1

ASOCSA2011-42

An analysis of the impact of rework on

project performance: Views from the
field
1 2
Eric Kwame Simpeh , Ruben Ndihokubwayo , Peter E.D.
3
Love
1, 2 Department of the Built Environment, Cape Peninsula University
of Technology, South Africa
1MTech Student, [email protected], Tel No. +27 21 959 6317
2Junior Lecturer, [email protected], Tel No. +27 21 959 6845
3 Curtin University of Technology, Perth, WA 6845, Australia,
John Curtin Distinguished Professor, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Purpose: This paper assesses the impacts of rework on construction
project performance. In addition it identifies the root causes of rework
during the design development process.

Methodology: Case study approaches based on purposively selected

projects were used to analyse the impact of rework on project performance.
Interviews were conducted with consulting engineering firms to obtain data.

Findings: The findings of this study establish that the impacts of rework
are not significantly different between the two projects. Changes initiated by
the client and contractors together with design-related sources such as
errors and omissions in contract documentation were found to be the
primary causes of rework. Particularly in project A rework was exacerbated
by changes made at the request of municipality to comply with new fire
safety regulation.

Limitations: The study was conducted in Cape Town and limited to two
multiple storey educational facilities and as a result the reported findings
cannot be generalized. In addition, causal histories for identified rework
events tended to be grounded in the views of the design consultants and as
result there is a potential for bias to exist. However, the findings reported
are akin to what the normative literature has reported.
Value: To reduce the impact of rework on project performance, It is
suggests that construction companies and consultant firms (particularly
design consultants) need an understanding of its causal structure during
the design development process so that effective prevention strategies
can be identified and the impact of rework reduced or eliminated.

Key words: causes, construction, errors, omissions, rework, waste.

Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011

An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 2

1. INTRODUCTION
The construction industry has the iniquitous reputation of being fragmented;
lacking co-ordination and communication between parties; creating
adversarial contractual relationships; and lacking customer focus (Love,
Edwards & Smith 2005). This combination of problems has meant that
rework has become an insidious problem and so consequently, the costs of
rework have been found to be considerable (Love et al, 2005). Love, Holt,
Shen, Li, and Irani (2002) stated that both the internal and external
environments of construction projects are dynamic and relatively unstable.
Tasks performed in construction projects are typically divided between
professional (e.g. architect, structural engineer, project manager) and trade
disciplines (e.g. the contractor's and sub contractorsʼ carpenters,
bricklayers, plumbers), which frequently operate independently of one
another. Due to the complex characteristics nature of construction,
Palaneeswaran (2006) opined that amendments may be deemed inevitable
in some instances, however uncontrolled occurrences of rework and
wastages should be effectively controlled. Rework is a major contributor to
time wastage and schedule overruns which will eventually impact on cost,
resources as well as quality (Love & Edwards, 2004). Cooper (1993) stated
that rework emerges as overtime, additional hiring of resources such as for
example labour and plant, schedule slippage, and reductions in project
scope or quality. To date there has been limited research that has sought to
determine the impact of rework in South African construction projects.
Therefore this paper aims to determine the causes and effect of rework that
occur during construction so that effective prevention and reduction
strategies can be developed.

2. NATURE OF REWORK
The nature of rework can be determined by referring to their definition
/interpretations and classification. According to Love (2002a) rework has
various definitions and interpretations within the construction management
literature. Terms for it include “quality deviations”, “non-conformance”,
“defects”, and “quality failures” (Burati, Farrington and Ledbetter 1992,
Abdul-Rahman 1995, Josephson and Hammarlund 1999, Barber, Graves,
Hall, Sheath and Tomkins 2000). Love (2002a) defines rework as “the
unnecessary effort of re-doing a process or activity that was incorrectly
implemented the first time”. Similarly, field rework is defined as activities
that have to be done more than once or activities that remove work
previously installed as part of a project (CII 2001a). In the sense of
conformance, there are two main definitions of rework (Love 2002a;
Fayek, Dissanayake and Campero 2003). The first definition is that rework
is the process by which an item is made to conform to the original
requirements by completion or correction (Ashford 1992). The second
definition given by the Construction Industry Development Agency (1995)
holds that rework involves doing something at least one extra time due to
non-conformance to requirements.
Burati et al. (1992) used deviation categories based on
construction, design, operability, fabrication, and transportation to identify
the causes of rework from nine fast-tracked industrial construction
projects.
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 3

Love, Wyatt and Mohamed (1997) proposed a rework classification system

based on three principle groups namely; people, design, and construction.
Love and Li (2000) also classified rework in three categories; these
include client-initiated changes, nonvariations, and defects.

3. CAUSES OF REWORK

3.1 Engineering and reviews

Love and Li (2000) revealed that, errors and omissions appear to be major
factors that contribute to rework. The Building Research Establishment in
the UK (BRE, 1981) found that errors in buildings had 50% of their origin in
the design stage and 40% in the construction stage. A cited example by
Love and Li divulge that the architectʼs documentation for the ceilings and
partitions package contained dimensional errors and missing information,
and thus affected the set-out of the internal walls. During construction,
rework arose out of incomplete and erroneous information. Every time a
change was made in design, it had to be reworked by the design team,
which in turn affected their fee (Love and Li 2000, p489).

3.2 Human Resource Capability

Hampson (1997) stated that a major challenge facing todayʼs construction

project managers is to encourage innovation throughout the project
process to ensure that all problems are easy to identify. Love, Holt, Shen,
Li, and Irani (2002) highlighted that a large portion of rework costs is
attributable to the poor skill levels of the client's project manager, and of
the design team and subcontractors. Fayek et al. (2003) identified
insufficient skills levels, inadequate supervision and job planning and
unclear instructions to workers as some of the factors that contributed to
rework in their study titled “Measuring and classifying construction field
rework”.
Another cited example is a study conducted to determine the effect of
quality supervision on rework in Indonesia by Alwi et al. (2001). The study
revealed that the quality of site supervision had a major influence on the
overall performance and efficiency of construction projects. Furthermore,
Smallwood (2000) conducted a study to investigate clientsʼ perception
relative to contactors performance among members of South African
Property Owners Association (SAPOA). It was evident that some of the
causes of poor contractor performance as perceived by clients were poor
management of the design activities, poor management and low skills level
among the workers. Alwi et al (2001) stressed that experienced and well-
trained supervisors have an important role in minimising the amount of
rework due to construction defects.

3.3 Leadership and communication

According to The Business Roundtable (1982) the inability of many
supervisors to plan work, communicate with workers, and direct activities
adequately is fundamentally linked to increasing amount and cost of
rework. Lack of design coordination and integration between project team
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 4

members can lead to design deficiencies and exacerbate the causes of

rework. Josephson and Hammarlund (1999) have suggested that source of
design-related rework is attributable to communication problems. Similarly,
Austin et al. (1994) pointed out that the ineffective use of information
technology in managing and communicating information aggravates the
amount of rework that occurs in a project. Love and Li (2000) conducted a
study to quantify the causes and cost of rework on construction of
residential homes and industrial warehouses. Findings revealed that poor
coordination and integration between design team members hindered the
flow of information among them. Love and Li (2000) revealed that
engineers used CAD technologies and the architects used manual
systems to document their designs. As a result, some drawings were
issued with dimensional errors and missing information. Walker (1994)
concluded that clients and their project team members must communicate
and work together harmoniously if projects are to be delivered on or ahead
of time.

3.4 Quality management issues

Alwi et al. (2001) affirmed that quality management principles and tools are
not strongly embedded in conventional construction management practice.
As a result, rework, on many cases, is accepted as an inevitable feature of
the construction process increasing the likelihood of project time and cost
overruns, and ultimately leading to client dissatisfaction. Likewise Jaafari,
(1996) asserted that one of the most perplexing issues facing organizations
in the construction industry is their inability to become quality focused. As a
result sub-standard products and services often emanate, which
inadvertently result in rework. Cusack (1992) stressed that projects without
a quality system in place typically experience a 10% cost increase because
of rework. On the other hand, Love and Edwards (2004) noted that the
construction industry development authority in Australia found that the
average cost of rework for projects with a quality system was found to be
0.72%.

3.5 Construction planning and schedule

Site management team and subcontractors project success is dependent

upon the effectiveness of the main contractorʼs construction planning
efforts (Chan, 1998; Faniran, Love & Li, 1999; Ireland, 1985; Walker,
1994). The Business Roundtable (1982) identified the lack of adequate
planning, scheduling, materials management, quality control and quality
assurance as critical problems during the construction process. According
to Alwi et al. (2001) project managers acknowledge that in some cases, the
causes of rework might be interrelated or lead to one another. For
example, an inexperienced supervisor who makes a mistake in choosing
the suitable construction method will certainly affect the construction
process.
Smallwood (2000) stressed that one of the major causes of poor contractor
performance as perceived by clients was poor planning.

4. IMPACT OF REWORK
The occurrence of rework has an adverse impact on project performance.
Palaneeswaran (2006) maintained that rework has both direct and indirect
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 5

impact on project performance. For instance in poorly managed projects,

the gross impacts of rework (that is direct and indirect) could be equal to or
even exceed the anticipated mark up/profit margin levels. The author
identified the following direct impact of rework on project management
transactions. These include: additional time to rework, additional costs for
covering rework occurrences, additional materials for rework and
subsequent wastage handling; and additional labour for rework and related
extensions of supervising manpower. Love (2002b) concluded that rework
can seriously affect an individual, an organisation and a projectʼs
performance indirectly. At the individual level, stress, fatigue, absenteeism,
de-motivation, and poor morale were found to be the primary indirect
effects of rework. At the organisation level, Love (2002b) identified reduced
profit, diminished professional image, inter-organisational conflict, loss of
future work and poor morale as indirect effects of rework. At the project
level, work inactivity such as waiting time, idle time and travelling time and
end-user dissatisfaction were identified as indirect consequences of
rework.

5. METHODOLOGY
An exploratory research approach was adopted to determine the impact of
rework on construction project performance. Purposive sampling method
was used to select two construction projects based in Cape Town. In
Purposive sampling, people or other units are chosen for a particular
purpose (Leedy and Ormrod 2005). It is a useful sampling method
consisting of receiving information from a sample of the population that one
thinks knows most about the subject matter (Walliman, 2005). Romano
(1989) suggests that the number used depends on the individual
researcher. Semi structured interviews with relevant parties such
as design consultants and observations of physical building were
used to obtained qualitative data. A framework of questions for
the interview was designed to collect information relating to
design- related sources of rework, quality management practices
of design consulting firms and the impact of rework on
overall project
performance. The semi-structured questionnaire was sent to respondents
via email so that respondents will be informed about the focus of the
interview prior to meeting. This assisted the respondents to prepare
adequately for the interview in advance. In project A the interview was
conducted telephonically due to the unavailability of the respondent. On the
other interview conducted for project B was tape-recorded and
subsequently transcribed. Also, direct observations were made by the
researcher and notes were taken with the aid of a notebook and pen to
derive data.

6. CASE DESCRIPTION – PROJECT A

Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011

An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 6

Project A consisted of a two-storey university residential

apartment situated in the suburb of Bellville in Cape Town. The
total floor area is 3800 m2. It contained a total of 200-beds, a
communal kitchen, TV room and an open court yard with a
landscaped area in the middle. The contract value for the
development was R30 million with a contract period of 14
months. The project was procured using a competitive tender
with bill of quantities and working drawings, with the client
employing an architect as the project manager to act as their
development representative. Due to time constrain on the part of
the engineers, the researcher sent the framework of questions to
the respondent via email. The respondent (structural engineer)
also responded via email. A telephonic interview was made as a
follow up by the researcher to obtained clarities and further
explanation regarding the answers provided by the respondent
and this lasted for 20minutes.

6.1 Causes of rework

6.2.1 Design-related sources
According to the structural engineer the contract drawings were not
complete at the time of tender because sufficient information was not
available from the architect/principal agent and the client. As a result there
were some errors and omissions during the design stage which constituted
rework.

6.2.2 Changes initiated by parties involved

The structural engineer revealed that changes were made at the request of
the municipality which constituted rework to both the design consultants
and construction firm. It was communicated by the architect (Principal
agent) to the various design consultants and the contractor. An example
was the changing of the orientation of the staircase to comply with the
municipalityʼs new fire safety regulation. According to structural engineer,
at the time the municipality raised that query the foundations has already
started. So the contractor ended up breaking the concrete base to remove
the starter reinforcement for the staircase and consequently work in that
particular area was put on hold to await the new design. The site engineer
concluded that the change resulted in the need for additional paving which
subsequently affected the civil drawings.

6.3 Effect of rework

The structural engineer indicated that the client has expressed
dissatisfaction about the quality of workmanship and progress on site due
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 7

to rework. Likewise the consultants are not satisfied with the progress on
site because structural engineer stated that time spent on site for meetings
and inspection can be spent on other projects which are currently ongoing.
The changes initiated by the municipality particularly regarding the
staircase had adverse impact on both the design consultants and
construction firm. The structural engineer identified de-motivation, fatigue,
poor morale and time spent on redesigning the staircase and paving layout
as impacts of rework to his firm. The structural engineer also stated that
cost incurred by the firm by paying overtime to workers and client
dissatisfaction cannot be overlooked. A summary of the impact of rework
experienced from the case study for project A can be seen in figure 1.

De-motivation Time allocated

to rework

Impact of
Fatigue rework Cost

Poor morale Client

dissatisfaction

Figure1 Impact of rework for project A.

Adopted from love (2002b)

7. CASE DESCRIPTION – PROJECT B

Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011

An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 8

Project B consisted of a 7-storey educational facility situated in

Observatory a suburb of Cape Town. The total floor area was
6000 m2. It contained 887 units with en-suite bathroom, 91-
kitchens, two- court yards with a central communal area and
underground parking are among the facilities incorporated in this
development. The project was a competitive tender with bill of
quantities, the contract value for the development was R286.6
million with a contract period of 22 months. A project manager
was employed by the client to act as their representative. The
structural engineer was interviewed on this project. The interview
was conducted in the meeting room of the consulting firm and
lasted 40 minutes.

7.1 Causes of rework

7.2.1 Design-related sources
The structural engineer admitted that tender drawings and construction
drawings are not 100% correct because tender drawings vary a bit from
construction drawings. The structural engineer maintained that on this very
project there were one or two errors that ensued that constituted rework to
design consultants. For instance at the beginning they had a very tight
deadlines because there was a fixed time allocated to each task (e.g
transfer drawings). Besides, the drawings were not complete at the time of
tender. As a result changes were made to the design before the site
activities started.

7.2.2 Changes initiated by parties involved

The structural engineer revealed that changes were made at the request of
the contractor and subcontractor. One such example cited by the
respondent was the subcontractor requested that the warm water storage
facility which was designed to be six (6) tanks of 10,000litres each to be
changed to four (4) tanks of 13,000litres each. The structural engineer
stressed that this resulted in dimensional changes which constituted
rework to his firm. Changes were made at the request of the client to
increase the room sizes in order to get better value for money. The
engineer pointed out that the changes affected the positions of some of the
partition walls and subsequently affected that ducting layout and this
constituted rework to both the architect and electrical engineering firm.

7.2.3 Construction errors

According to the structural engineer errors were made at the initial stages
of the construction phase by the contractor which constituted rework. The
engineer stated that those errors were as result of transferability problems,
lack of skills and inexperience on the part of subcontractors and lack of
proper understanding and inability to interpret the structural drawing
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 9

7.3 Effect of rework

The structural engineer stated that rework had serious impact on his firm
especially individuals. The engineer stressed that some of the workers who
worked on this project were stressed out as a result of working overtime to
get the design right. Moreover, morale of the workers was affected and
they were de-motivated. Also time allocated for new projects was spent on
doing rework. Figure 2 illustrate the impact of rework experienced in the
case study for project B.

Stress Poor morale

Fatigue Impact Time allocate

of for rework
Rework

Work inactivity De-motivation

Figure 2 the impact of rework for project B.

Adopted from love (2002b)

8. CONCLUSION
No significant differences in the impact of rework between project A and
project B. In both projects it was found that rework was time consuming to
design consulting firms. At the individual level poor morale, fatigue, stress
and de-motivation were identified as impact of rework. It was also apparent
that rework was attributable to changes initiated by the design team and
design errors originating from poor detailing. Omissions due to poor
coordination and integration amongst design team members and errors
during the construction stage were also identified. It was apparent in
project
A that reworks was exacerbated by changes made at the request of
municipality to comply with new fire safety regulation. Therefore
understanding of the causal structure of rework are immediate issues that
consulting firms need to grapple with in order to reduce design-related
source of rework and its impact on construction project performance.
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 July -2 August 2011
An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
 10

Unless effort is made to improve skills and knowledge, reputation, delays

and disruption and loss of profit will become products of rework that arises
on-site.

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An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
Views from the field ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
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Publications

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An analysis of the impact of rework on project performance: JHB, South Africa
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ASOCSA2011-21

The exploration of human resource

management strategies implemented
by architectural practices in order to
achieve lean production
Sidloyi, X. 1 and Smallwood J.J.2
1ArchWorXS – Architects and Project Managers, Port Elizabeth, South
Africa, [email protected], Tel.: + 27 41 582 4965
2Dept of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan
University, South Africa, [email protected],
Tel.: + 27 41 504 2790

ABSTRACT
Purpose: The purpose of the research is to explore Human Resource
Management (HRM) strategies implemented by Architectural practices in
order to achieve Lean Production (LP). The research examines strategies
by which practices link Human Resource (HR) policies to their production
processes in order to elimination waste through improvements in utilisation
of human resources.
Methodology: The questionnaire was designed to acquire primary, factual
and attitudinal data from architectural practices, secondary data was
acquired through a survey of the literature. The scope of the research was
limited to the Eastern Cape (EC).
Findings: The literature revealed that it is important for practices to
implement effective HRM policies and strategies in order to increase
production and process improvements. Survey results revealed that
practices need to invest more in training and development of employees.
Other findings were that practices were somewhat implementing HRM
policies and strategies in their attempt for LP.
Research limitations: The survey was limited to EC architectural practices
registered with the Eastern Cape Institute of Architects (ECIA).
Practical implications: This paper revealed that the manufacturing
industry places great emphasis on HRM in order to achieve LP. Therefore
architectural practices could learn from manufacturing industryʼs HRM in
order to increase their efficiency and productivity.

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Value: The paper will be valuable to architectural practices wishing to

improve productivity and implement LP by adoption of effective HRM
policies and strategies as used in the manufacturing industry.

Keywords: Architectural practices, Human Resource Management, lean

production.

1. INTRODUCTION
Many organisations have recognised that the quality of human resources is
key to the differentiation and success of organisation; therefore they place
tremendous value on the integration of people with organisational
objectives, equipment and processes. LP is one of the process
improvement interventions that organisations can implement to improve
quality and product delivery, while lowering costs associated with product.
LP is based on exceptional customer service, collaborative teamwork,
operational excellence and respect for workers. Mann (2005) states that a
fundamental principle of LP is that workers are assets, and that well
trained and motivated workers are the heart of a lean system.
Therefore human capital is one of the most critical components of
strategic success of LP, and HRM is a key area. This research explores
HRM methodologies and practices used by manufacturing organisation for
achieving LP, and compare these with those used by EC architectural
practices.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Training and development (TD)

Cherrington (1995) defines TD as a process that enables people to acquire
new knowledge, learn new skills, and perform behaviours in a new way.
Inyanga (2008) further distinguishes between training and development by
stating that training refers to the acquisition of specific skills or knowledge,
and development refers to the improvement of intellectual and emotional
ability needed to perform better at a specific job. Therefore, investment in
TD of employees improves profitability, organisational culture and is
integral in the formation of a lean organisation. Liker (2004) postulates
that Toyota treats its suppliers as it threats its employees, providing
training, and providing cross functional teams to assist suppliers to fix
problems so that they can deliver quality products. Liker and Hoseus (2010)
note that all Toyota suppliers become part of Toyotaʼs suppliers
association, the suppliers meet at regular intervals to share practices,
information and concerns.

2.2 Cross-training (CT)

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Changing demand for products and services has necessitated

organisations to be flexible and this flexibility is possible though training
employees to carry out different job functions. Manufacturing industries use
CT to provide floor flexibility, Diekmann et al. (2004) note that in
manufacturing, CT enables planners to distribute work and balance work
teams. Calhoon (1999) refers to CT as training workers to perform several
parts of the process and operate variety of machines. Womack and Jones
(2003) note that cross training a worker gives them the opportunity to learn
new skills that stimulate and reduce worker boredom. Therefore CT of
workers is an important tool to maximize an organisationʼs strengths,
capabilities, success, and ensures optimum uptake, and lean operations.
2.3 Quality of work life (QWL)
Cascio (2003) notes that quality of work life affects the workerʼs sense of
being, contentment, and productivity. Rethinam and Ismail (2008) define
QWL as work environment that is able to fulfil employeeʼs personal needs
to provide a positive interaction which leads to improved well–being and
productivity. Therefore QWL is associated with an employeeʼs level of
positive effect towards job or job situation that enhances quality of work life
and improves productivity. QWL is associated with the following aspects:
job satisfaction; job involvement, motivation; productivity; health; safety and
well-being; job security; competence development; working conditions;
working conditions; respect for workers; job design; and balance between
work and non-work life.

2.4 Compensation and advancement options

Byars and Rue (1991) note that compensation refers to all intrinsic rewards
employees receive for their work. Boxall and Purcell (2003) state that
compensation is composed of a basic salary, bonuses, and benefits. Byars
and Rue (1991) emphasise that compensation should be: legally adequate;
motivating; equitable; provide security; and be cost-benefit effective.
Hendry (2003) states that compensation is important because the majority
of employee problems are centred on it; and that compensation must fulfil
the expectations and aspirations of employees. According to Inyang (2008),
attractive compensation enables organisations to attract, retain and
motivate competent people. Köster (2007) observes that employees are
motivated to perform better when their past performance is rewarded
adequately.

2.5 Motivation
When workers are frustrated at work, they cease motivation, this results in
poor productivity. Therefore, motivation is a key factor in LP, as it does not
only influence quality and productivity, but also contributes to good QWL.
Treville and Antonakis (2006) define work motivation as a cognitive state
experienced by workers that reflect attributions that individuals make the
origins of their actions. Therefore, motivation can be interpreted as coming
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from internal influences that cause commitment of workers to given tasks

and external influences that cause compliance so that workers perform
given tasks. Treville and Antonakis (2006) state that under LP workers are
more motivated as they participate in the development of procedures and
problem solving, receive feed-back concerning their performance, become
part of a team and receive training and equipment to perform their jobs
more efficiently.

2.6 Employee Involvement (EI) and Employee empowerment (EE)

According to Cascio (2003), EI occurs when employees are solicited, and

are involved in helping the organisation to reach its objectives. Therefore,
EI focuses on organising employeeʼs skills and knowledge to improve
efficiency and customer service. Hendry (2003) states that EE occurs when
employees are given the authority and tools required to continuously
improve the organisational performance. Benjamin and Freivalds (1999)
note that EE has been implemented in job design and quality of work life
programs. Therefore EE means that all employees are responsible and
have authority to participate in decision and problem solving in their
operation levels.

2.7 Employee Suggestion System (ESS)

ESS is important in LP for continuous improvement and for generation of
numerous improvements by employees. Hultgren (2008) notes that there
are differences between Kaizen ESS, which is used in Japan, and ESS
used in Western countries. He further notes that Kaizen suggestion
systems generate numerous small improvements and they force all
employees to submit, while the western suggestion systems encourage
pursuit of innovation, and are more individualistic and passive. Miller (2003)
states that too few companies realise the power and impact of ESS on
process improvement. Toyota has realised the impact of ESS, as Liker
(2008) alludes that Toyota employees generated over 90 000 suggestions,
of which 90% are implemented. Liker (2008), Miller (2003), and Hultgren
(2008) state that employees receive remuneration for successfully
implemented suggestions that lead to cost savings and process
improvement.

2.8 Teamwork (TW)

Pieterse (2007) notes that TW is important for LP as many production
initiatives are best undertaken through teams. According to this author TW
provides better motivation, co-ordination, more effective problem-solving
and decision making. This is substantiated by Heizer and Render (2006)
who state that teams play a fatal role in manufacturing and achievement of
LP. There are various definitions for the term team:

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 Krajewski et al. (2007) define it briefly as a small group of people who

have a common goal, set their own performance goals and approaches
and hold themselves accountable for success;
 Dilworth (2000) defines it as a small number of people with
complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set
their own performance goal and hold themselves mutually accountable,
and
 Mullin (2005) defines it as when people have a common goal and
recognise that their personal success is dependent on the success of
others.

2.9 Leadership and management

House (2004) defines leadership organisationally as the ability of an
individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute towards the
effectiveness and success of an organisation. Bolden (2004) defines
leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal. Liker and Hoseus (2008)
differentiate between leadership and management as follows:
 Leadership is a pull system with followers feeling a magnetic pull that
compels them to follow the direction of the leader, and
 Management is a push system in which workers are pushed to follow
the orders of the managers.
Liker and Hoseus (2008) note that the leaderʼs function is to influence
workers and build a shared vision and culture, and that managers are
responsible for optimum utilisation of material, plant, and machinery. Liker
(2004) emphasizes that unless leaders and managers initiate
improvements, create culture, productivity cannot be expected to improve,
and Liker and Hoseus (2008) note that LP cannot be maintained without
effective leadership.

3. RESEARCH METHOD
The data for this research were collected using primary and secondary
sources. The primary data was collected through the use of a questionnaire
survey, and secondary data through a survey of the literature. The
questionnaire was designed to acquire primary, factual and attitudinal data
from EC architectural practices; and was used to determine the acceptance
or rejection of the hypotheses. Secondary data used in this study were
acquired through a literature review of international and national
publications which included conference papers, reports, journals, articles
and the Internet. Secondary data were utilised to establish criteria and
theories against which empirical research of the primary data was
measured.
A quantitative research approach was adopted for the questionnaire
survey. The questionnaire survey was conducted in the EC amongst

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architectural practices registered with the Eastern Cape Institute of

Architects (ECIA). The descriptive statistics in the form of frequencies and a
measure of central tendency in the form of a mean score based on the
number of responses to a five point Likert type scale were computed using
the Microsoft Excel software package. A comprehensive survey of literature
was undertaken and was used to establish criteria and theories against
which the primary data was compared. Sampling was not used for this
study as the questionnaire was sent to all practices.

3.1 Survey results

Questionnaires were distributed to all 38 member practices of the ECIA.
Altogether 22 practices responded, which equates to a 58% response rate.

3.2 Training and development (TD)

Respondents were required to indicate the extent to which their practices
provide training to employees based on the Likert scale of 1 to 5 where 1
(Strongly disagree) and 5 (Strongly agree). It is notable that a mean score
of 3.65 was achieved for providing training programs for employees, 2.48
for investing a percentage of annual business volume in training, and 3.77
for giving employees an opportunity to share knowledge via training
sessions, presentations, and team assignments. It is notable that two mean
scores are above the midpoint rating of 3.00, which indicates that in general
the respondents can be deemed to provide training programs to employees
and give employees a chance to employees to share knowledge.

3.3 Cross-training
On the question of career and personal growth of employees through
cross-training programs, 67% of respondents indicated that they provide
opportunities for cross-training, 77% indicated that employees have the
opportunity and are expected to continually develop and upgrade their
capabilities, 52% indicated that the workforce flexibility is being continually
increased, and 55% indicated that retraining is provided for employees
whose skills are no longer needed. The findings indicate that practices
undertake cross-training of employees to provide flexibility and job
enrichment, which are necessary for LP.

3.4 Quality of work life

Respondents were required to indicate the extent to which their practices
provide a good quality of work life to employees based on the Likert scale
of 1 to 5 where 1 (Strongly disagree) and 5 (Strongly agree). It is notable
that a mean score of 3.70 score was achieved for providing a satisfactory,
safe, comfortable and healthy work environment, 3.65 for making sure that
workstations are organized with adequate materials and provided tools in
their designated places and followed preventative measures in order to
increase health and well-being of employees and 3.55 for allowing
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employees to suggest ways to improve the workplace environment. It is

notable that all mean scores are above the midpoint of 3.00, which
indicates that in general the respondents provide a satisfactory quality of
work life to employees. The quality of work life is important for increasing
productivity, and for workerʼs positive sense of well-being and contentment.

3.5 Compensation, advancement options and motivation

Respondents were required to indicate the extent to which they agree with
the statement regarding the compensation of employees based on the
Likert scale of 1 to 5 where 1 (Strongly disagree) and 5 (Strongly agree). It
is significant that all the mean scores are above the midpoint of 3.00, which
indicates that in general, the majority of practices can be deemed to
consider compensation as important in motivating employees. The
statement with the highest mean score, namely practices addressing
compensation and benefits during hiring processes (3.83), is followed by
practices offering attractive and competitive benefits package (3.64). The
statement with the third highest mean score is practices recognising
excellent performance and linking pay to performance (3.32). Other findings
from the survey include the mean score of 3.30 for managers recognising
and rewarding employees when they have done a good job and 71% of
employees are confident and certain about their organisation's future.
3.6 Employee Involvement (EI), Employee empowerment (EE) and
Employee suggestion system (ESS)
Altogether 66% of respondents indicated that employees have considerable
opportunity for independence and freedom to do their work, while 63%
indicated that employees speak to management when they have work and
non-work related problems, and 75% indicated that employees were given
an opportunity to coordinate their work with others to complete the whole
task. The other findings from the research indicate the extent to which their
practices implement ESS based on the Likert scale of 1 to 5 where 1
(Strongly disagree) and 5 (Strongly agree). It is notable that all mean
scores are above the midpoint score of 3.00, which indicates that in
general, the majority of practices can be deemed to implement ESS. The
statement with the highest mean score is practices establishing a reward
structure for successful suggestions (3.38), followed by managers
supporting reasonable suggestions (3.18). The statement with the third
highest mean score is that of managers actively seek feedback from clients
and customers with a view to improving service (3.09).

3.7 Teamwork
It is notable that all respondents indicated that practices use teams and
encourage teamwork, that team members work hard together to build
positive relationships with each other, and that team members share their
knowledge and skills openly to grow together. Altogether 90.9% indicated
that they use innovative and creative thinking to break through problems
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and 81.8% indicated that employees understand how their individual efforts
contribute to business success. Other results revealed that 77.3% indicated
that team members are mutually supportive, and willingly help each other to
overcome problems to achieve success, and 72.7% indicated that
management helps to create commitment to common goals among group
members.

3.8 Leadership and management

All respondents indicated that management identifies problems, obstacles,
and trends that will impact the outcome of initiatives, and all respondents
indicated that employees are treated fairly and equitably and that
management takes time to meet with new employees to learn about their
talents and skills. All respondents indicated that management is quick to
deal with problem employees and performance, and that management
measures business performance against objectives. 81.8% indicated
management can clearly see a pathway for the implementation of a vision,
including not only the process, but also the people and resources needed.

4. CONCLUSIONS
An extensive literature survey was conducted to determine which HRM
methodologies and practices are used in manufacturing industry to achieve
LP. The literature outlined that manufacturing places great emphasis and
investment on TD of employees in order to develop lean organisations and
lean cultures. It also emphasised that managers and employees need to be
involved in TD, and support the role of TD for implementing LP. It was also
identified that the manufacturing industries use CT to providing work floor
flexibility and to provide job enrichment. Quality of work life in
manufacturing industry includes relationship with managers and co-
workers, job design, working conditions, and compensation. All three
aspects above are important for motivating employees to be productive and
contribute to LP. It can be deduced that an optimum work environment is
important for employeeʼs well-being, and productivity. The working
conditions are not only important for efficiency, but are important for
behavioural consideration and workers satisfaction, compensation and
advancement option can be assumed to be similar for the manufacturing
and construction industry. It can be deduced that compensation and
advancement options are key for workers and the organisation. Teams and
team development are important aspects of LP and manufacturing industry
places great emphasis on the use of teams and team development. It is
notable that the consistency of project teams needs to be given
considerable attention in construction in order to enable consistency. It is
evident that the concepts of leadership are broad and have a variety of
meanings; the literature revealed that leadership and management are
important for operational excellence and LP.
The following can be concluded from the survey: The majority of
respondents indicated that they provide training programs for employees
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and further indicated that they invest a nominal amount of annual

percentage of business volume in training and therefore it can be
concluded that practices were either not training all their employees, or that
they are submitting them to inferior training programmes due to the nominal
amounts invested in TD. Therefore, an opportunity exists for practices to
improve through LP by investing higher amounts of their business volumes
to TD. The majority of practices indicated that they provided CT programs
for employees, that they continually developed, upgraded and improve
employeesʼ capabilities. It can be concluded from the results that the
practices focused their attention on creating a comfortable and healthy
work environment. The findings indicate that practices are taking
compensation and advancement options seriously, this enables practices to
motivate employees, which leads to greater productivity. Respondents
indicated that employees have opportunity and freedom, and that practices
listened and discussed with employees about work and non-work related
problems. The majority of respondents also indicated that they
implemented an ESS. Practices also indicated that they employed the use
of teams and encouraged team work in their organisations. It can be
further concluded that managers used lean leadership methodologies for
leading and managing their practices. Therefore based on all the survey
results, it can be concluded that practices were somewhat implementing
HR policies and strategies, similar to those used in manufacturing industry,
in their attempt for LP.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that EC practices should adopt more HRM policies and
strategies from manufacturing industry in order to increase staff morale,
efficiency, competiveness and effectiveness for delivery of projects.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Research Foundation (NRF) is acknowledged for its

contribution in the form of funding which enabled the compilation and
presentation of this paper.

7. REFERENCES
Benjamin, W.N. and Andris, F.l. 1999. Methods, standards, and work
design. (New York: McGraw-Hill).
Bolden, R. 2004. What is leadership? Exeter Leadership South West.
Byars, L. and Rue, L. W.1991. Human resource management, 3rd ed.
(New York: McGraw-Hill).
Boxall, P. and Purcell, J. 2003. Strategy and human resource
management. (London: Palgrave Macmillan).
Calhoon, R.P. 1999. Personnel management and Supervision. (New York:
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practices in order to achieve lean production
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Appleton-Century-Crofts).
Cascio, W.F. 2003. Managing human resources: Productivity, quality of
work life, profits 6th ed.. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Cherrington, D.J. 1995. The management of human resources, 4th ed.
(New Jersey: Prentice Hall).
Diekmann, J.E., Krewedl, M., Balonick, J., Stewart, T. and Won, S. 2004.
Application of lean manufacturing principles to construction. (Austin: The
University of Texas).
Dilworth, L. 2000. Mapping Group Dynamics in an Action Learning
Experience: The Global Team Process Questionnaire (GTPQ). Available
from:
http://www.itapintl.com/facultyandresources/articlelibrarymain/mapping-
group-dynamics-in-an-action-learning-experience-the-global-team-
process-questionnaire-gtpq.html
Hendry, C. 2003. Applying employment systems theory to the analysis Of
national models of HRM. The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 14(8), 1 430 – 1 442.
Köster, M. 2007. Human Resource Management Versus Personnel
Management. (Munich: GRIN).
House, R. J. 2004. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE
Study of 62 Societies. (London: Sage Publications).
Hultgren. 2008. The motivating suggestion system. Master thesis in
industrial engineering and management. Department of Management.
(Blekinge: Institute of Technology).
Heizer, J. and Render, B. 2006. Operations Management, 8th ed. (New
Jersey: Prentice Hall).
Inyang, B.J. 2008. Bridging the Existing Gap between Human
Resource Management Function (HRMF) and Enterprise Management
(EM) in Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (6), 534-544.
Krajewski, L.J., Ritzman, L.P. and Malhotra, M.K. 2007.
Operations Management: Processes and Value Chains, 8th ed.
(New Jersey: Prentice Hall).
Liker, J.K. 2004. The Toyota way. (New York: McGraw-Hill).
Liker, J.K. and Hoseus. 2008. Toyota Culture: The Heart and Soul of the
Toyota Way. (United States: McGraw-Hill).
Liker, J.K. and Hoseus. 2010. Human Resource development in Toyota
culture. International Journal of Human Resources Development and
Management,10 (1), 34 – 50.
Mullin, L. 2005. Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th ed. (New
York: Financial Times / Prentice Hall).
Mann, D.W. 2005. Creating a lean culture: tools to sustain lean
conversions. (New York: Productivity Press).
Miller, J. 2003. The suggestion system is no suggestion. (Mukilteo:
Gemba Research LLC).
Pieterse, K. 2007. Leaning the South African way. 2nd ed.
(Port Elizabeth:Trilean Publishing).
Rethinam. G.S. and Ismail, M. 2008. Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A
Perspective of Information & Technology Professionals, European
Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1), 5870.
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Treville, S. and Antonakis, J. 2006. Could lean production job design be

intrinsically motivating? Contextual, configural, and levels-of-analysis
issues. Journal of Operations Management, 24(2), 99-123.
Womack, J.P. and Jones, D.T. 2003. Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and
Create Wealth in Your Corporation. (New York: Free Press).

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ASOCSA2011-06

Identifying factors of health and safety

(H&S) culture for the construction
industry
Innocent Musonda1, Theo C. Haupt2
1
[email protected],
1
PhD Candidate, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
2
Professor, University of Mississippi, United States

ABSTRACT
Purpose:
This paper presents a review of previous studies on the subject of H&S
culture and outline key H&S culture factors that are necessary to make the
concept useful in the construction industry. A conceptualised model
LIP+3C is also presented as the outcome of the review
Design/methodology/approach:
Literature review focused on exploring the conceptual definitions of H&S
culture was conducted. A matrix for the identified literature was developed
to identify common H&S culture elements.
Findings
It was revealed that there is still confusion and lack of consensus on the
concept of H&S culture. However, the H&S culture elements of leadership,
involvement, procedures, communication, competence and commitment
dominate the literature.
Research limitations/implications:
Literature review was conducted on 15 published peer reviewed journal
articles. The validation of the elements found in the study is currently
under way although preliminary results confirm the findings.
Practical implications:
H&S culture has been identified as being of great importance to H&S
performance improvement. Identifying culture elements that can easily be
implemented and understood will contribute to improving the current H&S
status.
Originality/value:
Adopting the LIP+3C culture model composed of elements that can easily
be implemented and understood will contribute to improving the current
H&S status

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Keywords: Culture, H&S, LIP+3C, Model

1. INTRODUCTION

Construction H&S performance improvement has in recent years become

a priority and thus has gained industry-wide attention (Cheung et al, 2004
and Hamalainen et al, 2009) because of the economic benefits, the need
to improve construction industry image, the need for organisations to be
socially responsible and the need for an improved general regard and
respect for people working in the construction industry. In addition, the
legislative pressure coupled with debate concerning the personal
responsibility that senior managers should bear for their organisations on
H&S failures (Fitzgerald, 2005) has contributed to most organisations to
focus on H&S improvement. However improving H&S performance in the
construction industry has also proved to be somewhat challenging partly
due to the industryʼs complex nature. Despite this complexity of the
industry, H&S performance improvement remains a crucial issue and its
importance or need has been demonstrated in numerous studies
(Smallman and John, 2001; Lee et al, 2006; ILO, 2003; and Hoonakker et
al, 2005).
The need for H&S performance improvement has been recognised
and as a result there are many suggestions and approaches for H&S
performance improvement that have been proposed. Amongst these
proposals are prevention through design (PtD) (Behm, 2005; Hetherington,
1995; Kinnersley and Roelen, 2007; Weinstein et al, 2005; Gambatese et
al, 2005; Hecker et al, 2005), continual improvement of safety
management systems (Chua and Goh, 2004), addressing H&S culture
(Molenaar et al, 2009; Parker et al, 2006; Molenaar et al, 2002), use of
incentives and disincentives (Tang et al, 2008), multi-stakeholder
involvement (Lingard et al, 2009; Suraji et al, 2006) and behaviour based
H&S (Salem et al, 2007).
However, Culture and particularly the H&S culture of an
organisation and by extension, the industry has been identified as being at
the core of major accidents and incidents (Oil Spill Commission, 2011;
Gadd and Collins, 2002; Wiegmann, 2002). There is also a general
agreement on the fact that H&S culture can influence or has an impact on
H&S performance (Fernández-Muñiz et al, 2007; Choudhry et al, 2007,
and Wamuziri, 2006). Despite the above realisation, there is no consensus
on the definition of culture and how culture can be measured in order to be
useful for H&S performance improvement. Of the 15 definitions reviewed in
this study, 12 of them had definitions that differed from one another
(Hudson, 1999; Misnan and Mohammed, 2007; IOSH, 2004; INSAG, 1991;
Gadd and Collins, 2002; Fitzgerald, 2005; Fernandez-Muniz et al, 2007;
Molenaar et al, 2002; Molenaar, et al, 2009; Wiegmann et al, 2002; HSE,
1993; Dingsdag et al, 2006; and CRC, 2001). As a result it seems as
though it is this lack of consensus on these issues that could have caused
in part a lack of full utilisation of the concept to improve H&S performance
improvement in the construction industry.
In this study, a review of literature has been conducted on the
concept of H&S culture in order to harmonise the different views. Based on
the literatureth reviewed, a proposition is made that H&S culture can be
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measured and used as a performance indicator. From the synthesised

views on the concept, factors of H&S culture have been identified so that
H&S culture could be operationalised in a practical and useful way.

2. WHY CULTURE (H&S)?

Motivations for H&S culture consideration in pursuing H&S performance

improvement are many and these are very clear in literature. Specifically,
H&S performance has been attributed to an improvement in the H&S
culture of organisations in studies such as that of Chinda and Mohammed,
(2008); Baram and Schoebel, (2007); Dingsdag et al, (2006); Fernandez-
Muniz et al, (2007) and Dingsdag et al, (2006). A better H&S performance
has been associated with a positive H&S culture prevailing within an
organisation concerned and indeed the industry (Dingsdag et al, 2006;
Molenaar et al, 2002; and Chinda and Mohamed, 2008). The prevailing
culture is therefore very important in so far as the improvement of
construction workerʼs H&S is concerned. It is because of this observation
that Chinda and Mohamed (2008) rightly argue that it seems that attempts
to improve the H&S record will not be fully realised until the H&S culture is
improved.
It is therefore not surprising that the achievement of an effective
H&S culture is recognised to be a vital element of achieving and
maintaining satisfactory standards of H&S performance (Entec, 1999). It is
also for this reason that IOSH (2004) contends that it is insufficient for
example to provide safe equipment, systems and procedures if the culture
is not conducive to healthy and safe working. Major disasters in the world
attest to the foregoing. For example a “poor safety culture” was identified
as a factor contributing to the Chernobyl disaster by the international
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, 1986) and recently, the safety culture was
questioned by the Oil Spill commission .as they argued that the immediate
causes of the Macondo well blowout can be traced to a series of
identifiable mistakes made by BP, Halliburton and Transocean that reveal
such systematic failures in risk management that they place in doubt the
safety culture of the entire industry (2011). To illustrate how other industries
regard H&S culture, Flin et al, (2000) observed that the so called ʻhigh
reliabilityʼ industries such as the Air traffic, petro chemical and Nuclear
installations, where significant hazards are present, operating organisations
and their regulators pay considerable attention to safety assessment. They
noted that these assessments are mainly on leading indicators focusing on
safety climate which is a measure or determinant of the prevailing culture,
because as stated earlier most of these industries have realised the
importance of organisational culture Flin et al (2000).
Furthermore, safety culture of the organisation influences the
deployment and effectiveness of the safety management resources,
policies, practices and procedures Gadd et al, (2002). Traditionally,
attempts to improve workplace H&S concentrated on technical issues and
individual human failures. However, from investigations that have been
conducted in the past, the role of safety culture has been highlighted. For
example, Fennell, (1988) on the investigation into the Kings Cross fire,
stated that a cultural change in management was required throughout the
organisation. In another investigation, Cullen (1990) concluded on the
Piper
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Alpha Inquiry that it is essential to create an atmosphere or culture in

which safety is understood to be and is accepted as the number one
priority.
It has become clear that organisationsʼ vulnerability to safety
hazards does not originate from just ʻhuman errorsʼ, chance, environmental
factors or technological failures alone. Rather, it is the ingrained
organisational policies and standards which have repeatedly been shown to
be at the centre of the catastrophe Gadd et al, (2002). It is the prevailing
culture in an organisation and that is the reason why H&S culture has
become important.

3. WHAT IS CULTURE?

Confusion reigns regarding the definition of culture. Culture can be defined

as a characteristic set of assumptions, beliefs, values, knowledge, attitudes
and symbols shared and held by all members of a group which influences
behavioural patterns and perceptions. These can be surfaced through
observation and or description of what goes on by those that are part of the
organisation (Fernandez-Muniz et al, 2007; Dingsdag, 2006; Australian
Government, 2008; Molenaar et al, 2002 and Cooper, 2000). This definition
is also summed up by ʻthe way we do things hereʼ (Cooper, 2000).

It is important to note that there is always some form of culture present in

an organisation or industry (Hudson 1999). The only thing is that culture
could either be described as positive, negative, a reporting culture, a
tolerant culture or any other aspect an organisation so wishes to use to
describe the culture. According to Misnan (2007) and Biggs et al (2006),
organisational culture exists on a continuum and that organisations can
either have a good or poor H&S culture. As H&S culture is a source of
influence in determining H&S outcomes, the construct can be a useful tool
to manage and further improve H&S outcomes in the construction industry.
H&S culture can also be said to be a subset or part of the overall
organisational culture (Cooper, 2000; Hudson, 2001; Wiegmann et al,
2002; Wamuziri, 2006). Further, for H&S culture to be operationalised, we
have to know what it is made up of or what factors shape or influence it.

4. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS OF CULTURE (H&S)?

Measuring H&S culture is one area where confusion has reigned partly
because of the many terms that have been used to describe what
constitutes H&S culture. Some studies have referred to the parts which
form, shape or make up H&S culture as characteristics (Fitzgerald, 2005
and Hudson, 1999), Indicators (Fernandez-Muniz et al, 2007, Flin et al,
2000), factors (Misnan et al, 2008), determinants(Chinda et al, 2008),
elements (Fernandez-Muniz et al, 2007), enablers (Chinda et al, 2008), and
attributes of H&S. It is therefore important to know what these terms mean
to partly reduce the confusion. The compact Oxford dictionary (2002)
defines the identified terms as follows:

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1. Attributes: (v) or attribute is a characteristic quality. An object

traditionally associated with a person or thing. It can also be
referred to as characteristic or feature.
2. Characteristic: (adj) a typical feature or quality of something or
somebody. A distinguishing feature
3. Determinant: (n) A factor which determines the nature or
outcome of something;
4. Element/content: (n) A basic part of something. It can also be
referred to as component, constituent;
5. Enabler: (v) This is from the word enable which is to provide with
the ability or means to do something. To make possible.
6. Factor: (n) A circumstance, fact, or influence that contributes to a
result;
7. Indicator: (n) a thing that indicates a state or level.
A scrutiny of the above terms reveals that the terms ʻattributeʼ and
characteristic refer to the description of quality of something. Therefore,
with reference to culture this would refer to the quality or an identifying
feature say, a reporting culture.
The term ʻdeterminantʼ and ʻfactorʼ refer to a circumstance or aspect that
will contribute to a result. Therefore referring to culture, this term would
describe an influence that has a bearing on the quality or type of the
culture. In other words, without the factor or determinant it is impossible to
have the type or quality of culture being sought.
The term ʻenablerʼ on the other hand is more of a catalyst to achieving a
result. A type or quality of the culture does not necessarily depend on the
enabler but it would be beneficial if it is present.
An ʻindicatorʼ is a thing described as being usually an object like a meter, a
clock etc. that indicates the level of a result. Therefore with reference to
H&S culture, this could be an instrument or certain exhibits from the culture
that could be observed or measured to tell the type or quality of the
prevailing culture.
This study set out to establish the components and the factors of H&S
culture. Having analysed the terms that have been used before in other
studies, and also reference being made to the definition of culture, which is
a characteristic set of beliefs and values, assumptions, knowledge and
attitudes held and shared by all members of a group, culture can be said to
be composed or consisted of beliefs, values, assumptions, knowledge and
attitudes (IET, 2009; IOSH, 2004; Molenaar et al 2002; and CRC, 2002).
These are the aspects that can be referred to as the elements of culture
generally and in particular H&S culture. Hudson (1999) correctly refers to
two of these, i.e. belief and values as components of a safety culture. From
the definition, an element is a part of something or somebody. These
elements in turn influence behaviour in all members of a group including
influence or contribution to “the way things are done around here”.
As for the terms that would refer to aspects that influence H&S culture, the
term ʻfactorʼ is more appropriate as it entails an aspect or circumstance that

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contributes to the result. The term ʻdeterminantʼ could also be used albeit
with caution as it suggests more or less the only aspect to influence or
determine the outcome.
Many questions surround on how H&S culture could be measured. In other
words, to determine what culture is prevalent. In as much as it is desirable
to determine or measure the H&S culture, in other words, the beliefs,
values, assumptions and attitudes held and shared by a group, undertaking
this process to measure culture directly is not easy as it can only be
appropriately measured using ethnographic studies (Cooper, 2002).
Furthermore, there is still no agreement on the method that can be used to
measure culture (Fernandez-Muniz et al, 2007 and Cooper 2002) and
continued debate on this is actually not doing well to the concept. It is good
to be able to describe and know the prevailing culture in an organisation or
industry but it is of no use if this knowledge cannot be translated into
actions to improve the status quo.
The argument in this study is that it is much more beneficial, proactive and
feasible to operationalise the concept of H&S culture by establishing the
factors that contribute or influence H&S culture. Having established these
then, efforts can be directed at improving and monitoring these factors. It
can be thought of much in the same way as the health of an individual. The
health of an individual is dependent on the diet that that individual is
following. Following a good healthy diet would result in a better health. In
this case, the diet is a contributor or a ʻfactorʼ and not the only ʻdeterminantʼ
to the health of that individual just as exercise is also a contributor. Diet in
this case is a leading indicator of the individualʼs health. It is certain that a
good diet will result in a good health. A Bad diet may result in bad health
immediately or after some years. However for positive results, emphasis
should be placed on a good diet. Molenaar et al, (2002) illustrate this point
by referring to a cholesterol test. They contend that just as a poor
cholesterol test does not absolutely predict a heart attack, a poor safety
culture test does not indicate an impending accident. However, both are
good indicators that a catastrophe is more likely and that some behaviour
should be changed. In this example, diet can be described as a factor
because it contributes or influences the health of that individual. The task
then is to determine these factors that are key to H&S culture and thus be
used as leading indicators of H&S culture.

5. 0 ANALYSIS
The rest of this section therefore identifies aspects that have been said to
influence H&S culture without regard to the term that it was called but
rather focus on its active description. Table 1 also lists the various factors
that have been identified in the 15 studies that were reviewed in this study.
According to Chinda et al (2008), the aspect of leadership, Policy and
strategy of an organisation, people, partnerships and resources, processes
and goals are key contributors to H&S culture. In order to change culture,
IOSH (2004) contend that there is need for a commitment to change and
there has to be leadership at the highest management level. Although he
referred to indicators and global components of H&S culture, Wiegmann et
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al (2002), identified that organisational commitment and involvement,

employee empowerment, a reward system and reporting system contribute
to the H&S culture. Specific aspects such as education and training have
also been identified as vital aspects to obtain an H&S culture (Fitzgerald,
2005; Pellicer and Molenaar, 2007). In a recent study by Choudhry et al,
(2009), 11 factors were identified namely commitment and involvement,
procedure, psychological feature, economical feature, self-esteem, workersʼ
experience, performance pressure, working environment, job security and
education as having an influence on the H&S culture.
Apart from the above, other factors such as communication (Dingsdag et al,
2006 Gadd et al, 2002; Havold, 2007; Mohamed, 2002; IET, 2009 and
IOSH, 2004); competence (Gadd et al, 2002; IET, 2009; IOSH, 2004;
Mohamed, 2002), and leadership (Dingsdag et al, 2006; Fitzgerald, 2005;
IET, 2009) have also been identified as factors contributing to H&S culture.
Risk perception of workers (Gadd et al, 2002; Entec 1999; and Flin et al
2000) and more generally policies, procedures and rules ( Flin eta al, 2002;
Fernandez-Muniz et al 2007 and Mohamed, 2002) have also been
identified as factors influencing H&S culture. Perhaps one of the most
important factors that has been said to influence culture is the aspect of
performance measurement. IOSH (2004), Fitzgerald (2005), Gadd et al
(2002), and Pidgeon and OʼLeary (2000) all identified this aspect of
performance measurement and feedback of results as being one of the
influences on H&S culture.
In addition to performance measurement and other factors identified above,
the aspect of rewards, incentives and disincentives have also been
highlighted as contributing to H&S culture (Wiegmann et al 2002, Molenaar
et al, 2009).
The following subcultures have also been identified as components of H&S
culture by IOSH (2004):
1. An informed culture;
2. A reporting culture;
3. Fair blame culture where standards are clear as opposed to a no-
blame culture which after all is not feasible;
4. Clear expectations from all employees about H&S in terms of
values, beliefs, attitudes and practice.
However the above subcultures are too abstract and make measurement or
determination of these equally difficult as the overall H&S culture.

Table 1: H&S culture factors

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Cultural element

Competence/Tra

Procedures/rule
Communication

s/policy/plans
Commitment

Involvement
Leadership

ining/talks
Dingsdag et al(2006) X X X X
Havold (2007) X X X x
Molenaar, Park and Washington (2009) X X X X
IET (2009) X X X X X X
Booth RT(1995) X X X X
Glendon & McKenna (1995) X X X
Fitzgerald (2005) X X X X X X
Wiegmann et al (2002) X X X X X
Pidgeon and OʼLeary (2000) X X
Gadd and Collins (2002) x X X x X
IOSH (2004) X X X X X X
Entec (1999) X X X X X
Parker et al (2006) X X X X
Flin, Mearns, O'Connor. and Bryden X X X X X
(2000)
Wamuziri (2006) X X

From the above, factors that were common to all studies disregarding what
they were referred to were identified and a consolidated list of factors of
H&S culture was drawn. It can be said that the key factors which seemed to
influence organisational or industry H&S culture included, (1) leadership (2)
involvement (3) procedures (4) commitment (5) communication and (6)
competence. These were found to be common to all studies and included
indicators which when added together described one factor. An example of
this is competence. Competence includes training and capacity to manage.
All the six identified factors have been referred to as the LIP+3C model of
H&S culture. Indicators of each factor of H&S culture were also identified
from literature and are presented in table 2.0.
Table 2: Indicators of factors of H&S culture (adapted from Gadd et al
2002)
Factors Indicators
Leadership 1. Incorporating H&S considerations at every level of decision making;
2. Having a policy on H&S;
3. Active monitoring of H&S programs;
4. Monitor and control all stakeholders;
5. Coordination of all stakeholders involved
Involvement 1. Extent to which stakeholders get personally involved in critical H&S

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activities;
2. Presence and contribution to H&S meetings, planning sessions etc.;
3. Managementʼs contribution to training;
4. Active management oversight of H&S critical operations;
5. Ability of management to stay ʻin-touchʼ;
6. Extent to which there is good communication about H&S issues from
and between all stakeholders;
Procedures 1. Monitoring and analysis of H&S implementation;
2. Formal inspections and audits;
3. H&S planning and defined goals;
4. Schedule H&S in prequalification and contracts for all parties;
5. Performance measurement;
6. Established rules, policies and protocol;
7. Having a H&S structure;
8. Hazard identification and risk assessment;
9. H&S design, plan and specification.
Commitment 1. Demonstrating, a positive attitude toward H&S;
2. Actively promoting H&S in a consistent manner across all levels
3. Providing adequate finance and other resources for the implementation
of H&S;
4. Supporting the development and implementation of various H&S activities;
5. Demonstrating that effort has been put forth to ensure every aspect of
operations, and work schedules are routinely evaluated and modified
if necessary;
6. Establishing a reward system for safe behaviour;
7. Conducting regular H&S tours;
8. Getting involved in incident, accidents and ill-health investigations;
9. Deliberately setting H&S as an important agenda item in meetings;
10. Elevating the status of H&S above production and profits.
Competence 1. An organisation having H&S permanent staff;
2. H&S training at all levels;
3. Having H&S knowledge and skills;
4. Conducting induction programs and refresher courses
5. H&S formal qualifications for H&S staff
Communication 1. Formal reporting systems;
2. Formal structured feedback system;
3. Worker involvement in planning and review of H&S;
4. All parties comfortably use the reporting system;
5. Timely and valuable feedback to all parties;
6. Risk findings being disseminated to all concerned;
7. Clear H&S policy statements made by management;
8. Clear statements on expected performance standards regarding H&S;
9. Risk control information being made available to all available;
10. H&S briefings, and or bulletins.

Using a perception or climatic survey of the above indicators at all levels of

the organisation or industry, an H&S culture can be characterised. The
perception or climate survey can expose the “way things are done” or that
“degree of effort” concerning the identified factors (Cooper, 2000 and IOSH,
2004). By looking at the factors that have been identified above, it is
possible to build a picture of an organisation and also understand where
opportunities for improvement lie. In addition to these climate surveys,
some researchers advocate for studies such as focus groups and
interviews to supplement the climate surveys in order to understand the
behaviour (IOSH, 2004 and Wiegmann et al, 2002).

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Improvement of culture can therefore typically follow the plan, do, and
check cycle. IOSH (2004) proposes that a maturity model and principles of
total quality management combined can be used to build an H&S culture
by:
1. Assessing the current level;
2. Developing a plan to move to the next level;
3. Implement the plan;
4. Monitor the implementation of the plan;
5. Re-assess the level for further actions (IOSH, 2004).
It is easier and practical to view the identified factors of leadership,
involvement, procedures, commitment, communication and competence as
action items that can be used to improve the H&S culture and thus H&S
performance. The process of improvement can therefore follow the
following stages:
1. Assess LIP +3C;
2. Develop strategies to enhance LIP + 3C;
3. Implement strategies;
4. Assess LIP +3C;
5. Compare with baseline levels to indicate movement;
6. Consult and disseminate information ;
7. Develop strategies to enhance LIP+3C;
8. Repeat process 3-8.
Implementing the LIP+3C has to take cognisance of the external
environment factors that can equally have an influence on the H&S culture.
According to Cooper (2000), H&S culture does not operate in a vacuum;
rather it affects and is affected by the external environment.

6. CONCLUSION
The reason why H&S culture should be considered in the construction
industry has been presented. It has been observed that H&S performance
improvement is unlikely without the improvement or change in the H&S
culture. Only a safe culture can provide any degree of lasting protection
(Reason, 2000).
The factors of H&S culture have been identified. It has been noted that
the reason, H&S culture has not been utilised to the full has been probably
due to the numerous terms that have been used to characterise culture and
thus the resultant confusion. In this study, it has been shown that it is
beneficial to consider those factors that influence culture and thereafter
measure the factorsʼ indicators. This has been described to be more
proactive and practical.
The key H&S factors that were found to be common or describe many
factors in the studies that were reviewed included leadership, involvement,
procedures, commitment, competence and communication which have
collectively been referred to as the LIP+3C model of H&S culture.
It has also been shown that the LIP+3C model can be used to both
plan for and measure H&S performance. This study has therefore
contributed to efforts aimed at improving H&S performance in the
construction industry by showing how culture can be operationalised
practically.

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WIEGMANN, D. A., ZHANG, H., VON THADEN, T., SHARMA, G. AND
MITCHELL, A. (2002). Safety Culture: A Review. Savoy, Illinois, Aviation

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Research Lab Institute of Aviation.

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ASOCSA2011-47

IMPACT OF RURAL MIGRANT WORKERS

ON CONSTRUCTION HEALTH AND
SAFETY (H&S)
Okorie NV and Smallwood JJ
Department of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University
v.okorie@yahoomail, Tel: +27(0)710546132
Department of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University
[email protected], Tel: +27(0)41 504 2790, Fax: +27(0)41
504 2345

ABSTRACT
Purpose of the study: The study investigates the impact of rural migrant
workers on construction health and safety (H&S) in the city of Port
Elizabeth.
Design/Methodology/Scope: The study examines the demographic data
of the rural migrant construction workers, and the H&S policies and
practices of the employers of these workers on site. It also evaluates the
H&S training received by these workers and personal protective equipment
(PPE) provided by their employers. To achieve these objectives, two
questionnaires were compiled; the first was administered workers with the
aid of an interpreter, and the second to the site management of the
contractors, followed by interviews.
Findings: The data collected was analysed using MS Excel to compute
descriptive statistics. From the analysis, the study reveals that the migrant
workers are on average 34.8 years old, and the majority of them have no
basic education and construction trade qualifications. Furthermore, lack of
basic education and construction trade qualifications was a major problem
in understanding general and H&S instructions issued by their supervisors.
Management commitment to H&S was found to be a critical factor
contributing to an improvement in site H&S.
Practical implications: With respect to H&S policies and practices some
of the employers provide PPE, such as hard hats, safety boots, and safety
goggles, and some conduct weekly H&S meetings. However, the H&S
Inspectorate should intensify their effort in enforcing H&S legislation.
Contractors should view training and retraining of their workers whether
they are permanent or temporary workers, as imperative if they want to
undertake construction and make a profit. Furthermore, contractors should
budget adequately for H&S, to ensure the sustainability of workerʼs lives.

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Values: Although, researchers have conducted studies on H&S

management, and the causes of construction accidents, little attention has
been paid to the impact of rural migrant workers on construction H&S in the
city of Port Elizabeth. This study provides a contribution to the body of
knowledge by presenting a set of recommendations for the H&S
inspectorate, and construction firms.

Keywords: Construction, health and safety, rural migrant workers

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Human migration, particularly rural migration has been a challenge (Harris
and Moran, 1987). The force of circumstances could be economic, social,
political, or religious, causing both the skilled and unskilled to leave rural
for urban areas (Vazquez and Stalnaker, 2004). The situation has been
exacerbated by cheaper transportation system and the instant world-wide
communication through the use of global system for mobile
communications (GSM) mobile phones (ILO, 2005 and Bust et al., 2008).
Rural migrant workers are able to find out about work through mobile
phone contact with relatives and travel to cities at relatively low cost. The
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2008) maintains that traditionally,
construction work is often the most available alternative to farm work,
particularly for those without any particular skill or education. Research
findings emanating from developing countries have shown that about 47-
65% of the construction site workers are rural migrants that were motivated
to drift to the cities to earn as much as possible in a short time when they
have finished harvesting the crops on farms (HSE, 2006). However, these
rural migrant workers have been very helpful to the construction industry.
According to Vazquez and Stalnaker (2004), the growing number of rural
migrant workers in the construction industry carries a burden as well,
namely a rise in work-related injuries and fatalities compared with the rate
of fatalities and injuries among the permanent site workers.
Recent H&S statistics in the South African construction industry provided
by the Department of Labour (DoL) for the period 2004/05 to 2007/08 show
a sharp rise in site accidents up to 2007/08; to about 160 fatalities and 400
non-fatal accidents. The number of fatalities and injuries cases in the South
African construction sites is a serious concern (Smallwood, 2004). The
Construction Industry Development Board (cidb) (2009) reports that there
is poor management commitment to H&S, non-compliance with H&S
legislation and the Construction Regulations, as well as inadequate site
supervision and poor provision of PPE by employers.
The high number of fatalities and injury cases among construction
workers has resulted in suffering and millions of South African Rand has
been paid as compensation to injured workers which have a ripple effect
on the national economy (cidb, 2009). The frequency of site accidents and
incidents and anecdotal evidence that there are a large number of rural
migrant workers working in the construction industry engendered this
study. Accordingly, the study investigated demographic data of these
migrant workers, their province of origin, H&S training received, H&S
policies and practices of the employers, and PPE provided by the
employers.

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2.0 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1 Rural migrant site workers

The use of rural migrant workers in construction work is a world-wide
phenomenon (Nissen, 2007). Traditionally, rural migrant workers have
always been a source of regular and cheap labour to the construction
industry in urban centres (Balch and Geddes, 2003 cited in Bust et al.,
2008). According to the international Labour Office (ILO) (2005),
construction work is often the only significant alternative to farm labour for
those without any particular skill or education. A combination of events,
however, contributed to the drift of rural migrant workers to the cities such
as economic, social, political, or religious (ILO, 2005). Findings by Van
Wyk (2003) indicate that almost one in every five black South Africans,
aged 20 years or more has not received formal education. He further
maintains that this leads the majority of these people into primary
industries such as agriculture, mining, and construction, and as a result
many are fatally injured, or they experience other classes of injury, and / or
disease. Vazquez and Stalnaker (2004) assert that inability to
communicate well, and a high illiteracy rate among rural migrant workers
compromises site H&S. Nissen (2007) also reports that in South Florida
the fatality rate for Hispanic workers has been higher than that for
nationals. Similarly, a survey by Torrance (2004) determined that urban
immigrant workers in an immigrant community in Northern Virginia faced a
high risk of occupational injuries, with adverse outcomes.
The working environment in which these rural migrant workers are
exposed to, contributes to workplace injuries and fatalities (Bust et al.,
2003). According to the ILO (2005), rural migrant workers are sources of
cheaper labour and are invariably employed to do the most dirty, difficulty
and dangerous work. The economic and social infrastructure facilities
available in urban areas however, remain a focal point of attraction to these
rural migrant workers with their associated site H&S problems. Therefore,
there is the need to understand how to prevent the detrimental effect this
has on construction site H&S.

2.2 Effect on construction site health and safety (H&S)

Akindele et al. (2009) argue that one of the major effects rural migrant site
workers have in the construction industry is visible through non-compliance
with site H&S rules and procedures. According to reports from the
Department of Labour (DoL, 2007), based on inspections that were
conducted in Kwa-Zulu-Natal, Free State, Western Cape, and Gauteng
North out of the 412 sites visited, 393 were found to be non-compliant with
H&S standards. The common areas of concern were lack of H&S plans,
inadequate hazard identification and risks assessment, poor site
housekeeping, failure by management to train workers in H&S, and
workers not being provided with the necessary PPE
The culture and religion of rural migrant workers can negatively impact
on site H&S. A study that investigated the link between religion and H&S
culture in South African construction revealed that practicing a religion
entails emphasis on the need for conservation of life and the environment
(Smallwood, 2004). Similarly, the inability to immediately communicate via
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the spoken word on construction sites represents one of the major barriers
to successful management of H&S (Hughes and Ferrett, 2008). Nissen
(2007) also asserts that the inability to communicate properly has a
detrimental impact on workplace H&S, workers morale, and adversely
affects production and profits.
Vazquez and Stalnaker (2004) contend that another factor contributing to
higher fatality and injury rates among rural migrant site workers is the fact
that the rural migrant workers always show some loyalty and respect to
their employers, resulting in site accidents and incidents not being reported
for the fear of being fired from work. This is one of the factors militating
against effective site H&S management. Vazquez and Stalnaker (2004)
also contend that rural migrant workers do not like to ʻrock the boatʼ and
tend not to report workplace incidents or injuries, unsafe acts or conditions,
potential hazards or harassment. Most would rather remain silent and
retain their jobs than report problems that could cause them to be
negatively viewed by their employer.

2.3 H&S training

H&S training is a very important aspect of site H&S management and H&S
culture (Hinze, 2006; Hughes and Ferrett, 2008). This is of particular
importance to rural migrant worker with poor education. It is also a legal
requirement in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act and other
regulations, for an employer to provide training and information to
employees. In South Africa, Section 8 of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act (Republic of South Africa, 1993) specifies that every employer
shall provide and maintain, as far as reasonably practicable, a working
environment that is safe and without risk to the health of employees. Also,
Section 13 (a, b and c) deals with the duty to inform employees of hazards
to their H&S arising from any work they have to perform, any article or
substance which they have to produce, process, use, handle, store or
transport, and any plant or machinery which they are required or permitted
to use, as well as the precautionary measures which should be taken and
observed with respect to those hazards.
However, there is also a moral reason for H&S training, based on the
premise that everyone who is involved in an industrial process has a ʻright
to knowʼ about hazards associated with their work. H&S training should be
applicable to everyone whose H&S could be impacted by the activities of
their organisation and should be freely provided in the exercise of the
common law duty of care (Hughes and Ferrett, 2008). According to Hinze
(2006), training should be at the core of H&S every programme. It is
important first to identify the areas in which training is required; the most
important training is the induction which takes place on hiring of new
workers. This can help the rural migrant workers to know the importance of
site H&S rules and procedures. In addition, they will be able to meet other
employees and their immediate supervisors. Hinze (2006) and Hughes and
Ferrett (2008) maintain that new hired workers to the construction site
should receive induction training before starting work, as it has been found
that new workers are statistically the most vulnerable to be injured soon
after starting work.

2.4 H&S legislation

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The South African Construction Regulations (Republic of South Africa,

2003) require a range of interventions relative to clients, designers, and
contractors. However, the Construction Regulations place emphasis on
hazard identification and risk assessment prior to execution of construction
activities (Smallwood and Haupt, 2005).
Clients are required to provide the principal contractor with an H&S
specification and any information that may affect H&S, ensure that principal
contractors have made adequate allowance for H&S, and discuss the
contents of and approve the H&S plan. Designers are required to provide
the client with all relevant information about the design, which will affect the
pricing of the works, inform the contractor of any known or anticipated
danger or hazards, provide the contractor with the methods and sequence
of construction, and modify the design where dangerous procedures would
be necessary, or substitute hazardous materials.
Contractors are required to ensure that the site is supervised by a
competent person who has been appointed in writing and that hazard
identification and risk assessments have been carried out. They are also
required to take suitable and sufficient steps to prevent, as far is
reasonably practicable, any person from site hazards; not require or permit
any person to work under conditions that impose danger to lives.

2.5 Improving site H&S

According to Cordova (2003), efficient communication with rural migrant
workers results in fewer workplace injuries and fatalities. She further
maintains that it also increases site compliance and reduces employersʼ
workers compensation insurance premiums. According to Chinda and
Mohammed (2008), developing a better H&S culture, as well as improved
management of H&S on site is essential in order to reduce the number of
injuries on construction sites. Ensuring that the workforce is competent to
fulfil their H&S responsibilities is another aspect in terms of evolving an
optimum organisational H&S culture (Smallwood, 2004). Training plays a
key role in the development of these competencies.
According to the ILO (2005), site supervisors play an important role in
influencing site H&S performance. Rowlinson (1997) and Rowlinson et al.
(2003) indicate that poor H&S records are often associated with poor site
supervision. Significant improvement is required relative to site planning
and layout (Rowlinson, 1997), and also housekeeping (Elbetagi and
Hegazy, 2002). There are many accidents due to tripping, slipping, or
falling over equipment which has been left lying around, and stepping on
nails which have been left projecting from timber (ILO, 2005). Greater
attention should be given to the design and selection of tools, equipment
and materials (Konz and Johnson, 2004). Hinze (2006) emphasises that
H&S should be the paramount consideration, rather than cost, schedule
and quality.

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Seven construction firms were randomly selected within the City of Port
Elizabeth for the purpose of the study. Five firms were willing to participate
in the study - two large, two medium, and one small.
Questionnaires were administered to both rural migrant workers and the
site management staff of the five firms. Since most of the rural migrant site
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workers were illiterate, interpreters were employed when necessary. The

main purpose of the questionnaire was to determine the rural migrant
workersʼ area of origin, H&S training completed and their general
understanding of H&S policies and practices. Fifty questionnaires were
given out to the site management staff of contractors to be administered to
the rural migrant workers and twenty seven were returned. Twenty
questionnaires were administered to the management staff of contractors
and fifteen were returned. Interviews were also conducted with both rural
migrant workers and site management staff of contractors. Leedy and
Ormrod (2007), state that an interview is an interaction between two or
more people to gain insight relative to problems. The interviews assisted
to understand the quality of H&S training received by the rural migrant
workers, H&S policies and practices on sites, provision of PPE, and also to
investigate its impact on the occurrence of site fatalities and injuries.

4.0 FINDINGS
4.1 Site workers

Table 1 province of origin of rural migrant site workers.

Province Number %
Free state 1 3.7
Gauteng 0 0.0
North West 1 3.7
Eastern Cape 16 59.3
Kwa-Zulu Natal 1 3.7
Limpopo 0 0.0
Mpumalanga 0 0.0
Northern Cape 2 7.4
Western Cape 6 22.2
Total 27 100

Table 1 shows that 3.7 % of the rural migrant workers originate from the
Free State, 3.7 % from North West, 59.3% from the Eastern Cape, 3.7 %
come from Kwa-Zulu Natal, 7.4% from the Northern Cape and 22.2% from
the Western Cape. The mean age is 34.8 years, they have lived in Port
Elizabeth for an average of 9.5 years, and they have worked for their
present employer for an average of 3.9 years. Although, 59.3 % of the
respondents are from the Eastern Cape, it is not an indication that they are
from the city of Port Elizabeth.

Table 2 Educational qualifications

Level Number %
Grade 7 15 55.6
Grade 8 3 11.1
Grade 11 3 11.1
Grade 12 4 14.8
National /Tech 2 7.4
Total 27 100
Table 2 shows that in general the rural migrant workers have low level of
education as 55.6 % have grade 7, 11.1% grade 8, 11.1 % grade 11, and

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14.8 % grade 12. The interview revealed that those with grade or National /
Technical qualifications are not South African nationals.

Table 3 Construction trade qualifications

Trade Qualification Number %
Carpenter 6 33.3
Steel erector 2 11.1
Plumber 1 5.6
Bricklayer 1 5.6
Painter 3 16.7
Tiler 1 5.6
Roofer 2 11.1
Electrician 0 0.0
Mason 1 5.6
Water proofer 1 5.6
Total 18 100
However, 66.7% of the respondents have a construction trade qualification,
33.3 % of which are qualified in carpentry, 16.7 % in painting and 11.1 % in
steel erecting, and11.1% in roofing, the other trade qualifications each
registering 5.6%. The lack of construction trade qualifications are major
factors contributing to poor site H&S. The 33.3 % who have no
construction trade qualifications include cleaners, and assistants.

4.2 Health and Safety (H&S) Training

Table 4 Rural migrant site workersʼ H&S training according to migrant
workers

H&S Training Number Percentage of

Courses Respondents
Manual handling 4 7.1 14.8
Scaffolding 5 8.9 18.5
First aid 6 10.7 22.2
Hazard identification 6 10.7 22.2
Fire fighting 2 3.6 7.5
Traffic control 2 5.4 7.5
Fall protection 6 10.7 22.2
Back injury protection 2 3.6 7.5
Induction 22 39.3 81.5
Total 55 100

Table 4 indicates that 81.5% of the rural migrant workers have received
induction. However, in terms of the Construction Regulations all workers
should receive induction. The next highest percentage was 22.2% relative
to first aid, hazard identification, and fall protection, followed by scaffolding
(18.5%), and manual handling (14.8%). Hazard identification training is
critical as it empowers workers to ensure their personal H&S and that of
fellow workers. Only 7.5% of workers had received fire fighting, traffic

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control, and back injury protection training. Furthermore, interviews the

researcher conducted with some management staff of contractors and
randomly picked rural migrant workers on the sites visited, revealed that
medium and small size contractors do not place importance on H&S
training of workers, with the excuse that their projects are not hazardous.
Table 5: Importance of the provision of personal protective safety
equipment (PPE) according to rural migrant workers

Type of PPE MS Rank

Safety boot 3.80 1
Hard hat 3.60 2
Hand gloves 3.60 3
Hearing protection 3.60 4
Body harness 3.60 5
Eye goggle 3.50 6
Respiratory protection 3.40 7

Table 5 indicates the importance of the provision of PPE according to site

management in terms of a mean score (MS) based upon percentage
responses to a scale of 1 (not important) to 5 (very important). Given that
all MSs are above the mid point score of 3.00, the provision of such PPE
can be deemed to be important to site management as opposed to not
important. However, none of the MSs are > 4.20 ≤ 5.00 - more than
important to very important / very important.

Table 6: Extent to which practices contribute to poor site H&S

Practices MS Rank
Poor hazards identification and risk assessment 4.50 1
Lack of a competent H&S Officer on site 4.40 2
Poor site housekeeping 4.40 3
Lack of toolbox talks 4.40 4
Poor site accident and incident reporting 4.40 5
Lack of management commitment to H&S 4.40 6
Poor provision of canteens 4.40 7
Inadequate bathroom facilities on site 4.30 8
Non display of H&S signs on site 4.10 9
Lack of regular site H&S meetings 4.10 10

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Non provision of good drinking water on site 4.00 11

Poor provision of first aid kits on site 4.00 12
Non provision of body harnesses 3.90 13
Non provision of a rest-room on site 3.90 14

Table 6 indicates the extent to which practices contribute to poor site H&S
in terms of a MS based upon percentage responses to a scale of 1 (minor)
to 5 (major). Given that all the MSs are above the mid-point of 3.00, and
that all the practices are phrased in the negative, site H&S can be deemed
to be poor. Furthermore, it is notable that the top eight practices have MS
> 4.2 ≤ 5.00, which indicates that, practices / interventions such as poor
hazard identification and risk assessment, lack of a competent H&S Officer
on site, poor site housekeeping, lack of management commitment to H&S,
and lack of toolbox talks can be deemed to contribute to poor site H&S
between a near major to major extent / major extent.

4.3 Responses from the site staff of contractors

The contractorsʼ site staff who responded to the questionnaire is on
average 34.5 years of age, with an average of 6.5 years experience. 59.9
% of the respondents have a Bachelor degree which indicates that they are
well educated and relatively well experienced in the field of construction
management.

Table 7: Extent to which factors / interventions could contribute to site H&S

improvement

Factor / Intervention MS Rank

Management commitment to H&S 4.50 1
Competent H&S Officer on site 4.40 2
Provision of good drinking water on site 4.30 3
Written H&S policy 4.20 4
Worker participation in H&S 4.20 5
Systematic H&S training programme 4.20 6
Toolbox talks 4.20 7
Good housekeeping 4.10 8
Display of H&S signs on site 4.10 8
Provision of first aid kits on site 4.10 8
Hazards identification and risks assessment 4.00 9
Regular H&S meetings 3.90 10
Provision of a site canteen 3.80 11
H&S Committee 3.70 12

Table 7 indicates the extent to which site management rated the

contribution of fourteen factors / interventions to an improvement in site
H&S in terms of a MS based upon percentage responses to a scale of 1

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(minor) to 5 (major). Given that all the MSs are above the mid point of 3.00,
all the factors / interventions can be deemed to contribute to H&S
improvement. However, three of the fourteen factors/ interventions have
MSs > 4.20 ≤ 5.00, which indicates that management commitment to H&S,
competent H&S officers on site, and provision of good drinking water on
site. It is notable that management commitment has been ranked first as it
is universally accepted as the critical factor in terms of factors/
interventions contributing to an improvement in H&S. However, a better
attitude to H&S management is determined by visible, active commitment
from top management (Hinze, 2006).

Table 8: Importance of H&S training to site management

Training MS Rank
Induction 4.50 1
Scaffolding 4.30 2
First aid 4.30 2
Fall protection 4.30 2
Hazardous 4.20 3
Back injury prevention 4.20 4
Manual handling 4.10 5
Fire fighting 4.10 6
Traffic control 3.8 7

Table 8 indicates the importance of H&S trainings according to site

management in terms of a MS based upon percentage responses to scale
of a 1 (not important) to 5 (very important). All the MSs are above the
midpoint of 3.0, which indicates that in general the site management can
be deemed to view all training as important as opposed to not important. It
is notable that induction training is rated between more than important to
very important / very important; however, this could be due to the
Construction Regulations (Republic of South Africa, 2003), which
emphasises the importance of induction to workers. Other training rated
similarly is scaffolding, first aid, and fall protection. The high rating afforded
H&S training is largely attributable to the two large construction firms that
participated in the survey.
Table 9: Extent to which personal protective equipment PPE is provided
according to site management

Type of PPE MS Rank

Safety boots 4.50 1
Hard hat 4.30 2
Body harness 4.30 2
Hand gloves 4.30 2
Hearing protection 4.30 2
Respiratory protection 4.20 3
Eye goggles 3.80 4

Table 9 indicates the importance of the provision of PPE according to site

management in terms of a MS based upon percentage responses to a
scale of 1 (not important) to 5 (very important). It is notable that all the MSs
are above 3.00, which indicates that the provision of PPE can be deemed

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to be important as opposed to not important. It is also notable that safety

boots is ranked the highest and that the MS of hard hat is lower than that
for safety boots as they are both standard PPE. However, given that the
MS of safety boots and other top fives types of PPE, are >4.20 ≤ 5.00, their
provision can be deemed to be between more than important to very
important / very important. The provision of respiratory protection and eye
goggles in turn can be deemed to be between important to more than
important / more than important as the MSs are > 3.40 ≤ 4.20.

5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

The South African construction industry is governed by the Occupational
Health and Safety Act of 1993 which clearly sets out the duties and
responsibilities of employers regarding the H&S of workers. However, from
the sites visited it is apparent that the large construction firms have well
established H&S programmes as compared to medium and small sized
construction firms. It was also determined that medium and small firms
tend to ignore H&S regulations because they regard their projects to be
less hazardous.
The study revealed that management commitment to H&S, a competent
H&S Officer on site, systematic H&S training, good site housekeeping and
provision of good drinking water on site are important factors contributing
to the improvement of construction site H&S. The recommendations are:
 The government through its Department of Labour H&S Inspectorate
should enforce H&S legislation and take proactive measures to
ensure that all construction firms adhere thereto;
 Construction firms should: engender management commitment to
H&S; educate and train their employees regarding H&S whether
they are temporary or permanent worker; discipline individuals who
violate H&S rules; appoint H&S Officers, and not consider
subcontractors who do not have good H&S records.
 Construction firms should conduct toolbox talks in the language
rural migrant workers understand if they do not understand English,
and display site H&S signage in such languages where possible,
and
 The management of construction firms should demonstrate serious
commitment to the H&S of rural migrant workers, as it is not
acceptable for workers to be injured on the job and furthermore,
remember that completing a job in a healthy and safe manner is
more important than merely completing it.

Acknowledgements
The National Research Foundation (NRF) is acknowledged for its
contribution in the form of funding which enabled the compilation and
presentation of this paper.

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ASOCSA2011-44

Critical indicators for measuring

health and safety performance
improvement in Small and Medium
construction Enterprise projects
Justus N. Agumba¹; Theo Haupt²
¹ Department of Construction Management and Quantity
Surveying, University of Johannesburg corner Siemert and
Beit Streets,
Doornfontein, 2028, Johannesburg, South Africa,[email protected],
Tel No. +27 11 559 6488
² Department of Construction Management and Quantity
Surveying, University of Johannesburg corner Siemert and Beit
Streets,
Doornfontein, 2028, Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT
Purpose
The common measures of measuring health and safety (H&S) performance
have, been down stream indicators. Such measures alone are regarded as
inadequate in providing meaningful information to help reduce the cause of
workplace injury or illness. Researchers have indicated that there is no
consensus on what constitutes appropriate H&S performance indicators.
This study sought to validate the identified set of leading indicators to
enable personnel of small and medium construction enterprises (SME)
monitor and improve H&S performance on their projects.
Methodology
The Delphi approach was used where the views of H&S experts were
canvassed on 64 potential indicators, categorized into 10 core elements.
Consensus was achieved after three successive rounds. The expertʼs
scored each indicator on a 10-point Likert scale of importance where 1=not
at all important and 10= very important. They had opportunity to consider
their scores informed by the group median score. The scales adapted for
consensus were: strong consensus, median 9-10, mean 8-10, inter
quartile range (IQR) ≤1 and ≥80%(8-10); good consensus, median 7-
8.99, mean 6-7.99, IQR≥1.1≤2 and ≥60%≤79%(8-10); weak consensus,
median
≤ 6.99, mean ≤5.99 and IQR≥2.1≤3 and ≤ 59%(8-10).
Findings
The key findings indicate that there was a good to strong consensus of 53
indicators. Nine of the indicators had weak consensus. The indicators with
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weak consensus were from the core elements of appointment of H&S staff
one measuring indicators, formal and informal written communication, four

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indicators, H&S policy, three indicators and training in H&S, one measuring
indicator.
Research limitations
The limitations were, reliance of a structured questionnaire survey in the
three successive rounds of Delphi method to reach consensus and experts
were not allowed to add any more indicators.
Practical implications
The indicators identified through literature review and validated using
Delphi method will enhance H&S performance improvement in SMEs
projects.
Originality/value
This study makes contribution to the body of knowledge on the subject
where no consensus has been reached pertaining to critical indicators for
measuring H&S performance in SMEs project in South Africa. The
elements and indicators can further be developed into a structured H&S
performance improvement model/framework for SMEs.
Keywords
Critical indicators; health and safety; measuring; performance
improvement

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is unique as construction activities are performed
at outdoor under conditions not conducive for health and safety (H&S).
Workers at the construction sites have to face constant changes in the
nature of work i.e. the location of work and work with new workers. Most
people tend to relate construction industry to a high risk working
environment when compared to the other industries (Root, 2005). Further
Root, (2005) opines that the reputation of the construction industry relies on
the expertise of implementation and managing safety, while meeting the
consumerʼs requirements.
Traditionally, senior managers of most organizations frown upon the
management of a workplace where high injury rates are reported. This pre-
occupation with outcome performance measures fuels the culture of
underreporting of accidents and incidents. Arguably therefore the use of
traditional outcome safety measures as a stand alone assessment of
workplace safety or as a measure of performance amongst different
organizations in the same industry is inherently flawed (Trethewy, 2003).
Trethewy (2003) further indicates that the absence of low probability
incident does not necessarily mean that core risks are effectively managed
but merely that such an incident has just not happened yet.
The above sentiments, advocates shifting from the traditional ways of
measuring H&S performance i.e. lagging indicators to leading or positive
performance indicators. Therefore the overarching research question is;
what are the leading indicators that will influence H&S performance
improvement at project level of SMEs?

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1.2 Health and safety in South Africa construction industry

The construction ʻblitzesʼ undertaken by the Department of Labour (DoL)
determined major non-compliance to H&S legislation, this level of non-
compliance as well as the number of fatalities resulted in a scathing attack
on the construction industry by Minister Mdladlana, the Minister of Labour
(DoL, 2004). Despite isolated reports of improvement, there is very limited
commitment to comply with basic requirements, let alone promote a culture
of health and safety. Employers view H&S as a cost in the system. It also
indicates that small contractors can barely maintain tools and regard safety
equipment as luxury items. Even where protective clothing and equipment
are provided, workers often avoid their use, including the use of safety
goggles and masks when working with grinders and asbestos (Construction
Industry Development Board- CIDB, 2004).
The continuing poor H&S performance of the construction industry in
the form of fatalities, injuries, and disease, the number of large-scale
construction accidents, and the general non-participation by key project
stakeholders such as clients and designers, provided the catalyst for
promulgation of consolidated construction H&S legislation in the form of the
Construction Regulations (Smallwood and Haupt, 2005). Compliance with
the Construction Regulations (2003) in South Africa, present significant
challenges involving cost, compliance, design and implementation capacity,
clients such as the Department of Public Works (DPW) and consultants
agree that implementation would require raised understanding on the
implications and importance of H&S in the construction industry (CIDB,
2004).
Occupational accidents and diseases impose an enormous cost on
South Africa. The DoL, (2007) indicated that construction accidents account
for 4% of the global gross domestic product (GDP). Occupational accidents
and diseases in South Africa account for approximately 3.5% of its GDP,
which, translates to about R30 billion (about US$4.2 billion). There are
other aspects apart from the financial and economic impacts which cannot
be measured in any accurate and tangible terms, namely the strain of the
loss of a family member, particularly if the worker was the only family bread
winner. The most complete accident figures are compiled by the
Compensation Commissioner. Construction H&S statistics provided by the
DoL covering the period 2004/05 to 2007/08 show a sharp rise in accidents
from, 54 fatalities and 159 non-fatal accidents (i.e. temporary or permanent
disablement) to around 160 fatalities and around 400 non-fatal accidents
respectively (DoL, 2008 cited in CIDB, 2008).
Aside from the direct compensation and medical costs associated with
accidents the costs to the economy are immense and include rework, lost
time, damage to plant and equipment, disruption, productivity loss and loss
of skills to the economy (CIDB, 2004).
These views highlight the importance of identifying and validating H&S
leading indicators to be used by SMEs in the South African construction
industry at project level to improve H&S performance.

1.3 ELEMENTS FOR H&S PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT

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According to Fernandez Muniz et al. (2007), gaps still remain in the

literature, where researchers have conceded rather less importance to
measuring the situational characteristics of safety management system
(SMS), which Mearns et al. (2003) consider to be an integral part of
organizationʼs safety culture. Fernandez-Muniz et al. (2007) further
indicates that there is no consensus of what constitutes the SMS i.e. what
the organisation does in H&S management. Mohamed and Chinda (2005)
further indicate that their is need to investigate the casual relationship
between goal of overall H&S performance improvement and what
construction firms actually do on H&S management. This relationship
provides an indication of the potential for H&S performance improvement.
Ng et al. (2003) developed a framework for evaluating the safety
performance of contractors in Hong Kong at both the organization level and
project level. The factors identified by the researchers for project level
were: project management commitment, hazard management, information,
training, and promotions, but to name a few. The factors for organization
level were administrative and management commitment, H&S training,
selection and control subcontractors, safety review; accident record and
legislation, codes and standards.
Critical elements influencing H&S performance, that have been
replicated in most literature are management commitment and employee
involvement and they appear to be easily demonstrated and promoted
through risk assessments, inspections, audits, training, hazard reporting
and completing corrective actions (Fernandez Muniz et al. 2007). Few
studies have focused on H&S elements tailored towards SMEs which
makes this study important. Based on the above discussions this research
identified 64 potential indicators and categorized them into ten core
elements viz.; appointment of H&S staff, formal and informal written
communication, formal and informal verbal communication, H&S resources,
project planning of H&S, project supervision, training in H&S, upper
management commitment to H&S, policy on H&S and workerʼs/employee
involvement. The identification of these elements and indicators is beyond
the scope of this research work due to the number of pages required. A full
complimentary paper can be obtained from the authors, which will be
presented in the West African Built Environment Researcher conference in
Ghana 2011.

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problems and challenges faced in South Africa construction industry on
H&S by SMEs needs to be addressed. So far there has been little research
on leading indicators that can be more closely tied to the H&S culture or
H&S management of SMEs at project level in South Africa. In order to get a
better understanding, there is a need to identify important positive
performance indicators (PPI) that will improve H&S performance of SMEs
at project level, hence reducing accidents, injuries, fatalities and illnesses in
their projects. In order to answer the overarching research question stated
above, this paper delves into the following specific objectives;
 To assess the characteristics of the experts; and

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 To determine the important positive performance indicators to be

used for measuring health and safety performance improvement at
project level of SMEs.

1.5 METHODOLOGY
An extensive systematic literature review was conducted in journal articles,
conference proceedings and relevant H&S books from 1976 - 2010. A list of
64 leading indicators, were then identified. The leading indicators were
categorized into ten core elements. The elements and indicators were used
to develop a Delphi questionnaire. A panel of experts were selected and
took part in a three round of Delphi process. The experts rated the
indicators on a 10 point Likert scale of importance, the importance scale,
where 1&2 = unimportant, 3&4 = slightly important, 5&6 = neutral, 7&8 =
important, 9&10 =very important.
In order to qualify as an expert the following had to be fulfilled, each
individual was required to meet at least three of the following minimum
requirements: 1) minimum five years of work experience in either academia
or industry; 2) at least one professional qualification: 3) an editor, book, or
book chapter authorship, 4) minimum qualification for industry practitioners
diploma and academics bachelor degree: 5) five or more publications in
conferences and journals, 6) member or committee chair of faculty, 7)
safety association member and 8) offers workshop or training in H&S. This
is more stringent criteria than the recommended number of at least two by
(Rodgers and Lopez, 2002). 20 experts both academics and industry
practitioners of H&S agreed to participate; they were selected globally and
consented to the introductory questionnaire survey via e-mail, sixteen
experts finished all the three rounds. Optimal sample size in research with
the Delphi technique has not been established but research has been
published based on samples that vary from 10 and 50 to much larger
numbers as indicated by (Campbell and Cantril, 2001).
In the first round the experts were asked to rate the importance and
the impact of the indicators to the improvement of H&S at project level of
SMEs projects. The second and third round of the Delphi questionnaire
included a qualitative component that offered experts the opportunity to
provide additional feedback in the form of written comments. After round 2
and round 3, the degree of consensus achieved in the Delphi process was
assessed by calculating the group median, mean, percentage of
respondents rating of between 8 to 10 on importance and inter-quartile
range. The group median was used as a feedback to the experts in the
successive rounds.
Each round built on responses to the former round. Experts were
provided with a summary of the series of rounds. This summary included
the feedback to each expert: his or her own score on each item, the group
median ratings, and a synopsis of written comments. The experts were
then asked to reflect on the feedback and re-rate each indicator/action in
light of the new information. The scales of consensus adapted for this
research were: strong consensus, median 9-10, mean 8-10, inter quartile
range (IQR) ≤1 and ≥80%(8-10); good consensus, median 7-8.99, mean
6-7.99, IQR≥1.1≤2 and ≥60%≤79%(8-10); weak consensus, median ≤
6.99, mean ≤5.99 and IQR≥2.1≤3 and ≤ 59%(8-10).
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The Delphi technique has four important features. First it is

characterized by its anonymity, thus encouraging honest opinion free from
group pressure (Jones and Hunter, 1995). Second iteration allows experts
to change their opinions in subsequent rounds. Thirdly, controlled feedback
illustrates the distribution of the groupʼs response, in addition to individualʼs
previous response. Finally the Delphi technique can be used to engage
participants who are separated by large distances because it can be
distributed by mail or online (Hasson et al., 2000). This method was
therefore appropriate in validating the leading indicators identified. The
limitation to this modified Delphi method is that experts were not allowed to
add any core elements or indicators.
.

1.6 RESULTS

1.6.1 Characteristics of the expertʼs panel

20 potential experts fulfilled the proposed criteria, but sixteen experts

finished all the three rounds of the Delphi study. The experts were
internationally recruited and voluntarily accepted to participate in this
onerous task. The array number of experts is from Australia (6), America
(1), South Africa (7), Italy (1), Portugal (2), Ireland (1), Scotland (1), and
Pakistan (1). 95% of experts were male, the female experts who were
invited to participate declined the invitation hence the result indicates that
construction industry is still male dominated. The sixteen experts who
completed the three rounds of Delphi, eight had PhDs, five with masterʼs
degree, one with bachelor degree and two with diploma. The accumulated
industrial experience of the experts is 118 years at an average of 7.38
years and academic experience of 95 years at an average of 5.94 years.
The experts especially the academics have extensively contributed to the
body of knowledge on H&S with vast publications in peer reviewed
conferences and journals. The experts are professionally registered in their
countries.

1.6.2 The important leading/positive performance indicators

Table 1.1 Important indicators to measure H&S performance
improvement
Health and safety core elements and IQR %(8-10) Mean Median
indicators
Appointment of H&S staff
Employing at least one qualified manager with 2.00 69 7.75 8.00
H&S training to oversee H&S on multiple
projects
At least one staff member with H&S training is 2.00 63 7.75 8.00
employed on each project
Employing at least one H&S representative on 3.00 44 7.06 7.00
each project
Formal and informal written
Communication
Provision of written information about H&S 3.00 63 8.19 8.50
procedures
Provision of written information about the 2.50 56 7.63 8.00

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correct way to perform tasks

Written circular/brochure that informs workers 2.25 50 7.56 7.50
about the risks associated with their work
Written circular/brochure that inform workers 2.25 50 7.50 7.50
about the preventive measures to reduce risk
Formal and informal verbal communication
Provide clear verbal instructions to both 1.00 100 9.44 9.50
literate and illiterate employees about H&S
H&S information verbally communicated to 2.00 100 9.06 9.00
workers before changes are made to the way
their work activities are executed
Organize regular meetings to verbally inform 2.00 94 8.63 9.00
workers about the risks associated with their
work
Organize regular meetings to verbally inform 2.00 94 8.69 9.00
workers about the preventive H&S measures
of risky work

Scales adapted: strong consensus, median 9-10, mean 8-10, inter quartile
range (IQR) ≤1 and ≥80%(8-10); good consensus, median 7-8.99, mean 6-7.99,
IQR≥1.1≤2 and ≥60%≤79%(8-10); weak consensus, median ≤ 6.99, mean ≤5.99
and IQR≥2.1≤3 and ≤ 59%(8-10).

Continued Table 1.1 Important indicators to measure H&S

performance improvement

Health and safety core elements and IQR %(8-10) Mean Median
indicators
H&S resources
Provision of personal protective equipment 1.00 100 9.31 9.50
(PPE)
Training in H&S through attending 1.25 88 8.50 8.50
seminars/workshops
Material schedule data sheets provided for all 1.75 75 8.06 9.00
hazardous materials on site
Employing technically skilled employees with 1.00 94 9.13 9.00
H&S training
Adequate information brochures given on H&S 1.50 69 7.60 8.00
Provision of a budget for H&S 1.00 100 9.50 10.00
Provision of correct tools, equipment and plant 2.00 100 9.19 9.50
to execute construction
Provision of good welfare facilities such as 2.00 94 9.06 9.00
showers, canteens, toilets
Project planning of H&S
Ergonomics is considered when deciding the 2.00 100 9.06 9.00
method of construction
Reengineering is considered to reduce 2.00 94 9.00 9.00
hazards
When head office decides on the method of 1.00 94 9.13 9.00
construction H&S is included in decision
making process
Each project has a site-specific H&S plan 1.00 94 9.19 9.00
Layout of the site considers H&S aspects 1.00 100 9.38 9.00
Use hazard identification procedures 1.00 100 9.13 9.00
Use of risk assessment procedures 2.00 94 8.69 9.00
Constructability of project is reviewed 1.25 88 8.69 9.00
Scheduling for H&S 1.25 94 9.06 9.00
Project supervision
Proper supervision by staff trained in H&S 2.00 81 8.44 9.00

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Identification of hazards by at least one staff 1.25 88 8.63 9.00

member trained in H&S
Results of inspections discussed at H&S 2.00 94 9.00 9.00
meetings
H&S inspections done at least daily 1.50 75 8.44 9.00
Local authorities and H&S enforcement 2.00 81 8.63 9.00
agencies visit sites for inspection
Ad hoc informal H&S inspections of work 1.25 81 8.56 9.00
place
Regular H&S audits of projects 1.25 88 9.00 9.00

The data is based on a ten-point Likert scale of importance, where 1&2 =

unimportant, 3&4 = slightly important, 5&6 = neutral, 7&8 = important, 9&10
=very important

Continued Table 1.1 Important indicators to measure H&S

performance improvement

Health and safety core elements and IQR %(8-10) Mean Median
indicators
Training in H&S
Workers undergo induction on H&S before 1.00 94 9.31 9.50
commencing work on a particular site
Workers trained in proper care and use of 1.25 88 8.94 9.00
personal protective equipment
Workers are regularly trained in H&S 1.00 88 8.94 9.00
Instruction manuals or safe work procedures 2.25 75 8.25 9.00
are used to aid in preventive action
Workers are given time off for training 1.50 75 8.06 8.00
Upper management commitment in H&S
Managers encourage and support worker 1.00 94 9.31 9.50
participation, commitment and involvement in
H&S activities
Managers encourage and support training of 1.00 94 9.19 9.00
employees in H&S
Managers communicate regularly with 1.00 94 9.44 10.00
workers about H&S
Managers actively monitor the H&S 1.00 94 9.38 10.00
performance of their projects and workers
Managers take responsibility for H&S 0.25 94 9.63 10.00
Managers actively and visibly lead in H&S 1.00 94 9.50 10.00
matters
Managers regularly visit workplaces to check 1.00 94 9.38 10.00
work conditions or communicate with workers
about H&S
Managers encourage and arrange meetings 1.00 94 9.31 9.50
with employees & other managers to discuss
H&S matters
Managers conduct toolbox talks themselves 1.25 88 8.63 9.00
Managers ensure that the H&S budget is 1.00 94 9.31 9.50
adequate
Managers recognize and reward outstanding 1.25 88 8.75 9.00
H&S performance of workers
H&S policy
Proper implementation of safety management 2.25 75 8.31 9.00
system
Company has H&S policy 2.25 75 8.25 8.50
Written in-house H&S rules and regulations for 2.25 63 7.75 8.00
all workers reflecting management concern for

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safety, principles of action and objectives of

achievement
The firm coordinates its H&S policies with
other human resource policies to ensure 1.50 75 8.25 8.50
the well-being of workers

Continued Table 1.1 Important indicators to measure H&S

performance improvement

Health and safety core elements and IQR %(8-10) Mean Median
indicators
Worker/employee involvement in H&S
Workers are involved in production of H&S 2.00 100 9.06 9.00
policy
Workers provide written suggestions on H&S 1.25 81 8.56 8.50
Workers kept informed of provisions of H&S
plan 1.25 94 8.81 9.00
Workers are involved in H&S inspections
Workers are consulted when the H&S plan is 1.25 100 8.94 9.00
compiled 2.00 88 8.81 9.00
Workers are involved in development of H&S
rules and safe work procedures 2.00 94 8.88 9.00
Workers have the explicit right to refuse to
work in potentially unsafe, unhealthy
conditions 1.00 100 9.38 9.50

The scales adapted: strong consensus, median 9-10, mean 8-10, inter quartile
range (IQR) ≤1 and ≥80%(8-10); good consensus, median 7-8.99, mean 6-7.99,
IQR≥1.1<2 and ≥60%≤79%(8-10); weak consensus, median ≤ 6.99, mean ≤5.99
and IQR≥2.1≤3 and ≤ 59%(8-10).

Table 1.1 indicates the results for round 3 of Delphi survey. A total of 62
indicators were rated, two were discarded after round 2 because of
ambiguity and were merged. Fifty three indicators had a good to strong
consensus whereas nine indicators had weak consensus. Indicators with
weak consensus had IQR≥2.1≤3 or percentage rating of between, 8 to10
for importance was less than 59%.
The indicators with weak consensus or central tendency were; the
employment of at least one H&S representative on each project these was
categorised under appointment of H&S staff element. The other element
that had indicators with weak consensus was formal and informal written
communication. These indicators were; provision of written information
about H&S procedures, provision of written information about the correct
way to perform tasks and written circular/brochure that inform workers
about the preventive measures to reduce risk as indicated in Table 1 these
indicators fulfilled the consensus for importance based on their mean and
median.
H&S training element had one indicator with weak consensus i.e.
instruction manuals or safe work procedures are used to aid in preventive
action. Lastly H&S policy had three indicators with weak consensus they
were; proper implementation of safety management system, company has
H&S policy and written in-house H&S rules and regulations for all workers
reflecting management concern for safety, principles of action and
objectives of achievement, there IQR were ≥2.1≤3. The result in Table 1.1

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further indicates that there was good to strong consensus of 53 indicators.

All eleven upper management commitment indictors attained strong
consensus based on their mean, median, inter quartile range and
percentage of respondents who rated the indicator, between 8 to 10
importance ratings. This was followed by employee involvement indicators
the seven indicators attained good consensus to strong consensus hence
the experts agreed that these indicators will improve health and safety
performance. 20 indicators attained strong consensus with managers
taking responsibility of H&S highly rated to improve H&S performance, its
IQR was 0.25.

1.7 DISCUSSIONS
This is the first reported study to develop a set of positive performance
indicators specifically designed to evaluate early warnings in H&S
performance within SMEs to improve their H&S performance at project
level in South Africa. These measures are relevant for all SMEs in the
construction industry to assist them in improving there H&S performance. It
is interesting to note that between formal & informal written communication
and formal and informal verbal communication experts have indicated a
good to strong consensus for verbal communication than written
communication. SMEs managers need to conduct more tool box talks to
ensure the information is communicated appropriately, especially providing
clear verbal instructions to both literate and illiterate employees on H&S.
Itsʼ quite evident from the results that upper management indicators
are considered important this result correlates with the study of
(Fernandez-Muniz et al., 2007). It is also interesting to note that material
schedule data sheet (MSDS) is indicated as important and achieved a good
consensus from the experts. This is a step in the right direction because of
the different types of materials that contain hazardous chemicals, it vital for
the parties using these materials to know their effect in their health, as
some of them have long term effect on employeesʼ health.

1.8 CONCLUSIONS
Majority i.e. fifty three (53) leading indicators attained a good to strong
consensus while nine indicators had weak consensus. The limitations of
the study were the reliance of a structured questionnaire survey in the three
successive rounds of Delphi method to reach consensus and experts were
not allowed to add any more indicators. The elements and indicators can
further be developed into a structured H&S performance improvement
model for SMEs.
The researchers are advocating for a fourth round of Delphi to ensure
a thorough consensus of the leading indicators that had weak consensus
based on their IQR in order to eliminate the varied dispersion of
respondents.

1.7 REFERENCES

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Campbell, S.M. and Cantrill J.A., 2001, Consensus methods in prescribing

research. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 26, 5-14.
Construction Industry Development Board, 2004, SA construction industry status
report, synthesis review on the South African construction industry and its
development, discussion document, April, Pretoria, South Africa.
Construction Industry Development Board, 2008, Construction Health and Safety
in South Africa, Status and Recommendations.
Department of Labour. 2004, Media statement: Minister Mdladlana appalled at
working conditions in the construction industry, Republic of South Africa
(www.labour.gov.za/docs/pr/2004/jan20_dol.htm.) last viewed 24/11/2010
Department of Labour, 2007, Minister of Labour Mdladlana speech of safety and
health at work commemoration, Republic of South Africa
Fernandez-muniz, B., Montes-Peon M.J. and Vazquez-Ordas, J.C., 2007, Safety
culture: Analysis of the causal relationships between its key dimensions. Journal
of Safety Research, 38, 627-641.
Hasson, F., Keeney, S. and McKenna, H., 2000, Research guidelines for Delphi
survey Technique. Journal of Advanced Nursing 32, 1008-1015.
Jones, J., and Hunter, D., 1995, Consensus methods medical and health services
research. British Medical Journal, 311, 376-380.
Mearns K., Whitaker, M.S. and Flin, R., 2003, Safety climate, safety management
practice and safety performance in offshore environments. Safety Science,
41,641-680.
Mohamed, S. and Chinda, T., 2005, Organisational safety culture: a system
dynamics approach, In Proceedings of the W99 4th Triennial International
Conference for Rethinking and Revitalizing Construction Safety, Health
Environment and Quality, In Haupt, T. and Smallwood, J. (eds.) Port Elizabeth
282-292.
Ng, T.S., Cheng, P.K. and Skitmore, R.M., 2005, A framework for evaluating the
safety performance of construction contractors. Built and Environment, 40, 1347-
1355.
Rodgers M.R. and Lopez, E.C., 2002, Identifying critical cross-cultural school
psychology competencies. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 2, 115-141.
Root, D.F., 2005, Creating a culture of safety on construction sites. Risk
management, 52, 11, 56-62.
Smallwood, J. and Haupt, T., 2005. The need for construction health and safety
(H&S) and the Construction Regulations: Engineersʼ perceptions. Journal of the
South African Institution of Civil Engineering, 47: 2, 2-8 paper 581.
Trethewy, W.R., 2003, OHS performance improved indicators for construction
contractors, Journal of Construction Research, 4,1,17-27.

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ASOCSA2011-70
Conceptual model of client health and safety (H&S)
Culture

Innocent Musonda1, Theo C. Haupt2

1
[email protected],
1
PhD Candidate, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
2
Professor, University of Mississippi, United States

ABSTRACT
Purpose: This paper presents a conceptual six factor client H&S culture
model referred to as the LIP+3C. The factors leadership, involvement,
procedures, commitment, communication and competence were theorised
to explain the client H&S culture construct. The postulated model is based
on theory obtained from literature as well as from a Delphi research. H&S
culture has been recognised as the feasible way to improve H&S
performance in the construction industry.
Design/methodology/approach: A Delphi study as well as a synthesis of
literature was conducted and resulted in a theorised conceptual model. To
validate the model, a questionnaire survey with a response of 281 was
conducted. Findings from the questionnaire survey were analysed using
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with EQS version 6.1 software.

Findings: The six factor client H&S culture model was found to be well
fitting to the sample data through the confirmatory factor analysis.
Consequently client H&S culture findings were that client culture could be
explained by the level of leadership, involvement, procedures,
commitment, communication and competence.
Research limitations/implications: The size of the sample may affect the
generalisability the findings in view of the complexity of the model.
Practical implications: The proposed model in this study makes it
possible to determine and predict the client H&S culture. The indicator
variables can be used as check items for performance measurement and
thus operationalize the concept of H&S culture.
Originality/value: Adopting the LIP+3C culture model composed of
elements that can easily be implemented and understood will contribute to
improving the current H&S status
Keywords: Conceptual, culture, health and safety, improvement, LIP+3C,
Model, performance.

1. INTRODUCTION

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Literature has shown that the construction industryʼs H&S performance

leaves much to be desired (Bomel, 2001; CIDB, 2008; and McDonalds et
al, 2009). As a result, the construction industry is in dire need of
improvement in terms of H&S performance (ILO, 2003).
Various improvement methods have been suggested to improve
H&S performance in the industry, however it seems the most feasible way
to improve H&S performance in the industry is through a culture change
(Riley et al 2001;Baram, 2007; Chinda, 2007). However despite a general
agreement that H&S improvement may only be realised with an
improvement in the H&S culture, the concept of culture and in particular
H&S culture is still a confusing concept. This has resulted in a myriad of
definitions and measurement methods of the concept. In addition, there is
no agreement on the factors of H&S. Despite these differences on what
culture is, what the factors of H&S are, and how it should be measured,
there is a general agreement on the efficacy of the concept to improve H&S
performance (Dingsdag et al, 2006); (Molenaar et al, 2002; Chinda et al,
2007). It is in fact suggested that clientsʼ culture could offer an opportunity
for addressing the problem of H&S performance (Bomel, 2001). It has been
suggested that the impetus for change lies with the clients of construction
projects because clients can influence contractorsʼ H&S performance.
In this study therefore, a six factor client H&S culture model has
been proposed and validated through structural equation modelling in order
to operationalise it in the construction industry.

2. CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The theory behind the conceptual model presented in the next paragraph,
was drawn from literature. The factors comprising the postulated model
were aspects that have been said to influence H&S culture and no regard
was made to the term/s used to describe them but rather focus was placed
on its active description.
According to Chinda et al (2007) the aspect of leadership, Policy
and strategy of an organisation, people, partnerships and resources,
processes and goals are key contributors to H&S culture. In order to
change culture, IOSH (2004) contend that there is need for a commitment
to change and there has to be leadership at the highest management level.
Although he referred to indicators and global components of H&S culture,
Wiegmann (2002) identified that organisational commitment and
involvement, employee empowerment, a reward system and reporting
system contribute to the H&S culture. Specific aspects such as education
and training have also been identified as vital aspects to obtain a H&S
culture (Fitzgerald, 2005; Pellicer and Molenaar, 2007). In a recent study by
Choudry et al (2009), 11 factors were identified namely commitment and
involvement, procedure, psychological feature, economical feature, self-
esteem, workersʼ experience, performance pressure, working environment,
job security and education.
Apart from the above, other factors such as communication
(Dingsdag et al, 2006; Gadd, 2002; Havold, 2007; Mohamed, 2002, IET,
2009 and IOSH, 2004); competence (Gadd, 2002; IET, 2009; IOSH, 2004;
Mohamed, 2002), and leadership (Dingsdag, 2006; Fitzgerald, 2005; IET,
2009) have also been identified as factors contributing to H&S culture. Risk

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perception of workers (Gadd, 2002; Entec 1999; and Flin, 2000) and more
generally policies, procedures and rules (Flin et al, 2002; Fernández-Muñiz,
2007 and Mohamed, 2002) have also been identified as factors influencing
H&S culture. Perhaps one of the most important factors that has been said
to influence culture is the aspect of performance measurement. IOSH
(2004), Fitzgerald (2005), Gadd (2002), and Pidgeon and OʼLeary
(Pidgeon, 2000) all identified this aspect of performance measurement and
feedback of results as being one of the influences on H&S culture.
From the above (1) leadership (2) involvement (3) procedures (4)
commitment (5) communication and (6) competence were identified to be
factors of client H&S culture. These were found to be common to most
studies. The H&S culture factors have been referred to as the LIP+3C
model of H&S culture in this study. The diagrammatical presentation of the
model is presented in figure 1.0.

V1 - V8 CLL

V9 – V15 CLI

V16 – V23 CLP

V24 – V32 CLT

V33 – V41 CLN

Figure 1: Conceptualised CLE culture model (CLL=

V42 – V45 LIP + 3C client H&S
leaders hip, CLI = Involvement, CLP = Procedures, CLT = commitment, CLN =
Communication and CLE = competence.)

3. FINDINGS

A questionnaire survey was conducted on selected construction projects in

South Africa and Botswana. A sample of 281 responses was realised.
Analysis of results was conducted through SEM using EQS version 6.1
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software. The number of cases that were analysed was 273 cases from a
sample of 281 because eight cases were skipped as they had missing
variables. The client H&S culture scale had 19 dependent variables, 25
independent variables and 53 free parameters. The number of fixed
nonzero parameters was 25.
The hypothesis to be tested was that Client H&S culture is
explained by the factors; leadership, involvement, procedures, commitment,
competence and communication.

3.1 Residual covariance analysis

In order to establish how well the model fit the sample data and the
strength of the hypothesised relations between variables, results presented
on residual covariance matrix, distribution of standardised residuals, fit
statistics and statistical significance at probability level of 5% were
examined.
The residual covariance matrix for both un-standardised and
standardised are reported. Results show that all the absolute residual
values and the average off-diagonal absolute residual for both un-
standardised and standardised were very much close to zero. The smallest
un-standardised average off diagonal residual was 0.0076 whilst the largest
was 0.0445. Similarly, the smallest standardised average off diagonal
residual was 0.0068 whilst the largest was 0.0392. In order to suggest that
the model describes the sample data well, the residual values should be
very small and evenly distributed. Byrne (Byrne, 2006) suggests that a
value can be said to be large if it is greater than 2.58. Therefore since the
values in the current study presented in table 1 were all less than 2.58, they
were suggestive of a good fit to the sample data. In addition, an average of
97.41% of standardised residuals fell between -0.1 and +0.1. In another
analysis of the whole client H&S culture with parcels, results were that
100% of the standardised average absolute residual fell within the -0.1 and
+0.1.range indicating an overall good fit.

Table 1: Client culture average absolute residuals

Variable Un-standardised Standardised

Ave absolute Ave off-diagonal Ave absolute Ave off-diagonal % falling between
residual absolute residual residual absolute residual
leadership 0.0276 0.0355 0.0271 0.0349 94.44%
Commitment 0.0304 0.0380 0.0214 0.0267 97.78%
Involvement 0.0288 0.0384 0.0163 0.0217 100%
Communication 0.0329 0.0411 0.0293 0.0366 97.77%
Competence 0.0076 0.0127 0.0068 0.0113 100%
Procedures 0.0346 0.0445 0.0305 0.0392 94.45%
Overall Client culture 0.0180 0.0200 0.0177 0.0197 100%

3.2 Fit indexes

Despite an indication of a good fit from the residual covariance analysis,

evaluation of fit indexes was necessary. A two statistic strategy of fit

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indexes is reported in this study. The robust comparative/incremental

index, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and the robust absolute fit index, Root
Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) at 90% confidence interval
were evaluated in order to establish fit of the model and are reported
in this
study. In addition, the Sattora-Bentler scaled chi-square and the
Standard Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) were evaluated in order to
compliment the conclusion on model fit and are also reported. Model
analysis was a pure Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) procedure. The
findings from measurement models on leadership, involvement,
procedures, commitment, communication and competence are
presented first and then the full six factor structural model on client culture.
The sample data on the leadership factor of client culture and its
associated indicator variables, yield a of 50.329with 20 degrees of
freedom. The associated p-value was determined to be 0.00020. The ratio
of to the degree of freedom yield a value of 2.52 which is lower
than the acceptable value of 3.0. The robust CFI index was found to be
0.955. A value greater than 0.95 for a well-fitting model is recommended
(Hu and Bentler, 1999). The robust RMSEA at 90% confidence interval with
the lower bound value of 0.050 and the upper bound value of 0.100 yield
0.075. In addition the SRMR yield an index of 0.041. A good fitting model is
expected to have an SRMR index lower or equal to 0.05 whilst an index of
0.08 is sufficient to accept the postulated model. The absolute fit index
SRMR accounts for the average discrepancy between the sample and the
postulated correlation matrices and therefore it represents the average
value across all standardised residuals and ranges from zero to 1.00 in a
well fitting model (Byrne, 2006). Evaluation of the above fit indexes
indicated an acceptable fit of the measurement model because all the
estimates met the cut-off values of for robust CFI, for SRMR
(ML), 0.08 for the robust RMSEA (CI 0.050:0.100). See table 2.
The sample data for the factors involvement, competence and
commitment yield index values that suggested a good fit. The CFI index
values for those factors were all greater than the 0.95 value and the SRMR
indexes were less than the 0.05 recommended values for a good fit model.
However, the RMSEA with the 90% confidence, yield values that are
merely acceptable as they were greater than 0.05 but crucially less than the
0.08.
As for the client health and safety culture factors of procedures
and communication, the models were less fitting to the sample data.
Although the CFI and the SRMR indexes fell within the acceptable
range, the
RMSEA and the scaled indicated a rather weak fit.
The full six factor model was however found to be well fitting to the
data. The was found to be 219.323 with 137 degrees of freedom
(P=0.00001) yielding the chi-square- degree of freedom ratio of 1.60. The
CFI was found to be 0.979 whilst the RMSEA with 90% confidence interval
(lower bound value = 0.035 and upper bound value = 0.058) was found to
be 0.047. The SRMR was found to be 0.025. Those fit indexes for the client
H&S culture model was suggestive of a very good fit overall.

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Table 2: Robust fit indexes for client culture construct

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df CFI SRMR RMSEA RMSEA CI

90%
Cut-off Acceptable 0 0.9 0.08 0.08
index
Variable Good 0.95 0.05 0.05

Leadership 50.329 20 0.955 0.041 0.075 0.050:0.100

Involvement 30.183 14 0.986 0.024 0.064 0.032:0.096
Procedures 103.998 20 0.934 0.045 0.123 0.100:0.147
Competence 2.642 2 0.999 0.010 0.034 0:0.129
Communication 133.395 27 0.940 0.042 0.119 0.099:0.139
Commitment 64.100 27 0.966 0.031 0.071 0.049:0.093
Overall Client 219.323 137 0.979 0.025 0.047 0.035:0.058
culture

3.3 Significance of parameter estimates

In addition to the overall fitting of the model, the significance of individual

parameters is equally important. As such, Raykov (1991) recommend
further examination of factor loadings, standard errors and the test statistics
in addition to overall fit statistics before conclusions could be made about
the appropriateness of the postulated models. Therefore those estimates
were examined and are now presented below.
According to Byrne (2006) estimates are said to be unreasonable if
they have correlation values that are greater than 1.00, have negative
variances and the correlation or covariances are not definite positive.
Furthermore, the test statistic has to be greater than 1.96 based on the
probability level of 5% before the hypothesis can be rejected (Byrne,
2006).The test statistic reported in this study is the parameter estimate
divided by its standard error and therefore it functions as a Z-statistic to test
that the estimate is statistically different from zero.
Inspection of the correlation values, standard errors and the test
statistic in table 3, show that all correlations were not greater than 1.00, all
test statistics were greater than 1.96 and the signs were appropriate. The
estimates were therefore reasonable as well as statistically significant. All
parameter estimates showed a high correlation values close to 1.00
suggesting a high degree of linear association between the indicator
variables and the latent variables. See table 3.
The test statistic, magnitude and signs for the overall six factor
client H&S culture also showed that the estimates were reasonable and
statistically significant. The covariances among independent variables at
5% level also showed that they were statistically significant. The covariance
factor loadings ranged from 0.653 (Involvement (F2) – Leadership (F1)) to
0.942 (Commitment (F4) - Involvement (F2)). Table 4 presents independent
variable correlations, standard errors and the test statistic.

Table 3: Coefficients and test statistics of indicator variables (Robust

statistical significance at 5% level

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Latent Indicator variable

Test statistic

Significant?
Coefficient
variable

(The client...)

Considers H&S implications before making decisions on the project .741 11.011 Yes
Has an effective H&S policy .796 13.209 Yes
Monitors H&S on the project throughout all stages .816 14.657 Yes
Monitors designers’ H&S implementation .841 17.700 Yes
Leadership

Monitors contractor’s H&S implementation .792 13.641 Yes

Mandated designers to manage project H&S .717 11.047 Yes
Requires that the contractor manages project H&S .618 8.759 Yes
Coordinates designers & contractor to ensure good H&S .798 14.022 Yes
Demonstrated positive attitude toward H&S .839 10.628 Yes
Actively promoted H&S in a consistent manner across all levels .806 13.316 Yes
Provided finance for H&S .758 11.307 Yes
Supported implementation of H&S activities .775 12.254 Yes
Put in efforts to ensure every aspect of work & operations are routinely .942 17.663 Yes
evaluated for H&S
Conducted regular H&S tours on the project .956 17.884 Yes
Commitment

Been involved in investigations of accidents, incidents & ill-health on the .887 15.811 Yes
project
Set H&S as an important agenda item in every project progress meeting .799 13.116 Yes
Set H&S as a No.1 priority on the project .957 17.347 Yes
Is personally active in critical project H&S activities .829 12.956 Yes
Is always present in project H&S meetings .919 12.653 Yes
Contributes to H&S training .934 17.308 Yes
Involvement

Is active in overseeing of H&S on critical operations .934 18.362 Yes

Has constantly stayed “in-touch” on H&S issues .987 19.825 Yes
Always communicates information on H&S to all parties .962 18.066 Yes
Conducts regular audits & inspections .954 17.972 Yes
Has set up a formal reporting system of incidents & accidents on the project .902 16.644 Yes
Involved all parties in planning for H&S on the project .865 16.419 Yes
Involves all parties in H&S review .820 17.241 Yes
Has provided timely feedback on reported accidents & incidents on the project .919 18.530 Yes
Competence Communication

Communicates risk findings to all parties on the project .977 21.252 Yes
Clearly made H&S policy statements for the project .894 17.517 Yes
Has clearly outlined H&S roles & responsibilities for all parties on the project .895 18.733 Yes
Has clearly communicated expected performance on H&S to all .890 16.611 Yes
Has provided Information on H&S risk control to all parties .965 18.807 Yes
Representatives have demonstrated knowledge of H&S .785 13.082 Yes
Conducts H&S training for its own staff .976 20.689 Yes
Deployed staff on the project that are qualified to manage H&S .963 18.160 Yes
Ensured that H&S induction to client staff was done on the project .997 18.883 Yes
Has programs to monitor and analyse H&S implementation .908 19.753 Yes
Has clear project H&S goals .827 15.959 Yes
dure
Proc

Scheduled H&S as a key contract prequalification criteria for all parties .839 16.215 Yes
e

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involved in the project

Scheduled H&S in all contracts for the parties involved in the project .770 16.205 Yes
Conducts regular H&S performance measurement .945 20.996 Yes
Has its own H&S committee .839 13.471 Yes
Conducts Hazard identification & risk assessment .963 19.335 Yes
Required that designers adequately address H&S in their designs .698 11.397 Yes

Table 4: Covariances among client H&S culture independent

variables

Parameter Test statistic Significant?

Involvement– Leadership 9.518 Yes
Procedures– Leadership 21.373 Yes
Commitment– Leadership 9.329 Yes
Communication - Leadership 29.969 Yes
Competence - Leadership 17.141 Yes
Procedures - Involvement 12.260 Yes
Commitment - Involvement 69.422 Yes
Communication - Involvement 12.672 Yes
Competence - Involvement 16.363 Yes
Commitment - Procedures 10.518 Yes
Communication - Procedures 27.668 Yes
Competence - Procedures 24.718 Yes
Communication - Commitment 10.285 Yes
Competence - Commitment 15.046 Yes
Competence - Communication 18.018 Yes

Table 5: Client H&S culture factor correlations

Factors CLL CLI CLP CLT CLN CLE

CLL 0
CLI 0.653 0
CLP 0.813 0.709 0
CLT 0.691 0.942 0.682 0
CLN 0.821 0.749 0.841 0.721 0
CLE 0.719 0.734 0.819 0.746 0.780 0

The model was also checked against misspecification by examining results

from the Lagrange Multiplier Test (LM test). In EQS, a model can be said to
be misspecified if there are any misfitting parameters through a LM test
(Byrne, 2006). The criterion that was used to evaluate misspecification was
to identify any significant drop in the values of parameters. Additionally,
in the univariate and multivariate analysis, the probability that a parameter
estimate was equal to zero should be less than 0.05 in order to be rejected.
This is also an indication of misspecification. However, after inspecting

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results of the LM test, the results did not reveal any significant
misspecification of the model.

3.4 Internal reliability and validity of scores

In order to determine the internal consistency of the composite of the

measurement models the Rho coefficient was relied upon more than the
Cronbachʼs alpha coefficient because it provides a good estimate of
internal consistency (Byrne, 2006). According to Kline (2005) the reliability
coefficient should fall between zero and 1.00. However, values close to
1.00 are desired. The Rho coefficient of internal consistency and the
Cronbachʼs alpha are presented below in table 6. Those values show a
high level of internal consistency and thus reliability.

Table 6: Reliability coefficients of internal consistency on client

culture scale

Factor Reliability Coefficients

Cronbach’s Alpha Rho reliability
coefficient
Leadership 0.918 0.919
Involvement 0.834 0.833
Procedures 0.934 0.935
Commitment 0.867 0.868
Communication 0.958 0.958
Competence 0.923 0.926
Overall client culture 0.963 0.978

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

For both the measurement and the full six factor model of client H&S
culture, the residual covariance estimates fell within the acceptable range,
the robust fit indexes met the cut-off indexes and that all the parameter
estimates were statistically significant and feasible. Therefore it can be
concluded that the six factor model for client H&S culture namely the
LIP+3C, fit the sample data well when analysed with the structural equation
modelling in a confirmatory factor analysis. Furthermore, there was no
significant evidence that indicated model misspecification and therefore the
LM test supported the conclusion that the measurement and full structural
model for client H&S culture scale fit well.
However, evidence of high colinearity was observed between the
factors of client commitment and client involvement. The correlation
between the two was found to be 0.942. A value that is higher than 0.850 is
indicative of high colinearity. High colinearity may mean that respondents
could not differentiate between the two concepts and viewed it as one and
the same thing.
All indicator variables had strong relationships with the six factors
of client H&S culture. The minimum factor coefficient was found to be 0.618
whilst the highest was found to be 0.997. However for the leadership
factor,
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monitoring designers and H&S implementation in a project had a higher

bearing than all other indicator variables. The factor coefficients were
determined to be 0.841 and 0.816 respectively. On the other hand, client
commitment was said to be more predicted by whether the client has Set
H&S as a No.1 priority on the project (0.957), Conducted regular H&S tours
on the project (0.956) and whether they put in effort to ensure that every
aspect of work and operations were routinely evaluated for H&S (0.942). As
for client involvement, staying in touch had the highest factor coefficient at
0.987 indicating that this is the variable that explained or indicated more the
aspect of client involvement. All the indicator variables for the involvement
factor loaded very high with factor coefficients of more than 0.90.
Indicator variables for the communication factor also had high
factor coefficients indicating that they significantly measured the factor.
Communicating risk findings to all parties in a project and was found to
have the highest factor coefficient of 0.977.
The aspects of training, induction and having an H&S qualified personnel in
the establishment, effectively measured the client H&S factor of
competence. Further, conducting a hazard identification and risk
assessment, monitoring H&S programs and regular H&S performance
measurement were considered to effectively measure the H&S procedures
factor.
The conclusion on the measurement and structural models of the
priori is that the indicator variables measured the factors that they were
hypothesised to measure and the overall model fit the data. Therefore, the
hypothesis is supported and cannot be rejected that Client health and
safety culture can be explained by the factors; leadership, involvement,
procedures, commitment, competence and communication.

5. REFFERENCES
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change at the workplace. Safety Science, 45, 631–636.
BOMEL, L. (2001) Improving health and safety in construction. Phase 1:
Data collection, review and structuring. Norwich, Crown.
BYRNE, B. M. (2006) Structural equation modelling with EQS- Basic
concepts, Applications, and programming, Mahwah, New Jersey,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
CHINDA, T. A. M., S. (2007) Causal relationships between enablers of
construction safety culture. Fourth International conference on
construction in the 21st century (CITC-IV) July 11-17, 2007. Gold Coast,
Australia.
CIDB (2008) Construction health and safety in South Africa. Pretoria,
Construction Industry Development Board.
DINGSDAG, D. P., BIGGS, H. C., SHEAHAN, V. L. AND CIPOLLA, C. J.
(2006) A Construction Safety Competency Framework: Improving OH&S
performance by creating and maintaining a safety culture. Brisbane,
Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation.
FERNÁNDEZ-MUÑIZ, B., MONTES-PEÓN, J. M., AND VÁZQUEZ-
ORDÁS, C. J. (2007) Safety culture: Analysis of the causal relationships
between its key dimensions. Journal of Safety Research, 38, 627–641.
FITZGERALD, M. K. (2005) Safety performance improvement through
culture change. Trans IChemE, part B, Process Safety Environmental
protection, 83(B4), 324-330.
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FLIN, R., MEARNS, K., O'CONNOR, P., AND BRYDEN, R. (2000)

Measuring safety climate: identifying the common features. Safety
Science, 34, 177-192.
GADD, S., AND COLLINS, A. M. (2002) Safety culture: A review of the
literature. Sheffield, Health & Safety Laboratory.
HAVOLD, J. I. (2007) National cultures and safety orientation: A study of
seafarers working for Norwegian shipping companies. Work & Stress,,
21, 173 -195.
IET (2009) Safety Culture. Stevenage, IET.
IOSH (2004a) Promoting a positive culture. Promoting a positive culture. A
guide to health and safety culture. Leicestershire, UK, IOSH.
IOSH (2004b) Promoting a positive culture - a guide to health and safety
culture. Leicestershire, IOSH.
KLINE, B. R. (2005) Principles and practice of structural equation
modelling, New York, The Guilford Press.
MOHAMED, S. (2002) Safety Climate in Construction Site Environments.
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 128, 375–384.
MOLENAAR K, B. H., CAILE S, AND SMITH R (2002) Corporate culture
–
A study of firms with outstanding construction safety. professional
safety, 18-27.
PIDGEON, N., AND O'LEARY, M. (2000) Man-made disasters: why
technology and organizations (sometimes) fail. Safety Science, 34, 15 -
30.
RAYKOV, T., TOMER, A., AND NESSELROADE, J. R. (1991) Reporting
Structural Equation Modelling Results in Psychology and Aging: Some
Proposed Guidelines. Psychology and Aging, 6, 499-503.
WIEGMANN, D. A., ZHANG, H., VON THADEN, T., SHARMA, G. AND
MITCHELL, A. (2002) Safety Culture: A Review. Savoy, Illinois, Aviation
Research Lab Institute of Aviation.

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ASOCSA2011-12

The influence of Quantity Surveyors

on the Construction Industryʼs
Occupational Health and Safety
1 2
Niemandt, P-S. & Crafford, G. J.
1
Department of Building and Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, 6013, South
Africa. Tel: (011) 440 0950, Fax: (011) 440 0958, E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Department of Building and Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, 6013, South
Africa. Tel: (041) 504 2153 Fax: (041) 504 1488, E-mail:
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Purpose of this paper: The research aimed to ascertain specific roles and
responsibilities for Quantity Surveyors concerning health and safety, also
the current influence that Quantity Surveyors have on the construction
industryʼs occupational health and safety.

Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative method of data production

used non-standardised scheduled pilot interviews of a convenience sample
of 3 Quantity Surveyors and two well informed health and safety persons in
the Eastern Cape Province. Subsequently a quantitative method of data
production using a questionnaire followed in order to obtain data from the
target population.

Findings: The empirical study indicates that all the specific health and
safety roles and responsibilities have significant gaps between what is
regarded as important and how evident the roles are, as perceived by
registered Quantity Surveyors.

Research limitations/implications: The current research was limited in

that little information on the topic exists and no clear health and safety roles
and responsibilities are named for Quantity Surveyors.

Original/value: The results of this paper will assist Quantity Surveyors and
tertiary institutions in ascertaining roles and responsibilities that can be
applied in construction practice and tertiary offered Quantity Surveying
courses in order to aid in increasing the health and safety performance of
construction projects.

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Keywords: Roles, Responsibilities, Importance, Evidence, Gap

1. INTRODUCTION
The South African construction industry is currently still in fairly good shape
after the devastating effects of the global financial crisis. The more positive
state of the industry when compared to global counterparts can however be
ascribed to the Soccer World Cup 2010 (Smit, 2009: Online). This major
event led to a multi-billion infrastructure investment, which boosted the
construction industry tremendously the past few years leading up to the
event. However, for the industry to make a full recovery, it could take at
least 12 -24 months (Smit, 2009: Online). Being put in the global spot-light
however, showed that the industry still suffers too many construction
injuries and fatalities (Smallwood, Haupt & Shakantu, 2009: 37).
The last couple of years, the levels of health and safety awareness
have increased significantly mainly because of the amount of construction
injuries and the media coverage that followed (Smallwood, et al., 2009: 30;
38). Studies and investigations by the Department of Labour (DoL) and
health and safety inspectorates have shown that the construction industry
is guilty of large non-compliance with health and safety legislation in South
Africa (South Africa,DoL, 2007: Online). It is therefore necessary to
establish methods for reducing non-compliance to lower the high rate of
injuries (Smallwood & Haupt, 2005: 2).
All professionals involved in construction projects should play a basic
or involved role in the planning and implementing of the health and safety
plan for the projects (Croner, 2008: 52).
The Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) health and
safety report states that health and safety must start from the early
conception stage through the design phase and into the actual construction
phase, to ensure better safety for all individuals involved in the project
(Smallwood, et al., 2009: ii).
Previous studies on the impact of the construction regulations has
indicated that the Quantity Surveyors are only making marginal impacts on
health and safety, but there is great potential for Quantity Surveyors to
make a positive impact, primarily by drawing up bills of quantities that
incorporate adequate health and safety allowances (Smallwood, et al.,
2009: 20).
Smallwood, et al. (2009) states that the construction industry is in
great non-compliance to the health and safety legislation and this study is
intended to determine the current role and the possible role that the
Quantity Surveyor can strive to fulfil to help reduce the levels of non-
compliance.
The Quantity Surveyor traditionally deals with bills of quantities,
contracts, cost control etc. Having sufficient health and safety knowledge,
both for planning and implementation can be an area into which this
already expanding profession can further expand.
The research reported in this paper aimed to ascertain specific health
and safety roles and responsibilities of Quantity Surveyors in order to
determine the influence that Quantity Surveyors have on the construction

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industryʼs occupational health and safety. To attain the needed results the
following objectives were devised:
 To investigate the perceived importance of health and safety
responsibilities for Quantity Surveyors;
 To investigate the perceived levels of the health and safety
responsibilities being performed by Quantity Surveyors , and
 To identify the perceived gaps between the above mentioned.

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1 Back ground and economics related to health and safety

Economics of health and safety refers to cost of accidents and these costs
can be categorised into direct or indirect costs (Smallwood & Haupt, 2005:
3). The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (1993) defines an accident as
“any unplanned event that resulted in injury or ill health of people, or
damage or loss to property, plant, materials or the environment”.
Construction work covers a variety of activities, techniques, materials and
hazards and it is the diversity that increases the risks and probabilities of
accidents occurring (Baxendale & Jones, 2000: 33-40).
Baxendale and Jones (2000) identified construction accidents to be
incidents of simple, routine work and in many cases caused by a clear lack
of planning.
The direct costs of accidents are the costs related and associated with
the treatment of injuries and any unique compensation offered to workers
as a consequence of the workersʼ injuries. These costs will usually be
covered by the Workmenʼs Compensation insurance premiums
(Smallwood, et al., 2009: 8). Indirect costs are the costs that are usually
carried by the contractor and these costs include reduced productivity,
clean up costs, replacements costs, costs resulting from delays, costs
related to rescheduling, transportation and wages paid to the injured
workers whilst injured (Hinze, 1994: 357-370).
Recent research conducted in the United Kingdom and in South Africa
indicated that in the United Kingdom the indirect costs amount to about 11
times the cost of direct costs (Movement for Innovation, 2003: Online).
Smallwood (2000) states that in South Africa, the indirect costs were found
to amount to 14.2 times the cost of direct costs.
In the United States research found that the cost of accidents
constituted 6.5% of the value of the completed construction project and in
the United Kingdom approximately 8.5% of the tender price (HSE, 1997:
Online). Research in South Africa indicated that the cost of accidents is
approximately 5% of the value of the completed construction (Smallwood,
et al., 2009: 8).
The main issue with the cost of accidents is that ultimately the Client
carries this cost, and that implies that designers should endeavour to
contribute to efforts to reduce accidents and provide Clients with a better
service (Smallwood & Haupt, 2005: 3). Clients ultimately incur these costs
due to the fact the cost of accidents is included in the contractorsʼ cost
structures and the cost of accidents to Client will be a substantial amount

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with the cost of accidents being around 5% of the value of the construction
(Smallwood, et al., 2009: 8).

2.2 Health and safety responsibilities of designers

Croner (2008) describes designers as being those who prepare and modify
designs and the description of designs includes drawings, design details,
specifications and bills of quantities (Croner, 2008: 56). According to
Croner (2008) designers may therefore include the following:

 Architects and Architects Technicians;

 Building Services Engineers;
 Building Surveyors ;
 Quantity Surveyors, and
 Project Managers.
According to Croner (2008/2009) interpretation of the CDM regulations
designers have to demonstrate competence by responding to written
enquiries from the client or the CDM. Designers will also be required to
demonstrate sufficient resources that are available to meet the
requirements of the project (Croner, 2008: 56).
Designers influence health and safety either directly or indirectly
(Smallwood & Haupt, 2004: Online). Designers can affect health and safety
directly through design specific, supervisory and administrative
interventions and indirectly through the type of procurement systems used,
pre-qualification, project time, partnering and the facilitating of pre-planning
(Smallwood, et al., 2009: 19).
Smallwood and Haupt (2004) states that in the South African context
designers are required to:

 Provide Clients with all the relevant information about the project that
may affect the pricing of the work;
 Inform the principal contractors of any dangers or hazards and provide
information for the safe construction of the project;
 Include a geo-science technical report, the design loading of the
structure, and the methods and sequence of construction in a report
made available to the principal contractor;
 Modify the design or substitute materials where the design makes use
of dangerous construction methods and materials that are hazardous to
health and safety ;
 Consider health and safety In the maintenance of the building after
completion;
 Conduct inspections to ensure that the construction conforms to the
design, and
 Stop construction work not conforming to the design.
The CDM states that designers must advise Clients of their duties that the
construction regulations place upon them (Croner, 2008: 56-57). The
designers have to consider health and safety in their designs during the
construction, future maintenance and the final demolition of the structure
and they are further required to (Croner, 2008: 57):
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 Identify Hazards that will occur during construction and maintenance;

 Eliminate risks where possible;
 Reduce risks, and
 Provide adequate information on the risks that could not be eliminated.
2.3 Health and safety responsibilities of the Quantity Surveyor
Traditionally Quantity Surveyors duties will include preparing feasibility
studies and budgets for proposed projects, to prepare bills of quantities and
other tender documentation, negotiating and drafting building contracts and
documentation, monitoring costs and reporting to the Client during the
design and construction phases of a project and lastly to draw up final
accounts for projects (ASAQS, nd: Online). The duties of modern Quantity
Surveyors have expanded and Smallwood et al. (2009) states that Quantity
Surveyors can have a direct influence on construction health and safety.
Smallwood et al. (2009) identified the need for Quantity Surveyors to
draw up specifications that ensure that principal contractors have made
adequate allowances for health and safety and these specifications can be
included in the bills of quantities drawn up for tendering. This will ensure
that tenderers comply with the regulations (Smallwood, et al., 2009: 20).
Smallwood et al. (2009) also indicated more relating roles to the
Quantity Surveyors duties, these includes the pre-qualification or selection
of contractors based on health and safety and quality, also mentioning
specific health and safety allowances for health and safety in the contract
documentation (Smallwood, et al., 2009: 20). Smallwood (2008) also notes
that health and safety can be influenced by designers but more specifically
the Quantity Surveyors by the pre-qualification of contractors (Smallwood,
2008: Online)
These statements can be backed by the requirements within the
construction regulations that state that the Client is responsible for ensuring
that potential contractors who have submitted tenders, have made
provision for the cost of health and safety measures in the submitted
tenders (South Africa, DoL, 2003: Online). Relating the previous statement
to the roles and duties of the Quantity Surveyor it becomes clear that the
Quantity Surveyor performing a service to the client should undertake these
duties as part of the due diligence towards the client (ASAQS, n.d: Online).
The Royal Institute of Charted Surveyors (RICS) lays out levels of
health and safety competency for Quantity Surveyors who want to be
competent in health and safety according to the likely knowledge, skills and
experience at each level (RICS, 2006: Online).
Level 1 includes being able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the principals and responsibilities imposed by law, codes
of practise and other regulations appropriate to the area of practise (RICS,
2006: Online). Examples of knowledge compromised within this level are
person safety on and off site, procedures imposed by law and the impact
on health and safety of (RICS, 2006: Online):

 Design;
 Construction process;
 Building maintenance, and
 Employment of staff.
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Level 2 includes being able to apply evidence of practical application of

health and safety issues and the requirements for compliance in the
specific area of practise (RICS, 2006: Online). Examples of activities and
knowledge comprised in this level are obtaining a formal health and safety
qualification that includes First Aid either industry specific or nationally
recognised qualifications (RICS,2006: Online).
Level 3 includes being able to provide evidence of reasoned advice
given to Clients and others on all aspects of health and safety (RICS, 2006:
Online). This levelʼs health and safety examples of knowledge and
activities include giving reasoned advice on and/or taking responsibility for
health and safety issues relating to (RICS, 2006: Online):

 Impact of design on construction;

 Alternative construction processes;
 Impact of design on occupation and maintenance;
 Undertaking risk assessments, and
 Current legislation.

2.4 Evidence of health and safety responsibilities being carried out by

Quantity Surveyors

A Study on the impact of the construction regulation revealed that currently

Quantity Surveyors donʼt have a great influence on health and safety
(Smallwood, et al., 2009: 20). Smallwood and Haupt (2006) conducted
research that indicated that Quantity Surveyors in 2006 were not
influencing health and safety sufficiently. This problem was again
uncovered by Smallwood et al. (2009) that states that Quantity Surveyors
arenʼt influencing health and safety notably, and more specifically to the
extent to which Quantity Surveyors can in fact influence the health and
safety of the Construction industry (Smallwood, et al., 2009: 20).
The data above that identifies the responsibilities of the Quantity
Surveyor research conducted by Smallwood and Haupt (2006), concerning
the manifestation of the impact of the construction regulations on health
and safety, revealed that Quantity Surveyors ranked the influence of pre-
qualification last and also ranked changes in work places low. Quantity
Surveyors also ranked the procurement of practises and the review of
forms of contract fairly low. The review of provision for health and safety
was ranked in the top six and Quantity Surveyors ranked the increase of
awareness for health and safety in the top three (Smallwood & Haupt,
2006: Online)

3. RESEARCH

3.1 Methodology
A qualitative method of data production used non-standardised scheduled
pilot interviews of a convenience sample of 3 Quantity Surveyors and two
well informed health and safety persons in the Eastern Cape Province.

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Subsequently a quantitative method of data production using a

questionnaire followed in order to obtain data from the target population.

3.2 Questionnaire design

The questionnaire was the primary data collecting tool and was created,
formatted and tested in an Excel® (Microsoft Ltd) worksheet. Once the
questionnaire was finalised it was re-created using the Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University (NMMU) Web Survey. The NMMU Web Survey
allows for easy completion of the questionnaire by using an online based
web site. After careful inspection and completion of the questionnaire it
was administered to the sample. Respondents were requested to follow
the link to the NMMU Web Survey site which allowed the respondents to
complete the questionnaire using the internet. The design allowed the
respondents to easily complete the questionnaire through indicating their
preference by clicking on radio buttons.
The questionnaire consisted of four sections. Section one consisted
of demographic questions, which were later used to test if any of the
variables had a significant influence on the rating of the responsibilities.
In section two, Quantity Surveying related general health and safety
responsibilities were listed with two scales next to it (these results will not
be discussed).
In section three the Quantity Surveying specific health and safety
responsibilities that were identified through the literature and preliminary
qualitative study were listed with two scales next to it. The two scales were:
 The perceived level of importance of each health and safety
responsibility for Quantity Surveyors, rated from “Not important” (rating
1) to “Very important” (rating 5). An “Unsure” option was also included.
 How evident each health and safety responsibilities is in the Quantity
Surveying professional currently, from “Not evident” (rating 1) to “Very
evident” (rating 5). An “Unsure” option was also included.
Section four consisted of three open-ended questions on health and safety
responsibilities for Quantity Surveyors, including health and safety in
tertiary Quantity Surveying courses and the perception of Quantity
Surveying involvement in health and safety. (the results will not be
discussed in detail).

3.3 Sample size

A membership list of registered Quantity Surveyors was obtained from the
Association of South African Quantity Surveyors (ASAQS) which identified
1952 members. After which Krejcie and Morganʼs (1970) equation was
used to calculate a target sample size of 321. Simple random sampling was
used in order to select the sample from the population.

3.4 Response rate

Sixty-four (64) questionnaires were completed three weeks after the first e-
mail was sent, during which two reminder e-mails were sent to the sample.
Therefore, a response rate of 20.00% was achieved.

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Sheehan (2001) in a review of e-mail surveys found an average

response rate of 31% during 13 studies in 1998/9. The response rate
achieved in this study can be considered to be low compared Sheenhansʼ
(2001) findings. However compared to recent studies within the
construction industry by Crafford (2002) = 19.3% and Nkado (1999) =
25.0%, the response rate can be considered acceptable.

3.5 Most important specific health and safety responsibilities

for Quantity Surveyors

The most important specific health and safety responsibilities as identified

by Quantity Surveying professionals are (As per Table 1) (1) planning for
health and safety cost allowances; (2) evaluating the cost implications of
health and safety risks in design; (3) consider health and safety through
every phase of a project; (4) being able to set up itemized allowances in the
bills of quantities sections for health and safety; and (5) ensuring that
contractors have workers compensation insurance cover in their tenders.
The majority of the responsibilities above relate to planning for health and
safety costs, these findings concur with Smallwood, et al. (2009) stating
that there is a need for Quantity Surveyors to draw up adequate allowances
for health and safety on construction projects. Smallwood et al. (2009) also
states that it is important for Quantity Surveyors to be able to draw up
specific health and safety allowances in the bills of quantities.
The specific health and safety responsibilities which Quantity
Surveying professionals consider to be most evident are (As per Table 1)
(1) having the ability to plan for health and safety cost allowances; (2)
having the ability to set up itemized allowances in the bills of quantities
sections for health and safety; (3) having the ability to set up separately
identifiable health and safety section in bills of quantities; (4) having the
ability to evaluate the cost implications of health and safety risks in design;
and (5) ensuring that contractors have workersʼ compensation insurance in
their tenders.
Table 1 Importance and evidence of specific health and safety responsibilities for Quantity
Surveyors
Specific health and safety Importance Evidence Rank:
responsibilities % % Importance
, evidence
Planning for health and safety cost
allowances 81% 65% 1,1
Evaluating the cost implications of
health and safety risks in design 80% 60% 2,4
Considering health and safety through
every phase of a project 71% 47% 3,12
Setting up itemized allowances in the
Bills of Quantities sections for health 71% 64% 4,2
and safety
Ensuring that contractors have workers'
compensation insurance cover in their 71% 59% 5,5
tenders

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Suggesting to clients that contractors be

pre-qualified on a health and safety 71% 50% 6,10
competency basis
Ensuring that contractors have
adequate health and safety allowances 70% 54% 7,7
in their tenders
Aiding in solutions to design health and
safety risks from a value management 68% 54% 8,6
perspective
Reporting back to clients on the health
and safety competency of a contractor's 68% 53% 9,8
tender from a cost planning perspective
Setting up a separately identifiable
health and safety section in the bills of 68% 62% 10,3
quantities
Identifying health and safety risks in
designs 65% 50% 11,11
Commenting on the design's health and
safety risks 65% 51% 12,9
Evaluating tenders on the basis of the
contractors' health and safety 60% 46% 13,13
competency

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3.6 Quadrant Analysis

An Importance-Evidence quadrant analysis (Figure 1) was done in order to
integrate the ratings of the current importance levels and current proficiency
levels. This helped to identify areas in which education and training is
immediately needed.
The average rating for the importance and evidence scale is 66%
(3.3/5*100). It can therefore be seen that the majority (10 out of 13) of the
specific health and safety responsibilities were rated as “Above average” in
terms of importance and all of the specific health and safety responsibilities
were rated as “Below average” in terms of evidence by quantity surveying
professionals.
Therefore the majority (8 out of 13) of the specific health and safety
responsibilities need immediate attention except for the following soft skills
which need to be de-emphasized:
 Being able to report back to clients on the health and safety
competency of a contractor's tender from a cost planning perspective;
 Being able to set up a separately identifiable health and safety section
in the bills of quantities;
 Being able to identify health and safety risks in designs;
 Being able to comment on the design's health and safety risks, and
 Evaluating tenders on the basis of the contractors' health and safety
competency.
Alarming areas related to the quadrant analysis were being able to set up
separately identifiable health and safety section in the bills of quantities that
was placed in the de-emphasise block, which is inconsistent with
Smallwood et al. (2009) suggesting that this is an important area for
Quantity Surveyors to focus on. Another responsibility that was placed in
the de-emphasise block was evaluating tenders on the basis of contractorsʼ
health and safety competency which again was inconsistent with
Smallwood et al. (2009).
Average
Above
Level of evidence

Maintain or de-emphasise Continuous improvement

Average
Below

De-emphasise Immediate attention

Below Average Above Average

Importance rating
Figure 1 Importance-Evidence quadrant analysis

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3.7 Gap Analysis

If it is assumed that a significant gap is represented by a 20% difference in
ratings the following specific health and safety responsibilities have
significant gaps between current importance and evidence ratings (Table
2): (1) considering health and safety through every phase of a project; (2)
suggesting to clients that contractors be pre-qualified on a health and
safety competency basis, and (3) being able to evaluate the cost
implications of health and safety risks in design.
Three of the top five responsibilities ranked according to
importance, also appear in the top five responsibilities with the largest
gaps.
Considering health and safety through every phase of a project ranked third
according to importance, however it has an importance-evidence gap of
24% placing it at the top of the table. Being able to evaluate the cost
implications of health and safety risks in design ranked second in terms of
importance, but when considering the importance-evidence gap it ranked
third with 20%.
Table 2 Gap analysis of specific health and safety responsibilities for Quantity Surveyors

Specific health and safety responsibilities Gap % Rank

Considering health and safety through every phase of a
project 24% 1
Suggesting to clients that contractors be pre-qualified on
a health and safety competency basis 21% 2
Being able to evaluate the cost implications of health
and safety risks in design 20% 3
Ensuring that contractors have adequate health and
safety allowances in their tenders 16% 4
Being able to plan for health and safety cost allowances 16% 4
Being able to identify health and safety risks in designs 15% 6
Being able to report back to clients on the health and safety
competency of a contractor's tender from a cost
planning perspective 15% 6
Evaluating tenders on the bases of the contractors'
health and safety competency 14% 8
Being able to aid in the solutions to design health and
safety risks from a value management perspective 14% 8
Being able to comment on the design's health and safety
risks 14% 8
Ensuring that contractors have workers' compensation
insurance cover in their tenders 12% 11
Being able to set up itemized allowances in the Bills of
Quantities sections for health and safety 7% 12
Being able to set up a separately identifiable health and
safety section in the bills of quantities 6% 13

These findings indicate that Quantity Surveying professionals are not

currently performing the health and safety responsibilities, as ranked
important by them, proficiently.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
In terms of the objectives the following conclusions can be drawn from the
empirical study:
 The majority (10 out of 13) of the suggested responsibilities were
ranked as important by Quantity Surveying professionals;
 Quantity Surveying professionals recognise the importance of health
and safety responsibilities, however they indicated that these
responsibilities are not being proficiently carried out, and
 There appears to be considerable gaps between what specific health
and safety responsibilities are regarded as important and the evidence
of these responsibilities being proficiently carried out. .
The literature however suggests that there are certain specific health and
safety responsibilities that are important for Quantity Surveyors to take on.
The findings however disprove certain of these suggestions and this could
prove to be the stumbling block for Quantity Surveying involvement in
health and safety.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS
For health and safety to be successfully managed from a Quantity
Surveying perspective, attention needs to be given to increasing the
knowledge and motivation of Quantity Surveyors towards health and safety.
The possible introduction of training courses that introduce Quantity
Surveyors to health and safety, could aid narrowing down the gaps that
were uncovered. These courses could possibly focus on providing Quantity
Surveyors with basic health and safety knowledge and also means of
implementing health and safety responsibilities successfully.
Professionals and tertiary institutions can gain knowledge from the
findings about the health and safety responsibilities of Quantity Surveyors
and build on their knowledge and do further research to increase the
professions understanding of its responsibilities towards construction health
and safety and the effective management thereof.

6. REFERENCES
ASAQS, n.d. Quantity Surveying a challenging professional career
[Online] http://www.asaqs.co.za (Accessed 13 March 2010).
Baxendale,T. & Jones, O. 2000. Construction design and management
safety regulations in practise – progress on implementation. Journal of
Project Management. 18: 33-40.
Crafford, G. J. 2002. The design teamʼs views on quantity surveying
competencies,Unpublished MSc (QS) Report, Port Elizabeth: University
of Port Elizabeth.
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Occupational Health and Safety ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
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Croner. 2008. Construction: Health and safety. Surrey. Wolters Kluwer (UK)
Limited
Health and Safety Executive (HSE). 1993. Legal publications to help you
interpret the law [Online] http://www.hse.gov.uk (Accessed on 2 March
2010).
Health and safety Executive (HSE). 1997. The cost of accidents at work.
Norwich. [Online] http://www.hse.gov.uk (Accessed on 20 October 2009).
Hinze, J W 1994. Quantification of the indirect costs of injuries.
Proceedings, 5th Annual Rinker International Conference on Safety and
Loss Control, Gainesville:357–370.
Krejcie, R. V. & Morgan, D. W. 1970. Determining Sample Size for
Research Activities, Educational and psychological measurement, 30:
607 – 610.
Movement for Innovation (M4I) 2003. A commitment to people ʻour
biggest assetʼ,
www.rethinkingconstruction.org/rc/publications/reports/rfp_report.pdf.
Nkado, R.N. 1999. Competencies required of quantity surveyors,
Unpublished MBA Report, Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.
Sheehan, K. 2001. E-mail survey response rates: a review. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, 6(2), January. .
South Africa. Department of Labour (DoL). 2007. [Online] http:
www.labour.gov.za (Accesed on 17 February 2010).
South Africa. Department of Labour (DoL). 2003. [Online] http:
www.labour.gov.za (Accesed on 17 February 2010).
Smallwood, J.J. 2000. A Study of the Relationship Between Occupational
H&S, Labour Productivity and Quality in the South African Construction
industry. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Department of Construction
Management, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth.
Smallwood & Haupt 2004 ,The new South African Construction
Regulations: Multi stakeholder perceptions , The international construction
research conference of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors 7-8
September 2004 Leeds Metropolitan University.
Smallwood, JJ.& Haupt, TC. 2005. The need for construction Health and
Safety and the construction regulations. Journal of the South African
institute of civil engineers. 47 (2): 2-8.
Smallwood, J.J. & Haupt, T.C. 2006. Impact of the Construction
Regulations: An Overview of Industry Perceptions. In: T.C. Haupt (ed.)
3rd South African Construction Health and Safety Conference. A Team
approach to Construction Health and Safety,Cape Town, 7-8 May,
Walmer, Port Elizabeth: CREATE. 97-109.
Smallwood, J.J. 2008. The Role and Influence of Clients and Designers
in Construction Health & Safety. First European Conference on
Construction Health and Safety
Coordination in the Construction industry, Barcelona, 21-22 February.
Smallwood,JJ. Haupt, TC. & Shakantu, W. 2009. CIDB: Construction
Health and safety; Status and recommendations. [Online]. Available
at http://www.cidb.org.za (Acessed on 12 October 2009).
Smit, P. (2009). Engineering news. Construction safety set to improve
with proposed amendments, available at
http://www.engineeringnews.co.za (Accessed on 7 March 2010).
The RICS. (2006) [Online] Your pathway to qualifying in Quantity
surveying and Construction levels of health and safety. [Online].
Available at http://www.ricschina.org/Files/PDF1.pdf (Accessed on 8
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March 2010).

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ASOCSA2011-11

Practitionersʼ perceptions of
competencies possessed by Quantity
Surveying graduates
Styan, J.1 and Crafford, G. J 2
1
Department of Building and Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, 6013,
South Africa. Tel: (011) 440 0950, Fax: (011) 440 0958 , E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Department of Building and Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, 6013,
South Africa. Tel: (041) 504 2153 Fax: (041) 504 1488, E-mail:
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Purpose of this paper: The research aimed to ascertain practitionersʼ
perceptions about the extent of graduatesʼ competencies.

Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative method of data production

used non-standardised scheduled pilot interviews of a convenience sample
of 10 quantity surveyors in the Eastern Cape Province. Subsequently a
quantitative method of data production using a questionnaire followed in
order to obtain data from the target population

Findings: The empirical study indicates that all the competencies have
significant gaps between what is regarded as important and how evident
that competency is, as perceived by registered quantity surveyors.

Research limitations/implications: The current research was limited in

that it only included competencies as identified by the South African
Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession (SACQSP). Future research
can include competencies identified by the Royal Institution of Charted
Surveyors (RICS).

Original/value: The results of this paper will assist students, graduates

and tertiary institutions in understanding the value that employers put on
competencies and thereby establishing the most important competencies
as well as the most evident competencies.
Keywords: Competencies, Importance, Evidence, Gap

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1. INTRODUCTION
The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession
(SACQSP) indicates that a candidate quantity surveyor needs to
demonstrate their competence in Cost advice and cost planning; Contract
documentation; Tendering and contractual arrangement; Contract services
and Specializations in order to be successful in the Assessment of
Professional Competence (APC) (South Africa, 2009).
Seeley (1997) states that the quantity surveyor is essentially a cost
expert whose prime task is to ensure that a construction project is kept
within the agreed budget and that the employer obtains value for money.
Leveson (1996) also suggests that quantity surveying competencies lie in
the financial and contractual control and tasks of projects.
Davis and Muir (2004) define technical skills as the technical
knowledge and abilities required to perform specific job-related tasks.
Hamel and Prahalad (1990) suggest that core competence refers to an
integrated set of core technologies and core skills that provide an
organisation with its competitive advantage. Boyatzis (1982) defines
competencies broadly as an underlying characteristic of a person such as a
motive, trait, skill, aspect of a personʼs self-image or social role, or a body
of knowledge, which the individual uses and possesses.
The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS, 2006) suggests
that competencies are a mix of technical and professional practice,
interpersonal, business and management skills that are considered
common to, and necessary for, all chartered and technical surveyors. An
individualʼs ability to effectively deploy the above mentioned competencies
in the workplace benefits not only the individual but also the company
(Halfhill & Nielson, 2007). Therefore, in an effort to change perceptions, it is
important to quantify the value of competencies by directly linking them to
the relevant curriculum outcomes.
The research reported in this paper aimed to ascertain practitionersʼ
perceptions about the extent of quantity surveying graduatesʼ
competencies. To attain the needed results the following objectives were
devised:
 To investigate the perceived importance of competencies possessed
by quantity surveying graduates;
 To investigate the perceived levels of the competencies possessed by
quantity surveying graduates, and
 To identify the perceived gaps between the above mentioned.

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1 Competency Definitions
Individuals pursue education to obtain the technical knowledge (technical
skills) necessary for practicing in a desired profession as a professional
consultant. Dubois (1993), defines competence as the employee's capacity
to meet, or exceed a job's requirements by producing the job outputs at an
expected level of quality within the constraints of the organization's internal
and external environments.

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Holmes and Joyce (1993) defines competence as an action,

behaviour or outcome which a person should be able to demonstrate, or
the ability to transfer skills and knowledge to new situations within an
occupational area. Meyer and Semark (1996) add two new dimensions into
this definition i.e. personal attributes and value orientation. Roggema-van
Heusden (2004) define competence from a professional personnel point of
view as “the ability to perform well in a professional situation that involves
the accomplishment of a certain task or the dealing with a problem, in a
manner that can be observed and be judged by others”. A competent
professional is capable of applying the necessary expertise in confluence
with effective behaviour.
To be competent is to have the skill or ability to perform a task or
function (RICS: 2006). Crafford (2007) suggests that a competency is a
dimension of overt, manifest behaviour that allows a person to perform
competently and behind it must be both the ability and desire to behave in
that competent way. For example, the person competent at selling will need
a competency that includes listening. In turn, that includes knowing how to
listen and choosing to listen (Crafford & Slabber, 2009).
“Competence and competency, though variously defined, can be
considered as synonymous” (Nkado & Meyer, 2001). Even though
competency definitions differ through the years they are synonymous.
Being competent means being able to carry out expected technical tasks
effectively, accurately and efficiently.

2.2 Competencies and the Councils

It is essential that a profession is governed by a professional body to
maintain the competence and control the standards of conduct of the
profession (Bennion, 1969). The title of chartered member is taken as
recognition of professional competence. The competence of professionally
qualified quantity surveyors is well established and regulated by
professional bodies like the SACQSP and the RICS. The title of chartered
quantity surveyor is only awarded to those professionals who have passed
the professional competence test set by these institutions. Clients therefore
have some assurance of the standard of the intangible service they are
purchasing under this system (Fong and Choi, 2009).
According to Ashworth and Hogg (2001), the SACQSP (2000: online) state
that there are five areas of approved experience and skills to be gained for
Assessment of Professional Competence (APC) qualification. If a traineeʼs
experience is too narrow they may be requested to resubmit the log books
after broader experiences have been achieved. These five areas according
to Ashworth and Hogg (2001) and SACQSP (2000: online) are:
• Contract documentation;
• Cost advice and cost planning;
• Tendering and contractual documentation;
• Contract services, and
• Specialisations.
These skill groups are then divided into the various competencies which
form each group (SACQSP, 2000: online).
2.3 Competence and its Relevance in the Quantity Surveying
Profession

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A quantity surveyor is a professional in the construction industry who has

the ability to analyse both cost components and practical physical
construction works of a project in a successful way, so as to be able to
apply the results of an analysis in solving problems peculiar to each project
(Badu and Amoah, 2004). Quantity surveyors are also construction
economists who fulfil varied and comprehensive duties to support cost-
effective construction and property development projects (Said, Shafiel &
Omran, 2010).
Traditionally, quantity surveyors have fulfilled the function of financial
and contractual controller of projects and therefore proficiency in the
related competencies is important. However, in recent years the quantity
surveying profession has endeavoured to broaden the role of quantity
surveyors to include inter alia, project management and facilities
management (Crafford and Smallwood, 2007). Brümmer (2004) shows that
trends in the industry are continuously changing and innovative
procurement systems are part of the reality of future services that the
quantity surveyor can provide.
Grant (2004) suggests that related specialized fields may hold the key
to future sustainability and that future strategies for quantity surveying and
project management services should include provision for strengthening of
strategic assets such as education, training and experience to ensure that
the role of the professions remains viable, effective and dynamic;
Verster (2004) reiterates that professionals should have an
understanding of these developments and should proactively participate in
developing competencies to be able to adapt to future service requirements
and hence the needs within the industry. With no real sign of the current
economic downturn easing for some time to come, it is becoming even
more necessary to establish which competencies are important to the
quantity surveying profession for current and future success and therefore
which competencies need attention (Crafford & Slabber, 2009).
From being a trade-based vocation, quantity surveying has developed
into a full-fledged profession widely accepted in the construction industry
today. The quantity surveyors, in its present day construction industry, have
the ability to analyse cost components of a construction project in a
scientific way and apply the results of this analysis to a variety of financial
and economic problems confronting the developer and the designer. Badu
and Amoah (2004) held that these changing roles had been redefined by
the educational system received by the quantity surveyors.

3. RESEARCH
3.1 Methodology
A preliminary research approach comprising of a qualitative method of data
collection used non-standardised scheduled pilot interviews of a convenient
sample of quantity surveyors in the Eastern Cape Province. A total of 10
quantity surveyors were interviewed. The interviews tested the quantity
surveyors understanding of the defined competencies with the possibility of
adding additional competencies. A questionnaire was developed taking into
consideration the data collected during the pilot interviews. Subsequently,
the questionnaire was administrated to the target sample.
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3.2 Questionnaire design

The questionnaire was formatted and tested in an Microsoft Excel
worksheet. Once the questionnaire was finalised it was administered using
the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) Web Survey which
allowed the respondents to complete the questionnaire using the internet.
The design allowed the respondents to easily complete the questionnaire
through indicating their preference by clicking on radio buttons.
The questionnaire consisted of four sections. Section one consisted
of demographic questions, which were later used to test if any of the
variables had a significant influence on the rating of the competencies.
In section two, quantity surveying competencies according to the
SACQSP were listed with two scales next to it. The two scales were:

 The perceived level of importance of each competency for a graduate

quantity surveyor, from “Competency is redundant, not at all required
from a quantity surveying graduate” (rating 1), to “It is imperative for a
quantity surveying graduate to possess this competency and
understand it and can carry it out to all degrees” (rating 7). An “Unsure”
option was also included.
 How evident each competency is in quantity surveying graduates
currently, from “Absolute no recognition of competency” (rating 1) to
“Competency fully mastered to all degrees” (rating 7). An “Unsure”
option was also included.

In section three the quantity surveying soft skills that were identified
through the literature and preliminary qualitative study were listed with two
scales next to it (the results of this section are not discussed in this paper).
Section four consisted of three open-ended questions on
competencies and soft skills possessed by graduate quantity surveyors
(Not discussed in this paper).

3.3 Sample size

A membership list of registered quantity surveyors was obtained from the
Association of South African Quantity Surveyors (ASAQS) which identified
1952 members. After which Krejcie and Morganʼs (1970) equation was
used to calculate a target sample size of 321. Simple random sampling was
used in order to select the sample from the population.

3.4 Response rate

Seventy questionnaires were completed four weeks after the first e-mail
was sent, during which two reminder e-mails were sent to the sample.
Therefore, a response rate of 21.81% was achieved.
This is a smaller response rate than normally achieved with an e-mail
questionnaire survey. Sheehan (2001) in a review of e-mail surveys found
an average response rate of 31% during 13 studies in 1998/9.
It can therefore be seen that the response rate was slightly lower than
can be expected from an e-mail survey, even though the following
techniques were used to increase the response rate:
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 The Internet survey interface was designed to appeal to respondents in

terms of ease of use and referencing;
 The respondents were assured of anonymity;
 All the e-mails were personalised by using the name and surname on
the e-mails;
 Each respondent was promised an executive summary of the research
results;
 The first reminder e-mail was sent two weeks after the initial mailing,
and
 The second e-mail reminder was sent one week after the first reminder.
3.5 Relative importance of competencies for quantity surveying
graduates
The most important competencies as identified by quantity surveying
professionals are (1) Preparing bills of quantities for principal contracts; (2)
Calculating of CPAP; (3) Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative
construction methods; (4) Preparing and finalizing final accounts; and (5)
Statutory requirements, knowledge of SACQSP. The majority of the
competencies above relate to contractual competencies which Leveson
(1996) indicates as essential competencies for quantity surveyors to
possess.
The competencies which quantity surveying graduatesʼ are realising
the best are (1) Attending site meetings; (2) Preparing bills of quantities for
principal contracts; (3) Surveying, measuring and recording work for final
account purposes; (4) Preparing valuations for interim certificates; and (5)
Preparing and finalizing final accounts.
Table 1 Importance and evidence of quantity surveying graduate competencies

Graduate Competencies Importance Evidence

Preparing bills of quantities for principal contracts 89.0% 67.0%
Calculating of CPAP 87.0% 60.0%
Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative construction methods 86.0% 48.0%
Preparing and finalizing final accounts 85.0% 63.0%
Statutory requirements, knowledge of SACQSP 84.0% 57.0%
Preparing schedules of rates 83.0% 59.0%
Preparing and using cost data 83.0% 59.0%
Estimating final costs and reporting on the financial aspects 82.0% 58.0%
Cost control during progress of the works 82.0% 60.0%
Preparing and agreeing final accounts 82.0% 62.0%
Reporting on, evaluating and negotiating contractual and extra-contractual
issues 82.0% 54.0%
Knowledge of JBCC 81.0% 58.0%
Preparing estimates 80.0% 61.0%
Advising on method of tendering 79.0% 52.0%
Preparing cost/value reconciliation statements 79.0% 57.0%
Knowledge of less popular contracts (Fidic, NEC, GCC, etc) 78.0% 42.0%
Preparing specifications 78.0% 48.0%
Attending site meetings 78.0% 69.0%

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Life cycle costing 78.0% 48.0%

Formulating/implementing procedures on tendering and contractual
arrangements for principal contracts 76.0% 54.0%
Preparing and using detailed budgets and cost plans 76.0% 55.0%
Recommendation of proposed construction methods or sequences 75.0% 48.0%
Preparing tenders including compilation of rates for work and preliminaries 74.0% 54.0%
Undertaking financial feasibility and comparative investment studies 74.0% 55.0%
Contract correspondence 73.0% 57.0%
Preparing bills of quantities for Nominal sub-contracts 73.0% 62.0%
Preparation of fee accounts based on the Tariff of Fees 73.0% 57.0%
Formulating/implementing procedures on tendering and contractual
arrangements for Nominated sub-contracts 73.0% 53.0%
Cost control and reporting during pre-contract period 72.0% 56.0%
Scrutinising priced B.o.Q with regards to rates 72.0% 60.0%
Codes of conduct and professional ethics 72.0% 59.0%
Advising on selection of tenders: Evaluation of and reporting on tenders 72.0% 55.0%
Preparing and interpreting cash flow projections and profit/loss forecasts 70.0% 53.0%
Compiling and using cost limits 69.0% 49.0%
Drafting of preliminaries, preambles and contract conditions 69.0% 52.0%
Cost checking during design development 67.0% 52.0%
Preparing valuations for interim certificates 65.0% 66.0%
Surveying, measuring and recording work for final account purposes 65.0% 67.0%
Preparing and applying cost-in-use studies 63.0% 50.0%
Contractual correspondence 61.0% 57.0%

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3.6 Quadrant Analysis

Quadrant analysis is a variation of the cross-tabulation table. Quadrant
analysis plots two rating scale questions into four quadrants on a two-
dimensional table (Zikmund, 1994).
An Importance-Evidence quadrant analysis was done in order to
integrate the ratings of the current importance levels and current proficiency
levels. This will help to identify areas in which education and training is
immediately needed.
The average rating for the importance and evidence scale is 51%
(3.6/7*100). It can therefore be seen that all the competencies were rated
as “Above Average” in terms of importance and 33 of the 40 competencies
are rated as “Above Average”, in terms of evidence by quantity surveying
professionals.
Therefore all the competencies need continuous improvement except
for the following competencies which need immediate attention:
 Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative construction methods;
 Knowledge of less popular contracts (Fidic, NEC, GCC, etc);
 Preparing specifications;
 Life cycle costing;
 Recommendation of proposed construction methods or sequences;
 Compiling and using cost limits, and
 Preparing and applying cost-in-use studies.
Above Average

Maintain or de-emphasise Continuous improvement

Level of evidence

Below Average

De-emphasise Immediate attention

Below Average Above Average

Importance rating

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Table 2 Gap analysis of quantity surveying graduatesʼ competencies

Gap
Graduate Competencies GAP rating
Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative construction methods 38.0% 1
Knowledge of less popular contracts (Fidic, NEC, GCC, etc) 36.0% 2
Preparing specifications 30.0% 3
Life cycle costing 30.0% 4
Reporting on, evaluating and negotiating contractual and extra-
contractual issues 28.0% 5
Calculating of CPAP 27.0% 6
Statutory requirements, knowledge of SACQSP 27.0% 7
Advising on method of tendering 27.0% 8
Recommendation of proposed construction methods or sequences 27.0% 9
Preparing schedules of rates 24.0% 10
Preparing and using cost data 24.0% 11
Estimating final costs and reporting on the financial aspects 24.0% 12
Knowledge of JBCC 23.0% 13
Preparing bills of quantities for principal contracts 22.0% 14
Preparing and finalizing final accounts 22.0% 15
Cost control during progress of the works 22.0% 16
Preparing cost/value reconciliation statements 22.0% 17
Formulating/implementing procedures on tendering and contractual
arrangements for principal contracts 22.0% 18
Preparing and using detailed budgets and cost plans 21.0% 19
Preparing and agreeing final accounts 20.0% 20
Preparing tenders including compilation of rates for work and
preliminaries 20.0% 21
Formulating/implementing procedures on tendering and contractual
arrangements for Nominated sub-contracts 20.0% 22
Compiling and using cost limits 20.0% 23
Preparing estimates 19.0% 24
Undertaking financial feasibility and comparative investment studies 19.0% 25
Advising on selection of tenders: Evaluation of and reporting on
tenders 17.0% 26
Preparing and interpreting cash flow projections and profit/loss
forecasts 17.0% 27
Drafting of preliminaries, preambles and contract conditions 17.0% 28
Contract correspondence 16.0% 29
Preparation of fee accounts based on the Tariff of Fees 16.0% 30
Cost control and reporting during pre-contract period 16.0% 31
Cost checking during design development 15.0% 32
Codes of conduct and professional ethics 13.0% 33
Preparing and applying cost-in-use studies 13.0% 34
Scrutinising priced B.o.Q with regards to rates 12.0% 35
Preparing bills of quantities for Nominal sub-contracts 11.0% 36
Attending site meetings 9.0% 37
Contractual correspondence 4.0% 38
Preparing valuations for interim certificates -1.0% 39
Surveying, measuring and recording work for final account purposes -2.0% 40

It is assumed that a significant gap is represented by a 20% difference in

ratings. The ten competencies which have the most significant gaps

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ranging from 24% - 38% between current importance and evidence ratings
are: (1) Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative construction methods;
(2) Knowledge of less popular contracts (Fidic, NEC, GCC, etc); (3)
Preparing specifications; (4) Life cycle costing; (5) Reporting on, evaluating
and negotiating contractual and extra-contractual issues; (6) Calculating of
CPAP; (7) Statutory requirements, knowledge of SACQSP; (8) Advising on
method of tendering; (9) Recommendation of proposed construction
methods or sequences and (10) Preparing schedules of rates.
Preparing cost benefit reports on alternative construction methods is
ranked as the third most important competency but a gap of thirty-eight
percent (38%) is evident. It is quite alarming that the top twenty most
important competencies have a gap exceeding twenty percent (20%) which
indicates that there is a large gap which exists between importance and
evidence of competencies with regard to quantity surveying graduates.
Preparing valuations for interim certificates and surveying, measuring
and recording work for final account purposes are the only two
competencies where the evidence exceeds the importance. It is alarming
however that the measuring competency has such a low importance rating.

4. CONCLUSIONS
In terms of the objectives the following conclusions can be drawn from the
empirical study:
 All the competencies listed are considered to be imperative for a
graduate quantity surveyor;
 Registered quantity surveyors are of the opinion that graduate quantity
surveyors possess a little of the competencies and knows what it
entails.
 There appears to be considerable gaps between what is expected of a
graduate quantity surveyor, and what skill level a graduate is
perceived to have, by the registered quantity surveyors.
The research added to the current Quantity Surveying competency
body of knowledge by adding various competencies to the existing set of
competencies identified by the SACQSP and highlighting the areas in
which tertiary institutions need to focus on.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS
Simulation work experience provided by some colleges cannot replace the
wealth of experience gained in a surveyorsʼ office or on site with a
contractor, therefore it is widely accepted that the only effective training, is
while being on the job (Ashworth & Hogg, 2001).
Tertiary institutions should provide a basic foundation of teaching
these various competencies to graduates by making graduates familiar with
what the various competencies required from candidate quantity surveyors
are. Furthermore tertiary institutions should help graduates fulfill required
skill sets with regard to the various competencies required.
Employers should provide training, teach employees to be good
service providers, and recognize and reward improvement in these
Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 -2nd Aug 2011
Practitionersʼ perceptions of competencies possessed by JHB, South Africa
Quantity Surveying graduates ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
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competencies in fulfillment of the APC qualification in both the performance

appraisal and compensation programs. While candidate quantity surveyors
are working, employers must ensure the competencies are being fulfilled
within a reasonable time period.

6. REFERENCES
Ashworth, A. and Hogg, K. (2001) Willisʼs Practice and Procedure for
the Quantity Surveyor, Eleventh Edition edition, London: Blackwell
Science.
Badu, E. and Amoah, P. (2004) Quantity Surveying Education in
Ghana, Ghana: The Hgana Engineer.
Bennion, F.A.R, (1969) Professional Ethics, London: Charles
Knight Boyatzis, R.E. (1982) The competent manager: A model for
effective performance, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Brummer, D.G. (2004) 'Challenges in quantity surveying: Procuring the
future', Project Management and Quantity Surveying, vol. 2.
Crafford, G.J. (2007) Clients's views on construction and design team
competencies, Port Elizabeth: Unpublished Doctoral Thesis.
Crafford, G.J. and Slabber, J.M. (2009) The evolution of the quantity
surveying profession, Port Elizabeth: NMMU.
Crafford, G.J. and Smallwood, J.J. (2007) 'Client's views on quantity
surveying competencies', Acta Structilia, vol. 14, pp. 33-55.
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with Annalee Luhman. Business Communication Quarterly. 67: 95-101,
March.
Dubois, D.D. (1993) Competency-based performance improvement,
Amherst: HRD Press Inc.
Fong, P.S. and Choi, S.K. (2009) 'The processes of knowledge
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critical assessment of both theory and practice', Journal of Knowledg
Management, vol. 13, pp. 110-126.
Grant, M. (2004) 'Competitive strategies for the professional quantity
surveyor in South Africa', Project Management and Quantity
Surveying, vol. 1.
Halfhill, T.R. & Nielson, T. M. 2007. Quantifying the ''Softer Side'' of
Management Education: An Example Using Teamwork Competencies.
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Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. (1990) The core competence of
the corporation, Harvard Business Review.
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managerial competence: From outcomes back to process', Personnel
review, vol. 22, no. 6.
Krejcie, R. V. & Morgan, D. W. 1970. Determining Sample Size for
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Leveson, R 1996. Can Professionals be Multi-skilled? People
Management, 2(17), August.
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competencies for achieving competitive advantage', South African Journal
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Practitionersʼ perceptions of competencies possessed by JHB, South Africa
Quantity Surveying graduates ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
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Nkado, R. and Meyer, T. (2001) 'Competencies of professional quantity

surveyors: A south african perspective', Construction management and
economics, vol. 19, pp. 481-491.
RICS (2006) Guide for supervisors, counsellors and employers - graduate
route to membership, London: RICS.
Roggema-van Heusden, M. (2004) 'The challenge of developing a
competence-orientated curicculum: An integrative framework',
Library Review, vol. 53, no. 2.
SACQSP (2000) Profession policy: Registration and assessment of
professional competence,[Online], Available:
http://www.sacqsp.org.za/html/registration.html [1 September 2010].
Said, I., Shafiel, M.W. and Omran, A. (2010) 'The competency
requirements for quantity surveyors: Enhancing continious professional
development', Faculty of Engineering, pp. 105-112.
Seeley, I.H. (1997) Quantity surveying practice, London: Macmillan
Press Sheehan, K. 2001. E-mail survey response rates: a review.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 6(2), January.
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Professions Policy: Registration and Assessment of Professional
Competence. Notice 81 of 2009. Government Gazette, 32435: 29-
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July 24.
Verster, J.J. (2004) 'Internationalisation of skills, competencies and
quality service by cost engineers, quantity surveyors and project
managers', International roundup, vol. 1.
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Proceedings 6th Built Environment Conference 31 -2nd Aug 2011

Practitionersʼ perceptions of competencies possessed by JHB, South Africa
Quantity Surveying graduates ISBN:978-0-86970-713-5
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ASOCSA2011-77
Impact of prefabrication on
construction site health and safety:
Perceptions of designers and
contractors

L. Bikitsha1 and Prof. T.C. Haupt2

1
[email protected], [email protected]
1
Mtech Construction Management, Department of the Built
Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula
University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535,
South Africa. Tel.: +27219596317, Mobile: +27737428210
2
Director: Building Construction Science (BCS), College of
Architecture, Art and Design, 899 Collegeview, 140 Giles Hall,
P.O. Box AQ, Mississippi State, MS 39762, Tel: Voice:
662.325.2547 (office), Mobile: 662.312.5328

Abstract
Purpose: While construction processes on site involve raw material and
labour, they also expose workers to various health and safety challenges.
This paper reports findings of the potential impact of prefabrication and pre-
assembly on health and safety in construction.

Design/methodology/approach: The methodology includes a review of

relevant literature on health and safety in construction focusing on the
jobsite activities of construction workers and the benefits of prefabrication
and pre-assembly. A series of research survey instruments were developed
which included both open- and closed-ended questions. These were
targeted at designers and contractors in the Western Cape Province.
Purposive sampling techniques were used.

Findings: The study confirmed that the use of prefabrication and pre-
assembly would lead to improvements in construction health and safety
performance. The study also confirmed that traditional labour-intensive
construction methods exposed workers to more hazards when compared to
prefabrication and preassembly. The use of prefabrication and pre-
assembly were found to potentially reduce exposure to physical demanding
activities and ergonomic hazards on site. Further, reduction of manual
material handling would lead to overall improvement of the wellbeing of
workers.

Research limitations/implications: This particular paper focuses on

perceptions of contractors given that they remain responsible for
 197

construction work on site and designers due to their responsibility for

specifying construction materials.

Practical implications: The study increases the awareness of the benefits

of prefabrication in South African construction with particular reference to
overall improvement of health and safety.

Originality/value: This study forms part of M-tech degree which was

undertaken in the Western Cape and the findings provide advantages to
reduce health and safety threats on site.

Keywords: health and safety, material handling, prefabrication, ergonomic

hazards

1. Introduction
The construction industry adopts various methods to bring about the
required structure. Typically, in every construction project, health and safety
of workers will remain a major concern on site due to accidents, fatalities
and illnesses which occur regularly. While the working conditions within the
construction industry have resulted in large numbers of accidents, illnesses
and fatalities among construction workers (U.S. Department of Labour,
2001), in South Africa general workers were still employed off the streets
with no health and safety experience, contributing to the increased
likelihood of accidents and injuries (Engineering News, 2006). As a result,
there is recognition that the construction industry is one where safety and
health related risks remain unacceptably high in developing countries like
South Africa and in need of minimization (Eppenberger, 2007).

Although, several research studies have been conducted to examine the

circumstances surrounding the causes and categories of accidents and
injuries, with the aim to minimize their occurrence within the construction
industry (Samuels, 2005; Abdelhamid and Everett, 2000; Perttula et al.,
2006), the rate of construction accidents and injuries remains unacceptably
high as the volume of construction activities increases within South Africa
(Ferreira, 2008). For example, for the period of April 2006 to February
2007, more than 130 construction-related deaths and over 330 injuries
were reported in South Africa (Swanepoel, 2007). Consequently, it is
recognised that due to involvement in construction, workers lose their lives
and companies suffer loss of profit as a result of the poor health and safety
performance of the construction sector. The fact that the construction
industry still continues to cause death and bring harm to workers, suggests
the need for alternative construction methods. The study will examine the
impact of prefabrication on health and safety in construction as an
alternative construction method to traditional construction method.

2. Health and safety hazards during the construction

process