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 Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Gondwana Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr

India–Madagascar paleo-fit based on flexural isostasy of their

rifted margins
R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar a,⁎, C. Ishwar-Kumar a, B.F. Windley b, T. Razakamanana c, Rajesh R. Nair d, K. Sajeev a
a
Centre for Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
b
Department of Geology, The University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
c
Département de Sciences Naturelles, Université de Toliara, Toliara, Madagascar
d
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study contributes new constraints on, and definitions of, the reconstructed plate margins of India and
Received 24 February 2014 Madagascar based on flexural isostasy along the Western Continental Margin of India (WCMI) and the Eastern
Received in revised form 2 June 2014 Continental Margin of Madagascar (ECMM). We have estimated the nature of isostasy and crustal geometry
Accepted 10 June 2014
along the two margins, and have examined their possible conjugate structure. Here we utilize elastic thickness
Available online 11 July 2014
(Te) and Moho depth data as the primary basis for the correlation of these passive margins. We employ the flex-
Handling Editor: A.R.A. Aitken ure inversion technique that operates in spatial domain in order to estimate the spatial variation of effective elas-
tic thickness. Gravity inversion and flexure inversion techniques are used to estimate the configuration of the
Keywords: Moho/Crust–Mantle Interface that reveals regional correlations with the elastic thickness variations. These re-
Continental margin sults correlate well with the continental and oceanic segments of the Indian and African plates. The present
Isostasy study has found a linear zone of anomalously low-Te (1–5 km) along the WCMI (~1680 km), which correlates
Effective elastic thickness well with the low-Te patterns obtained all along the ECMM. We suggest that the low-Te zones along the
Moho WCMI and ECMM represent paleo-rift inception points of lithosphere thermally and mechanically weakened
Lithosphere
by the combined effects of the Marion hotspot and lithospheric extension due to rifting. We have produced an
India–Madagascar paleo-fit representing the initial phase of separation based on the Te estimates of the rifted
conjugate margins, which is confirmed by a close-fit correlation of Moho geometry and bathymetry of the
shelf margins. The matching of tectonic lineaments, lithologies and geochronological belts between India and
Madagascar provide an additional support for the present plate reconstruction.
© 2014 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Gussinyé and Watts, 2005) and Australia (Simons and van der Hilst,
2002), but most studies concluded that the age of the lithosphere is not
The temporal evolution and spatial configuration of continents can be the only controlling parameter for determining its mechanical strength.
analyzed through their response to long-term forces, as a function of the Many studies correlated elastic thickness variations with different factors
elastic property of the lithosphere, which is parameterized as effective including “sandwich” deformation (decoupling) when a weak ductile
elastic thickness (Te). The Te method has been widely used as a key layer in the lower crust does not allow bending stresses to be transferred
proxy to examine the long-term strength/rigidity structure of the litho- between strong brittle layers (Burov and Diament, 1995;
sphere. It can be parameterized through flexural rigidity, D ≡ E · Te3 / Ratheesh-Kumar et al., 2014), “frozen” deformation controlled by lattice-
12(1 − ν2), which is a measure of the resistance of the lithosphere to flex- preferred orientation of olivine as result of increased melt production
ure in response to loading (Watts, 2001), where Young's modulus, E within the upper mantle (Simons et al., 2003; Pérez-Gussinyé et al.,
(1011 Pa), and Poisson's ratio, ν (0.25), are the material properties. The 2009), localized brittle failure of crustal rocks under deviatoric stress
elastic thickness in oceanic regions has values between 0 and 65 km that (Lowry and Smith, 1995; Tassara et al., 2007; Ratheesh Kumar et al.,
approximately correspond to the depth of the 450 °C isotherm (Watts, 2010; Nair et al., 2011; Ratheesh Kumar et al., 2013), and surface and sub-
1992). In contrast, the continents exhibit a Te range as high as 80+ km surface loading by large-scale tectonic features such as topographic masses
in stable regions (Watts and Burov, 2003), and as low as ~5 km in young and regional-scale faults (Audet and Mareschal, 2004).
and tectonically rejuvenated regions (Watts, 2001). A possible correlation In the present study, we aim to appraise spatial variations of
between Te and the age of the lithosphere was studied in Europe (Pérez- elastic thickness along the conjugate passive margins of India and
Madagascar (Fig. 1) (the Western Continental Margin of India (WCMI)
⁎ Corresponding author. and the Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar (ECMM)). The
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar). major objective is to understand how the nature of isostasy varies

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.008
1342-937X/© 2014 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
582 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Fig. 1. Tectonic setting of the western Indian Ocean superimposed on a GEBCO (1 × 1 min grid) bathymetry map. The windows (a) and (b) represent the selected areas over the Western
Continental Margin of India and Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar respectively. Acronyms: KuB — Kutch Basin, SaB — Saurashtra Basin, BB — Bombay Basin, KoB — Konkan Basin,
KeB — Kerala Basin.

along these margins, and to find any possible conjugate correlation applied flexural back-stripping and gravity modeling techniques to calcu-
between them. The present study can be regarded as a significant up- late the gravity anomaly associated with rifting and sedimentation along
grade of the previous approach of Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003), the eastern continental margin of the USA. They iteratively compared
which used Te estimates to examine the conjugate nature of India– the calculated gravity anomaly to the observed free-air gravity
Madagascar passive margins. The significance of our study relies on anomaly to derive a best-fit Te structure that shows a significant variation
the fact that for the first time it brings together the spatial variations of 0 b Te b 40 km, which they attributed to strength variation in the rifted
of elastic thickness and the Moho configuration in the WCMI and the lithosphere. Several studies revealed crustal thinning and depth of neck-
ECMM. In contrast to other geophysical investigations that used seismic, ing as appropriate parameters to predict the flexural response of litho-
gravity and bathymetry data to constrain the geometry/structure of the spheric stretching (Braun and Beaumont, 1989; Fourno and Roussel,
passive margins, by using Te variations the present study effectively 1994; Ratheesh Kumar et al., 2011). Ratheesh Kumar et al. (2011) used
maps the lithospheric deformations in the major tectonic structures the orthonormalized Hermite multitaper method to estimate Te along
along the WCMI and ECMM. the northeastern passive margin of North America, and suggested that
Previous studies of Te of passive margins in the world have shown low-Te values were indicative of the passive nature of the margin when
variable results. Stern and Brink (1989) estimated a Te of ~19 km in the loads were emplaced during the continental break-up process at high-
Ross Sea where rifting occurred at about 60 Ma, whereas in the Valencia temperature gradients. Chand et al. (2001) examined the cross-spectral
trough where there is a comparatively young rift age of 20 Ma, elastic correlation between gravity and bathymetry along 1D profiles across
thickness estimates are ~ 5 km (Watts and Torné, 1992). Daly et al. the Eastern Continental Margin of India (ECMI) and its conjugate
(2004) computed the elastic thickness of the Irish Atlantic margin using East Antarctica margin. They obtained Te ~ 10–25 km and Te b 5 km
a multitaper coherence method between scaled bathymetry and Bouguer over the northern and southern segments of the ECMI, and suggested
gravity and obtained Te values of ~6–18 km. Wyer and Watts (2006) their possible match with the Te data of the corresponding congruent
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 583

segments of the East Antarctica margin. Subrahmanyam and Chand (7–8 km) of Indus fan origin (Zutshi et al., 1995). South of the Vengurla
(2006) re-examined gravity and topography/bathymetry data over arch (15°46′13″N, 73°40′48″E) (Fig. 1) the shelf is narrow (b100 km)
India and the adjoining oceans, and suggested that ECMI evolved in a and characterized by 3–4 km-thick sediments that are mainly derived
shear tectonic setting, and was similar to its conjugate half in East from denudation of the Western Ghats and concentrated in small, local-
Antarctica. ized depressions (Zutshi et al., 1995). The offshore shelf basins can be
There have been few noted studies on the continental margins of regionally classified into three: northern Kutch and Saurashtra
India and Madagascar using different techniques of Te in spectral do- basins, central Bombay basin, and southern Konkan and Kerala basins
main. Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003) estimated Te of the WCMI (Fig. 1). To the west of the shelf margin the transitional crust is
and the ECMM through cross-spectral analysis of gravity and bathyme- restricted by the Kori–Comorin ridge, a typical longitudinal ridge identi-
try data by comparing the Te results of 8–15 km for the WCMI and 10– fied close to the foot of the continental slope along the western
13 km for ECMM of the conjugate margins. Sheena et al. (2007) continental margin, which could possibly be the ocean–continent
employed rectangular blocks for a coherence analysis along the Konkan boundary (Biswas, 1987, 1988). The western margin of India is
and Kerala basins of the WCMI, which revealed a variation of lithospher- geomorphologically similar to other rifted continental margins like
ic strength of 5 to 10 km. Chaubey et al. (2008) derived Te using admit- Parana of Brazil, Karoo in southeast Africa, and Etendeka in southwest
tance (cross-spectral) analysis between 12 gravity and bathymetry Africa (Widdowson, 1997).
profiles across the Laccadive Ridge, and obtained low-Te (2–3 km) The northern segment of the WCMI is occupied by plume-generated
values, which they attributed to the local compensation of stretched flood basalts of the Deccan Traps (Beane et al., 1986) that have a maxi-
continental lithosphere. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. (2014) derived spatial mum thickness of N 3 km, and which migrated southwards during the
variations of the elastic thickness structure of the Indian Shield and ad- plume activity (Jay and Widdowson, 2008). Trace element geochemical
joining regions using a fan wavelet-based Bouguer coherence tech- data indicate increasing degrees of partial melting from north to south
nique. Their Te map showed zones of significantly low-Te along the (Peng and Mahoney, 1995); the shallower and higher degrees of melt-
western margin of the Indian Shield, which they attributed to rifting ing in the south were explained by Anil Kumar et al. (2001) as the result
of the margin. of lithospheric thinning, which would be consistent with the progres-
In the present study, we have employed a thin plate flexure sive southward opening of the India–Madagascar rift. The Deccan
model (Braitenberg et al., 2002, 2006), which is an alternative to the Traps started to erupt at about 65 Ma ago from the Réunion hotspot
widely used calculation of admittance/coherence of topography and (Courtillot et al., 2003).
gravity. Our analysis is based on the convolution method that models
surface and subsurface loads with the point load response function 2.2. The Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar
of an elastic plate in spatial domain. We have used Bouguer gravity
and bathymetry/topography to estimate the spatial variation of the ef- The Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar (ECMM) has a nar-
fective elastic thickness and the Moho configuration in the Western row coastal plain marked by NNE/SSW-striking Cenozoic normal faults
Continental Margin of India and the Eastern Continental Margin of that impart a remarkable, strong linearity to the coastline. Cretaceous
Madagascar. basalts and minor rhyolites (ca. 88 Ma) are prominent all along the
ECMM (Storey et al., 1997); these coastal rift volcanic rocks and central
2. Study region: tectonic setting flood basalts formed within a short period between 92 and 84 Ma
(Melluso et al., 2001). Swarms of coast-parallel dolerite dykes that
The past position and morphological relationship of India relative have K–Ar ages ranging from 97 to 89 Ma (Storetvedt et al., 1992) in-
to Madagascar is one of the most debated, current problems of the truded during Early Cretaceous rifting along the NE coast of
tectonics of eastern Gondwana (e.g., Katz and Premoli, 1979; Madagascar (Bauer et al., 2011). Apatite fission track data suggest that
Collins and Windley, 2002; Braun and Kriegsman, 2003; Ghosh some escarpments on the eastern coast date from the time of rifting
et al., 2004; Collins and Pisarevsky, 2005; Collins, 2006; Ashwal with India (Seward et al., 1999).
et al., 2013; Gibbons et al., 2013; Ishwar-Kumar et al., 2013; Rekha The geochemical signatures of the eastern coast basalts reflect their
et al., 2013). The breakup of East Gondwana started with the simul- different mantle source regions as the rift with India opened from north
taneous rifting of Madagascar, Seychelles, India, Antarctica and to south (Storey et al., 1997; Melluso et al., 2001, 2002). On the north-
Australia from Africa at ca. 150 Ma. Then, Madagascar, Seychelles eastern coast low-Ti basalts are similar to the low-Ti flood basalts of
and India separated together from Antarctica and Australia at about the Deccan Traps on the opposite northwestern coast of India. To the
128–130 Ma (Biswas, 1999). At ca. 90 Ma India and Seychelles fur- south along the central coast of Madagascar basalt geochemistry is
ther rifted from Madagascar, and at about 65 Ma India separated dominated by an Indian Ocean-type MOR-source mixed with a compo-
from Seychelles (Pande et al., 2001). The history of the position and nent of old continental mantle lithosphere (Mahoney et al., 2008). On
movement of India after rifting from Madagascar was long and the southeast coast, high Fe–Ti basalts are similar to those on the East
eventful. Geophysical data suggest that the Indian plate continually Greenland volcanic rift margin, and Nd, Pb and Sr isotopic data indicate
drifted northwards after its separation from Africa in the Late Juras- a significant Marion hotspot plume component (de Wit, 2003). Paleo-
sic to finally collide with Eurasia at about 55 Ma (Yin and Harrison, magnetic data from the basalts combined with magnetic anomalies
2000). The oldest seafloor anomaly recognized is 34 (83 Ma), and fracture zones of the Indian Ocean provide strong evidence
which means that the onset of seafloor spreading occurred sometime that the Marion hotspot was situated within 100 km of southern
during the Cretaceous Quiet Zone (120–83 Ma). The fragmentation Madagascar when it separated from the Seychelles–India continent at
took place in three stages: doming, rifting and drifting. According about 90–88 Ma (Storey et al., 1997; Torsvik et al., 1998; Reeves and
to Storey et al. (1995) the Marion hotspot initiated the breakup of de Wit, 2000; Torsvik et al., 2000).
India and Madagascar at about 88 Ma, and resulted in the formation
of the Western Continental Margin of India and the Eastern Conti- 3. Data and method
nental Margin of Madagascar (Fig. 1).
Our study areas cover most of the Western Continental Margin of
2.1. The Western Continental Margin of India India and the Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar. The database
used for this study comprises gravity, bathymetry/topography and sed-
The Western Continental Margin of India (WCMI) is charac- iment thickness. The bathymetry data (Figs. 2a and 3a) were obtained
terized by a wide continental shelf (N300 km) and thick shelf sediments from GEBCO Digital 1-minute bathymetry data (National Oceanic and
584 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Fig. 2. (a) Bathymetry. (b) Bouguer gravity anomaly. (c) Sediment thickness. (d) Gravity effect of the sediments. (e) Sediment-corrected bathymetry (basement depth). (f) Sediment-
corrected gravity of the Western Continental Margin of India.

Atmospheric Administration, 2003). We merged the gravity data for the global marine gravity field from ERS-1 and GEOSAT geodetic mis-
land and ocean by using the land ocean deconvolution technique sion altimetry of Anderson and Knudsen (1998) and Anderson et al.
(Kirby and Swain, 2008). The free-air gravity data were derived from (2008). The free-air gravity anomaly data (ΔGf) was converted to
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 585

Fig. 3. (a) Bathymetry. (b) Bouguer gravity anomaly. (c) Sediment thickness. (d) Gravity effect of the sediments. (e) Sediment-corrected bathymetry (basement depth). (f) Sediment-
corrected gravity of the Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar.

Bouguer gravity anomalies (ΔGb) (Figs. 2b and 3b) using the slab for- where Δρ = 1670 kg·m−3 is the density contrast between surface rock
mula of Parker (1973): and water, H is the bathymetry (in meters) and G is the gravitational
constant.
We use the sediment thickness model (Figs. 2c and 3c) of
ΔGb ¼ ΔG f þ 2πΔρGH ð1Þ Divins (2003), which was compiled by the National Geophysical Data
586 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Centre (NGDC) of NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- where ρtop and ρlow represents the density values corresponding to the
tration), and has a resolution of 5 × 5 arc min. top (2.25 Mg/m3) and bottom (2.7 mg/m3) layers, hsed is the sediment
thickness, and hlow and htop represents the depth to the top and bottom
3.1. Flexure modeling in spatial domain (convolution method) layers respectively. The gravity effect is then calculated by subtracting
the density of the reference model from ρ(z). The obtained gravity effect
We adopt a methodology that operates in the spatial domain intro- of sediments (Figs. 2d and 3d) is then subtracted from the observed
duced by Braitenberg et al. (2006), which they successfully used in gravity to obtain the sediment-corrected gravity (Figs. 2f and 3f),
their analysis of the South China Sea Ridge. In this method, Moho depths which is used for the flexural modeling. In order to filter the input grav-
are first estimated from forward modeling of gravity anomalies; then, ity field, we defined a cut-off wavelength that suppresses all wave-
the lithosphere rigidity is inverted in order to retrieve isostatic Moho lengths smaller than 100 km. This sediment-corrected Bouguer gravity
depth undulations compatible with those previously obtained. field is then inverted by applying an iterative algorithm that alternates
In this method, we first model the Crust Mantle Interface/Moho downward continuation with direct forward modeling (Braitenberg
depth undulations, which contribute to the long wavelength part of et al., 1997). Thus, we obtained Moho undulations inverted from the
the observed gravity field, whereas the short wavelength part is gener- Bouguer gravity data.
ated by superficial masses viz., sediment layers or intra-crustal density The next modeling step is the flexure inversion, an independent
inhomogeneities. However, sometimes sedimentary basins can also means to determine the physical flexural model of Moho undulations,
produce long-wavelength signals. Hence, it is essential to estimate the and it allows the gravity-deduced Moho undulations to be checked for
gravity effect of sediments in isostatic flexure modeling. Furthermore, compatibility. The flexure is calculated by the convolution of the crustal
on a passive continental margin, large amounts of sediments will simply load (i.e., topographic and subsurface loads) with the point–load flexure
erase any signal of load-induced topography (i.e. flat topography is un- response curves (Braitenberg et al., 2002, 2003). In order to avoid sepa-
related to flexure). For these reasons we isolated the effect of sediments rate analyses and inversions on land and ocean areas, we scaled the
from the observed gravity and bathymetry to recover the basement sediment-corrected ocean bathymetry (h) to equivalent topography
structure. As an initial step, the base of the sediments was generated (h′) using the equation, h′ = (ρc − ρw)h / ρc, where ρc and ρw are the
by subtracting the sediment thickness from the bathymetry. The obtain- densities of crust and water, respectively. The equivalent topography
ed sediment corrected basement (Figs. 2e and 3e) will now represent represents the bathymetry that one would assume if there were no
the actual bathymetric features that are previously masked by the water present under isostatic conditions (Daly et al., 2004; Kirby and
thick sediment cover. A linear density variation with depth, ρ(z) is cal- Swain, 2008). Accordingly the derived equivalent topography for the
culated from the following expression. WCMI (Fig. 4a) and ECMM (Fig. 4b) are used in the present convolution
scheme. A series of flexural response functions are used in the convolu-
    tion to model the crust–mantle interface undulations, each correspond-
ρðzÞ ¼ ρtop þ ρlow −ρtop hsed = hlow −htop ð2Þ
ing to a Te value between 0 and 20 km. The spatial variation of Te is

Fig. 4. Equivalent topography map of the conjugate continental margins and adjoining oceanic terranes of India (a) and Madagascar (b) derived from sediment-corrected bathymetry.
Acronyms are given in Table 1.
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 587

calculated on sliding square windows of side length 100 km that shifted Table 2
every 20 km. The obtained Te value for a specific window is the one that Input parameters used in the flexural modeling.

minimizes the root mean square (rms) difference between the flexure Parameter Symbol Value
Moho and the observed Moho derived from the gravity inversion. The Mean crustal density ρc 2800 kg/m3
elastic model parameters used in the flexure analysis are given in Mantle density ρm 3300 kg/m3
Table 2. Density contrast in crust–mantle interface Δρ 450 kg/m3
Sea water density ρw 1030 kg/m3
Sediment density ρs 2250 kg/m3
3.2. Advantages and limitations
Reference depth of crust–mantle interface d 30 km
Young's modulus E 1011 N/m2
We now discuss possible concerns regarding the validity of the Poisson's ratio σ 0.25
present method and sensitivity of input parameters for inferring Te. Grid spacing dx, dy 20 km
We assumed a continuous-plate rather than broken-plate model for Grid size used for WCMI Lx, Ly 18° × 18°
Grid size used for ECMM Lx, Ly 17° × 17°
the present analyses. Braitenberg et al. (2002) tested the convolution
method in a synthetic model situation, and successfully used the contin-
uous plate model to recover the spatial variation of elastic thickness assuming that the present study regions are paleo-rift margins where
over the Eastern Alps. However, they observed some discrepant de- the continental and oceanic plates are expected to be very well coupled
crease in Te values in the main Alpine range, and explained it as the pos- and hence can be considered as a continuous plate, in which case the
sible result of recent tectonic forces acting at the border of two merging formalism assumes that we have only vertical loads with no horizontal
plates. Braitenberg et al. (2006) assumed a continuous plate model and stresses. In other words, the continuous-plate model assumes that there
demonstrated the use of the convolution method for the estimated spa- is no edge of chaos in the passive margin setting in contrast to an active
tial variation of Te in a mixed land–ocean setting in and around the rift or subduction zone setting, where two different plates will be
South China Sea. They derived the spatial variation of Te for the oceanic pushed/pulled from the side and a broken-plate model is likely more
lithosphere, and the included terrestrial parts are blanked in their re- applicable. Furthermore, we used equivalent topography (Fig. 4a and
sults. We follow the approach of Braitenberg et al. (2002, 2006) by b) rather than simple bathymetry, and that allows the land-loading
equations to be applied for a whole land–ocean setting (Pérez-
Table 1 Gussinyé et al., 2004). Kirby and Swain (2008) used scaling in their syn-
Acronyms of the litho-tectonic and structural units in the study area, in and around India thetic modeling and demonstrated its use in recovering Te in a mixed
and Madagascar. land–sea setting with a negligibly small bias. Recently, Jiménez-Díaza
Abbreviation Litho-tectonic and structural units et al. (2014) by using both multitaper and wavelet (Bouguer coherence)
India
methods in and around Central America successfully demonstrated that
WCMI Western Continental Margin of India Te can be better recovered in a mixed land–ocean setting when using
ASZ Achankoil Shear Zone the scaling (equivalent topography) and land-loading equations.
BB Bombay Basin The sensitivity of the model to input parameters (e.g. density con-
CB Coorg Block
trast within a plate) would be another complicating factor in the flexure
CSZ Chitradurga Shear Zone
DVP Deccan Volcanic Province modeling of a mixed land–ocean setting. In the absence of constraining
EDC Eastern Dharwar Craton data, we set a constant density contrast (Δρ) across the crust–mantle in-
KB Karwar Block terface (CMI). However, we tested the model sensitivity with different
KeB Kerala Basin combinations of density contrast (Δρ ~ 350–600 kg/m3) and reference
KoB Konkan Basin
KSZ Kumta Shear Zone
depth (d ~ 20–35 km) standard ranges of the CMI, and a best-fit Te is
LR Laxmi Ridge deduced from the minimum of root mean square (rms) error between
MB Madurai Block the observed and computed CMI. The best results (i.e., minimum rms)
MBR Midshelf Basement Ridge were obtained for the set of parameters Δρ ~ 450 kg/m3 and d ~ 30 km.
McSZ Mercara Shear Zone
Earlier Te estimates of comparable passive margins, such as the flex-
MeSZ Mettur Shear Zone
MSZ Moyar Shear Zone ural analyses of Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003), Sheena et al. (2007,
NB Nilgiri Block 2012), Tiwari et al. (2007), and Chaubey et al. (2008) were carried out in
NSZ Nallamalai Shear Zone spectral domain along a 1D profile or using some discrete windows of
PCSZ Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone variable size, but they could not produce the spatial variations necessary
PR Prathap Ridge
SASZ Salem Attur Shear Zone
for the effective elastic thickness (Te), which we consider a serious
SC Sedimentary Cover shortcoming. In contrast to the earlier studies, the thin plate flexure
TB Trivandrum Block model applied in the present study operates in the spatial domain (con-
WDC Western Dharwar Craton volution method), which has such a significant advantage over the spec-
Madagascar
tral methods that it overcomes the numerical instabilities in the
ECMM Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar
AB Antananarivo Block admittance/coherence calculations. The spatial variation is achieved by
AC Antongil Craton dividing the analysis area into overlapping windows of size 100 km2,
AmSZ Amphanihy Shear Zone where Te is calculated and inverted for each window, and then moving
AnD Anoshyan Domain the center of each window by 20 km in order to cover the entire inves-
AnSZ Angavo Shear Zone
tigated area for each new estimate. This provides spatial variations of
AS Amboropotsy Sheet
BD Bemarivo Domain the flexural properties with higher resolution than any of the spectral
BeSZ Betroka Shear Zone approaches. Another significant advantage is that this analysis can be
BSZ Betsimisaraka Shear Zone made over an area that is not necessarily rectangular, as required for
IG Itremo Group
the spectral analysis. Recently, Ratheesh Kumar and Windley (2013)
MC Masora Craton
RSZ Ranotsara Shear Zone used flexure inversion technique in combination with a spectral tech-
SC Sedimentary Cover nique (Morelet wavelet-based Bouguer coherence) to derive the Te
SG Sahantaha Group structure of the Ninetyeast Ridge in the Indian Ocean, and demonstrated
TG Tsaratanana Group that both the spatial and spectral estimates provide spatial variations
TSZ Tranomaro Shear Zone
that are mutually complementary.
588 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

4. Results on the western Indian shelf region (Fig. 5). Away from the shelf margin,
the Laccadive Ridge exhibits a significantly low-Te signature, whereas
The effective elastic thickness (Te) maps estimated for the data win- the adjacent areas to its east and west are distinguished by higher Te
dows (a and b in Fig. 1) over the WCMI and ECMM are presented in values that separate the ridge from the shelf margin and Arabian
Figs. 5 and 6 respectively. We also present the Moho models derived basin, respectively. To the north, the Laxmi ridge (Fig. 5) exhibits a sim-
from gravity inversion and flexure inversion analysis of the WCMI ilar low-Te range with higher values on its sides. Over most of the Ara-
(Fig. 7a and b) and ECMM (Fig. 7c and d). The gravity inversion and flex- bian basin the elastic thickness is significantly low (Te b 3 km). Different
ure inversion results are in good agreement, because the residual Moho tectonic provinces included in the study area within the southern Indian
(Fig. 7e and f) (mismatch between the gravity inversion-derived Moho shield exhibits significant Te variations. Within the continental regime
and flexure inversion-derived Moho) has a very low range (average of of India included in the data window, significant Te variations are ob-
±3 km). In Fig. 7e and f, it is clear that the marginal segments of India served over the Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP), Dharwar Craton, and
and Madagascar show an rms range of ±1 km. The model of Moho un- southern granulite terrain (SGT) (Fig. 5).
dulation on each window is determined for a specific Te, and hence the In the case of Madagascar (Fig. 6), its Archaean cratonic interior ex-
low-range of the root mean square error is yet another quality check of hibits high Te values (~20 km), whereas, the marginal zones are charac-
the present Te results. terized by a significantly low-Te range (1–10 km). We find that the
Table 3 shows a comparison between Te values obtained in the entire stretch of the ECMM including the narrow shelf zone and the ad-
present study and Te estimates from previous studies in various tectonic jacent ocean basin exhibits uniformly low-Te values, and matches well
provinces in and around the WCMI and ECMM. Our new Te maps with those obtained from the WCMI. Towards the southern end of the
(Figs. 5 and 6) correlate well with the morphological features in the eastern margin, the low-Te estimates in the shelf adjacent to the
study regions, and resolve regional-scale structures. We pay particular Madagascar basin, and the fossil ridge segment together are indicative
attention in this study to a narrow linear patch of anomalously low-Te of an extensive weak lithosphere. Farther away from this margin, the

Fig. 5. Effective elastic thickness of the Western Continental Margin of India. Topography shaded relief is superimposed. Red dotted line represents the Reunion hotspot track. Acronyms
are given in Table 1.
After Torsvik et al. (2013).
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 589

Fig. 6. Effective elastic thickness of the Eastern Continental Margin of Madagascar. Red dotted line represents the Reunion hotspot track. Acronyms are given in Table 1.
After Torsvik et al. (2013).

Reunion (also called La Réunion) and Mauritius chains exhibit high Te regimes. The present Moho depth values are in good agreement with
(~18–20 km), whereas in its northward extension the Nazareth Bank the published seismic and gravity-constrained estimates (Table 4).
region has low-Te values (2–8 km) (Fig. 6).
The Moho models clearly depict the transition from thick continen- 5. Discussion
tal to thin oceanic crusts, and exhibit significant undulations that corre-
late with regional-scale features. The continental interiors of India and The spatial variations of elastic thickness and Moho depth in the
Madagascar show a high crustal thickness (N35 km), which decreases continental–oceanic realms of India and Madagascar reveal some im-
towards the margins. The Moho undulations beneath the continental portant insights into the evolution and deformation of the different lith-
shelves of India and Madagascar correlate well with each other, and ologic units. An interesting observation in the present study is the NW–
both are in the range of 25 to 30 km. In the WCMI, the Laccadive ridge SE trending linear zone of significantly low-Te (0–5 km) along the
is underlain by a 20–25 km thick crust, whereas in the Laxmi ridge WCMI (particularly in the shelf region) (Fig. 5) and its equivalent Te
and its surroundings, it is in the range of 15–20 km. In the Arabian zone along the ECMM (Fig. 6). The present low-Te in the WCMI is con-
basin the crustal thickness decreases progressively from north sistent with the spectral estimates of Sheena et al. (2012), who inferred
(b15 km) to south (~8 km). In the ECMM, the ocean basin adjacent to low-Te variations over the Konkan Basin (Te ~ 5 km) and the Kerala
the narrow shelf exhibits a uniformly low crustal thickness (average Basin (Te ~ 10 km) according to the lithospheric necking model. Several
~ 10 km) from north to south, with a significant and extensive thin studies support the rift-related lithospheric structures along the WCMI
crust observed in the southernmost regimes. The Reunion–Mauritius– and its congruent ECMM (Fourno and Roussel, 1994; Chand
Nazareth Bank chain in the Moho map is distinguished by a higher and Subrahmanyam, 2003; Minshull et al., 2008; Yatheesh et al.,
crustal thickness than its surrounding oceanic lithosphere. A progres- 2009). Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003) obtained an elastic thickness
sively increased crustal thickness is particularly evident from the Re- of 8–15 km for the WCMI and 10–13 km for the ECMM using a one-
union (~ 20 km), Mauritius (~ 25 km), and Nazareth Bank (~ 30 km) dimensional free air admittance function, and suggested that these
590 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Fig. 7. Moho undulations obtained from constrained gravity inversion and flexural inversion techniques for the Western Continental Margin of India (a and b) and Eastern Continental
Margin of Madagascar (c and d) respectively. Panels (e) and (f) show the Residual Moho (the mismatch between gravity inversion-derived Moho and flexural inversion-derived
Moho) respectively for the WCMI and ECMM.

low-Te values are signatures of the rifting between India and substantially thinned crust in the Precambrian basement of eastern
Madagascar. The Moho topography derived from Bouguer gravity inver- and central Madagascar, which they attributed to the separation of
sion by Fourno and Roussel (1994) revealed a NE-trending zone of India during the Cretaceous. Windley and Razakamanana (1996)
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 591

Table 3
A comparison of the present Te results (obtained from flexure inversion analysis) with earlier estimates over different structural features in the study area.

Location Previous studies Model method Te (km)

Previous study Present study

Deccan Volcanic Province Tiwari and Mishra (1999) Bouguer coherence 10–15 1–5
Jordan and Watts (2005) Forward and non-spectral inverse gravity modeling b5
Ratheesh-Kumar et al. (2014) Bouguer coherence 0–5
Western Indian Margin Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003) Free-air admittance 8–15 1–5
Sheena et al. (2007, 2012) Bouguer coherence 5–10
Laccadive Ridge Tiwari et al. (2007) Free-air admittance 2 1–3
Chaubey et al. (2008) Free-air admittance 2–3
Sheena et al. (2007) Bouguer coherence 5
Ratheesh-Kumar et al. (2014) Bouguer coherence 0–3
Eastern Madagascar Margin Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003) Free-air admittance 10–13 1–5
Réunion–Mauritius Tiwari et al. (2007) Free-air admittance 30 18–20
Trivedi et al. (2012) Flexure inversion 18–20
Nazareth Bank Tiwari et al. (2007) Free-air admittance 13 ~5
Trivedi et al. (2012) Flexure inversion 14–18

suggested that the Moho topography and zone of thinned crust Mauritius and Reunion Island, which are considered to be the remnants
of Fourno and Roussel (1994) coincided with a zone of extensional of the Reunion hotspot, exhibit anomalously thick crust and significant
structures in the basement related to extensional collapse of the Te variations. The crustal thicknesses beneath Reunion (~ 20 km),
Neoproterozoic orogen. Moreover, Kusky et al. (2010) pointed out Mauritius (~25 km), and the Nazareth Bank (~30 km) obtained in the
that the thinned crustal zone is expressed by a post-Miocene graben present study are consistent with the estimates of Torsvik et al.
system along the center of Madagascar, which may be an incipient ex- (2013). Tiwari et al. (2007), using a free-air admittance technique to es-
pression of a diffusive plate boundary of the East African Rift System. timate Te along the Deccan–Reunion hotspot track, obtained a decrease
in Te from 30 km over Reunion and Mauritius to 13 km over the
5.1. The low-Te zones along the passive margins—a rift related signature? Nazareth Bank. They suggested that the higher Te regions resulted
from intraplate emplacement on an old lithosphere, whereas the
Although we obtained comparable Te results along the conjugate lower Te estimates in the Nazareth Bank were due to emplacement on
margins of India and Madagascar, there is a need to clarify why one the flank of the Central Indian Ridge, where both plume and mid-
would expect the Te to be similar on both margins. By considering the ocean ridge basalts were emplaced on young lithosphere. Our present
well-documented tectonic history of the WCMI, two major episodes of Te results in Reunion and Mauritius with their high values (Te ~ 18–
lithospheric deformation can be taken into account for the anomalously 20 km), and Nazareth Bank with its low value (Te ~ 5 km) support the
low-Te signature: 1. The deformation as a result of the rifting processes concept of multiple emplacement mechanism, as proposed by Tiwari
including lithospheric stretching, crustal necking and emplacement, et al. (2007).
and volcanic loading during the early phases of India–Madagascar sep- The Laccadive–Chagos ridge in the WCMI is considered to be the
aration dates back to ca. 90 Ma BP; and 2. The lithospheric deformation track of the Indian plate over the Reunion hotspot (see Fig. 5 for the
caused by the Reunion hotspot during the northward drift of India at ca. hotspot track). Chaubey et al. (2008) analyzed the isostatic compensa-
65 Ma ago. Thus, there is a point of potential confusion regarding which tion mechanism beneath the Laccadive Ridge using free air admittance,
parameter (rift or plume) played the predominant role in formulating and they obtained a significantly low-Te value of ~2.5 km. Their results
the anomalously low elastic thickness along these passive margins. favor a model of Airy isostatic compensation beneath the Laccadive
Chand and Subrahmanyam (2003) and Chaubey et al. (2008) ruled ridge that resulted when stretched continental lithosphere was loaded
out the prevalent role of plume, based on the moving rate of Indian during an initial stage of rifting. The present study obtained a signifi-
plate. According to their idea, the Indian Plate keeps a fast moving rate cantly low-Te (1–3 km) over the Laccadive Ridge (Fig. 5) with a crustal
of 13.5 cm/year over the Reunion hotspot between 66 and 48 Ma and thickness estimate of ~20–25 km, which may support the idea that the
that the thermal rejuvenation during this time may have been insuffi- crustal loads in this ridge segment were isostatically compensated as a
cient to change the plate strength. result of thermal rejuvenation of the lithosphere and subsequent volca-
The traces of Reunion hotspot can be observed in both ECMM and nic loading by hotspot magmatism in the Late Cretaceous–Early Tertia-
WCMI (Tiwari et al., 2007; Chaubey et al., 2008). The major bathymetric ry. The effect of the Reunion volcanism is also apparent in the
features in the ocean to the east of Madagascar such as Nazareth Bank, continental part of the Indian plate. The regional-scale Te map of the

Table 4
A comparison of the present Moho results (obtained from flexure inversion analysis) with earlier estimates over different structural features in the study area.

Location Previous studies Model method Moho depth (km)

Previous study Present study

Western Indian Shelf Chaubey et al. (2002) Multichannel seismic reflection, gravity ~25 25–30
Krishna et al. (2002) Forward model of gravity ~25 km
Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion 25–30
Laccadive Ridge Chaubey et al. (2002) Multichannel seismic reflection ~20 20–25
Krishna et al. (2002) Forward model of gravity ~20
Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion ~25
Laxmi Ridge Krishna et al. (2002) Forward model of gravity ~17 ~17
Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion ~15
Eastern Madagascar Shelf Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion 25–30 25–30
Réunion–Mauritius Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion 20–25 20–25
Nazareth Bank Torsvik et al. (2013) Gravity inversion N30 N30
592 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Indian Shield clearly demarcated the Deccan volcanic province affected variations within the lithosphere. Therefore, Te variations should be
by the Reunion hotspot volcanism (Ratheesh-Kumar et al., 2014). In the interpreted in such a way that they can help determine which tectonic
present study, an anomalous low-Te (1–5 km) zone to the north of the scenario is suitable to explain the causes of strength variations in a par-
Dharwar Craton, supports the idea of long lithosphere thermal interac- ticular tectonic setting. In the present study, the anomalously low Te
tion with the Reunion plume centre (Ratheesh-Kumar et al., 2014). zones along the continental shelf and adjacent oceanic regimes indicate
The linear low-Te pattern of the Deccan Volcanic Province coincides the deformational variations within the passive margin lithosphere,
with the Reunion hotspot track (Fig. 5). In contrast, the anomalously which can be best explained by rift-related processes including litho-
low-Te zone observed parallel to the shelf region (Fig. 5) shows a mark- spheric thinning/necking and hotspot interactions. An outcome of this
edly different trend. These two contrasting Te patterns may imply two discussion is that the mirrored deformational signatures (anomalously
possibly different possible tectonic events that resulted in lithospheric linear low-Te zones) obtained for these passive margins are genetically
deformation. The Te map of Ratheesh-Kumar et al. (2014) shows related and hence can be correlated to examine their possible conjugate
zones of anomalously low-Te in the western margin of the Western nature.
Dharwar Craton and in the adjacent shelf region, which they inferred
as thermally and mechanically weakened lithosphere caused by the 5.2. Fit of conjugate margins reconstructed from Te correlation
combined action of the Marion hotspot and rift-related lithospheric ex-
tensional processes. Most importantly, the present study finds that the Fig. 5 demonstrates that the zone of lithospheric deformation along
NNW/SSE trend of anomalously low-Te zone is coinciding with the the WCMI, indicated by an anomalously low-Te pattern, extends in a
prominent linear bathymetric features along the shelf basement includ- NW–SE direction for a total length of ~ 1680 km. This long low-Te
ing the mid-shelf basement ridge, inner-shelf graben, shelf margin basin zone is mirrored by a similar, uniformly low-Te zone along the complete
and the Prathap Ridge complex (Fig. 5). Subrahmanyam et al. (1995) length of the ECMM (Fig. 6). By matching these characteristic linear
suggested that the mid-shelf basement ridge and the Prathap Ridge low-Te zones of the two conjugate margins, we obtain a best-fit position
complex are rift-related ridges formed during the separation of India of Madagascar against India, which is presented in Fig. 10. We examined
from Madagascar around 84 Ma, and that they followed the pre- the Moho models derived from flexure inversion analysis to find any
existing trends of the Precambrian basement fabric. According to possible match of the conjugate margins with the best-fit position de-
Chaubey et al. (2002), the presence of rotated fault blocks at the shelf duced from our Te model. The present Moho models show a crustal
margin basin, and the emplacement of the volcanic Prathap Ridge com- thinning towards the continental margins of India (Fig. 8) and
plex indicate a failed rift and volcanism of the stretched continental re- Madagascar (Fig. 9); these define the actual extent of the continental
gime of the basin. We now suggest that the anomalously low-Te zone is margins. Here, the oceanward extent of a continental margin/shelf can
the sum effect of the flexural response of the rift-related surface/subsur- be defined by a rectilinear zone of Moho configuration (~25 km deep).
face structural features and the volcanic emplacements along the Clearly, Madagascar is characterized by a narrow shelf zone, while the
WCMI. Support for our interpretation comes from available geochrono- Indian shelf is comparatively broader and its width increases towards
logical data related to both passive margins. The rifting of India from the north. We matched the two shelf zones with similar Moho configu-
Madagascar was accompanied by the formation of voluminous flood ba- rations to the best-fit position derived from the Te match, and obtained
salt flows and dolerite dykes with subordinate rhyolite flows along the a close geometrical Moho fit between the continental margins of India
rifted margin of India (Pande et al., 2001). The rhyolites and rhyodacites and Madagascar (Fig. 11). We then superimposed the bathymetry con-
from St. Mary's island off the western coast of southern India have K–Ar tours onto this best-fit position (Fig. 11), and found that the 1000 m
ages in the range of 97–80 Ma (Valsangkar et al., 1981), and a 40Ar–39Ar isobaths of the two shelf margins also show a reasonably good close-
age of ca. 86 Ma (Pande et al., 2001) related to rifting of India from fit. Thus, the ‘best-fit position’ of the continental margins deduced
Madagascar. Torsvik et al. (2000) obtained a U–Pb zircon age of ca. from the Te correlation is well confirmed by the Moho and bathymetry
91 Ma from St. Mary's island, which they linked with the late Cretaceous configurations. Together these produce a unique paleo-continental con-
magmatic province in Madagascar (ca. 84–92 Ma) that contains the figuration of India against Madagascar.
Analalava gabbro pluton (ca. 91 Ma). Also related to the rifting are
ENE/WSW-striking dykes in Karnataka, western India that have a 5.3. Perplexity on India–Madagascar correlation and new interpretations
40
Ar–39Ar age of about 88–90 Ma (Kumar et al., 2001), and leucogabbro
and felsite dykes from southwestern India that have a K–Ar age of ca. The exact position of India against Madagascar has long been a mat-
85 Ma (Pande et al., 2001). The eastern coast of Madagascar contains ter of debate, and clearly it is important to re-examine previous data in
several mafic–ultramafic complexes, which are remnant signatures of the light of our current results to better understand, or even resolve, this
rifting that is dated at 92–84 Ma (Storey et al., 1995; Melluso et al., problem. Most of the earlier reconstructions had problems by proposing
1997; Torsvik et al., 1998; Melluso et al., 2001, 2002, 2005; Mahoney correlations based on single factor such as structure, age, rock type or a
et al., 2008; Cucciniello et al., 2011a,b). The Antampombato–Ambatovy geophysical parameter, and also inconsistencies exist in many paleo-fit
complex in the east-central part of the Cretaceous flood basalt province models regarding the exact shape and size of the continents defined for
of Madagascar has a 40Ar/39Ar incremental heating age of ca. 90 Ma and the reconstructions.
U–Pb age of ca. 90 ± 2 Ma (Melluso et al., 2005). Mahoney et al. (2008) The time of breakup of the facing margins was determined by K–Ar
suggested high-level, pre-breakup lithospheric extension between India dating (Valsangkar et al., 1981) and apatite fission track analysis (Chand
and Madagascar, inferred from the great concentration of rhyolite dykes and Subrahmanyam, 2003; Emmel et al., 2006). Marks and Tikku (2001)
and significant crustal contamination of basalt on the central eastern used free-air gravity and topography in combination with magnetic
coast of Madagascar. These lines of evidence clearly suggest that the anomaly data to reconstruct the gravity and topography fields in the
Marion hotspot and associated rifting processes contributed to the Cretaceous in order to determine the correct fit of Africa, Antarctica
weak strength of both the WCMI and ECMM. and Madagascar. Many published plate reconstructions used the
Previous geophysical studies in the present passive margin setting matching of structural lineaments to establish the original form and co-
(Todal and Edholm, 1998; Minshull et al., 2008; Yatheesh et al., 2009; herence of the WCMI and the ECMM (Katz and Premoli, 1979; Storey
Torsvik et al., 2013) used wide-angle seismic data and/or gravity anom- et al., 1995; Braun and Kriegsman, 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004;
aly data to explain the geometry/structure of the lithosphere and its cor- Ishwar-Kumar et al., 2013). Katz and Premoli (1979) defined two possi-
relation with rift-related structures. The present study of passive ble positions of Madagascar relative to India based on the matching of
margins based on a Te model is completely independent of other tradi- tectonic lineaments, namely the Bhavani lineament of southern India
tional geophysical approaches as it reveals tectonic deformational and the Itremo and Ranotsara lineaments in Madagascar. Braun and
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 593

Fig. 8. Moho configuration of the WCMI (derived from flexure inversion method) super imposed by the topography/bathymetry shaded relief. Acronyms are given in Table 1.

Kriegsman (2003) proposed a model in which the Ranotsara shear zone western India and NE Madagascar. Ashwal et al. (2013) proposed
of Madagascar is correlated with the Achankovil shear zone of southern India–Madagascar position in a late pan-African age Gondwana assem-
India, and the Betsimisaraka shear zone with the Moyar shear zone of bly. Their reconstruction was based on the geochemical and petrological
southern India. In contrast, Tucker et al. (2011) correlated the Angavo correlations of the Mt. Abu granitic pluton (northwestern India) with
shear zone of Madagascar with the Moyar shear zone of southern Malani Igneous Suite and Praslin group granitoids of the Seychelles
India. Ishwar-Kumar et al. (2013) proposed a plate reconstruction and northern Madagascar. Mishra et al. (2014) schematically showed
based on a possible extension of the Betsimisaraka suture in the position of the India–Seychelles bank and Madagascar in a 65–
Madagascar, the Kumta suture, which re-enters southern India as the 70 Ma plate reconstruction, primarily based on paleostress trends de-
ca. 1200 Ma Mercara (Coorg) suture (Santosh et al., 2015). According duced from field and remote sensing analysis in the western Deccan
to Powell et al. (1997), the southern tip of India was over 1000 km Large Igneous Province. They reported a predominantly N–S zone of ex-
south of Madagascar during its initial stage of separation from India, tensional deformation in the western Deccan region, which they
which was at around ca. 100 Ma across the Albian–Cenomanian bound- matched with faults interpreted from seismic data to postulate strike-
ary (Schettino and Scotese, 2005; Gaina et al., 2007). But according to slip rifting between India and Seychelles.
Gibbons et al. (2013) the southern tip of India lay at that time From geophysical–geochronological studies, Torsvik et al. (2013)
~ 250 km north of the southern edge of Madagascar; to explain this proposed that a Paleoproterozoic microcontinental fragment, Mauritia,
they proposed a dextral–transtensional motion between the two was situated between southern India and Madagascar at 750 Ma
continents. configuration. However, this model was heavily dependent only on 8
Torsvik et al. (2000) postulated an India–Madagascar fit during the spot U–Pb analyses of detrital zircons separated from two basaltic
early phase of separation of Madagascar in the Late Cretaceous (after beach sand samples collected from the coast of Mauritius. It is also im-
~100 Ma) by correlating the breakup-related paleomagnetic anomaly, portant to note that the 8 analytical results consists only one concordant
which extends sub-parallel with that in SW India. Recently, based on age analysis of ~ 790 Ma. Therefore we consider it premature to be
microscopic and mesoscopic structures and Th–U–Pb monazite ages, certain on the existence of microcontinental fragments between
Rekha et al. (2013) proposed a correlation between crustal blocks in Madagascar and India, and thus we have not included them in our
594 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Fig. 9. Moho configuration of the ECMM (derived from flexure inversion method) super imposed by the topography/bathymetry shaded relief. Acronyms are given in Table 1.

modeling or correlation results. Further, Seychelles microcontinent is 2007; Tucker et al., 2011). Thus, the regional-scale structural linea-
placed far to the north of India–Madagascar in a Late Cretaceous plate ments and shear-zones proposed by previous studies (e.g., Windley
reconstruction (Torsvik et al., 2000; Gibbons et al., 2013) and thus out et al., 1994; Windley and Razakamanana, 1996; Collins and
of the research focus in the present study. Windley, 2002; Goncalves et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004;
We now verify the present fit-position of India–Madagascar pas- Raharimahefa and Kusky, 2006; Chardon et al., 2008;
sive margins in the light of available geological and geophysical Ishwar-Kumar et al., 2013) provide a better understanding of the
datasets. A plate tectonic reconstruction of the India–Madagascar Te model and its comparison with traditional continental correla-
paleo-fit deduced from our Te correlation model (Fig. 10) is present- tions. A major outcome of the present contribution is that the corre-
ed in Fig. 12. It shows how shear/suture zones and lithological units lation of continents proposed using Te data allows the integration of
in the two continents closely correlate in the proposed ‘best-fit posi- apparently different data sets including Moho configuration, ba-
tion’. The present India–Madagascar paleo-position is in closest thymetry, structures, age, rock type and metamorphic condition in
agreement with the recently published plate tectonic reconstruction a precise way that bring into a best-fit model of India–Madagascar
based on shear/suture zones, geochronology and lithology (Ishwar- passive margins (Fig. 12). Accordingly, in this discussion we empha-
Kumar et al., 2013). In spite of recent controversial interpretations size the importance of an integrated approach in paleo-continental
(e.g., Tucker et al., 2011; Brandt et al., 2014), in the present recon- correlation studies whether using the Te method or other traditional
struction the Betsimisaraka suture zone of northeastern tools such as geochronology, regional structure and geology.
Madagascar (Kröner et al., 2000; Collins and Windley, 2002;
Collins, 2006) does correlate well with the recently proposed 6. Conclusions
Kumta suture zone (Ishwar-Kumar et al., 2013) and Mercara suture
(Santosh et al., 2015) of southwestern India (Fig. 12). On the other This contribution mapped the rigidity structure along the Western
hand, the Te model-based paleo-position is not in complete agree- Continental Margin of India and the Eastern Continental Margin of
ment with some other recent shear zone-based models (Collins Madagascar that reveals zones of significant rift-related lithospheric de-
and Windley, 2002; Braun and Kriegsman, 2003; Collins et al., formation and their possible conjugate nature. A high resolution
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 595

Fig. 10. A correlation of elastic thickness maps of the western margin of India (Fig. 5) and eastern margin of Madagascar (Fig. 6) shows the fit of anomalously low-Te zones (in blue, which
are about 1600 km long) along their conjugate margins. Based on this correlation, the present study deduces a best paleo-fit position of India against Madagascar. Acronyms are given in
Table 1.

database of undulations on the Moho/Crust–Mantle Interface, derived 1. The Te and Moho results exhibit significant variations of elastic thick-
from gravity and flexure inversion analyses, and their regional correla- ness over the continental–oceanic margins of India and Madagascar,
tions with the Te variations, adds a new perspective to the present inter- which reveal important insights into the evolution and deformation
pretations. We demonstrate that elastic thickness is a useful diagnostic of different lithological units. The Moho data demonstrate geotecton-
tool, which can be corroborated and integrated with crustal geometry, ic segmentation with a transition from thick crust (N35 km) beneath
bathymetry, structure, lithology and geochronological datasets in the continents to thin crust (8–15 km) beneath the oceans with a
order to evaluate the evolution and deformation of the lithosphere. transitional crust (thickness ~ 25 km) beneath the continental
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. shelves. We observe that the cold and stable segments of the
596 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600

Fig. 11. The close-geometrical fit between the Moho configurations of the India–Madagascar shelf margins, reconstructed at the ‘fit position’ deduced from the Te correlation (Fig. 10). It
also shows a close-fit of 1000 m bathymetry representing the shelf margins. Acronyms are given in Table 1.

continental lithosphere exhibit higher Te values, while thermally or Madagascar represent their paleo-rift inception points, affected by
mechanically rejuvenated lithospheric segments are mechanically significant lithospheric extension due to rifting combined with the
weak. Most of the oceanic parts of the Indian and African plates in- effect of Marion hotspot volcanism. The low-Te zone along the west-
cluded in our study generally exhibit thinned crust and low-Te ern margin of India is attributed to the presence of a failed rift and of
ranges, whereas the hotspot fossil ridges exhibit variable Te that cor- the volcanism in the stretched continental lithosphere, which is
relate with their emplacement setting. manifested by coincident linear structural features along the shelf
2. We conclude that the significantly low-Te zones along the Western basement. The correlation of these mirrored low-Te zones enables
Continental Margin of India and Eastern Continental Margin of a best possible fit of India against Madagascar. This is confirmed by
 R.T. Ratheesh-Kumar et al. / Gondwana Research 28 (2015) 581–600 597

Fig. 12. Plate tectonic reconstruction map of India–Madagascar paleo-fit deduced from elastic thickness (Fig. 10), Moho configuration and bathymetry (Fig. 11) correlations, depicting
matching of shear zones, lithologies and geochronological belts of mutual tectonic provinces. The inset map demonstrates a possible close-fit of India and Madagascar and the fit of the
shear zones before rifting. Acronyms are as in Table 1.
Shear zones based on correlations of Collins and Windley (2002) and Ishwar-Kumar et al. (2013). Paleo-coordinates after O'Neill et al., 2003. The inset is modified after Ishwar-Kumar et al.
(2013).

an excellent geometrical fit between the bathymetry and the Moho congruent lithospheric margins led to the formation of a continuous
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cal belts. ern Madagascar during the time of rifting (Torsvik et al., 2000) may
3. Based on our present results, we assume a close-fit (inset map of have had an integrated effect on the reduced mechanical strength of
Fig. 12) between India and Madagascar before rifting (Lawver et al., the lithosphere beneath both continental margins. Ultimately, physi-
1997). The rift-related stretching and subsequent thinning of the cal separation of the continents possibly resulted in two individual
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Acknowledgments Collins, A.S., Windley, B.F., 2002. Tectonic evolution of central and northern Madagascar
and its place in the final assembly of Gondwana. Journal of Geology 110, 325–339.
We thank Alan Aitken for editorial handling and two anonymous Collins, A.S., Clark, C., Sajeev, K., Santosh, M., Kelsey, D.E., Hand, M., 2007. Passage through
India: the Mozambique ocean suture, high-pressure granulites and the Palghat–
reviewers for constructive comments and suggestions that improved Cauvery shear zone system. Terra Nova 19, 141–147.
the manuscript significantly. R.T. Ratheesh Kumar gratefully acknowl- Courtillot, V., Davaille, A., Besse, J., Stock, J., 2003. Three distinct types of hotspots in the
edges Centenary Research Associate Fellowship of IISc Bangalore Earth's mantle. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 205, 295–308.
Cucciniello, C., Conrad, J., Grifa, C., Melluso, L., Mercurio, M., Morra, V., Tucker, R.D., Vincent,
R(IA)(RKRT/CEaS)/2014-8808, and the Best Paper Award contingency M., 2011a. Petrology and geochemistry of Cretaceous mafic and silicic dykes and spa-
grant of Kerala State Council for Science, Technology & Environment tially associated lavas in central-eastern coastal Madagascar. In: Srivastava, R.K. (Ed.),
(Order No.1272/2014/KSCSTE). We utilized the laboratory facilities de- Dyke Swarms: Keys for Geodynamic Interpretation, pp. 345–375.
Cucciniello, C., Melluso, L., Morra, V., 2011b. New 40Ar–39Ar ages and petrogenesis of the
veloped through Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India pro- Massif d'Ambre volcano, northern Madagascar. Geological Society of America Special
ject MoES/ATMOS/PP-IX/09. This study is a contribution to ISRO-IISc Papers 478, 257–281.
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methods for assessing the elastic thickness of the Irish Atlantic margin. Geophysical
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