References

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,
and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.

Borich, G. D. (2016). Effective teaching methods: Research-based practice (8th ed.).

Pearson.

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language

pedagogy (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley Longman.

Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of
other languages. Cambridge University Press.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (4th ed.). Pearson Longman.

Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A
comprehensive framework for effective instruction. ASCD.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching
(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. Cambridge University

Press.

Tomlinson, B. (Ed.). (2011). Materials development in language teaching (2nd ed.).

Cambridge University Press.

FÓRUM 1
1. What is Linguistics?
2. How would you differentiate Linguistics from Linguists?
3. What is the object of study of linguistics?
4. Define Linguistics sign.
5. Why is it said that the linguistics sign is arbitrary?
RESOLUTION
1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language or is the science of language;
2. We can differentiate Linguistics from Linguists in this way: Linguistics is the
scientific study of language while Linguists are the scholars who deal with the
investigation of languages.
3. The object of study of linguistics is human language.
4. Linguistics sign is the association between the spoken word and the object it
represents.
5. It said that the linguistics sign is arbitrary becouse the same object has different
names in different languages also there is no natural connection between the
spoken word and the object it represents.
FÓRUM 2
Answer the following questions as clear as you can:
 1. The science of linguistics has been in existence since the beginning of the
nineteenth century. What was the scholarly study name, which introduced new
methods of studying language?
2. Describe the “Comparative philology”
3. Why is the new form of investigating languages scientific?
RESOLUTION
1. The scholarly study, which introduced new methods of studying language, was
“comparative philology”.
2. Comparative philology is the scholarly study which carried out linguistic studies
from out of the nineteenth century, collected materials from different languages
and historical periods and studied and compared them as texts and parts of texts
and its findings were subject to confirmation or disconfirmation by means of
properly conducted tests, then it is valid to say that the method used is scientific.
3. The new form of investigating languages is scientific becouse it uses the scientific
method.
FÓRUM 3
1. In each sentence say which approach helped the grammarian to produce the
rule.
a) A sentence in language x has three main categories: the Noun phrase, the
Verb phrase, and a complement.
b) A sentence in language x must have three main categories: the Noun
phrase, the Verb phrase and a complement.
2. Why is linguistics important for you as a teacher or a learner?
RESOLUTION
1. The approach helped the grammarian to produce the rule is:
a) Descriptive approach.
b) Prescriptive approach.
3. Linguistics is important for me as a teacher or a learner becouse there is a
complex range of language produced by the students in a classroom. Being so,
the teacher must be prepared for the variety of language and problems arising in
the class. In order to deal with different situations, the language teacher should
be concerned with Applied Linguistics, which is the application of the theories
put forward in General linguistics to solve problems in the classroom.

FÓRUM 4
1. The task below will provide you with practical input to solve some problems in
the classroom.
Identify the mistakes in the following sentences and say which areas of linguistics enable
the teacher to identify and explain why the sentences are wrong.
a) John has two wifes.
b) John is wearing a shirt blue.
c) Send regards to my mothers.
RESOLUTION
1. The mistakes in the following sentences and the areas of linguistics enable the
teacher to identify and the explain why the sentences are wrong is:
a) John has two wifes:
The mistake is on the word “wifes”. It should be “wives”. (Irregular plural). And the
area of linguistics, which would help the teacher to correct the mistake, is Morphology.
b) John is wearing a shirt blue:
The mistake is on the phrase “shirt blue”. It should be “blue shirt”. Word order and the
area of linguistics is Morph-syntax.
c) Send regards to my mothers:
The mistake is on the word “mothers”, which is in plural (more than one mother). It
should be “mother” because English is an European language, from Britain and in
British culture you have only one mother (the biological one). The area of linguistics is
Sociolinguistics and Anthropological linguistics.
EXERCISES
Question 1
“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921:8).
a) Point out two defects of the definition above.
Question 2
Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The science of linguistics has been in existence since the beginning of the
19th century. ___
b) Linguistics is concerned with all aspects of language equally. ___
c) The belief that a god chose one particular language as his medium of
revelation allow objective analysis in linguistics. ____
d. Linguistics depends on pre-existing needs to carry out any investigation. ____
Question 3
In the following sentences write TG if it refers to characteristics of Traditional
Grammar and ML if it refers to characteristics of Modern Linguistics.
a) It does not depend upon traditional mythology. ________
b) It is prescriptive and it allows subjective analysis. _______
c) It tends to exist because of some pre-existing need. ______
d) It carries out an autonomous study. _____
Question 4
Provide two practical classroom examples in which a teacher could make use of
linguistics.
RESOLUTION
Question 1
1. Language doesn’t only communicate ideas, emotions and desires. There is much
more we can do with language.
2. It does not only produce voluntarily symbols but sometimes humans produce
non-voluntarily symbols – for example, the interjections.

Question 2
a) F
b) T
c) F
d) F
Question 3
a) ML
b) TG
c) TG
d) ML
Question 4
a) The teaching of grammar. The teacher must have the knowledge of grammar to
teach his students as well as the knowledge of other areas of linguistics such as
 pragmatics (meaning into context) to be able to interpret the sentences produced
by his/her students (sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics).
b) The teaching of sounds. The teacher makes use of Phonology and phonetics.
EXERCISES AND RESOLUTION
1. On the basis of the following statement, circle the letter A, B or C that
corresponds to the correct answer. Only one is correct:

The “round dance” performed by a honey bee when the food source is closed to hive
conveys precise information about the source and amount of food that it has discovered.
The liveliness of the dance indicates:
A. …how rich a source is; ✅
B. .…. information about its distance;
C. …. Direction of food
2. Say whether the following statements are True or False:
a) Bee dancing shows arbitrariness – True
b) Bee dancing may show displacement – True
3. Provide evidence that human language is creative.
Ans: The human language is creative because its speakers can produce and understand
novel utterances that they have never heard before without limit.
4. What does it mean when we say that all languages have equal potential?
Ans: When we say that all languages have equal potential it means that all languages
are equally capable of expressing whatever their speakers need them to express.
FÓRUM 5
The Natural Sound Source and the Scientific Approach
1. What natural sound source theories do you know?
2. What is the basic idea behind the “yo-heave-ho theory?
3. What is the difference between the natural sound source theories and the
scientific approach?
RESOLUTION
1. The natural sound source theories that I know is the “bow-wow”, the “pooh-
pooh”, the “ding-dong”, the “yo-he-yo” and the “la-la” theories.
2. The basic idea behind the “yo-heave-yo” theory is that the sounds produced by
humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other
humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.
3. The difference between the natural sound source theories and the scientific
approach is, the natural sound source theories concentrate on the natural aspects
of language, based on the concept of natural sounds, whereas the scientific
approach focuses on the biological basis of the formation and development of
human language, there is a
Concentration on the physical aspects of humans that are not shared with any other
creatures.
FÓRUM 6
1. What property did Washoe’s language seem to have when she used an
expression such as “water bird” to refer to a swan?
2. What was the name of the “language” that Lana learned?
3. What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?
RESOLUTION
1. The property did Washoe’s language seem to have when she used an expression
such as “water bird” to refer to a swan is American Sign Language.
2. The name of the “language” that Lana learned is Yerkish.
 3. For example, a child with genetic features from its natural parents or its
biological parents (e.g. Mozambican) will learn the language of the culture of its
adopting parents (e.g. English).
FÓRUM 7
1. Do all languages have a written form?
2. What differentiate writing from speech?
3. Is it correct to assume that when we create symbols in a writing system, there is
always an abstraction away from the physical world?
4. What is the key property of both pictograms and ideograms?
5. Which of these symbols ($, 8, ?, &) is not used as a logogram?
RESOLUTION
1. No. Not all languages have a written form.
2. What differentiate writing from speech is writing as the symbolic representation
of language through the use of graphic signs and speech is a system that is not
simply acquired, but has to be learned through sustained conscious effort.
3. Yes, it is correct to assume that when we create symbols in a writing system,
there is always an abstraction away from the physical world.
4. A key property of both pictograms and ideograms is that they do not represent
words or sounds in a particular language.
5. The symbols that is not used as a logogram is “?“.
FÓRUM 8
Read the material provided for this week and then, answer the following questions. For
some of the questions, you will need to read Yule, G (2017).
1. Why is one early writing system called “cuneiform?”
2. Which of these symbols ($, 8,?, &) is not used as a logogram?
3. What is the difference between the logographic and the Rebus writing systems?
4. When was the basic order letter symbols in the first “A, B, C, D…” created?
5. Where will you find the writing system with the longest history of continuous
use?
RESOLUTION
1. The one early writing system is called “cuneiform” because it was primarily
made by impressing wedge-shaped marks into clay tablets using a stylus. It was
used by ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.
2. The symbol that is not used as a logogram is “?“.
3. The difference between the logographic and the Rebus writing systems is that in
a logographic writing system a symbol represents a word o the spoken language,
and in Rebus writing systems the symbol represents the sound of the spoken
word.
4. The basic order letter symbols in the first “A, B, C, D…” was created about
three thousand years ago by the Phoenicians and continues to be used as our
primary ordering device for lists in everything from dictionaries to telephone
directories to grades for academic performance.
5. I can find the writing system with the longest history of continuous use in the
Chinese writing system. It has been in continuous use for over 4,000 years,
making it one of the oldest writing systems in the world that is still in use today.
FÓRUM 9
1. What’s Hermogenes view about the origin of language?
2. What is the difference between the conventionalist and naturalistic views about
language?
3. What was the most influential work of the Roman period?
RESOLUTION
1. Hermogenes holds the view that language originated as a product of convention,
so that the relationship between words and things is arbitrary.; the argument is
that ‘for nothing has its name by nature, but only by usage and custom’.
2. The difference between the conventionalist and naturalistic views about language
is that, the conventionalists hold the position that language originated as a
product of convention, while the naturalistics hold the position that, language
came into being naturally.
3. The most influential work of the Roman period was the codification of Latin
grammar by Marcus Terentius Varro.
ASSIGNMENT II
1. Describe syllabic writing.
2. What is the alternative name for alphabetic writing?
3. The alternative name for alphabetic writing is “phonemic writing.” This term
reflects the fact that in an alphabetic writing system, individual symbols typically
represent specific phonemes or speech sounds. The term “phonemic writing”
emphasizes the link between the written symbols and the sounds of spoken
language.
4. When was the basic order letter symbols in the first “A, B, C, D…” created?
5. What is the difference between the syllabic and alphabetic writing systems?
6. Ideograms derive from pictograms. How does this process occur?
7. How would you describe the writing conventions that are used in the following
text messages?
a) Xlnt msg (“excellent message”)

b) Swdyt (“So, what do you think?”)

c) Ne1 (“anyone”)
d) B42moro (“before tomorrow”)
e) Cul8r) (“see you later”)
f) D, L, S
g) @ (at)
h) G.N.8

i) He 👂
RESOLUTION
1. In Syllabic writing the symbol represents the pronunciations of the syllables.
2. The alternative name for alphabetic writing is phonemic writing.
3. The basic order letter symbols in the first “A, B, C, D…” was created about
three thousand years ago.
4. The difference is that in “Syllabic writing” the symbol represents the
pronunciation of syllables and in “Alphabetic writing” the symbols are used to
represent single type sounds.
5. Ideograms derive from pictograms. This process occurs when the meaning of a
picture is extended to its attributes, or when a picture takes more fixed symbolic
forms and comes to be used for other attributes.
6. a) Ideographic writing
b) Logographic writing
c) Syllabic writing
d) Syllabic writing
e) Syllabic writing
f) Alphabetic writing
g) Logographic writing
h) Alphabetic writing
i) Pictographic writing.
Ideogram (ideographic writing): A way of writing in which each symbol represents a
concept.
Pictogram (pictographic writing): A way of writing in which a picture/drawing of an
object is used to represent the object.
Logogram (logographic writing): A way of writing in which each symbol represents a
word.
Syllabic writing (syllabary): A way of writing in which each symbol represents a
syllable.
Alphabet (alphabetic writing): A way of writing in which one symbol represents one
sound segment.
FIRST CALL EXAM
Answer the following quesminous clear es posible. Be speetfic and avoid cry details:
1. What is a linguistic sign?
2. Why is it said that a linguistic sign is arbitrary?
3. Which term is used to describe the ability of human language users to discuss topics,
which are remote in time and space?
4. What special features of human tocth and lips make them useful in the production of
speech sounds?
5. What differentiate writing from speech?
6. What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?
7. Which modern language is based on the logographic writing system?
8. What type of writing system would typically have the following symbols?
a) B, M, K
b) & (and)
c) (na)
d) Xint msg (“excellent message”)
e) @ (at)
f) Swdyt (“So, what do you think?”)
RESOLUTION
1. A linguistic sign is the association between the signifier and the signified, or
between the acoustic sound and the visual image, the word and its meaning.
2. The linguistic sign is arbitrary because there is no natural or inherit connection
between the symbol and the entity it represents, or between the signifier and the
signified.
3. Displacement.
4. – Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height; and human lips are
flexible because of their intricate muscle interlacing.
5. What differentiate writing from speech is writing as the symbolic representation
of language through the use of graphic signs and speech is a system that is not
simply acquired, but has to be learned through sustained conscious effort.

6. For example, a child with genetic features from its natural parents or its
biological parents (e.g. Mozambican) will learn the language of the culture of its
adopting parents (e.g. English).
7. The modern language based on the logographic writing system is Chinese.
8. a) Alphabetic writing
b) Logographic writing
c) Pictographic writing
d) Ideographic writing
e) Logographic writing
f) Logographic writing
FÓRUM 10
Answer the following questions
1. What two sides of meaning did Saussure recognise?
2. Explain what is meant by the priority of the synchronic over the diachronic point of
view in Linguistics.
Say if the following statements are True or False.
3. Schools of thought emerged based on Saussurean principles in 1926. ________
4. Saussure’s principles continue to influence the study of language today. ________
5. Structuralism represented the behaviourist view of linguistics. _______
RESOLUTION
1. The two slides of meaning did Saussure recognise is signifier and signified, or the
word ant the entity it refers to.
2. The explain of meant by the priority of the synchronic over the diachronic point
of view in Linguistics is that in order to carry out a diachronic study, we need
some degree of the syncronic work. That is, before we can say how a language
has changed from state “X” to state “Y”, we need to know something about “X”
and “Y”. However, the synchronic analysis can be made without referring to
history.
3. True
4. True
5. True