HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PROPOSAL FOR THE

IRALALARO-PAITCHAU KARST, TIMOR-LESTE

– Greg Middleton, Susan White and Nicholas White

Fig. 1. The Iralalaro hydro-electric scheme would be located

in a large karst area near the eastern tip of Timor-Leste.

The government of Timor-Leste (East Timor) is From the start, the scheme appears to have been
considering constructing a hydro-electric power developed on inadequate information and with no
scheme in the far east of the island (Fig. 1) which comprehension of the consequences involved in
would have a major impact on a significant karst such development on karst. Thirty years later the
area. situation has not significantly improved.

Alerted by Senator Bob Brown and supported by The original 1975 proposal for a hydro scheme by
the Australian Conservation Foundation and the Japanese consultants envisaged the building of a
local Haburas Foundation, Australian cavers dam on the Irasiquero River to raise the level of
Susan and Nicholas White and Greg Middleton Iralalaro Lake by about 3.7 m to generate 400
travelled to the site in August 2005 to investigate GWh annually. Water from the dam would flow
the proposed scheme and its possible impacts on through a short power tunnel to an underground
the region. This article is based on their report. powerstation with one large turbine and a tailrace
discharging the water to the sea. About this
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYDRO-ELECTRIC scheme ELC-Electroconsult et al. (1989, p. 3-2)
PROPOSAL commented:

The scheme would involve the diversion of the No site investigations, topographical, geological
entire flow of the Irasiquero river, the only surface or hydrological, are mentioned in the report, to
outlet from Iralalaro, the country’s largest support the preliminary design developed; in
lake/wetland area, away from its sinkhole at particular, there is no mention about the karstic
Mainina into a tunnel drilled under the Paitchau limestone formations in the area.
Mountains. The tunnel would feed water through
the range to a powerstation at sea level on the A modified proposal prepared in 1985 by
south coast, involving a fall of about 300 metres Perusahaan Umum Listrik Negara (PLN), Survey
(Fig. 2). Division proposed two options:

We were able to obtain some basic background to • A run-of-river scheme – not involving any
the proposal through ACF and Haburas, in the raising of the lake level; an installed
form of part of a 1989 ‘feasibility report’ prepared capacity of 35 MW was estimated to be
by Italian, Swiss and Indonesian consultants capable of generating up to 274
(ELC-Electroconsult et. al. 1989), a 2003 update GWh/year; and
in the form of a ‘mission report’ by Norwegian • A reservoir scheme, raising the lake level
hydro-electric consultants (Adeler et al. 2003) and to a maximum of 333 m a.s.l. (its natural
a 2004 ‘environmental assessment scoping report’ level fluctuates between ~321 and 330
by Australian consultants (EPANZ Services m); installed capacity of 42 MW was
2004a). estimated to generate up to 320
GWh/year.
 Fig. 2. Proposed layout of the Iralalaro hydro-electric scheme, involving
diverting the Iralalaro river from its underground course to a powerstation.

A third version of the proposal, prepared in 1989 the Asian Development Bank (ADB 2004)
by ELC-Electroconsult, Motor Columbus, P.T. supported the assessment that the Iralalaro
Arkonin and P.T. Asianenco (ELC-Electroconsult scheme was the most cost-effective of 8 schemes
et al. 1989) conceded, for the first time, that karst considered.
was a serious issue. This was a major concession,
resulting from the realisation that because of the Notably, this report had no comment to make on
karstic nature of the area, it is likely that any environmental impact, except to observe that
dam built on the Irasiquero River or that another feasibility report was underway. The
attempted to raise the level of the Iralalaro Lake issue of extra costs in relation to expensive
would result in the water leaking through construction and unforseen problems likely to
underground conduits. Such a dam would fail to arise in karst terrain was neither acknowledged
impound water and the task of sealing all possible nor addressed. An interesting aspect of all these
leakage points would be quite impractical – not to reports is that, while over time the potential for
mention the costs involved. However it suggests problems to arise in such development on karst
that as a “run-of-the-river” scheme it was both was increasingly acknowledged, no specialised
technically and economically sound. The report report on these aspects was commissioned.
concluded that the project did not present
particularly complex technical problems and that Evidently the recommendations of the ‘Mission
the construction could be carried out with Report’ were accepted because consultants for the
conventional methods and entrusted to same Norwegian agency (NVE) went on to prepare
Indonesian construction companies. The a ‘Scoping Report’ for an environmental
economic and financial analyses were seen to assessment of the project (EPANZ Services
meet the profitability criteria generally accepted 2004a). This report identified “major concerns
by international agencies for the financing of within the project”, including: (a) failure to
developments of this type. However it establish the fate of the water sinking at Mainina,
acknowledged that the hydrological data was (b) location of the project within one of the last,
‘scanty’ and that more needed to be known about and probably the largest remaining, Tropical Dry
the operation of the underground drainage forested area within Timor-Leste, proposed as a
system; it also recommended a comprehensive protected area covering 620 km2, (c) that 16 bat
geological study be carried out, including species are present, including two undescribed
consideration of the area’s ‘tectonic style’ specimens that may be new records for Timor.
(probably an admission of lack of knowledge of its Eleven of the bat species are thought to be
structural stability). obligate cave roosters (EPANZ Services 2004c), (d)
that the waters of Lake Iralalaro and the
The 1989 report formed the basis of the ‘Mission Irasiquero River form a closed aquatic system
Report’ prepared by a Norwegian team of hydro- with unique characteristics and a new fish
engineers in 2003 (Adeler et al. 2003). This report species, Craterocephalus sp. nov., was discovered
considers Timor-Leste’s energy situation and in the middle section of the Irasiquero (EPANZ
alternative power sources and recommends the Services 2004b).
updating of the 1989 feasibility study for Ira
Lalaro hydropower scheme with additional studies Subsequent to the Scoping Report, and perhaps
on geology and geo-hydrology. In 2004 a review by arising out of the concerns it expressed,
particularly in relation to knowledge of geology, little non-carbonate material is present (Audley-
additional studies are reported to have been Charles 1968).
carried out (Demetrio de Carvalho pers. comm.) In
particular, a seismic study has been conducted The Permian Cribas Formation is amongst the
across the Paitchau Range along the line of the oldest rocks recorded from Timor-Leste and
proposed tunnel which may have been attempting comprises fossiliferous shallow water non-
to assess the suitability of the rock for tunnelling, carbonate sediments derived from elsewhere,
and some dye tracing has been undertaken to try possibly from the erosion of northern Australia
to determine the fate of the water sinking at (Audley-Charles 1968). Limestone occurs
Mainina. It is understood that dye was detected at commonly at the top of the unit. Its contact with
three springs on the southern side of the Paitchau the overlying Triassic Aitutu Formation is not
Range, as might be expected, and at four springs clear. The Cribas Formation is insoluble and is
towards the north coast, in the vicinity of Com, likely to form an aquiclude where it underlies
which is quite unexpected and would appear to limestones and is present as upthrust sections in
greatly increase the potential direct impacts of the the Paitchau Mountains south of the Iralalaro
proposed hydrological diversion. polje and along the north coast.

However, despite the acknowledgement in the Overlying the Cribas Formation is the 1000m
later reports, especially the Scoping Report, of the thick Triassic Aitutu Formation which is a
significance of the karst and the potential marine, calcite or aragonite mud, probably
vulnerabilities associated with development on deposited by precipitation from sea-water by the
karst, no detailed study of the karst appears to activity of plankton or bacteria, in a shallow
have been undertaken by the proponents. This marine environment under low-energy conditions.
leaves considerable risks in both constructional This is a highly soluble lithology; less than 5% of
and environmental areas unexplored. The issue of the material is insoluble. The Aitutu Formation is
the costly and risky nature of construction in present as uplifted sections in the Paitchau
intensively karstified areas continues to be Mountains (UNESCAP 2002).
ignored.
The Aitutu Formation is followed by a very large
CLIMATE time gap (over 200Ma) in the geological sequence,
from about 210 Ma (late Triassic) to about 1.6 Ma
The eastern end of East Timor has a wet tropical (early Pleistocene) when the Baucau and Poros
monsoonal climate characterised by a hot Limestones formed. Further west there are
summer, distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous and Palaeogene
and relatively small temperature variation. The deposits but none are reported east of Los Palos.
Lautem district is the wettest in East Timor. The Lack of data seriously constrains the geological
limited data available is from Los Palos (Fig. 1) understanding of the eastern end of the island
where there is mean annual rainfall of 1,921mm and the understanding of the lithologies and
concentrated in the wet season (Nov.-July), structures underlying the Iralalaro polje and is a
monthly average temperatures range from 28.9ºC serious problem for development in the area
(Nov.) to 18.8ºC (Aug.), humidity ranges from (UNESCAP 2002).
82.2% (May) to 73.2% (Oct.) and estimated
evaporation at Los Palos is 1,033 mm p.a. The area was subjected to tectonic activity
Evaporation exceeds rainfall from August to including folding up until the Pliocene. Except for
November. Rainfall records cover an even shorter the upthrust Permian and Triassic sediments of
term for Malahara and Maupitine, east of Los the Paitchau Mountains, the post-Pliocene
Palos and south of the lake, but show ~37% less sediments, e.g. the Baucau Formation, blanket
rainfall than Los Palos, with similar evaporation the eastern end of the island and are assumed to
(EPANZ Services 2004a). With such limited data unconformably overlie older folded and/or faulted
any lake and aquifer recharge calculations have sedimentary rocks (UNESCAP 2002).
severe limitations.
The Baucau Formation is a hard, vuggy,
REGIONAL GEOLOGY cavernous, massive, white fossiliferous reef
limestone (Audley-Charles 1968) occurring as a
The geology of the eastern end of Timor Leste is series of terraces (representing raised beaches)
predominantly limestone: only the Permian and has a maximum thickness of ~100 m. The
‘Cribas Formation’ and the Recent ‘Suai raised beaches indicate the continued uplift
Formation’ are significantly non-carbonate. There history of the area to recent times, and are
are several theories attempting to explain the currently being studied by geologists from the
tectonic and formational history of the island and University of Melbourne. It is widespread in the
discussion on the geological history continues. eastern part of the island and controls the
However all theories agree that the island is topography of the Baucau and Lautem plateaux.
composed of contributions from the Australian The lacustrine Poros Formation occurs only east
continental plate and the highly deformed rocks of Los Palos on the Lautem Plateau and must
from the Banda Terrane. This suggests that have been deposited after the Baucau Limestone
Palaeozoic conditions similar to that shown in the on which it rests had been elevated above sea-
Bonaparte Gulf Basin (Northern Australia) should level. The bed of the Iralalaro polje is in
be present although the carbonate sedimentary Quaternary alluvium, which here appears to be a
rocks deposited since the Permian indicate that heavy black clay. It may be the relative
the area has been an island for a long time as impermeability of this clay, which allows the lake
to hold water.
 Fig. 3. View north across the flat-floored Iralalaro polje from foothills of Paitchau Range.

LANDFORM GEODIVERSITY AND due to high velocities of flow, even in the dry
GEOMORPHOLOGY season.

The Iralalaro-Paitchau Mountains area contains a The blind valley has a high head wall composed of
wide range of karst-related landforms, including a a large boulder slide. The boulders reach over 5m
large polje, collapse dolines, sinkholes, blind in diameter and are angular, indicating limited
valleys, karren and caves. An indication of the solutional modification. Small boulder caves are
paucity of the earth science studies so far carried present in the boulder slide. It is unclear as to
out in connection with the proposed project is the whether the slide is due to the collapse of a
fact that prior to our visit (in August 2005) no one previous swallet and cave or just undermining of
had recognised that the feature marked on some the head wall. Investigation failed to find any
maps as the “Fuiloro Plateau” and referred to by access to abandoned (dry) passages connecting
some consultants as “the Ira Lalaro depression” with the present underground flow. The valley
(ELC-Electroconsult et al. 1989, p. S-2) and by periodically floods up to a level of ~20m above dry
others as “a large karstic plateau” (EPANZ season river level, as indicated by the absence of
Services 2004a, p. 8) is, in fact, a huge baselevel forest below that level. The swallet is unable to
polje. easily drain the high discharge of the Irasiquero
River during the wet season, and the water dams
Surficial karst landforms back.

This polje is the most outstanding single landform The area on the south side of the polje has a
of the region and the widely fluctuating Iralalaro disrupted drainage pattern as seen on satellite
Lake occurs in it. It is clearly evident in a digital photos of the area. Superficial runoff in the wet
terrain model of the region and is also quite season probably drains underground through a
obvious at ground level (Fig. 3). Except for the range of small sinks, which are obscured by the
limited description in our reports, it is completely forest cover. Except for the Irasiquero River and
undescribed. the polje, there is very limited surface water in the
dry season.
We estimate the area of the Iralalaro polje to be
around 100 km2. which makes it large by Subterranean landforms, primarily caves
international standards. Its catchment is virtually
entirely within the karst, and has an area of 406 Very little documentation of caves has yet been
km2. It is reported that the surface area of the carried out in the area. Prior to 2005, the only
Iralalaro lake fluctuates from 10 to 55 km2. known records were of archaeological sites to the
east of the polje, between Tutuala and the coast,
Associated with the polje are a number of small and to the west around Baucau. The only
dolines, some of which had water at their lowest significant cave survey seems to have been one by
points at the time of inspection (August 2005) but O’Connor and Veth (2005) of the outer part of
most of which were dry. A small number had Lene Hara Cave. There are locals in Tutuala who
vertical sides and were filled with water to within are happy to show visitors this cave (presumably
a metre or so of the surface (Fig. 4). While much normally for a fee). We are not aware that they
smaller in scale, in form and appearance they provide any interpretation though it appears such
mimic cenotes and they provide an indication of caves are regarded with a certain reverence.
the level of the watertable below the polje floor
during dry conditions. The principal drainage Lene Hara Cave has a very large entrance (Fig. 6)
from the polje is via the Irasiquero River which and a number of large, dry speleothems. It barely
runs for about 3.5 km south to the Mainina possesses a dark zone, and shows no strong
sinkhole or swallet (Fig. 5). The sink lies in a blind tendency to follow any particular orientation, so
valley cut into the foothills of the Paitchau Range. appears not to be joint-controlled. However, near
horizontal bedding is strongly displayed in the
The Mainina sinkhole is a large and impressive northern wall of the main chamber. There is
feature at the southern end of the valley. The evidence of surface flow from the rear of the cave
water sinks into a restricted swallet around a in the wet season but no well-developed
metre in diameter in the river bed. The water streamway and no evident connection to a
actually drains through holes only about 10 cm in subterranean watercourse. The floor is generally
diameter. Investigation of the swallet is difficult rocky or dusty and has been heavily trafficked.
 Baucau Limestone near the village of Malahara.
Inspection revealed this to be a cave of significant
extent and as it had not previously been
documented, a survey was undertaken. The cave
was found to be about 320 m in length, almost
flat-floored and with chambers generally over 4 m
high.

The cave is remarkable for the strength of its

passage orientation, NE-SW, clearly the result of
very pronounced joint-control of solutional
enlargement. There is abundant evidence, in the
form of significant areas of roof spongework, of
the cave having been primarily formed by phreatic
waters. There is no evidence of vadose stream
action. The cave has abundant speleothems (Figs
8 & 9), large chambers and, with its almost flat
floor throughout, is easily traversed.

Noi Noi Kuru could be opened as an ‘adventure’

show cave with a minimum of effort and could
make a significant contribution to local
ecotourism. However, it has served as a refuge for
local villagers at times of invasion and civil strife.
Sixty families were said to have sheltered in it for
two months in 1975 when the Indonesians took
over. There seems to be a feeling that it could be
Fig. 4. Small water-filled doline of
needed again someday.
cenote form in floor of Iralalaro polje.
It is clear that there is considerable karst,
The only area of flowstone in a near-natural state
including cave, development of the Baucau
is adjacent to the southern wall towards the back
Limestone. Although no large caves were observed
of the chamber. The cave has a number of panels
in the limestones of the Aitutu Formation in the
of ancient art in the entrance (Fig. 7) and
Paitchau Range, there were abundant surface
excavation has established occupation back as far
karst features (karren) and one small cave was
as 35,000 BP (O’Connor, Spriggs and Veth 2002).
noted. Less than half a day was spent in this area
and no deliberate search for caves was made. The
Other caves in the vicinity of Tutuala have also
lack of knowledge of caves in the Aitutu
been the subject of archaeological study in recent
Formation is no indication that significant karst
years. Ile Kéré Kéré is a high but narrow overhang
features are absent, as no exploration has
on the Tutuala Scarp, overlooking the sea. It has
occurred. Other caves on the southern slopes of
large stalactites and flowstone deposits and wild
the Paitchau Mountains were reported to have
bees build hives in its shelter; its art was recorded
been used by Fretilin during the guerrilla
at least as early as 1967 (Almeida 1967, cited in
campaign against the Indonesians. There is
O’Connor 2003).
evidently potential for significant cave
development in the area.
This site is recognised for its spiritual values
though, again, locals were happy to guide us
Hydrogeology
there. Indeed, during the Indonesian period a
concrete path was constructed for about 800 m
No detailed information is available on the
from the road to the rockshelter, evidently to
groundwater and hydrogeology of the area.
facilitate tourism. O’Connor (2003) lists nine
Substantial development is being planned in the
other ‘new’ rock-art sites in the eastern part of
absence of detailed hydrogeological data and the
Timor-Leste, at least 6 of which appear to be
assumptions on which the water volumes have
within the Iralalaro karst. Their speleological
been based are at best unproven. If incorrect they
significance has not been assessed.
would have serious consequences for the viability
of the planned hydroelectric scheme.
Lene Hara and other caves/rockshelters in the
district contain a wealth of rock art documented
The description of the hydrology in the Scoping
by Glover (1986) and O’Connor (2003). There is
Report cannot be accepted with any confidence as
potential for the caves of this region to have high
it is clear that the writes did not understand the
archaeological significance, especially as Timor is
karst. The failure to identify the polje and thus
seen as a likely stepping-stone on the route taken
understand its close relationship with the
by humans to Australia more than 55,000 years
groundwater, absence of any hydrogeological data
ago (Mulvaney & Kamminga 1999). With the
and the failure to initiate its collection, and the
recent discovery of a new small-bodied human
lack of clarity as to the fate of water disappearing
from cave deposits on the nearby island of Flores,
into the Mainina Sinkhole, both in geographical
interest in cave occupation sites on Timor is likely
terms and as to quantities at different seasons
to increase.
show that the proponents seriously
misunderstand the nature of the area. The failure
In August 2005, the authors were shown a cave,
to attempt a water budget is the result of this.
known as Noi Noi Kuru, on a raised terrace of
 2004 (EPANZ Services 2004c) found 12 of the 24
species known from the Lesser Sunda islands
(including Timor) to be present and added 3 or 4
new species.

The most abundant bat was found to be the cave-

roosting fruit bat Rousettus amplexicaudatus
(Geoffroy’s rousette), followed by Rhinolophus
canuti (Canut’s horseshoe bat) and two yet to be
identified Murina species; Hipposideros sumbae
(Sumba leaf-nosed bat) and Rhinolophus
celebensis (Sulawesi horseshoe bat) also appear to
be abundant in the area.

The study found that many species of bat were

likely to be obligate cave roosters. The only other
native mammals recorded by the consultants are
the Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis),
Common Spotted Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis)
and deer (Cervus timorensis) – are all introduced
to Timor. Glover (1986) adds the civet ‘cat’,
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus.

The lake and Irasiquero River contain a

population (estimated at 200-500) of the estuarine
crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. The crocodile is
Fig. 5. The blind valley of the Irasiquero river revered as a totem animal by the local
ends at the Mainina sinkhole. communities and is not hunted by them –
however it has been hunted by others in the past.
Surface and underground biodiversity
McCord’s Long-necked Turtle Chelodina mccordii
is found in the lake and river. Formerly thought to
Studies such as that carried out for UNDP in
be restricted and critically endangered, it now
2001 (Sandlund et al. 2001) drew attention to the
appears to be common in the area, up to 30/day
great natural values of the Iralalaro-Paitchau
being caught by the people of Malahara village
area. In particular the lake and the associated
alone (EPANZ Services 2004a).
wetland ecosystem, the presence of saltwater
crocodiles and the relatively undisturbed forest
A study of the aquatic ecology of the area by the
surrounding the lake itself.
Environmental Research Institute of the
Supervising Scientist, Darwin (EPANZ Services
The Iralaloro/Paitchau area contains the single
2004b) found:
largest area of tropical forest remaining in Timor-
Leste and is considered to contain the single best
representation of natural dry tropical habitats for • an unusually high diversity of aquatic
the islands of Timor, Wetar, Atauro, Roti and plants in the Irasiquero river;
Semau. Lake Iralaloro has the largest and most • a diverse macroinvertebrate fauna (57
biologically significant wetland area in Timor- families recorded) but no decapod
Leste. crustaceans in the Iralalaro lake or
Irasiquero river, presumably because they
While Tropical Dry forest and Tropical Semi have no continuous surface water
evergreen forest habitats occur elsewhere in connection to the sea;
Timor-Leste, the only occurrence of Tropical • “Spring sites on the Irasiquero contained
Evergreen forest is restricted to a small area commonly found amphipod and isopod
above the Mainina [sink]hole on the north side of crustaceans – groups typical of
the Paitchau range, which makes this area of groundwater ecosystems. Thus
particular significance (EPANZ Services 2004a, p. groundwater below the Mainina sinkhole
18) may harbour a specialist fauna - so-
termed 'stygofauna'.”
In relation to avifauna, a survey in 2003-04 by • 28 species of fish (of which 21 were in
BirdLife International (Trainor 2004) found that freshwater habitats and eight were in the
‘Paitchau-Iralalora’ and Jaco Island constitute two Vero River estuary), most of which are
of nine ‘Important Bird Areas’ of Timor-Leste in widespread in the region, but two of
that they possess “one or more species of global which “are new to science and possibly
conservation concern, or one or more globally endemic to Timor (Craterocephalus sp.
restricted-range bird species” and that Paitchau- nov. found in Irasiquero River and
Iralalaro had the highest number of ‘key’ bird Lentipes sp. nov. found in Vero River).”
species (16). There is no information or discussion
on the importance of the polje to bird life. Very little is known of the subsurface fauna of the
study area. The only study carried out to date to
Bats dominate the native terrestrial mammal deliberately investigate part of this fauna is that
fauna of Timor, comprising more than 90% of all on bats, mentioned above. During the authors’
species. A study of bats in the Iralalaro-Paitchau survey of Noi Noi Kuru, a number of invertebrates
area by specialists from the NT Department of were observed, including spiders, cave crickets
Infrastructure, Planning and Environment in and a whip-scorpion or scorpion-spider.
Environmental consultants (EPANZ Services) to whether the Aitutu Formation is karstified or not
the Norwegian group promoting the hydro-electric in this area remains to be discovered.
development have drawn attention to the need, if
the project proceeds to the environmental It is also clear that while the Cribas Formation
assessment stage, for “Possible assessment of appears to be impervious, water from the Mainina
stygofauna and flora within the karstic cave below sinkhole crosses it to reach the south coast (Fig.
the Mainina sink hole” and for further bat studies 10) as indicated by the limited water tracing
(EPANZ Services 2004a, p. 48). Elsewhere in their information. Either the Cribas Formation is not
report the consultants concede (EPANZ Services impervious or there are hydrological routes
2004a, p. 35) that the dewatering of the karst through it or around it.
below the Mainina sinkhole would have “an
unknown effect on the so-called stygofauna,
which is fauna, that is associated with
underground karstic caverns. The extent and
nature of such fauna has not been established.”
In considering possible mitigation measures, the
consultants note:

It would appear that any assessment of

stygofauna would be an extremely specialised
task and this would be difficult and probably
extremely hazardous if entry to the hole is
required. It is possible that this may not be able
to be realistically assessed.

It does not seem to have occurred to the

consultants that it may be possible to access the
underground aquatic habitat through other, non- Fig. 6. Entrance to Lene Hara Cave, near Tutuala.
waterfilled entrances or to study the stygofauna
where the karst drainage rises to the surface. Recognising the lack of detailed information, the
They have not even suggested that any effort be 1989 report did recommend the carrying out of a
made to locate such points. comprehensive geological study as a base for new
engineering geology investigations but to the best
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS of the authors’ knowledge such investigations
INADEQUATELY ADDRESSED BY THE have still not been carried out (though there are
PLANNERS reports of some seismic investigations). The 1989
study (ELC-Electroconsult et al. 1989)
Potential problems for tunnelling in karst nevertheless concluded that the project did not
present any “specially complex technical
The 1989 report barely mentions the possibility of problems” and that the civil construction could be
problems for this major tunnelling project arising carried out with conventional methods. This
from the nature of the karstified rocks through appears to totally dismiss the very real difficulties
which it must pass. In considering geology, ELC- which tend to be the norm, rather than the
Electroconsult et al. (1989) stated: exception, when undertaking engineering projects
on, and especially under, karst terrain.
… the following geological features are of
paramount importance for the project, namely: The 2004 report does not consider any possible
- As a negative effect, the high karstification problems relating to tunnelling or carrying out
of the Ira Lalaro depression and its surrounding major excavations in karst. The only issue it
limestones, which practically impedes a water addresses relating to tunnelling is the disposal of
storage, and limits the civil design to a run of spoil. While spoil disposal problems are real
river scheme; enough, consideration needs to be given to
- As a positive effect, the presence of problems that may arise in creating the spoil, i.e.
impervious shale which protects the mountain during tunnelling and excavation.
ranges from karstic groundwater intrusions and
a competent crystalline limestone which if, as The glib dismissal of any likely problems in the
assumed, is not karstified, represents probably 1989 study and failure to address it in the 2004
a good rock to cross with a power tunnel. report is in stark contrast to the attitudes of those
with experience in karst engineering. Milanović
There seem to be some rather large leaps of faith (2000, p. 79) summarises the risks:
here, based on little evidence. There is a relatively
impervious shale, the Cribas Formation (see Figs The nature of karst presents a great variety of
4 and 14) but there appears to be no reliable risks associated with any kind of human
information as to its precise interface with the activities. The risk component is unavoidable in
Aitutu Formation (which is largely carbonate rock) spite of very serious and complex investigation
deep under the Paitchau Range. The 1:250,000 programs, including all available investigation
geological map of the area indicates significant methods. Moreover, the risk can not be totally
faulting. The major tunnel would run from the eliminated by increasing the investigative
sinkhole and pass under the range at a very low programs. Perhaps it can be minimized to an
gradient. As Fig. 10 shows, what it passes acceptable level, but never absolutely
through depends on the position of the interface eliminated.
between the Cribas and Aitutu formations. As to
 Difficulties and failures in the development of To the best of our knowledge in the present case
karst terranes generally can be classified as none of these has been initiated (though there are
technical and ecological. The technical verbal reports of some seismic investigations) and
difficulties and failures are connected with no plan appears to have been drawn up although
various man-made structures: dams, reservoirs, Adeler et al. (2003, p. 16) did recommend
tunnels and intake structures. The ecological “additional studies on geology and geo-hydrology”
failures are a consequence of various human – without spelling out what aspects these should
activities which deteriorate the environment concentrate on beyond referring back to similar
and water quality, deplete water quantity and recommendations in the 1989 study.
endanger underground fauna..
Karst drainage – the fate of the Mainina water

One of the first points conceded in the 2004

‘Environmental Assessment’ (EPANZ Services
2004a, p. 1) is that “The fate of this water [that
entering the Mainina sinkhole] has not been
established”. It seems remarkable that any
environmental assessment of this project did not
rate the answering of this question as a top
priority. The 2004 report admits that “much of
the information in this [hydrology] section is
derived from the ELC-Electroconsult report
(1989)”[!] Inconclusive and conflicting results were
reported for some earlier tracing attempts.

Some dye tracing experiments were subsequently

carried out and risings towards the south coast
Fig. 7. Geometric art in the were identified, together with at least two towards
entrance to Lene Hara Cave. the north coast. The southerly springs (which
would have been expected) may cause the
Specifically, in relation to the boring of tunnels, proponents little concern in the social context
Milanović (2000, p. 84) warns: because this coastal area is almost unpopulated,
however it is another matter to the north.
In underground structures such as tunnel Information from a more recent water trace
excavation the risk aspect is emphasized, since indicates that the water from the Mainina
the evaluation of engineering-geological sinkhole reappears in two resurgences to the
characteristics of the media is based on north near Com as well as springs along the
expensive investigation works and difficult south coast.
interpretation where reliability is hard to
achieve. In the long and deep tunnels the risk is Interestingly, the two northern springs show
increased due to limited scope of "point" higher levels of the trace than the southern ones.
investigation works (boreholes), while Unfortunately, the consultants and the
conclusions are mostly based on surface Government have been tardy in releasing details
investigations (geological mapping, geophysical of the dye tracing tests and it is not known if any
works). The presence of large caverns at depths flow times were determined or if there is any real
below 100 m is impossible to determine by quantitative data on flows. We have seen some
existing methods from the surface. Moreover, it limited data but it is difficult to comment further
may present an important problem if tunnel without details of the tracing methodology.
boring machine (TBM) is to be used, particularly Without such details and the construction of a
if the cavern is filled with clay. fully documented water budget for the drainage
basin any decision to divert this water to another
Further, Marinos (2001) concludes: use would be irresponsible.

Tunnelling and mining in karst require a Potential problems resulting from dewatering
thorough hydrogeological knowledge over a karst
broader area. Lack of this knowledge may
result in a design which will not be able to face The 2004 report acknowledges that the project
problems or hazards that may occur during would have –
construction with probably dramatic
consequences on the completion of the Possible effects on the structural stability of the
operation. karstic system should the flows diminish. Any
subsequent collapses that may occur within the
Common investigations which should be system could have other compounding effects
undertaken to minimise potential problems with with regard to the ability of floodwaters to be
drilling in karst are outlined by Milanović (2004): carried away via the Mainina karstic route.

• detailed geological mapping at the surface, This concern is presumably founded on the well-
• drilling, documented problem of collapse induced by
• water level monitoring, dewatering resulting in removal of buoyant
• geophysical surveys (from the surface and support. Ford and Williams (1989, p. 409)
from within the tunnel), and observe:
• speleological exploration.
 In a fully saturated medium, the buoyant force On the other hand, it is documented that the
of water is 1 tonne m-3 and if the water table is existing flow into the Mainina sinkhole varies
lowered 30 m, the increase in effective stress on significantly throughout the year, from about 5
the rocks is 30 tonnes m-3. If unconsolidated m3/sec to 33 m3/sec, and there is no evidence of
overlying materials are affected by such de- this having led to collapse within the karst
watering, compression occurs and the surface (although there has been no effort put into finding
subsides. any).

Vermeulen and Whitten (1999, p. 68) warn: The possibility exists, however, that removing all,
or most, of the last 5 m3/sec and the permanent
Excessive extraction of water may cause the lowering of water levels could be the trigger which
drying up of aboveground and underground destabilises the system.
systems in limestone areas, leading to possible
collapse as flooded cavities become filled with Impact of dewatering on dependent fauna
air. Small water bodies, which may be
inhabited by small, site-endemic fish species While groundwater dependant fauna were not
and snails, will disappear, and with them the even hinted at in the 1989 study, they are at least
species. mentioned in the 2004 one:

Alterations of flow patterns by the construction Spring sites on the Irasiquero contained
of dams, water extraction and flood control in commonly found amphipod and isopod
and around limestone areas will profoundly crustaceans – groups typical of groundwater
change the limestone environment and lead to ecosystems. Thus groundwater below the
the extinction of whole communities. The Mainina sinkhole may harbour a specialist
quantity of water and the availability of fauna - so-termed ‘stygofauna’ (EPANZ Services
nutrients change, … aquatic habitats are 2004a, p. 16).
destroyed, …
In considering impacts and possible mitigation
measures, the report notes that diversion of the
Mainina water away from the karst may have
impacts including:

An unknown effect on the so-called stygofauna,

which is fauna, that is associated with
underground karstic caverns. The extent and
nature of such fauna has not been established.

It then goes on to cast doubt on the feasibility of

even investigating this fauna:

It would appear that any assessment of

stygofauna would be an extremely specialised
task and this would be difficult and probably
extremely hazardous if entry to the hole is
required. It is possible that this may not be able
to be realistically assessed. (EPANZ Services
2004a, p. 35)

As a means of mitigating the impacts of

dewatering, the report suggests only “the
provision of a downstream release that would be
sufficient to maintain the health of the systems
but at a lower level” without offering any
suggestion as to how the ‘downstream release’
might be quantified or timed.

Any study purporting to responsibly consider the

environmental impacts of the proposed scheme
Fig. 8. Ignacio, our guide, with
must properly investigate the stygofauna, assess
speleothems and roots, Noi Noi Kuru.
its extent and significance and propose adequate
measures to protect it, or at least to minimise
While the surface consequences of any collapse
adverse impacts on it.
deep within the Paitchau Range seem unlikely to
be significant, the nature of karst drainage is
MANAGEMENT OF THE KARST
such that it should not be assumed that effects
would only be felt along a straight line between
Protected Area issues
the Mainina sinkhole and the springs towards the
south coast.
Proposals to provide protection to the special
environmental values of the Iralalaro-Paitchau
If the water also drains to the north, as suggested
area are long-standing. The situation is well
by the limited water tracing, the watertable
summarised by McWilliam (2003):
underlying the whole region would potentially be
affected.
 The district of Lautem contains one of the finest aspects of environmental management which may
contiguous blocks of dense lowland tropical and not be adequately addressed by traditional
monsoon forest on the island of Timor. Covering practices, (and karst will probably be one of
an area of some 300 sq. km and incorporating these), will no doubt be necessary if the
the heavily forested Paichao range of low sustainable management of this outstanding area
mountains, this forest zone extends from the is to be assured.
eastern extremity of East Timor (Jaco Island) in
a narrow band (7-10 km) westwards following Specific karst management issues
the unpopulated southern coastal hinterland.
As a region with great ecological value and A full inventory of the caves and other karst
complex biodiversity, the area has long been features of the region (especially pits, dolines,
accorded special significance. During the period sinks, springs and dry stream courses) should be
of Indonesian rule (1975-99), much of the undertaken without delay as a first step in
forested zone was classified as a natural analysing the karst networks and connections –
conservation reserve. This category of and their habitat, ecological, archaeological,
protection, on paper at least, prohibited logging palaeontological and other values. Such an
and other forms of extractive activity within its inventory would serve as the basis on which plans
boundaries. Subsequently, under the United could be developed for the proper management of
Nations Transitional Administration in East these resources.
Timor (UNTAET) from 1999, the area was re-
classified and declared as one of 15 so-called, The lack of information in these areas is a serious
‘Protected Wild Areas’ (UNTAET Regulation problem and at the very least expert consultants
19/2000). This sentiment and commitment to should be engaged immediately to investigate and
recognize and conserve the heritage and evaluate the stygofauna and its ecosystem, to
resources of the Tutuala-Paichao Reserve, has provide baseline data for later assessment. There
continued under the new government of an is a sizeable local human population, which
independent East Timor. In 2002, through its derives its livelihood from agriculture in and
Directorate of Forestry, the government initiated around the lake. There is a serious concern that if
a program to formally demarcate and legislate the hydro-electric power scheme is built, over
the area as the country’s first ‘National Park’. time the groundwater level in the polje may be
systematically and permanently lowered.
It appears that more recently, particularly in view
of established rights within the area, the If this were to occur the livelihood of the Malahara
Government has sought to establish a mutually community and other communities dependent on
agreed framework for management with local the lake, the groundwater as well as the
communities bordering the forest area and is now associated ecosystem, would be jeopardized. A
considering a reserve category more in accord groundwater system such as that which exists in
with IUCN’s Category V (IUCN 1994) which would this polje and the surrounding catchments, and
permit a range of traditional practices to continue downstream areas, can be subject to pollution
(McWilliam 2003) or Category VI which allows problems that can affect beneficial uses of the
even greater development of resources. groundwater. Faecal pollution at the present time
is probably the main risk but indiscriminate use
This is not to say that the whole area should be of agricultural chemicals or fertilizers could have
actively managed to encourage or facilitate detrimental effects also.
practices which would degrade natural qualities
and certainly does not to imply that development
of the hydro-electric scheme elsewhere in the
proposed reserve would be a compatible use. On
the contrary, the proposed scheme is
incompatible with the maintenance of many of the
natural and cultural values which give the area
its special significance, particularly the karst
values.

The best natural features within any Category V

or VI reserve could be declared as separate, more
highly protected areas (e.g. Category 1a Strict
Nature Reserve) or, more simply, some parts of
the reserve could be zoned for a limited range of
uses so as to favour nature conservation. This
might apply in the present case to the mountains
and the south coast that have not been inhabited
for many years.

In keeping with the intent of this type of protected

area, management should be shared with the
local community, not simply imposed by a
government agency. This is particularly so, given
the history of this place and the experiences its
inhabitants have suffered at the hands of
‘government’. Nevertheless, a concerted program
to inform the local community with regard to Fig. 9. Nicholas and white column, Noi Noi Kuru.
 Fig. 10. Schematic section through Timor-Leste in vicinity of Malahara village, showing Iralalaro Lake
and polje, Paitchau Mountains, inferred geology and presumed routes taken by underground water.

Ecotourism Research

The communities at the eastern end of Timor- The Iralalaro area has excellent potential for
Leste have only very recently begun to experience interesting and significant research. The area has
tourism pressures. There is some potential here experienced little research except perhaps
but current facilities are very limited. Many archaeological work and the biological surveys
villages, eg Malahara, have no public associated with the hydro-electric proposal. There
accommodation or eating premises, or even small is potential for significant research in the earth
shops. science area such as research into understanding
karst in tropical areas of Australasia and the role
There are many possibilities for activities such as karst has in landscape evolution in recently
birdwatching, walking, horseriding, adventure uplifted areas.
caving and more serious trekking, but the
servicing of even small numbers of visitors is The understanding of karst and its relation to
currently problematic. Planning for ecotourism groundwater is fundamental to the future
needs to encompass the infrastructure facilities management and appropriate development of this
and further adventure tourism assessment to part of Timor-Leste.
support such tourism in and around Malahara
and Tutuala. A thorough understanding of the hydrological
relationships of the system would assist in
Some caves in the area would no doubt be ensuring the sustainability of existing
suitable for adventure caving. At least some of communities and in assessing impacts of
these have known associations with Fretilin proposed developments.
activities as caves were used during the guerrilla
campaign directed at the Indonesian occupiers. CONCLUSIONS

The Australian “Sparrow Force” activities in 1942 The authors have grave concerns about the
during World War II used a route from the coast viability and the impacts of the proposed Iralalaro
over the Paitchau Mountains. This history is hydro-electric scheme. Based on the available
known locally and needs further research. This is reports, a brief site visit, their understanding of
important because it is the sort of history which karst and research of the literature, it appears
can greatly enrich tourist activities. that there are serious gaps in the site studies and
serious limitations on the understanding of the
Reservations exist in the Malahara community area by the consultants designing the scheme.
about both the hydro-electric proposal and
developments which tourism might bring. Only by In conclusion, the scheme, in so far as the
community involvement in these developments authors have been able to understand it, appears
will benefits be spread. to have a number of serious limitations which,
unless they are addressed, could seriously
At the present time the Malahara community undermine the scheme’s viability, or at least
would struggle to sustain and benefit from a cause significant cost overruns.
hydro-electric scheme development and is equally
ill-prepared to provide for an ecotourism “boom”. Additional studies may address some of these
There is interest in the revenue and jobs but concerns but there appears to be a reluctance to
understandably ambivalence and uncertainty undertake studies on the fundamental nature of
about the intrusion that such developments the area, i.e. the karst.
would bring.
Concerns include: at risk the development of tourism in the
1. The karst has not been subjected to a region.
thorough and detailed study by experts in 7. The proposed hydro scheme is
this specialised field and the implications incompatible with the maintenance of
of the karstic nature of the terrain appear many of the natural and cultural values,
not to have been adequately appreciated. which give the area its special
2. The cost of the scheme may have been significance. There is a case for protection
seriously underestimated. of the Iralalaro polje, the subterranean
3. The risks and costs of drilling and wetlands and their associated
tunnelling in karstic terrain are probably ecosystems. Further investigation is
underestimated and have not been given needed into the possibility of having the
the detailed consideration they deserve. area protected under the Ramsar
4. Risks and costs of dewatering the karst convention.
have neither been fully understood nor 8. The proponents demonstrate a lack of
properly addressed. understanding of local infrastructure
5. The lack of even a simple water budget whilst selling the scheme as a potential
brings into question the basis for employer. There are serious questions as
assuming the viability of the scheme over to the ability of the proposed scheme to
time. provide the claimed electricity output in
6. The area’s ecotourism potential relies on perpetuity at the currently estimated
the mountains, forests, karst, caves, costs and with the suggested low levels of
wildlife and the history/prehistory of the environmental impact.
area. The hydro scheme could damage
precisely those features most likely to
attract adventure tourists, and would put

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