DOCTORAL SCHOOL INFORMATION SHEET

THE BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY: CODE OF ETHICS

The following is an extract from the BPS Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines
published in February 1996.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The principles given below are intended to apply to research with human participants.
Principles of conduct in professional practice are to be found in the Society’s Code of
Conduct and in the advisory documents prepared by the Divisions, Sections and
Special Groups of the Society.

1.2 Participants in psychological research should have confidence in the investigators.

Good psychological research is possible only if there is mutual respect and
confidence between investigators and participants. Psychological investigators are
potentially interested in all aspects of human behaviour and conscious experience.
However, for ethical reasons, some areas of human experience and behaviour may
be beyond the reach of experiment, observation or other form of psychological
investigation. Ethical guidelines are necessary to clarify the conditions under which
psychological research is acceptable.

2 GENERAL

2.1 In all circumstances, investigators must consider the ethical implications and
psychological consequences for the participants in their research. The essential
principle is that the investigation should be considered from the standpoint of all
participants; foreseeable threats to their psychological well-being, health, values or
dignity should be eliminated. Investigators should recognise that, in our multi-cultural
and multi-ethnic society and where investigations involve individuals of different ages,
gender and social background, the investigators may not have sufficient knowledge of
the implications of any investigation for the participants. It should be borne in mind
that the best judge of whether an investigation will cause offence may be members of
the population from which the participants in the research are to be drawn.

3 CONSENT

3.1 Whenever possible, the investigator should inform all participants of the objectives of
the investigation. The investigator should inform the participants of all aspects of the
research or intervention that might reasonably be expected to influence willingness to
participate. The investigator should, normally, explain all other aspects of the
research or intervention about which the participants enquire. Failure to make full
disclosure prior to obtaining informed consent requires additional safeguards to
protect the welfare and dignity of the participants (see Section 4).
3.2 Research with children or with participants who have impairments that will limit
understanding and /or communication such that they are unable to give their real
consent requires special safe-guarding procedures.

3.3 Where possible, the real consent of children and of adults with impairments in
understanding or communication should be obtained. In addition, where research
involves any persons under 16 years of age, consent should be obtained from
parents or from those ‘in loco parentis’. If the nature of the research precludes
consent being obtained from parents or permission being obtained from teachers,
before proceeding with the research, the investigator must obtain approval from an
Ethics Committee.

3.4 Where real consent cannot be obtained from adults with impairments in
understanding or communication, wherever possible the investigator should consult a
person well-placed to appreciate the participant’s reaction, such as a member of the
person’s family, and must obtain the disinterested approval of the research from
independent advisors.

3.5 When research is being conducted with detained persons, particular care should be
taken over informed consent, paying attention to the special circumstances which
may affect the person’s ability to give free informed consent.

3.6 Investigators should realise that they are often in a position of authority or influence
over participants who may be their students, employees or clients. This relationship
must not be allowed to pressurize the participants to take part in, or remain in, an
investigation.

3.7 The payment of participants must not be used to induce them to risk harm beyond
that which they risk without payment in their normal life-style.

3.8 If harm unusual discomfort, or other negative consequences for the individual’s future
life might occur, the investigator must obtain the disinterested approval of
independent advisors, inform the participants, and obtain informed, real consent from
each of them.

3.9 In longitudinal research, consent may need to be obtained on more than one
occasion.

4 DECEPTION

4.1 The withholding of information or the misleading of participants is unacceptable if the

participants are typically likely to object or show unease once debriefed. Where this
is in any doubt, appropriate consultation must precede the investigation. Consultation
is best carried out with individuals who share the social and cultural background of
the participants in the research, but the advice of ethics committees or experienced
and disinterested colleagues may be sufficient.

4.2 Intentional deception of the participants over the purpose and general nature of the
investigation should be avoided whenever possible. Participants should never be
deliberately misled without extremely strong scientific or medical justification. Even
then there should be strict controls and the disinterested approval of independent
advisors.
4.3 It may be impossible to study some psychological processes without withholding
information about the true object of the study or deliberately misleading the
participants. Before conducting such a study, the investigator has a special
responsibility to (a) determine that alternative procedures avoiding concealment or
deception are not available; (b) ensure that the participants are provided with
sufficient information at the earliest stage; and (c) consult appropriately upon the way
that the withholding of information or deliberate deception will be received.

5 DEBRIEFING

5.1 In studies where the participants are aware that they have taken part in an
investigation, when the data have been collected, the investigator should provide the
participants with any necessary information to complete their understanding of the
nature of the research. The investigator should discuss with the participants their
experience of the research in order to monitor any unforeseen negative effects or
misconceptions.

5.2 Debriefing does not provide a justification for unethical aspects of any investigation.

5.3 Some effects which may be produced by an experiment will not be negated by a
verbal description following the research. Investigators have a responsibility to
ensure that participants receive any necessary debriefing in the form of active
intervention before they leave the research setting.

6 WITHDRAWAL FROM THE INVESTIGATION

6.1 At the onset of the investigation investigators should make plain to participants their
right to withdraw from the research at any time, irrespective of whether or not
payment or other inducement has been offered. It is recognised that this may be
difficult in certain observational or organisational settings, but nevertheless the
investigator must attempt to ensure that participants (including children) know of their
right to withdraw. When testing children, avoidance of the testing situation may be
taken as evidence of failure to consent to the procedure and should be
acknowledged.

6.2 In the light of experience of the investigation, or as a result of debriefing, the

participant has the right to withdraw retrospectively any consent given, and to require
that their own data, including recordings, be destroyed.

7 CONFIDENTIALITY

7.1 Subject to the requirements of legislation, including the Data Protection Act,
information obtained about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless
otherwise agreed in advance. Investigators who are put under pressure to disclose
confidential information should draw this point to the attention of those exerting such
pressure. Participants in psychological research have a right to expect that
information they provide will be treated confidentially and, if published, will not be
identifiable as theirs. In the event that confidentiality and/or anonymity cannot be
guaranteed, the participant must be warned of this in advance of agreeing to
participate.
8 PROTECTION OF PARTICIPANTS

8.1 Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and
mental harm during the investigation. Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater
than in ordinary life, i.e. participants should not be exposed to risks greater than or
additional to those encountered in their normal life-styles. Where the risk of harm is
greater than in ordinary life the provisions of 3.8 should apply. Participants must be
asked about any factors in the procedure that might create a risk, such as pre-
existing medical conditions, and must be advised of any special action they should
take to avoid risk.

8.2 Participants should be informed of procedures for contacting the investigator within a
reasonable time period following participation should stress, potential harm, or related
questions or concern arise despite the precautions required by the Principles. Where
research procedures might result in undesirable consequences for participants, the
investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove or correct these
consequences.

8.3 Where research may involve behaviour or experiences that participants may regard
as personal and private the participants must be protected from stress by all
appropriate measures, including the assurance that answers to personal questions
need not be given. There should be no concealment or deception when seeking
information that might encroach on privacy.

8.4 In research involving children, great caution should be exercised when discussing the
results with parents, teachers or others in loco parentis, since evaluative statements
may carry unintended weight.

9 OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

9.1 Studies based upon observation must respect the privacy and psychological well-
being of the individuals studied. Unless those observed give their consent to being
observed, observational research is only acceptable in situations where those
observed would expect to be observed by strangers. Additionally, particular account
should be taken of local cultural values and of the possibility of intruding upon the
privacy of individuals who, even while in a normally public space, may believe they
are unobserved.

10 GIVING ADVICE

10.1 During research, an investigator may obtain evidence of psychological or physical

problems of which a participant is, apparently, unaware. In such a case, the
investigator has a responsibility to inform the participant if the investigator believes
that by not doing so the participant’s future well-being may be endangered.

10.2 If, in the normal course psychological research, or as a result of problems detected as
in 10.1, a participant solicits advice concerning educational, personality, behavioural
or health issues, caution should be exercised. If the issue is serious and the
investigator is not qualified to offer assistance, the appropriate source of professional
advice should be recommended. Further details on the giving of advice will be found
in the Society’s Code of Conduct.

10.3 In some kinds of investigation the giving of advice is appropriate if this forms an
intrinsic part of the research and has been agreed in advance.
11 COLLEAGUES

11.1 Investigators share responsibility for the ethical treatment of research participants
with their collaborators, assistants, students and employees. A psychologist who
believes that another psychologist or investigator may be conducting research that is
not in accordance with the principles above should encourage that investigator to re-
evaluate the research.

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