AIR SYSTEM DESIGN

1
 Topics

Pressurization
Air Distribution
Duct Design Fan
Selection

2
 Pressurization
Many air paths to consider:
• Supply Air
• Return Air
• Exhaust Air
• Transfer Air
• Relief Air
• Ventilation Air
• Outside Air

3
 Pressurization
• Space vs. Building
50 CFM
• Space EXHAUST

TRANSFER Negative
50 CFM
300CFM
Neutral
SUPPLY
RETURN

250CFM
0 CFM

4
 Pressurization

• Space vs. Building Negative

• Building 500 CFM

EXHAUST
Neutral

Positive

SUPPLY

VENTILATION
2000 CFM
RETURN
RELIEF
1500CFM

Typical
5
 Pressurization

• Space vs. Building Negative

• Building 3000CFM
EXHAUST
Neutral

Positive

SUPPLY

VENTILATION
2000 CFM
+
OUTSIDEAIR RETURN
1000CFM RELIEF
0 CFM

High Exhaust
6
 Pressurization
• Space vs. Building Negative

• Building 500 CFM

EXHAUST
Neutral

Positive

5000CFM
SUPPLY

VENTILATION Control for two CFM set

2000 CFM
+ points or modulate
OUTSIDEAIR RETURN
3000CFM 0 CFM RELIEF
1500CFM
4500CFM
Economizer – Free Cooling
7
 Building Pressurization

• Buildings are commonly designed with slightly

positive pressure
– Minimize infiltration
– Better control of space temperatures
• Pressure Controls
– Sensors comparing indoor and exterior pressure
controlling VFD on relief fan
– Gravity relief dampers

8
 Building Envelope

• Drive the drier air through the envelope

– Cooling season: positive pressure
– Heating season: negative pressure

9
Winter Exfiltration

10
 Exhaust Air
• Exhaust
– Removal of contaminants: odor, moisture,
chemicals, etc.

Applied to?
▪ Toilet rooms ▪ Laboratories
▪ Shower rooms ▪ Kitchens
▪ Janitor closets ▪ Break rooms

11
 Exhaust Rate Calculation
• Code and Common Practice
– International Mechanical Code
• Common Practice
– 2 CFM/ft2
– 10 Air Changes/Hour (ACH) – odor
– 20 ACH – moisture

12
Headquarter’s 1st Floor Plan
Calculation:
1. Code
50 CFM/Fixture
5 urinals/WC
5 x 50 = 250 CFM
2. 2 CFM/ft2
Area = 25 ft x 10 ft
2 x 250 = 500 CFM
3. ACH
10 ACH
Volume = 25 x 10 x 9 ft
= 2250 ft3
60 minutes in an hour 10 x
2250/60 = 375 CFM

13
 Transfer Air
• Exhaust Air = 500 CFM
• Supply Air = 70 CFM
– Cooling Load
• Pressure is too negative
– Increase SA
• 85% of exhaust CFM to maintain negative
• Increase 70 to 425 CFM
– 500 x 0.85 =425
• Sub‐cool the space
• Increase energy use
– Transfer air
• Air from an adjacent space that would otherwise
been returned or relieved
• 500 – 70 = 430 CFM transferred 14
 Methods to Transfer Air
• Undercut the door (max. ~150 CFM)
Space
• Door grille Dividing
Wall
– Prohibited in fire‐rated wall
– Acoustic issues Ceiling

• Transfer air boot XfrAir XfrAir

Adjacent Exhausted
– Duct connecting ceiling grilles Space Space
– Can insert a fire/smoke damper
– (2) 90˚ elbows eliminate noise transferissues

15
SA: 70 CFM
EA: 500 CFM
XFRA:
430CFM

16
Air Distribution

17
 Characteristics of Air
• Air behavior is related to air temperature
– Cold air drops
– Hot air rises
• Many HVAC systems are both heating (hot air) and
cooling (cold air) – Should there be two
distribution systems for the air depending on the
mode?
– Theoretically best but not practical – Space and $
– Designed based on the more dominant use
18
 Comfort Zone
• Comfort Zone: 6 in. to 6 ft above finished floor
• Maintain an air velocity <50 fpm
– Air speed <20 fpm not perceivable
– More tolerant of draft at ankle than at neck
• Temperature gradient ≤3˚F 6 ft a.f.f.
76˚F

6 in. a.f.f.
73˚F
19
 Placement
• The location of supply air grilles and/or
diffusers is key to good air distribution
• The optimal location depends on:
– Interior design of the building
– Local sources of heat gain or loss
– Outlet performance and design

20
 Ceiling
Good for cooling Poor for heating
Cool air will drop naturally, Warm air will rise unless forced
properly circulating air down with high‐velocity air flow

21
 Coanda Effect
(Ceiling or Surface Effect)
• The surface effect creates a low pressure region
and encourages the jet flow to attach to the
ceiling or surface.
• The high pressure of the room also contributes by
holding the air stream to the ceiling.
Supply Air

Ceiling Diffuser
Low Pressure Low Pressure

High Pressure
22
 Side Wall
Good for cooling
Cool air will drop naturally,
properly circulating air

Poor for heating

Warm air will rise, potential
for stagnant conditions

23
 Floor or Sill
Fairly good cooling Excellent for heating
If the air velocity is great Counteracts the cold air
enough to cause the cold down draft that occurs at
air flow to rise an exterior window

24
 Stratification

Very high ceilings:

– Atrium
Gymnasium
– Multi‐purpose room

The supply air grille should be located far below the

ceiling level.
25
 Supply Air Devices
• Used to distribute conditioned air evenly in the space:
– Grilles and Registers
– Ceiling Diffusers
– Slot/Linear Diffusers
– Nozzles

• Items considered in selection:

– Velocity
– Pressure Drop
– Noise
– Supply air/room air temperature difference
– Distance of throw
26
 Ceiling Diffusers
• Mounted in the ceiling
• Many sizes and configurations
• Commonly used
– Cooling controlledapplications

27
Diffuser Selection

28
• ADPI (Air Diffusion
Performance Index )
• 2009 ASHRAE
Fundamentals
Handbook, Chapter
20 – Space Air
Diffusion
30
 Example – Conference Room
• Area: 20 ft x 15 ft = 300 ft2 15 ’

• Space Sensible Heat Gain:

qs= 9,300 BTUh

• Room Sensible Load: 20’

9,300 BTUh/300 ft2
= 31 BTUh/ ft2
• Space Air Flow:
425 CFM
31
L = the limiting throw distance
X50 = Manufacturer rated throw 32
 Example – Conference Room
• Number of Diffusers? 15 ’

One Diffuser:
• 7.5 ft and 10 ft throw
7.5ft
• Controlling throw = 7.5 ft 20’

10 ft

33
 Example – Conference Room
• Number of Diffusers? 15 ’

5 ft
Two Diffusers: 7.5 ft
• 5 ft and 7.5 ft throw
5 ft
• Controlling throw = 5 ft 20’
5 ft

5 ft

34
 Example – Conference Room
• Number of Diffusers? 15 ’

One Diffuser:
• 7.5 ft and 10 ft throw
• Controlling throw = 7.5 ft 20’
7.5ft

• L = 7.5 ft
• X50/L range: 0.5 – 1.5
10 ft
• X50 range:
= 0.5 (7.5 ft) – 1.5 (7.5 ft)
= 3.75 ft – 11.25 ft
35
 Example
• Selection:
– Throw – manufacturer performance data
• X50 (often provided X150, X100, & X50)

36
 Example

4 ft
X150 = 4ft 7 ft
13 ft
X100 = 7 ft
X50 = 13ft 37
 Example – Conference Room
One Diffuser: 15 ’
X50 range:
= 0.5 (7.5 ft) – 1.5 (7.5 ft)
= 3.75 ft – 11.25 ft
7.5ft
Manufacturer data: 20’

X50 = 13ft
10 ft
13 ft > 11.25 ft, therefore
Dumping will occur

38
 Example – Conference Room
One Diffuser: 15 ’
10 ft throw range
X50 range:
= 0.5 (10 ft) – 1.5 (10 ft)
7.5ft
= 5 ft – 15 ft 20’

Manufacturer X50 = 13 ft 13
ft < 15 ft, therefore OK 10 ft

39
 Example – Conference Room
Two Diffusers: (2 x 215 CFM) 15 ’
• 5 ft and 7.5 ft throw
• Controlling throw = 5 ft 7.5 ft
5 ft

• L = 5 ft
5 ft
• X50/L range: 0.5 – 1.5 20’
5 ft
• X50 range:
= 0.5 (5 ft) – 1.5 (5 ft) 5 ft
= 2.5 ft – 7.5 ft

40
 Example

3 ft
X150 = 3ft 4 ft
8 ft
X100 = 4 ft
X50 = 8ft 41
 Example – Conference Room
Two Diffusers: 15 ’
X50 range:
5 ft
= 0.5 (5 ft) – 1.5 (5 ft) 7.5 ft
= 2.5 ft – 7.5 ft
5 ft
Manufacturer data: 20’
5 ft
X50 = 8 ft
8 ft > 7.5 ft, therefore
5 ft
Dumping will occur

42
 Example – Conference Room
Two Diffusers: 15 ’
7.5 ft throw range
X50 range: 7.5 ft
5 ft

= 0.5 (7.5 ft) – 1.5 (7.5 ft)

5 ft
= 3.75 ft – 11.25 ft 20’
5 ft
Manufacturer X50 = 8 ft
8 ft < 11.25 ft, therefore OK 5 ft

43
 How to Decide?
One Diffuser Two Diffusers
• 14 in. neck • 10 in. neck
• Dumping at room • More diffusers to install
perimeter • Dumping above table
• Dumping at perimeter

44
 Example
• Area: 1822 ft2
• Space Sensible Heat
Gain:
qs= 69,980 BTUh
• Room Sensible Load:
69,980 BTUh/1822 ft2
= 38.4 BTUh/ ft2

45
46
 Example
• X50/L Range = 0.5 – 1.5 5ft
L= 3ft
• Throw length: 6ft/2 = 3ft
– Wall
14ft/2 =7ft
– Between diffusers /2
– Obstruction 4.5 4ft
• L= ? L=4ft
• X50 = (0.5 – 1.5) (3 ft) 10ft/2 = 5ft

= 1.5 to 4.5 ft
• X50 = (0.5 – 1.5) (4 ft)
= 2 to 6 ft
 Example
• Selection:
– CFM
• SA = 3,180 CFM
• 12 Diffusers
• 3,180/12 = 265 CFM/Diffuser
– Throw – manufacturer performance data
• X50 (often provided X150, X100, & X50)

48
 Example

3 ft
X150 = 3ft 5 ft
10 ft
X100 = 5 ft
X50 = 10ft 49
 Example
• X50 = (0.5 – 1.5) (3 ft) 5 ft
3
= 1.5 to 4.5 ft 3 ft
• X50 = (0.5 – 1.5) (4 ft) 5 ft
7 ft 7 ft

= 2 to 6 ft 4.5 4 ft
Manufacturer X50 = 10 ft Result 5 ft
5 ft
→Colliding Air Streams
Dumping
 Example
• Potential solutions:
– Consider layout
• Uniform throw distance
• Control dumping location
– Consider another type of diffuser
• Look for a increased X50 range per ADPI table
• Look for different throw ratings

51
ASHRAE Applications Handbook 2007

Sound levels < 35 dB are not considered detrimental to speech intelligibility 52

 Acoustics

Diffuser
Balancing NC from Manufacturer’s
Damper Literature*
(3 dB – 10 dB)

If diffusers are < 3 ft o.c. add 3 dBA

Manufacturer literature often has 10 dB
Absorption accounted for

Classroom: 30 = 10 + 10 + Diffuser
Diffuser should have a NC ≤10
53
Example

54
 Balancing
• Maintain as equal of duct length or pressure loss
on runs as possible
• Balancing dampers needed
– Locate at each branch duct to diffuser
– Impose artificial resistance (all paths look equal)
– Set by balancing contractor
– Fan selected for worst‐case run

55
 Duct Design
• Friction Loss
• Duct Sizing
• Duct Fittings
• Aspect Ratio
• Continuity Equation
• System Pressure Loss

56
 Friction Loss
• Resistance imposed by the surface area of the duct
on air flow
– Resistance increases:
• Greater velocity
• Smaller Duct
• Increased surface area contact – duct shape
• Roughness of duct
• Important: Friction loss influences fan energy
consumed
57
 Friction Loss
• Duct sizing often done using the Equal‐Friction
Method
– Alternate methods:
• Static Regain Method
• T‐Method
• Set the acceptable friction loss
Low pressure system = 0.08 in. of water/ 100 ft

58
Example: 300 CFM 9
in. Φ Duct Velocity
= 680 fpm

Velocity = CFM/Area
= 300 / π(4.5)2/144
= 679 fpm

59
Example: 3600 CFM
23 in. Φ Duct (over 10 in.  use even)
→24 in. Φ
Velocity = 1150 fpm
Velocity = CFM/Area
= 3600 / π(12)2/144
= 1146 fpm
SP = 0.065 in. of water /100 ft
ASHRAE Fundamentals 2009
Chapter 21

Potential Rect.
Duct Sizes:
9 x 60
10 x51
12 x40
14 x33
16 x28
18 x25
20 x22
 Duct Sizing
• Which rectangular duct size is best?

→All have the same Potential Rectangular

friction loss & air flow Duct Sizes:
but not the same area! 9 x 60
10 x51
9 x 60 = 540 in.2 12 x40
12 x 40 = 480 in.2 14 x33
16 x28
20 x 22 = 440 in.2
18 x25
20 x22
– Limitations on space availability
– Aspect Ratio
62
 Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio: the ratio of the height and width
dimensions of a duct

Duct Size AspectRatio Perimeter

9 x 60 60/9 = 6.7 138 in.
12 x40 40/12 = 3.3 104 in.
20 x 22 22/20 = 1.1 84 in.

Closer the aspect ratio is to 1,

the lower the material cost
63
 Friction Loss
Instead of using these charts for friction loss for
straight duct length:
• Ductulator often used
–Tables applied to a wheel
–Produced by many manufacturers
• Computer software
• CAD programs

64
Continuity Equation

Volume Flow Rate = Constant

A1 x V1 = A2 x V2

65
 Continuity Equation
Example:
12 in. x 12 in. duct with an air velocity of 800 FPM is
changed to an 18 in. x 10 in. duct:
12 in.
18 in.

12 in. 10 in.

What is the new velocity?

66
 Continuity Equation
A1 x V1 = A2 xV2
(12 in.)(12 in.)(800 FPM) = (18 in.)(10 in.)(V2)

V2 = 640FPM

The same quantity of air is moving through

the duct, just at a lower velocity.

67
 Duct Fitting Friction Loss
• Pressure loss from fittings is significant
– Change in air direction results in turbulence
– Fittings cost more than straight duct

• Minimize the number of fittings in duct layout

68
 Duct Fitting Friction Loss
• Pressure loss from fittings is significant
– Change in air direction results in turbulence

Consider the
radius of a turn
69
 Loss Coefficient Method
Hf = C x Hv = C(V/4000)2

Hf = Pressure loss through fitting, in. of water C =

Loss coefficient
Hv = Velocity pressure at fitting V
= Velocity

70
 Example
• 20 x 22 duct with 3,600 CFM making a 90˚
change in direction
– Plan view: 20 in. is width & 22 in. is height
• Elbow with turning vanes vs. radius elbow
– ASHRAE or SMACNA tables for C values

71
90˚ Elbow w/Turning Vanes

V =CFM/Area
= (3600)/(20x22/144)
= 1080 fpm

Hf = C(V/4000)2
= 0.33(1080/4000)2
= 0.024 in. of water

72
 90˚ Smooth Radius Elbow

Hf = C(V/4000)2 V =CFM/Area
= (3600)/(20x22/144)
= 0.21(1)(1080/4000)2 = 1080 fpm
= 0.015 in. of water

73
 Friction Loss
• 90˚w/TurningVanes • 90˚SmoothRadius
– Same space – Same space
– 0.024 in. of water – 0.015 in. of water
– Equal to 30 ft of straight – Equal to 19 ft of straight
duct duct
 Duct System Pressure Losses
Items to be included in calculation:
– Fitting pressure losses
– Straight duct pressure losses
– Flex duct (keep to less than 5 ft in length)
– Equipment pressure losses (obtained from
manufacturers’ literature)
• Coils
• Filters
• Diffusers
• Dampers
• Etc.

75
 Duct System Pressure Losses
• Why Calculate?
– Must be overcome by the supply/return air fan

• Calculate only the critical path

– Greatest pressure loss
– Usually the longest path
– May be path that has significant number of
transitions or devices

76
Types of Fans

77
 Centrifugal Fans
• Blades that are slanted away from the
direction of wheel travel
– Air Foil (AF)
• Most efficient
• High CFM and high pressure
– Backward Inclined (BI)
• Same as AF just different shape blade
Forward Curve (FC)
• Used in small applications
(low SP & speed)
• “Volume blower”
 Axial Fans
• Used when space is limited
– Propeller
• Low efficiency and very little SP
• Typically no duct connection
– Tube‐axial
• More efficient
• Low to medium SP
– Vane‐axial
• Compact footprint
• Medium to high SP
• Good Efficiency

79
 Direct vs. Belt Drive
• Direct drive
– Low maintenance
– Smaller
– Requires a controller to change speed
• Belt
– Performance flexibility – belt and adjustable pulley
– Easy access
– Requires maintenance (bearings)

80
 Fan Selection
• Large Applications – Air Handling Unit, Relief, Exhaust,
Return, etc.
• Type of fan
• Drive (Direct or Belt)
• Fan Curves
• Static Pressure
• CFM
• RPM
• HP and BHP
• Sound measured in sones (typically small fan located
within the space)
81
 System Curve
• Pressure2/Pressure1 =(CFM2/CFM1)2
• Example: TSP = 3 in. of WC, CFM = 3600
CFM Pressure
1000 0.23 7

2000 0.93 5

3000 2.1 Total Pressure, in ofwater

4

3600 3.0 2

1
4000 3.7 0

5000 5.8
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
CFM

82
 7

5
Fan Performance Curve
Total Pressure, in of water

System Curve
4

3 Operating Point

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
CFM

83
 Fan Performance
Using manufacturer data and design criteria:
• CFM: 3600
• Static Pressure: 3 in. w.c.
• MHP: 3
• BHP: 2.8
• Fan RPM: 1400

84
 Installation Performance
• Good duct design and installation are critical to
proper performance
• When measured, air flow did not match design
because of unaccounted for system effect

Design Actual
3600 CFM 3200 CFM
• Fan speed increased to get airflow
85
 Installation Performance
Actual Revised
CFM 3200 → 3600
Fan RPM 1400 ?
CFMnew RPMnew RPM
3600
CFMold
= RPM = new
old 3200 1400
RPMnew =1575

86
 Installation Performance
Actual Revised
CFM 3200 3600
RPM 1400 1575
SP 3.0 ?

SPnew RPMnew 2 1575 2

SPnew
SP old = RPM old
=
2.8 1400
SPnew =3.8
87
 Installation Performance
Actual Revised
CFM 3200 3600
RPM 1400 1575
BHP 2.8 ?
HP 3 ?
BHPnew RPMnew 3 1575 3
BHPnew
BHP old = RPM old
=
2.8 1400
BHPnew = 3.99
HPnew = 4 88
 Design vs. Installed
Design Actual Revised
CFM 3600 3200 3600
RPM 1400 1400 1575
BHP 2.8 2.8 3.99
HP 3 3 4

89
 7

New Fan Curve Actual System

6 Actual Curve
(increased
RPM) Operating Point
Total Pressure, in of water

5
Fan Curve Design System
Curve
4

1
Design
Operating Point
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
CFM

90
Questions?

91