
 2

0.574+ 0.812
(T.U.F)avg=> 2

=0.693
:. Avg T.U.F for Full-Wave Rectifier=0.693

Voltage Regulation:-
( V dc ) N −( V dc ) F
%R= ( V ) L L

dc F L

Rf
%R= R ∗100
L

The regulation characteristics are drooping, as dismissed.

Earlier, in case of half-wave rectifier as output voltage decreases as load
increased from no load to full-load.
RMS value of t h e output voltage
Form Factor:- Avg value of t h e output voltage
 Vm

=> 2√V
2
m
π

π
= 2 √2

=1.11
Peak value of t h e output voltage
Peak Factor:- rms value of t h e output voltage

Im
= √2
=> Im
√2

Comparison of Half-Wave and Full-Wave circuit:-

 The d.c load current in case of full wave circuit is twice to the half-
wave circuit.
The d.c load voltage is twice that in half-wave circuit.
 The efficiency of rectification in full-wave is twice that of half-
wave connection.
 The ripple factor is less for full wave.
Bridge Rectifier Circuit:-

D1
D4

D2 +
 D3 E DC RL

The bridge rectifier circuits are mainly used as,

(a.) A power rectifier circuit for connecting a.c power to d.c power.
(b.) A rectifying system in rectifier type. ac meters, such as ac
voltmeters, in which the ac volt under measurement is first
converted into d.c and measured with conventional meter.
Operation of circuit:-(Bridge Rectifier)
For the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D 1
and D2 conduct, where as diodes D3 and D4 do not conduct. The
conducting diodes will be series through the load resister R L. So the
load current flows through RL.
 During the negative half-cycle, diodes D3 and D4 conduct. The
diodes D1and D2 do not conduct. The conducting diodes D 3 and D4
will be in series through the load R L and the current flows through
RL in the same direction as in the previous half-cycle.
 Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional one.
Expression for various parameters:-
2 Im
:. The maximum DC load current I DC =
π

Im
I RMS =
√2

:. Total resistance offered=2Rf+RL+RS

E Sm
Maximum value of load current (Im)= 2 R + R + RL
f S
 2 E Sm
EDC= I DC RL = π

4 2
PDC= I 2DC RL= π 2 I m R L

I m [ 2 Rf + R S + R L ]
2

PAC= I 2RMS [ 2 R f + R S + R L ] = 2

8 RL
ή= π [ 2 Rf + R S + R L ]
2

%ήmax=81.2% ; γ=0.48=ripple factor.

Advantages of Bridge Rectifier Circuit:-
 The bulking centre-tapped transformer is not required.
 Transformer utilization factor is considerably high.

Comparison of rectifier circuits:-

Parameter Half-Wave Full-Wave Bridge
S.No
1. No. Of diodes 1 2 4
2. Average DC Im 2Im 2Im
Current ( I DC ) π π π

3. Average DC ESm 2 E Sm 2 E Sm
Voltage ( E DC ¿ π π π

4. RMS Current( Im Im Im
I RMS ¿ 2 √2 √2
5. Maximum 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Efficiency(ή)
 6. Ripple Factor(γ) 1.21 0.482 0.482

7. PIV rating of E Sm 2 E Sm E Sm
diode
8. Maximum Load ESm ESm E Sm
Current Rf + RS+ RL Rf + RS+ RL 2 Rf + RS+ RL

Inductor Filter:-
When the output of the rectifier passes through an inductor, it
blocks the ac component and allows only the dc component to reach
the load.

v0

Full-wave rectifier output

ac component

Inductor Filter v dc

It shows that the ripple factor will decrease when L is increased

and RL is decreased. Clearly inductor filter is more effective only when
the load current is high. The large value of inductor reduce the ripple
and at the same time, the output dc voltage will be lowered as the
inductor has a higher dc resistance.
To analyze this filter for a full wave Fourier series.
 2Vm 4Vm
V 0=
π
- π
¿

2V m
The dc component is π

Assuming the 3rd and higher terms contribute little output.

2V m 4Vm
So output voltage V 0= π
- π
cos2wt

The diode, choke and transformer resistance can be neglected since

they are very small as compared with RL.
Vm
:. DC component of current I m= R
L

The importance of series combinations of L and RL at 2w is

Z=√ R2L + ( 2 wL )2=√ R2L +4 w2 L2
:. Then the a.c component
Vm
I m=
√R +4 w
2
L
2
L
2

:. The resulting current i is given by

2V m 4 V m cos ⁡(2 wt−ø )
i= πR - .
3 π √ R 2L + 4 w 2 L2
L

Where ø= tan
−1
( 2RwL )
L

:. The ripple factor, ratio of rms value of the ripple to the dc value
of the wave.
4Vm
1
3 π √ 2 √ R2L +4 w2 L2

√
2
Ѓ= 2Vm
= 3 √2 * 1+
4 w 2 L2
2
RL
π RL
 2 2
4w L
If 2
RL
>>1, then a simplified expression is

R
Ѓ = 3 √2LwL

In a case load resistance is infinite, i.e. output is as open circuit then

ripple factor is
2
Ѓ= 3√2 =0.471

:. It is slightly less than the value of 0.482

 It is clear that inductor filter should be used only where R L is
consistently small.

Capacitor Filter:-

vm

The property of a capacitor is that, it allow a.c component and

blocks the d.c component. The operation of capacitor filter is to short the
ripple to ground but leave the d.c to appear at the output when it is
connected across a pulsating d.c voltage.
 For Positive half-Cycle, the capacitor charges up to peak value V m.
And will try to maintain this value as the full-wave input drops to
zero. The capacitor will discharge through R L slowly until the
secondary voltage again increases.
The ripple voltage wave fn can be assumed as
triangular.
The charge it has acquired=V V P−P∗C 1

= I dc∗T 2
:. VV 1 P−P ∗C = I dc∗T 2
If value of capacitor is large, the value of load resister is very
large then T2 is equal to half of periodic time of wave form.
T 1 I dc
= 2 = 2 f then V V P −P= 2 f
1
c

:. The ripple wave form will be triangular, So the rms value of

ripple given by.
VV P −P
VV rms =¿ 1

2 √3
1

:. The above equation, we have

I dc
VV 1 rms = 4 √3 f
c

I dc V dc
= 4 √3 f RL
, Since I dc= R
c L

VV rms 1
Ѓ= 1

V dc
=
4 √3 f c R L
 1
Ѓ= 4 √3 f c R L

The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or R L (or both)

with a resulting increase in d.c output voltage.
Filter Circuits:-
The output of a rectifier contains d.c component as well as
a.c component filters are used to minimize the desirable a.c, i.e ripple
leaving only d.c component to appear at the output.
L-section Filter or LC Filter:-

1
XC=
2 wC

RB RL
R= R B∨¿ R L= R
B+ RL

e ¿ =ESm ¿

e¿ can be approximated as

e ¿≈ E Sm [ 2
−
π 3π
4
cos 2 wt
]
The d.c current in the circuit will be
2
E
π Sm
I DC =
RX + R
 R=RB||RL
2 E Sm
Edc across the load=Idc R= π R X+ R
*R

2 E Sm Edc (¿)
Edc(out)= π 1+ R X = 1+
RX
R R

Normally, RX is much less than R1 i.e. RX<<R.

2
Edc ≈ π ESm ≈ Edc

:. The second harmonic voltage across the load.

1 1
E2m=I2m*[ 2 wc ∨¿ K ¿≈ I2m* 2 wc
1
Since, 2 wc << R
4
1 E 1
E2m=I2m* 2 wc = 3 π Sm * 2 wc
2 wL

4 E Sm E Sm
E2m= 3 π 4 w LC
2 = 3 π w 2 LC

E E Sm
E2rms= √22m = 3
√2 π w2 LC
E2 rms
Ripple factor= E
DC

1
E Sm 2 ESm
=> 3 √ 2 π w LC
2 * π R
1+ X
R
 1 RX
=> 6 w LC √ 2
2
( 1+ )
R

1
Ripple Factor≈ 6 √2 w 2 LC

CLC Filter or π−Filter :−¿

:. This is a capacitor input filter followed by a L-
section filter. This ripple rejection capability of π filter is very good.

∴The output voltage is given by

Vr
Edc=ESm- 2
−¿IdcRX

Vr=Peak to peak ripple voltage

RX=d.c resistance of choke.
Ripple factor:-
√2∗X c ∗X c 1
Ripple Factor= 1

X L RL
2
Xc =
1
2 w c1
 XL=2wL

Ripple Factor=
√2 ( 1
(
)1
2 w c1 2 w c 2
)

( 2 wL ) (R L )

√2
γ= 3
8 w LC 1 C 2 R L

VOLTAGE REGULATORS
In an unregistered power supply, the output voltage changes
whenever the input voltage or load changes. An ideal regulated power
supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide a predetermined d.c
voltage V0, which is independent of the load current and variations in the
input voltage.
 A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit, that provides a stable
d.c voltage independent of the load current, temperature and a.c
line voltage variations.
Line Regulation (OR):- Source Regulation(SR):-
The source regulation is defined as the change in the regulated load
voltage for a specified range of line voltage, typically
230V±10%
Mathematically it is expressed as,
SR=VHL-VLL
Where VHL= Load Voltage with high line voltage
VLL=Load Voltage with low line voltage
The percentage source regulation is defined as
 SR
%SR= V nom∗100

Vnom=Normal load Voltage.

Load Regulation:-
The Load regulation is the change in the
regulated output voltage, when load current is changed from no load
(minimum) to full-load (maximum).
V no load−V full lo ad
Load Regulation= V no load

(or)
V no load−V full load
Load Regulation= V full load

Zener-Diode as a Regulator:-
In a regulator using zener diode, the zener
diode is operated in the break down condition where the voltage across
zener is nearly constant, inspite of changes in the zener current. So it can
be used to regulate the voltage with varying input voltage or varying
load conditions.
Regulation with a varying input voltage:-
 This figure shows how a zener diode can be used to regulate a
varying input voltage, commonly known as Line regulation.
As the input voltage varies, IZ also varies accordingly
but the zener diode maintains constant voltage across the output
terminals over the certain range. There limitations on the input
variations are set by the minimum and maximum current values
with which the zener can operate.
For example, if I Z min=5mt, I Z max=50mt, VZ=6.8V
And the current limiting resistance R is the 1KΩ then
For minimum current,
Voltage across R=VR=5mA*1KΩ=5V
Since VR=VIN-VZ then
Vin=VR+VZ=5V+6.8V=11.8V
For maximum current,
Voltage across R=VR=50mA*1KΩ=50V
:. Vin=50V+6.8V=56.8V
This shows that zener diode used in this
circuit can regulate an input voltage from 11.8V to 56.8V and
maintains an approximate 6.8V output.

Regulation with a Varying Load:-

---> It shows a Zener regulator with a variable load resistance. This is
also refined as load-regulation.
--->The Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across RL as long as
the Zener current is greater than I Z minn and less than I Z max. When the load
current varies, the zener diode current adjusts itself so that its terminal
voltage remains constant.
For example, if I Z min=5mt, I Z maxx=50mt, Vz=10md, Vin=20V
then at no load RL=∞ and IL=0.
:. To limit maximum current to 50mt( I Z maxx)
V ¿−V Z 20V −10 V
R(min)= I Zmax
= 50 mA =200Ω

As you know I Z m∈ ¿¿=5mA, the maximum load current is

45mA (50-5). This shows that the zener diode in this circuit can
maintain output voltage constant for load current from 0mA to 45mA.
Vin min= Minimum value of input voltage.
Vin max= Maximum value of input voltage.
IL max= Maximum value of load current.
IL min= Minimum value of load current.
IZ max= Maximum value of zener current.
IZ min= Minimum value of zener current.
VD=VZ=output voltage.
Design of Zener Regulator with varying load and varying input
conditions:-
 Let us see the design of zener regulator with varying
load as well as varying input conditions.
The limiting values series resistance R for a given zener
can be obtained as.
V ¿ min −V z V ¿ min−V 0
Rmax= I = -------->(1)
Lmax + I Z min I Lmax + I Z min

V ¿ max−V z V ¿ max−V 0
Rmin= =
I Lmin + I Z max I Lmin + I Z max
------>(2)

For any value of R between Rmax and Rmin, the circuit

works successfully as a regulator.
If load current or input voltage is constant value and not
varying then it’s both maximum and minimum values must be treated
As its constant value in the above equations. To obtain Rmax and Rmin.
The IL min is generally treated as zero.
----> To satisfy the equations (1) and (2) , proper zener diode
having Iz min and Iz max values which can satisfy the required load
conditions, must be used in the circuit.

PROBLEMS ON RECTIFIERS AND REGULATORS

(a.) A 230V, 60Hz voltage is applied to the primary of 5:1 step
down, center –tap transformer used in a full-wave rectifier
having a load of 900Ω. If the diode resistance and secondary
will resistance together the load.
(b.) D.C current flowing through the load.
 (c.) D.C power delivered to the load.
(d.) PIV across each diode
(e.) Ripple Voltage and its frequency.
230
Ans:- The voltage across the two ends of secondary= 5
=46 V

46
Voltage from center tapping to one end Vrms= 2 =23 V
2V m 2∗23∗√ 2
(a.) D.C voltage across the load Vdc= π
= π =20.7V
V dc
(b.) D.C current flowing through the load, Idc= R + R + R
S f L

20.7
¿> =20.7 mA
1000
(c.) D.C power delivered to the load.
Pdc=(Idc)2*RL=(20.7*10-3)2*900=0.386w
(d.) PIV across each diode =2Vm=2*23*√ 2=65V
(e.) Ripple Voltage VV1 rms=√(V ¿ ¿ rms)2 −(V ¿¿ dc )2 ¿ ¿
=√(23)2−(20.7)2=10.05V
Frequency of ripple voltage=2*60=120Hz.
(2.) A full-wave rectifier has a center-tap transformer of 100-0-100V and
each one of the diode is rated at Imax=400mA and Iav=150mA. Neglecting
the voltage drop across the diodes, determine
(a.) The value of load resistor that gives the largest d.c power output
(b.) D.C load voltage and current and
(c.) PIV of each diode.
Ans:- We know that the maximum value of current flowing through the
diode for normal operation should not exceed 80% of its rated current.
:. Imax=0.5*400=320mA
 The maximum value of the secondary voltage
Vm=√ 2*100=141.4V
Therefore, the value of the load resistor that gives the largest
d.c power output.
Vm 141.4
(a.) RL= I =
320∗10
−3 =492Ω
max

2V m 2∗141.4
(b.) D.C (load) voltage, Vdc= π
= π =90V
V dc 90
D.C load current Idc= R = 442 =0.204A
L

(c.) PIV of each diode=2Vm=2*141.4=282.8V

(2.) Design a Zener-shunt Voltage regulator with the following

specifications.
V0=10V, Vin=20-30V; IL= (30-50) mA; IZ= (20-40) mA
Ans:- Selection of Zener diode
VZ=V0=10V
IZ max=40mA
PZ=VZ*IZ max=10*40*10-3=0.4w
Hence a 0.5Z 10 Zener can be selected.
Value of load resistance, RL
V0 10
RL min= I = 50∗10−3 =200Ω
Lmin

V0 10
RL max= I Lmax
= 30∗10−3 =333Ω
 Value of Load resistance, R
V ¿ (max )−V 0
Rmax= I + I Z(max )
Lmin

30−10
= ( 30+40 )∗10−3 =286 Ω

V ¿ (min )−V 0
Rmin= I + I Z(min)
Lmax

20−10
= ( 50+20 )∗10−3 =143 Ω

R max + R min
:. Therefore, R= 2
=215Ω