Engineering Recommendation No.

(08)
of the Electricity Distribution Code

Engineering Recommendation No. 8

Assessing the Rise of Earth Potential and
Earthing of the Distribution System
(Appendix to Electricity Distribution Code)

Version 1.0
25/06/2019

Prepared by:

Abu Dhabi Distribution Company

Al Ain Distribution Company

Approved by:

Department of Energy
CONTENTS

Introduction

Appendix 1: ADDC Distribution System

Appendix 2: AADC Distribution System

Page 2
1. Introduction
1.1 Preface
1.1.1 This Engineering Recommendation forms part of Annex 1 to the Electricity Distribution Code
and titled Engineering Recommendation No. 8 – A Guide for Assessing the Rise of Earth
Potential and Earthing in Distribution Network.

1.2 Commencement
1.2.1 This Engineering Recommendation comes into force on 25 June 2019.

1.3 Purpose
1.3.1 The purpose of this Engineering Recommendation is to provide the minimum technical
requirements for assessing the rise of earth potential in distribution substations and network of
voltage level from 0.4kV to 33kV. Accordingly, it shall be required to design, verify, operate and
maintain a suitable earthing system, in order to ensure safety of personnel in vicinity of the
network and proper operation of electrical equipment, under normal and fault conditions.

1.4 Scope
1.4.1 This Engineering Recommendation applies to both the Distribution Operating Companies under
Abu Dhabi Power Company (ADPC), namely Abu Dhabi Distribution Company (ADDC) and Al
Ain Distribution Company (AADC), and Users of the relevant Electricity Distribution System as
defined in the Electricity Distribution Code.

1.4.2 This Engineering Recommendation comprises two parts, separately for each of the distribution
companies (ADDC and AADC). Although both parts aims to attain a safe earthing system, the
main difference in carrying out the design arises from safety criteria based on different
international standards viz. in case of ADDC, assessment of rise of earth potential is based on
ENA-TS standards, IEEE80 and BS EN 62305-3 for lightning Protection along with a sample
study; while AADC recommendation is guided by IEEE standards, sample field tests and
calculations.

1.4.3 This Engineering Recommendation does not apply to the distribution system located in the
transmission grid substations (132/11kV and 220/33/11kV) wherein Transco’s relevant codes
and standards shall apply.

1.4.4 For LV earthing at customer premises, Electricity Wiring Regulations shall apply.

1.4.5 For earthing requirements at the Embedded Generating Plant, Engineering Recommendation
No. 3 - Connection of Embedded Generating Plant up to and including 30 MW ER-03 v2.0 shall
apply.

Page 3
 Appendix 1: ADDC distribution System

Assessing the Rise of Earth Potential and Earthling of ADDC

Distribution System

Page 4
CONTENTS Page

List of Abbreviations 3

1 Preface 4

2 Back Ground 4

3 Scope 4

4 Definitions 5

5 Reference Standards 6

6 Earthing Principles 7
6.1 General 7
6.2 Rise of Earth Potential 8
6.3 Soil Model 8
6.4 Earth Electrode Resistance 10
6.5 Fault current 11
6.6 Safety criteria 12
6.7 Touch and Step Voltage Analysis 17
6.8 Conductor Sizing 18

7 Materials 22
7.1 Conductors 22
7.2 Joints 28
7.3 Rods 28

8 General Design issues 29

8.1 Standard Soil Models 29
8.2 Safety Criteria 29
8.3 Control of Transferred Potentials 31
8.4 Earth Electrodes 32
8.5 Bonding of Above-ground Items 34
8.6 Lightning Protection 34

9 Primary substations 35
9.1 General 35
9.2 Earth Electrode Systems 35
9.3 Earthing Studies 35
9.4 Construction 37

10 Distribution substations 38
10.1 General 38
10.2 Standard Designs 39
10.3 Interconnection of HV and LV systems 45
10.4 Substations in Customers’ Premises 45
10.5 Test Facilities 47
10.6 Construction 47
10.7 Example of Special Study 55
10.8 LV Systems 55

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11 Overhead lines 57
11.1 OHL tower earthing 57
11.2 Use of earth wires on overhead lines 65
11.3 Earthing of wood, metal and concrete pole lines 68
11.4 Earthing of pole-mounted equipment 72
11.5 Pole mounted MV/LV transformers 87
11.6 Surge arresters (SA) and earthing 95

12 Operation, Testing and Maintenance 97

12.1 Operational safety measures 97
12.2 Measuring Equipment 97
12.3 Measurement procedures – earth electrode resistance 98
12.4 Measuring procedures – soil resistivity 101
12.5 Measuring procedures – joint resistance (“ductor” tests) 103
12.6 Routine maintenance 104
12.7 Diagrams 105

13 Neutral Earthing of Embedded Generation Systems 109

13.1 General 109
13.2 HV synchronous generator directly connected 111
13.3 Synchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer 113
13.4 Asynchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer 115
13.5 LV synchronous generator (standby operation only) 116
13.6 LV synchronous generator (parallel operation) 117
13.7 LV asynchronous generator 118
13.8 Recommendations 119

14 APPENDIX A 1

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABSD Air break switch disconnector

ADDC Abu Dhabi Distribution Company

BSI British Standards Institution

CT Current transformer

HV High voltage

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IET Institution of Engineering and Technology

LV Low voltage

RoEP Rise of earth potential

SA Surge arrestor

TN-C Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to neutral via
neutral conductor

TN-S Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to neutral via
separate conductor

TN-S-TT Combination of TN-S upstream and TT downstream

TT Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to earth locally

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1 PREFACE

This document has been prepared in accordance with the Electricity Distribution Code and
forms part of Annex 1 of the Code. It applies to all Users of the Electricity Distribution System
under ADDC ownership for development, operation & maintenance. For customer end earthing,
RSB Wiring regulation shall be applicable.

This document shall be read in conjunction with detailed Standards & Specification of
ADWEA/ADDC [5] for Earthing and the Engineering Standard for Earthing for ADDC [4].

2 BACK GROUND

This document has been prepared to fulfil the technical requirements of the Distribution Code
relating to Earthing System Design & Installation within ADDC Distribution Network. This
earthing guideline is specifically refers to 33/11kV Primary substations and 22/0.4kV
and 11/0.4kV distribution substations (including package type substations). For the
Primary Grid stations, earthing standard for TRANSCO is generally followed for the
design.

This document places obligations on ADDC, Customers and other Users of the Distribution
System in order to ensure the correct Design, Installation and Maintenance of the Earthing
System. This document has been prepared after a review of ADWEA/ADDC standard for
Earthing and ADDC’s Engineering Standard for earthing which gives the detailed requirements
for the Earthing System of Electricity Distribution System under ADDC.

3 SCOPE

This document covers the design, construction, maintenance and operation of power
system earthing associated with all ADDC substations, MV & LV Network and overhead
lines.

It does not cover the following systems:

 Air terminations and down conductors for lightning protection

 Operational earthing of protection, control and instrumentation systems

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4 DEFINITIONS

Cold site A site where the rise of earth potential is below a critical value for
transferred potentials (see section 8.2)
Earth electrode A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with the soil
Earth electrode The resistance of an earth electrode to remote earth
resistance
Earth fault An abnormal connection, normally of negligible impedance, between
one or more live conductors and exposed or extraneous conductive
parts
Earth fault current Ratio of earth electrode current to total earth fault current
reduction factor
Equipment (safety) Bonding of non-current-carrying parts of electrical equipment to earth
earthing for safety reasons
Hot site A site where the rise of earth potential is above a critical value for
transferred potentials (see section 8.2)
Neutral (system) Method of connection of star points of transformers or generators to
earthing earth to allow passage of fault current and to control fault currents and
overvoltages under earth fault conditions
Remote earth The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential is
conventionally taken as zero
Rise of earth The potential difference between a local earth electrode and remote
potential (RoEP) earth under earth fault conditions
Step voltage The potential difference between a person’s feet under earth fault
conditions
Touch voltage The potential difference between a person’s hand and foot under earth
fault conditions
Transferred A potential transferred into or out of a substation from or to a remote
potential point, liable to cause high touch voltages

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5 REFERENCE STANDARDS

1. IEEE Std 80-2013/Cor 1-2015 – IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
2. IEEE Std 81- 2012 – IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance
and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System
3. BS EN 50522:2010 - Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
4. BS EN 61936-1:2010+A1:2014 - Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. Common rules
5. BS 7430:2011+A1:2015 – Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical
installations
6. BS 7671:2008+A3:2015– Requirements for Electrical Installations
7. Engineering Recommendation EREC S34 Issue 2 2017– A Guide for Assessing the
Rise in Earth Potential at Electrical Installations ENA Technical Specification TS 41-
24, Issue1, 2017 – Guidelines for the Design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of
Main Earthing Systems in Substations
8. IEC 60479-1:2005+A1:2016(E)– Effects of current on human beings and livestock
9. IEC 61936-1:2010+AMD1:2014 – Power Installations Exceeding 1kV a.c. – Part 1:
Common Rules
10. ITU-T Directives: 2008 concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against
harmful effects from electric power and electrified railway lines – Volume VI – Danger,
damage and disturbance
11. BS EN 50522: 2010 – Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
12. Regulation and Supervision Bureau Water, Wastewater and Electricity Sector Emirate
of Abu Dhabi Emirate – The Electricity Supply Regulations Jan 2018
13. Regulation and Supervision Bureau for Water, Wastewater and Electricity Sector
Emirate of Abu Dhabi Emirate – The Electricity Wiring Regulations – March 2014
14. BS EN 62305-3:2011 Protection Against Lightning – Part 3: Physical damage to
structures and life hazard.
15. Regulation and Supervision Bureau Water, Wastewater and Electricity Sector Emirate
of Abu Dhabi Emirate – Engineering Recommendation No.3 of the Electricity
Distribution Code – Connection of Embedded Generating Plant up to 5MW – Version
1.0, 30th November 2005
16. BSI publication PD 6484:1979 – Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contacts and
its alleviation

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6 EARTHING PRINCIPLES

6.1 General

Earth electrode systems fulfil the following functions:

 To provide an adequately rated, low impedance path for earth fault currents

 To ensure safety from electric shock during earth faults

 To provide an earth termination for lightning protection systems and other sources of
HF transient currents

 To provide an equipotential plane for the connection of control and instrumentation

equipment

The principal hazard to people from earth faults is death from ventricular fibrillation caused by
an electric current flowing through the body. Measures to prevent this hazard are provided in a
number of international standards. The generally agreed method of mitigation is to design
earthing systems such that touch voltages, step voltages and transferred potentials are limited
to safe values. These terms are defined above.

The general approach to earth electrode design for a typical site (normally a substation) can be
summarised as follows:

1. Model soil from resistivity data

2. Evaluate safety criteria (touch and step voltage limits)

3. Model earth electrode

4. Calculate earth electrode current

5. Calculate rise of earth potential and plot touch and step voltages

6. Compare with safety criteria

Meshed earthing systems normally help to keep potential differences to a minimum.

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6.2 Rise of Earth Potential

In order to carry out a safety assessment, it is essential to calculate the rise of earth potential
(RoEP).

The RoEP at a substation or other site under earth fault conditions is calculated as follows

Where: RoEP  I e  Re
RoEP = rise of earth potential

Ie = earth electrode current

Re = earth electrode resistance

The earth electrode current is equal to the total earth fault current available on the system minus
any current diverted via overhead earth wires, cable sheaths or parallel earth electrodes.

The earth electrode resistance is dependent on the site earthing layout and the soil resistivity.

RoEP is termed GPR (ground potential rise) in [1].

6.3 Soil Model

In order to calculate the earth electrode resistance, a soil model is necessary. The soil model
must provide a single representative resistivity model for the whole site.

It must be understood that soil modelling is inevitably approximate due to the random nature of
much of the data and that it constitutes the greatest source of error in earth electrode design
studies.

6.3.1 Soil structure and types

Soil has resistance, inductance and capacitance but the inductance and capacitance can be
ignored at power frequencies. It is therefore normally modelled as a pure resistance.

Soil structure is very variable but tends to be stratified in horizontal layers. A mathematical
model can be developed to represent two or more layers. Alternatively a uniform model (i.e. a
single value) can be used for simple calculations.

In general, moist or fractured soils tend to have lower resistivity than solid rock or dry soils. In
some soils, ground water causes a lower resistivity below a certain depth. Conversely, rocks
tend to be more fractured nearer the surface and thus have lower resistivity.

Soil resistivity also varies widely between less than 1Ωm for soils with saline ground water and
several thousands of Ωm for crystalline rocks.

6.3.2 Data sources

Soil resistivity data may be obtained from the following sources;

 Soil resistivity surveys

 Sample tests

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  Site geotechnical report (boreholes)

 Geological maps

Wherever possible, a soil resistivity survey should initially be carried out. The Wenner method
is normally used [1] [2], which involves setting out two or more measurement axes. The results
of the survey will give the soil resistivity profile down to a depth equal to 1/3 of the axis length.

Soil resistivity surveys should ideally be made before the site is disturbed. Testing methodology
is covered in more detail in Section 12. Sample tests are generally considered to be less reliable
than in-situ tests.

In the absence of a survey, a rough estimate of soil resistivity can be made, based on published
data (maps) and/or site civil engineering survey data (site geotechnical report).

Site geotechnical reports normally include borehole logs which are useful to indicate changes
in soil type and the depth of the water table. This information can be used to fine-tune a soil
model which is based on a soil resistivity survey. In some cases, soil resistivity surveys are also
included and can be used directly.

Geological maps are published by various organisations and indicate the surface soil types in
the area covered. The soil resistivity must be estimated based on typical values such as those
included in [2] and [3]. Such estimates may be useful in the initial assessment of sites.

It may be difficult to measure soil resistivity if there are existing conductors in the ground.

6.3.3 Alternative models

The alternative soil models normally used are:

1. Uniform

2. 2-layer

3. multi-layer

The choice depends on the type of calculation, the structure of the soil and the software
available.

For simple earth electrode resistance calculations and for certain other calculations, it is
necessary to use a uniform model. A uniform model can be derived by taking the average of all
the measured apparent resistivities.

Most soils can be modelled with sufficient accuracy using a 2-layer model. However, the more
sophisticated software packages include a facility for multi-layer soil modelling, which is more
accurate.

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6.4 Earth Electrode Resistance

The earth electrode resistance can be evaluated using an approximate hand calculation or a
more detailed software study.

The calculation method must take account of the proximity effect, which means that if earth
electrodes are close together, their individual resistances are effectively increased. In this case
the earth electrodes are conductively coupled. This means that the volumes of soil around each
electrode which determine the resistance overlap each other. The combined resistance of the
two electrodes then becomes greater than it would be if they were far apart.

The calculation of the overall resistance depends on the geometry of the system and soil model.
It can be done approximately using analytical formulae for simple systems or using earthing
design software for more complex systems.

6.4.1 Hand calculations

Initial approximate calculations are useful, to get a picture of the likely order of magnitude of
the earth electrode resistance. The following equations may be used (see [1], [Error!
Reference source not found.]):

 
Re 
4 A

  
Re  
4 A LT
Where Re = earth electrode resistance

ρ = soil resistivity

A = area of grid (m2)

LT = total buried length of conductors

The top equation is a first approximation and gives a minimum value, based on a solid disc.
The bottom equation gives a maximum value. Both require an assumed uniform soil resistivity.

More accurate formulae also exist for combinations of rods and horizontal conductors in uniform
soil and 2-layer soil (Schwartz’s equations, see [1] clause 14.3). However, even for preliminary
modelling it is simpler to use earthing design software if this is available.

6.4.2 Software studies

The advantages of software studies are that they can be applied to irregular shaped, complex
systems and that the results can then be used to produce touch and step voltage plots.

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6.5 Fault current

Earth fault currents are calculated using the relevant power system component impedances.
The value of interest for earthing purposes is the residual current (3 x Io, where Io is the zero
phase sequence current). An allowance should be made for the expected increase in fault
current over the lifetime of the substation.

The following factors must be considered:

 fault type
 fault location
 fault current division

6.5.1 Fault Type

Two types of fault can cause a rise of earth potential:

 Single phase to earth

 Two phase to earth

A two phase fault, with the third phase down to earth is also a fault condition, which would give
rise to the same zero phase sequence current as a single phase to earth fault. A 3 phase to
earth fault will not cause a RoEP.

If short circuit analysis software is available, studies should be run for both types of fault and
the worst case selected. The relevant value is the residual current at the point of fault (3I 0,
where I0 is the zero phase sequence current).

Alternatively, the worst case can be determined as follows:

 Single phase to earth fault is worst type if Z1Z0>Z22 (i.e. Z0>Z1 if Z1=Z2)

 Two phase to earth fault is worst type if Z1Z0<Z22 (i.e. Z0<Z1 if Z1=Z2)

Where Z1, Z2, Z0 are the system phase sequence impedances, seen from the fault point.

6.5.2 Fault Location

A rise of earth potential at a substation may be caused by a fault inside or outside the site. In
the case of a fault outside the site, the rise of earth potential may be caused by residual current
returning through the earth electrode into a transformer winding star point. To determine the
location that will cause the highest rise of earth potential, it is necessary to carry out fault current
studies for faults inside and outside the substation at each relevant system voltage taking into
account all sources of zero phase sequence current (i.e. transformer winding star points)
connected to earth. The worst fault location is the case that results in the highest net earth fault
current at the substation.

For a substation which does not contain any significant sources of zero phase sequence
current, the worst case will always be a fault inside the site. Note that ADDC Distribution
substations normally only contain delta transformer windings at 11/22kV, therefore the worst
fault location is inside the site.

If a fault occurs on a cable between two distribution substations, the resulting RoEP at each
substation will be less than that from a fault within the substation.

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6.5.3 Fault current division

When calculating the RoEP, it is important to only use the actual earth electrode current rather
than the total earth fault current. It is easy to overdesign by ignoring current diverted elsewhere.
A useful concept is the earth fault current reduction factor, defined as the ratio of earth electrode
current to total earth fault current (Ie/If).

There are two mechanisms for fault current division:

 Inductive coupling occurs on in-feeding lines or cables with continuous earth

conductors.
 Auxiliary electrodes conductively share current.

The inductive and conductive effects can be separately calculated or both can be included in a
single software model, to evaluate the current reduction factor.

Typical current reduction factors are shown below:

Case Current
reduction factor
No return earth conductor 1
Overhead line supply with shield wire 0.7
Hybrid cable/OHL supply with continuous earth return 0.2-0.7
Single core cable supply with sheaths bonded 0.2
3-core cable supply with screens and armour bonded 0.1

The maximum fault current and earth electrode current for a particular site depend on factors
such as the line/cable length, presence of earth conductors and substation earth electrode
resistances; they must therefore be determined by carrying out a fault current division study as
mentioned in section 9.

6.6 Safety criteria

Safety criteria – i.e. maximum safe threshold values of touch and step voltage – depend on the
soil resistivity and other factors such as the soil surface material and the type of shoes worn.

Ventricular fibrillation (VF) is the usual cause of death from electrocution. It involves the
cessation of the normal heart rhythm, leading to an immediate drop in blood pressure. Because
of wide variations in physical characteristics and health in the human population, it is not a
simple matter to assign a safe current limit.

VF zones are defined in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 [8]. The diagram defines permissible body
currents on a statistical basis as a function of shock duration (i.e. fault clearance time). It is
based on a.c. currents in range 15-100Hz, for a current path from left hand to both feet.

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Figure 6.1 – Conventional time/current zones of the effects of a.c.currents

From IEC/TS 60479-1: 2005

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Figure 6.2 – Explanation of AC current zones

From IEC/TS 60479-1: 2005

Equivalent circuits are needed to convert body current limits to touch and step voltage limits.
These are shown in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4.

The body resistance (Rb) is normally taken as 1000Ω. This is a conservative value, taking into
account the effects of surface moisture. Hand and foot contact resistances are ignored.

The foot resistance (Rf) – i.e. the resistance of the soil under each foot – is normally taken as
3ρ, where ρ is the soil resistivity (upper layer). This represents an equivalent metal disc of
0.08m radius, in contact with the soil surface.

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Figure 6.3 – Touch Voltage Circuit

From
IEEE Std.
80-2000.
Copyright
2000
IEEE. All
rights
reserved

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Figure 6.4 – Step Voltage Circuit

From IEEE Std. 80-2000. Copyright 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved

The impedance presented by the human body can be greatly increased by the following:

1. Laying a high resistivity layer (e.g. stone chippings) on the ground surface

2. Taking into account the insulating properties of footwear (particularly elastomer soles)

The effect of a high resistivity surface layer is normally taken into account by correcting the soil
resistivity. This factor may be calculated using the following empirical formula, taken from
[Error! Reference source not found.]:

ρeff = ρrock (1 + Khr/20)

where

ρeff = corrected value of soil resistivity

ρrock = resistivity of surface material

K = 2-layer reflection factor = (ρsoil - ρrock)/ (ρsoil + ρrock)

hr = depth of surface layer

The effect of shoe resistance is to add another term in series with each foot resistance element.
Note that:

 [Error! Reference source not found.] and [7] allow 4kΩ per foot.

 [1] does not make any allowance for footwear, on the basis that a person could be
kneeling or sitting.

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6.7 Touch and Step Voltage Analysis

The recommended method for calculating touch and step voltages is to use earthing design
software rather than hand calculations. This method will provide a complete plot of the voltage
contours across the site.

The measurement of touch and step voltages is not recommended as the procedure is
expensive and complex and the results will only be obtained at discrete points.

Using earthing design software, the following can be plotted to scale on a site layout
background:

 Surface potential
 Touch voltage
 Step voltage

The surface potential plot is mainly of use for assessing the extent of the hot zone.

The touch voltage plot is compared with the touch voltage limit(s) to assess safety. Note that
the maximum touch voltages normally occur around the edges and particularly the corners of
the site. In areas where there is no accessible metalwork (e.g. more than 1m from the outside
of the boundary fence), touch voltages can be ignored. For a site with a single earthing system:

Touch voltage = ROEP – surface potential

However, if the site has other earth electrodes (e.g. fences), the touch voltages in their vicinity
must be separately calculated.

The step voltage plot is compared with the step voltage limit(s) to assess safety. Note that the
highest step voltages normally occur at the site perimeter. Step voltages are very rarely critical.

If the safety criteria are violated, it will be necessary to refine the design and repeat the analysis.

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6.8 Conductor Sizing

Conductors for the following applications are considered here:

 Grid conductors – bare buried conductors forming an earth electrode in the form of a
horizontal mesh

 Rods – vertical bare buried earth conductors used to supplement a grid or as stand-
alone earth electrodes

 Spur conductors – connections between above-ground components and an

underground earth electrode system

It is important to understand that the conductor diameter has very little effect on the earth
electrode resistance. Conductors should therefore be sized purely for temperature rise and
mechanical strength.

The conductor sizing procedure is as follows:

1. Select conductor material and shape

2. Determine required current rating and duration

3. Calculate minimum section for temperature rise

4. Check current density at electrode surface

5. Assess requirement for corrosion margin

Note that it is not normally necessary to rate earth rods for current. They should therefore be
sized for mechanical strength, depending on the depth to be driven and the soil type. The earth
rod manufacturer should be able to advise on the rod type required for a particular application.

Spur conductors to passive metalwork such as structural steel may be sized purely for
mechanical strength.

6.8.1 Corrosion

Corrosion is a complex subject. The two corrosion mechanisms of interest are:

 Bimetallic corrosion – causing wasting (loss of material) of a conductor due to the

proximity of a different metal within an electrolyte

 Corrosion in soil – oxidation of buried conductors caused by the chemical properties of

the surrounding medium

To avoid bimetallic corrosion, precautions must be taken when dissimilar metals are in
proximity. Bimetallic corrosion is covered in detail in BSI publication PD 6484 [16].

Regarding corrosion in soil, an acceptable range of soil pH values of 6-10 is given in [7]. Outside
this range, it is recommended that the conductors should be bedded in imported soil. Alternative
solutions are to use tinned or lead covered conductor or to encase the conductor in concrete.
In order to measure the pH value, samples should be sent to a laboratory for chemical analysis.
Alternatively, chemical analysis data may be included in the site geotechnical report.

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6.8.2 Conductor materials and shape

The preferred material for grid and spur conductors is copper because of its high conductivity
and good corrosion resistance. Galvanised steel is occasionally used but it is important to allow
an adequate corrosion margin.

For earth rods, the conductivity is less important but hardness is required so that they can be
driven. The materials normally used are copper bonded steel, galvanised steel, solid copper
and stainless steel.

Aluminium is not normally recommended for earth electrodes because corrosion in soil tends
to form a resistive skin of oxidised material. Another reason is the tendency to waste due to
bimetallic corrosion in the presence of most other metals.

In terms of shape, two alternatives are available for copper grid and spur conductors: (a)
stranded cable or (b) solid rectangular section tape. Cable is easier to install than tape but is
marginally more prone to corrosion due to the higher exposed surface area.

Spur conductors may be PVC sheathed to identify them and to give some measure of protection
against corrosion and damage above ground.

6.8.3 Required current rating

In order to carry out the sizing calculation, the rated fault current and duration must be defined.

Grid and spur conductors must be rated for the maximum earth fault current, not just the earth
electrode current (see section 6.5.3 above). This is because they may form the only
interconnection between the faulted equipment and the remainder of the earthing system.
Having said that, when sizing grid conductors it is normal to allow for the presence of parallel
paths by assuming a certain current split factor (60/40% specified in [Error! Reference source
not found.]). Spur conductors must be fully rated.

Note that it is not normally necessary to rate earth rods for current, since they do not carry
“through currents” between different parts of the system and their earth electrode current is
typically well below their capability.

The required fault current duration should be the maximum earth fault clearance time under the
worst conditions. This implies that backup protection times should be assumed on systems with
single main protection. Main protection times may be assumed on systems with dual main
protection. Some utilities specify a standard fault current duration (e.g. 1s).

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6.8.4 Minimum Conductor Section for Temperature Rise

The following formula (specified in [3]) may be used; it assumes no heat loss during the fault
period (adiabatic process) and normally assumed to apply for durations up to 5s.

t
SI
k
where S = section (mm2)

I = current (A)

t = duration (s)

k = current density (A/ mm2) for 1s duration

Values of k for 300C ambient temperature are tabulated in [3].

For other initial and final temperatures the current density k for a 1s duration may be obtained
from the following equation (specified in [3]):

k  K ln( TT12  )

where T1 = initial temperature in 0C

T2 = final temperature in 0C

Values of K and β for different conductor materials are tabulated in Table 6.1 below.

Table 6.1 – Values of K and β

Metal K β

A/mm2 (rms) 0C

Copper 226 254

Aluminium 148 228
Steel 78 202

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6.8.5 Maximum Current Density at Electrode Surface

This refers to the current flowing out from the electrode into the surrounding soil. Excessive
current density causes soil heating and a rise in soil resistance, which can lead to a possible
runaway effect. The runaway effect means that the current emitted by the earth electrode heats
the surrounding soil which dries it out and increases its resistivity. This in turn increases the
heat generator by the current which further increases the soil resistivity etc. It tends to be no
problem for large site but may need checking for small site with a high earth electrode current.

The maximum permissible current density (J) to avoid runaway soil heating can be calculated
from the following formula (given in [Error! Reference source not found.], [3] and [7]):

 57.7 
J  103  
 t 
where J = maximum permitted current density (A/m2)

ρ = soil resistivity (Ωm)

t = fault duration (s)

Earthing design software can be used to calculate the current densities.

The designs included in this standard eliminate any runaway heating effect.

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7 MATERIALS

7.1 Conductors

Alternative conductor types are:

 stranded cable (preferred)

 rectangular section solid tape
 flexible braid

Alternative materials are:

 Copper
 Copper clad steel (40% CCS, preferred)

Copper for earthing should be specified as annealed / soft drawn rather than hard drawn, except
for overhead line conductors and busbars. Stranded copper conductors and braids are widely
available in standard metric cross sectional areas; solid tape is specified in terms of width and
thickness.

Copper clad steel (CCS) is available with 30% or 40% of the conductivity of copper, depending
on the copper thickness. Copper-clad steel (CCS) stranded conductors are available from some
manufacturers in standard metric sizes but from others they are only available in AWG sizes.
CCS tape is also available.

Since CCS resembles copper, labels shall be fitted to discourage theft in high-risk areas. For
equipment bonding connections and other applications requiring insulation, PVC sheathed
conductors should be used, with the PVC coloured Yellow/Green in outdoor locations.

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7.1.1 Main Earthing Conductors

Main earthing conductors are sized for temperature rise. The basis of the sizing is given in
Table 7.1 and Table 7.2.

Table 7.1 – Basis of Conductor Sizing for 11/22kV Substations

11/22kV substation Spur (bare) Grid Spur (PVC

conductor covered)
Symmetrical RMS 25kA 15kA 25kA
Current Magnitude
Maximum Fault 1s 1s 1s
Duration
Below Ground 40 oC 40 oC 40 oC
Temperature
Maximum Allowable 250 oC 500 oC 160 oC
Temperature
X/R 20 20 20
Frequency 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz

Table 7.2 – Basis of Conductor Sizing for 33kV Substations

33kV substation Spur (bare) Grid Spur (PVC

conductor covered)
Symmetrical RMS 31.5kA 18.9kA 31.5kA
Current Magnitude
Maximum Fault 1s 1s 1s
Duration
Ambient 40 oC 40 oC 40 oC
Temperature
Maximum Allowable 250 oC 500 oC 160 oC
Temperature
X/R 20 20 20
Frequency 50Hz 50Hz 50Hz

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Earthing conductors shall be sized in accordance with Table 7.3 - Table 7.7.

Table 7.3 – Earthing Cable Sizes for 11/22kV Substations

Application Conductor Standard conductor size

type Cable
Cable Tape
(metric) (AWG)
strands / Width Thickness
mm2
size mm mm
Spur (bare) Copper 185 50 5
CCS (40%) 240 19/6 38 6
Spur (PVC Copper 240 50 4
covered) 19/5
CCS (40%) 300 50 6
Grid Copper 70 25 3
conductor 7/5
CCS (40%) 120 31 4

Table 7.4 – Earthing Cable Sizes for 33kV Substations

Application Conductor Standard conductor size

type
Cable Cable Tape
(metric) (AWG)
strands / Width Thickness
mm2
size mm mm
Spur (bare) Copper 240 50 5
CCS (40%) 300 7/5 50 6
Spur (PVC Copper 240 40 6
covered)
CCS (40%) 2x185 2x19/7 2x50 4
Grid Copper 95 25 4
conductor 19/8
CCS (40%) 150 40 4

Table 7.5 – Earthing Cable Sizes for 11kV Wood pole Lines

Application Conductor Standard conductor size

type Cable
Cable Tape
(metric) (AWG)
strands / Width Thickness
mm2
size mm mm
Spur (bare) Copper 25 12.5 3
CCS (40%) 35 7/9 12.5 3
Spur (PVC Copper 35 12.5 3
covered) 7/9
CCS (40%) 50 20 3

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Table 7.6 – Earthing Cable Sizes for 33kV Wood pole Lines

Application Conductor Standard conductor size

type
Cable Cable Tape
(metric) (AWG)
strands / Width Thickness
mm2
size mm mm
Spur (bare) Copper 35 12.5 3
CCS (40%) 50 7/9 20 3
Spur (PVC Copper 50 12.5 3
covered) 7/8
CCS (40%) 70 20 3

Table 7.7 – Earthing Cable Sizes for 33kV Steel Lattice Towers

Application Conductor Standard conductor size

type
Cable Cable Tape
(metric) (AWG)
Width Thickness
mm2 strands /
mm mm
size
Above Copper 120 40 4
ground (bare) 19/7
CCS (40%) 240 40 5
Above Copper 150 40 4
ground (PVC 19/6
CCS (40%) 240 40 6
covered)
Below Copper 50* 12.5 3
ground 7/9
CCS (40%) 50 12.5 3

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7.1.2 Cable sheath bonding conductors

The following components must be bonded:

 Armour
 Screens
 Integral earth cores (interstitials)

Bonding conductors shall be one of the following:

 stranded copper, PVC sheathed

 flexible copper braid

The following bonding conductor sizes shall be used:

Table 7.8 - Cable Sheath Bonding Conductor Sizes

Component Standard conductor size mm2

LV 11kV 22kV 33kV

Armour 120 35 50 70
Screens (3 connected together) 25 35 35
Interstitials (3 connected together) 120 150 150
Armour + Interstitials 185 240 240
Armour + Interstitials + Screens 240 240 240

7.1.3 Equipotential Bonding Conductors

These shall be sized for mechanical strength. The following minimum sizes shall be used for
either copper or CCS conductors:

 Buried 50 mm2
 Above ground, protected 16 mm2
 Above ground, exposed 50 mm2

7.1.4 Neutral Earthing Conductors

Neutral earthing conductors shall be Yellow/Green PVC sheathed stranded copper, in

accordance with the standard ADDC phase colours.

HV neutral earthing conductors shall be sized in accordance with Table 7.3 - Table 7.7.

LV neutral earthing conductors shall be sized for the full short circuit current of the system, in
accordance with [1] or [3].

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7.1.5 Summary of Bonding Conductor Sizes

Table 7.9 shows the conductor types and sizes for bonding conductors in substations. For
overhead line requirements, see section 11. For neutral earthing conductors, see section 7.1.4.

Table 7.9 – Summary of Bonding Conductor Sizes

Item Conductor type Section mm2 Comment

Steel structures PVC sheathed 16 50 mm2 if

copper or CCS exposed

Steel doors Flat copper braid 16

Cable tray system PVC sheathed 16

copper or CCS

Metal building PVC sheathed 16 50 mm2 if

copper or CCS exposed

HVAC units PVC sheathed 16

copper or CCS

Metallic conduits PVC sheathed 4

copper or CCS

HV Metal clad switchgear See Table 7.3

and Table 7.4

LV panels PVC sheathed 16 50 mm2 if

copper or CCS exposed

Auxiliary and power See Table 7.3

transformers and Table 7.4

Instrument transformers PVC sheathed 16

copper or CCS

HV Shunt capacitor See Table 7.3

and Table 7.4

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7.2 Joints

Exothermic welding and brazing are acceptable for underground jointing of copper or CCS
conductors. Kits for exothermic welding are available. Brazing requires more skill.

The approved jointing methods are summarised in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10 – Approved Jointing Methods

Method Above ground Underground

Bolted joints and clamps Yes No

Crimping Yes Yes

Cold pressure welding No No

Explosion welding No No

Exothermic welding Yes Yes

Brazing Yes Yes

7.3 Rods

Earth rods for either direct driving or installation in drilled holes shall be copper bonded steel,
17.2mm diameter.

Rods are available in 1m - 3m lengths.

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8 GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES

8.1 Standard Soil Models

For each site where an earth electrode system is to be installed, it is essential that the soil
resistivity should be measured. Measurements methods are covered in Section 12 of this
document.

The soil resistivity survey results should then be processed to provide the best-fit 2-layer soil
model. This may be done using commercial software (e.g IXID from Interpex) or by calculation
in accordance with IEEE 80 [1] clause 13.4 or IEEE 81 [2] Appendix A.

Based on the 2-layer soil model for the site, the soil type can be identified. The standard
earthing system designs in this document are based on six standard soil types as shown in
Table 6.1.

Table 8.1 – Standard Soil Types

Soil Top layer resistivity ρ1 Bottom layer resistivity

type ρ2
1 ρ1 ≤ 10 Ωm ρ2 ≤ 10 Ωm
2 ρ1 > 10 Ωm ρ2 ≤ 10 Ωm
3 ρ1 ≤ 100 Ωm 10 Ωm < ρ2 ≤ 100 Ωm
4 ρ1 > 100 Ωm 10 Ωm < ρ2 ≤ 100 Ωm
5 ρ1 ≤ 1000 Ωm 100 Ωm < ρ2 ≤ 1000 Ωm
6 ρ2 > 1000 Ωm

8.2 Safety Criteria

Rise of earth potential limits are as follows, in accordance with ENA TS 41-24 [7] page 5-6:

 430V for a fault on a normal power line (33, 22 and 11kV)

 650V for a fault on a “high-reliability” power line (132kV and above)

If the RoEP is above the appropriate limit, the site is designated “hot”; otherwise, the site is
“cold”. The above limits should be used as safety limits in all assessments of transferred
potentials.

There is no simple way of calculating the hot zone radius, as it depends on the geometry of the
earth electrode system and the soil resistivity model. The recommended method is to use
earthing design software (see sections 9.3 and 10.2). This will provide a 430V or 650V contour
around the substation. An approximate method of estimating the hot zone radius, based on a
uniform soil model and an equivalent hemispherical electrode is given in ENA ER S34 [7]. For
a distribution substation, the LV electrode must then be placed outside the hot zone.

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For each substation, a 2-stage assessment shall be carried out in accordance with ENA TS 41-
24 [7]. Stage 1 classifies the substation as hot or cold in terms of rise of earth potential. If the
site is hot, then a stage 2 assessment is needed to ensure safety. The full 2-stage assessment
procedure is as follows:

Stage 1

1. Determine the soil resistivity of the site

2. Calculate the earth electrode resistance based on a preliminary layout

3. Carry out an earth fault current division calculation to determine the earth electrode
current

4. Calculate the RoEP

5. Assess whether the site is “hot” or “cold”.

6. If the site is cold there is no need for further assessment. The substation earthing
design can be completed based on the preliminary earthing layout. There is no
requirement to segregate HV and LV earth electrode systems.

7. If the site is hot then a more detailed assessment (stage 2) is needed.

Stage 2

1. Determine the appropriate touch and step voltage limits.

2. Determine the maximum touch and step voltages and hot zone contour radius, based
on the preliminary layout.

3. If the limits are exceeded, refine the layout until all touch and step voltages are within
limits.

4. The substation earthing design can be completed. To avoid transferred potentials,

there should be no metallic connection off site. The HV and LV earth electrode systems
must be segregated, with the LV electrode placed outside the hot zone.

The main objective of the 2-stage assessment is to design an earth electrode system that will
ensure safety in the event of a fault on the HV system of the substation itself. If the earth
electrode system of a distribution substation is also connected to that of a primary substation
that is a hot site, then a further assessment will be required, termed a "transferred potential
study", to ensure safety in the event of a fault on the primary system.

Note that if distribution substation standard designs are applied in accordance with section 10.2
below, the 2-stage assessment requirement can assumed to be satisfied.

A simple example of a 2-stage assessment is included in section 10.7 below.

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 The standard touch and step voltage limits in Table 8.2 should be used for all sites.

Table 8.2 – Touch and Step Voltage Limits

Energising Fault Surface covering Touch Step Comment

voltage clearance voltage voltage
(kV) time (s) (V) (V)
11-33 5 Bare soil 105 315 Distribution
Crushed rock 180 613 substations and 33kV
primary substations
Asphalt 475 1,806
132-220 0.2 Bare soil 898 2,695 132 and 220kV
primary substations
Crushed rock 1,536 5,247
Asphalt 4,089 15,456

Notes on Table 8.2:

1. Crushed rock and asphalt layers shall be 100mm thick as a minimum.

2. Bare soil means no surface covering. (The standard designs are based on a very low
value of 0.1 Ωm, which will be adequate for any site.)
3. For tiled or unreinforced concrete surfaces, the bare soil values should be used.
4. The reason for the large difference between the 11-33kV and 132-220kV values is the
difference in fault clearance times.
5. These limits are based on IEC 60479-1 [8].

8.3 Control of Transferred Potentials

If a primary substation is a hot site, a transferred potential study must be carried out to ensure
that each connected distribution substation is safe in the event of a fault at the primary. This
only applies to cable-connected systems where the metallic sheaths of the cables are bonded
to earth at both ends. The rise of earth potential of each primary substation should be assessed
and in the case of hot sites, the risks involved in either bonding or not bonding the cable sheaths
at the primary end should be compared.

Regarding transferred potentials between distribution substations, the RoEP of one distribution
substation cannot be made worse by interconnecting it with another on the same ring. This
means that hot and cold sites can be interconnected without compromising the safety of the
cold sites.

Transferred potentials from HV to LV systems are controlled by always placing LV earth

electrodes outside the hot zone formed by the 430V contour around a hot site.

On an LV system, there are essentially 2 sources of electric shock hazard:

1. Earth fault on HV system

2. Earth fault on LV system

The RoEP from an HV fault should not exceed 430V for either a hot or cold site as shown in
Figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2. Clearly the RoEP from an LV fault cannot exceed 415/√3 = 240V.

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Figure 8.1 – LV System – cold site

DISTRIBUTION CONSUMER’S
SUBSTATION INSTALLATION

HV LV

RoEP < 430V

Figure 8.2 – LV System – hot site

DISTRIBUTION CONSUMER’S
SUBSTATION INSTALLATION

HV LV

RoEP > 430V RoEP < 430V

Local earth electrodes on LV systems contribute to safety by reducing the touch voltages due
to substation HV earth faults. Even though such voltages should be below 430V it is clearly
beneficial to minimise them.

For hot sites, any metallic services going off-site must be interrupted by insulating barriers or
isolation transformers to prevent transferred potentials. This is to prevent the propagation of
any transferred potentials across the hot zone boundary. For example:

 Copper telecommunications circuits should include an isolation transformer.

 Pipelines should include a joint with insulation between the flanges.

8.4 Earth Electrodes

Each site shall be provided with an earth electrode system, the function which is to safely
conduct the earth return current in the event of an HV earth fault. The earth electrode system
shall take the form of buried horizontal bare conductors, and/or vertical rods.

The design of an earth electrode system depends on the following factors:

 Maximum earth fault current and duration

 Soil resistivity
 Site area
 Method of earthing of off-site cables and lines
The preliminary layout for a large substation normally consists of a perimeter conductor plus a
rough mesh covering the area of the substation and rods spaced round the perimeter if
appropriate (i.e. underlying low resistivity soil layer). If the site is hot by a small margin, it may
be possible to reduce the RoEP sufficiently to make it cold by adding further mesh or rods.

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Standard designs are provided in this document for the most common types of distribution
substation.

Vertical rods may be either directly driven into the soil or inserted in pre-drilled holes and
backfilled. The maximum length of driven rod to avoid bending is approximately 5m.

In general, deep earth rods (drilled) are preferred for the following reasons:

a) They are the most effective solution where there is an underlying low resistivity soil
layer.

b) They can be backfilled with conductive concrete and thus prevent corrosion.

c) They are the only way to reduce the area of the earthing system where space is
restricted.

The reason for using deep earth rods is to minimise the earth electrode resistance within a
limited surface area. A horizontal mesh would produce the same result but would occupy a
much larger area. For 15m earth rods, separation distances below 30m can be used but the
resulting design will be less economic - i.e. more rods will be needed to achieve the same
resistance. An absolute minimum separation of 15m is recommended in this case.

The standard distribution substation designs provided in this document are based on deep rods.
The rod length and the separation distance between rods depends on the soil model as follows:

 In soils types 1, 3, 5 and 6 (no low-resistivity lower layer), the rod length shall be 15m
and the separation shall be 30m

 In soils types 2 and 4 (with a low-resistivity lower layer), the rod length shall be equal
to the upper layer depth plus 5m and the separation shall be 10m

The depth of the top layer comes from the 2-layer soil model. 5m penetration into the lower
layer is specified in order to keep the area of the earth electrode system reasonably small.

The total number of rods is site-dependent. The earth electrode resistance shall be measured
progressively and rods added as necessary to bring it down to the specified value. In special
circumstances, longer rods may be used. Note that the longer the rods, the smaller the overall
area required.

Driven rods may be used for LV earth electrodes and for overhead line poles in low resistivity
soils. However, note that they may be subject to corrosion. For driven rods, copper-bonded
steel should be used in preference to copper-clad or copper-sheathed steel. In particularly
corrosive soils, solid copper rods should be used. Tinning is not appropriate.

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8.5 Bonding of Above-ground Items

Exposed-conductive parts of all electrical equipment shall be bonded to the

site earth electrode system. Bonding conductors for major equipment are in
general bolted type. Hence, while sizing, derating factor as per IEEE 80 for bolted
connections should be taken care of.

Each major item of equipment shall be bonded via two 100% rated conductors
normally connected to opposite sides of the component. Major items comprise
the following:-

 HV and LV switchgear

 Transformers

 Reactors

 Generators

All accessible extraneous-conducting parts shall also be bonded to the site earth electrode
system either directly or via other conducting parts. Systems whose components are joined
together by metal-to-metal joints may be regarded as electrically continuous. Long systems
should be bonded at intervals of approximately 50m. Extraneous-conducting parts include the
following:

 Steel structures

 Concrete re-bar

 Cable support systems

 Metallic piping services

 Metallic fences, gates and doors

8.6 Lightning Protection

Lightning protection systems shall comply with BS EN 62305-3 [14].

As a general rule lightning protection and power system earthing should share a common earth
electrode.

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9 PRIMARY SUBSTATIONS

9.1 General

This section applies to 33kV primary substations supplied at 132kV or 220kV from Transco,
including package units and custom-designed substations.

9.2 Earth Electrode Systems

Each substation shall have a buried earth electrode system.

The system shall consist of horizontal (grid) conductors, tails to above ground equipment, and
where necessary, earth rods.

The system shall be laid out to avoid all foundations.

The substation site fence shall be either:

a) Bonded to the main earthing system

b) Isolated from the main earthing system and separated from it by at least 2m

The preferred option is to bond the fence to the substation earth electrode system. If this is
impracticable, the fence shall be separately earthed.

9.3 Earthing Studies

An earthing study shall be carried out for each substation. These studies shall be carried out
using approved earthing design software that can handle a 2-layer soil model.

The appropriate soil model for a particular site depends on the site measurements. All soil
modelling is an approximation. In general, a 2-layer soil model is sufficiently accurate. However,
small improvements in the accuracy of the modelling may be obtained by the use of more than
2 layers in some cases. The preferred method is to use a 2-layer model (see section 8.1).

Earth fault current division calculations shall be carried out using approved software that can
model overhead line or cable systems as appropriate.

The earthing system shall be designed to give safe touch voltages at all points within 1 metre
of accessible metalwork, and safe step voltages at all points inside and outside the substation
boundary.

Allowance shall be made for the following alternative surface layers:

 Normal soil

 Tarmac (roads and footpaths)

 Crushed rock (substation)

Concrete floors shall be assumed to be equipotential surfaces, due to the presence of

reinforcing steel, which will be bonded to the earth grid.

Each study shall include the following steps:

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 1. Carry out soil resistivity survey

2. Establish 2-layer soil model (more than 2 layers may used if appropriate)

3. Model proposed earth electrode system in software

4. Calculate earth electrode resistance

5. Obtain supply circuit modelling data

6. Establish worst case fault type and location

7. Carry out earth fault current division calculation for each supply source

8. Determine maximum earth electrode current and RoEP

9. If site is cold, the study is complete.

10. If the site is hot, plot touch and step voltages and check against appropriate limits

11. If touch and step voltages are within limits, plot hot zone boundary contour – the study
is then complete.

12. If the touch or step voltages exceed the limits, modify the design and repeat steps 3-
11

The worst case fault type and location should be established using fault current studies as
detailed in section 6.5.

The study results shall be recorded in a report including the following, as appropriate:

 Derivation of soil model

 Proposed earthing system layout

 Earth electrode resistance

 Fault current division calculations

 Computed site rise of earth potential

 Computed step and touch voltage plots

 Hot zone boundary contour plot

As an example of current division for a 132kV substation supplied by single core cables, if the
earth fault current at the substation under study is 27kA and the current reduction factor is 0.16
(16%), the earth electrode current will be 4.32kA.

A hot zone contour plot for a distribution substation is shown in Figure 9.1.

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Figure 9.1 – Typical Hot Zone Contour Plot

9.4 Construction

The relevant clauses in Section 10.6 shall apply.

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10 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS

10.1 General

This section applies to ground-mounted substations. Substations supplied from pole-mounted

transformers are covered in section 11.

Distribution substations are normally connected in the form of open rings supplied from one or
more primary substations

Substations can be categorised as follows:

a) Interconnected cable fed substation with the cable sheaths bonded back to the primary

b) Isolated line fed substations or cable fed without continuous bonding of the sheaths

The earthing system design is highly influenced by whether the substation is a hot or cold site.
The criteria for a cold site are as follows in accordance with ENA TS 41-24 [7]:

1. The substation earth electrode resistance shall be ≤ 1Ω for 11kV substations.

2. The substation earth electrode resistance shall be ≤ 0.5Ω for 22kV substations.

3. The RoEP shall be ≤ 430V

Substations shall be designed to be cold sites wherever possible. However, the above criteria
may not be practically achievable for interconnected sites on soils types 4 and above or on
isolated sites on soils type 2 and above. Where cold site status is not achievable, sites may still
be interconnected.

The target values of earth electrode resistance are as follows:

 ≤1Ω to achieve cold site status for 11kV cabled distribution substations with the screens
etc bonded back to the primary
 ≤0.5Ω to achieve cold site status for 22kV cabled distribution substations with the screens
etc bonded back to the primary
 The values listed in Table 10.1, Table 10.2 and Table 10.3 for the HV earth electrode of
hot sites
 ≤10Ω for all the HV earth electrode of all other distribution substation sites
 ≤40Ω (≤20Ω if possible) for the LV earth electrode for hot sites
 ≤10Ω (where possible) for distribution pillars and service turrets

Standard earthing block diagrams for hot and cold sites are included in Appendix A. The only
requirement for the location of the LV electrode is that it shall be outside the hot zone, as stated
in section 6.3.

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10.2 Standard Designs

Standard conceptual designs have been developed for the following substation types:

 Package unit substations

 Brick built substations

 Ground-mounted transformers

For each type of substation, one or more basic layouts are provided. The length of the earth
rods is determined by the soil type. The basic layout should then be augmented by additional
rods interconnected by horizontal conductors, until the required value of earth electrode
resistance is reached. The rods may be positioned in a straight line or in 2 or 3 lines at 90
degrees, depending on the site constraints. For hot sites, the required separation distance
between the HV and LV electrodes is specified. Additional HV earth rods should not be located
on the same side of the substation as the LV electrode. For some hot sites, a layer of tarmac
around the substation is also specified, to allow for higher touch and step voltages.

In the following sections, the requirements for the application of the standard designs are
specified. For each soil type, the maximum number of earth rods is indicated. If this number of
rods is installed, the stated earth electrode resistance will be achieved, even with the maximum
values of soil resistivity for the soil type. In practice, with lower values of soil resistivity fewer
rods will normally be required.

The following notes explain the table titles:

 Soil type standard soil model – see section 8.1

 Conn./Isol. Interconnected or isolated

 Max rods Maximum number of rods required

 Rod length Length required to achieve stated resistance (d = depth of top

soil layer)

 Target resistance Maximum permissible earth electrode resistance

 Max RoEP Maximum permissible rise of earth potential

 HV/LV separation Minimum permissible distance between HV and LV electrodes

All substation cases not included in the tables below will require special studies, as defined for
primary substations (section 9 above).

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10.2.1 Package Unit Substations

This section covers substations enclosed in cabins up to 4.2m x 2.6m. The basic layout is a
buried horizontal conductor enclosing the cabin and positioned 2m outside it (Figure 10.1). This
conductor shall be connected to the earth bar inside the cabin via two further buried conductors,
rising up in a protected location underneath the cabin. The requirements for the various soil
types are tabulated below. Two alternatives are provided for type 3 soil.

Table 10.1 – Standard designs for package unit substations

Soil Conn/ Max Rod Target Max HV/LV Hot/cold Comment

Type Isol Rods length resistance RoEP separation site
m Ω V m
1 Conn. 0 1 430 N/A Cold
2 Conn. 3 d+5 1 430 N/A Cold
3 Conn. 7 15 1 430 N/A Cold
3 Conn. 2 15 4.6 865 4 Hot Tarmac 2m round PUS
4 Conn. 3 d+5 8.6 1,111 4 Hot Tarmac 2m round PUS
5 Conn. 7 15 10 1,199 10 Hot Tarmac 2m round PUS
1 Isol. 13 15 0.1 1,814 30 Hot Tarmac 2m round PUS

Figure 10.1 Basic earthing layout for package unit substation

An example of a special study for an isolated substation is included in section 10.7 below.

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 10.2.2 Brick-built Substations

This section covers substations enclosed in masonry buildings measuring 8m x 9m, 6m x 10m
and 5m x 12m. The basic layout is a buried horizontal conductor enclosing the building and
positioned 2m outside it (Figure 10.2). This conductor shall be connected to the earth bar inside
the cabin via two further buried conductors, entering the substation cable void. The
requirements for the various soil types are tabulated below. Two alternatives are provided for
type 3 soil.

Table 10.2 – Standard designs for brick-built substations

Soil Conn/ Max Rod Target Max HV/LV Hot/cold Comment

Type Isol Rods length resistance RoEP separation site
m Ω V m
1 Conn. 0 1 430 N/A Cold
2 Conn. 3 d+5 1 430 N/A Cold
3 Conn. 7 15 1 430 N/A Cold
3 Conn. 2 15 4.6 865 4 Hot Tarmac 2m round building
4 Conn. 3 d+5 3.5 739 3 Hot Tarmac 2m round building
5 Conn. 7 15 7.6 993 4 Hot Tarmac 2m round building
1 Isol. 6 15 0.11 2,057 30 Hot Tarmac 2m round building

Figure 10.2 Basic earthing layout for brick-built substation

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10.2.3 Ground-mounted Transformers

This section covers outdoor transformers and switchgear enclosed in a fenced compound
measuring 8m x 5m. It is impractical to lay tarmac in and around the compound.

Three basic layouts are provided:

1. buried horizontal conductor 2m inside the fence (Figure 10.3)

2. 12m x 20m buried grid (Figure 10.4)

3. 20m x 30m buried grid (Figure 10.5)

The buried conductors shall be connected directly to the above-ground equipment via spur
conductors. The requirements for the various soil types are tabulated below. Two alternatives
are provided for type 3 soil.

Table 10.3 – Standard designs for ground-mounted transformers

Soil Layout Conn/ Max Rod Target Max HV/LV Hot/cold

Type type Isol Rods length resistance RoEP separation site
m Ω V m
1 1 Conn. 0 1 430 N/A Cold
2 1 Conn. 2 d+5 1 430 N/A Cold
3 3 Conn. 6 15 1 430 N/A Cold
3 2 Conn. 0 15 3.2 663 2 Hot
4 2 Conn. 6 d+5 5.0 869 6 Hot
5 3 Conn. 6 15 9.1 1,076 15 Hot
1 3 Isol. 6 15 0.08 1,619 40 Hot

1. Figure 10.3 – Basic earthing layout for ground-mounted transformer (type 1)

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Figure 10.4 – Basic earthing layout for ground-mounted transformer (type 2)

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Figure 10.5 – Basic earthing layout for ground-mounted transformer (type 3)

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10.3 Interconnection of HV and LV systems

10.3.1 Cold sites

At cold sites (Figure 8.2), the HV and LV earthing systems shall be bonded together. This
means that transformer LV neutrals do not require separate earth electrodes but shall be
bonded to the substation common earthing system. The preferred location for this connection
is a link between the earth bar and neutral bar within the LV switchboard. The link shall be
clearly marked with a danger label reading “do not remove”.

The sheaths of LV cables shall be bonded to the earth bar of the switchboard where they are
terminated (see Appendix A).

10.3.2 Hot sites

At hot sites (Figure 8.1) the HV and LV earthing systems shall be isolated from each other. All
buried parts of the respective earth electrode systems shall be separated by the specified
distance. All above ground parts shall be separated by at least 2m.

Each transformer LV neutral shall be connected to a separate earth electrode, which shall have
an earth electrode resistance of not greater than 40Ω (20Ω is preferred, if this is achievable).
The preferred connection method is from the LV switchboard neutral bar (see Appendix A).

The sheaths of LV cables shall be bonded to the neutral bar of the switchboard where they are
terminated. The neutral bar shall be insulated from the panel steelwork by insulators rated for
5kV and fitted with a danger label reading “possible high voltage”.

The earth bars of LV switchboards shall be bonded to the substation HV earthing system

Each LV switchboard shall be fitted with a residual current protection relay taking its input from
a core balance CT, arranged to trip the main incoming circuit breaker in the event of an earth
fault on the switchboard. The core balance CT must enclose the 3 phase conductors and
neutral. The settings should be 1-2.5A and 5-10s. The relay shall be set as follows:

 Primary operating current 2.5A

 Time delay 5-10s

10.4 Substations in Customers’ Premises

10.4.1 General

Because of their situation, these substations must be cold sites. It is not practical to segregate
the HV and LV earthing systems.

In buildings where foundation piles are not connected to the earthing system, normally the only
area available for siting earth electrodes is the strip of pavement in front of the building. In these
cases, it is possible to achieve an earth electrode resistance of 1Ω in soils types 1, 2 and
possibly 3, depending on the exact soil model and the area available.

If piles are present, it is recommended to use the piles as an earth electrode i.e. to bond them
to the earthing system. The advantage of bonding the piles is that it will reduce the earth
electrode resistance. The disadvantage is that it will require some extra engineering work at
the early part of the project. It will normally be possible to achieve 1Ω in soils types 1, 2, 3 or 4,
depending on the number of piles and the building footprint area. It will normally only be
necessary to connect a portion of the piles, which should be considered as earth rods regarding

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the optimum spacing. A study shall be carried out to determine which piles to connect to the
earthing system. The earth electrode resistance of the piles shall be calculated, based on the
pile dimensions and the site soil model, taking account of the proximity effect (see Appendix
C1 for example). Alternatively, the earth electrode system including some of the piles can be
modelled using earthing design software and the resistance calculated (see Appendix C2 for
example). The number of piles to connect can be optimised by trial and error until the required
resistance is obtained.

Connections to the re-bar of reinforced concrete piles shall be made before the concrete is
poured. Tails may be left for later connection to the earthing system. Inspection pits are not
required for bonded piles.

Measurement of earth electrode resistance should be as detailed in section 12.3. The test
electrodes must be placed outside the earth electrode system to be measured i.e. outside the
basement.

10.4.2 High Rise Buildings

This section applies to buildings where distribution substations are located at levels above the
ground floor. In these buildings, the foundation piles shall be used as an earth electrode system,
reinforced if necessary with additional conductors. An earthing ring shall be provided in the
basement or on the ground floor for the connection of the piles.

Each distribution substation (ADDC or customer owned) shall be fitted with an earth bar. Each
substation earth bar shall be connected to the basement ring via duplicate conductors. These
conductors may be standard types, as defined in section 7, or building structural members,
including re-bar. If building structural members are used, the current carrying capacity shall be
calculated and shall be shown to be greater than the maximum HV fault current. Measures shall
be provided to ensure the continuity of the conductors. Use of building structural members for
earthing is subject to conditions in Clause 6.4.8 of Electricity Wiring Regulations.

HV cables supplying distribution substations directly from the ADDC system shall comply with
ADDC standards. Other HV cables within customers’ systems shall be fitted with fully rated
earth return conductors.

Each LV neutral shall be connected to the substation earth bar, preferably via the LV
switchboard earth bar. Every LV circuit shall be fitted with an earth conductor in accordance
with The Electricity Wiring Regulations [13].

Lightning protection systems shall comply with BS EN 62305-3 [14] . The earth electrode
system formed by the building piles shall be used as the earth termination i.e. a common
earth electrode system shall be used for power systems and lightning protection.
Dedicated lightning down conductors shall be provided in the form of separate
conductors . Building structural members (e.g. steel columns, framing systems,
concrete re-bar) may be used subject to ADDC review and approval as specified in
Clause 6.8.4 of Electricity Wiring Regulations

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10.5 Test Facilities

10.5.1 Earth bars

Each indoor substation shall be fitted with an earth bar for marshalling/test purposes (see
section 7 above and Appendix A).

The earth bar shall be divided into 2 sections by a bolted link. The connections to the earth bar
shall be as follows:

Section 1

Buried earth electrode system (2 connections)

Structural steel

Concrete re-bar

Other steelwork

Section 2

HV switchboards (2 connections)

LV switchboards (2 connections

Transformer tanks

Other electrical equipment

The earth cables connecting electrical equipment to the earth bar shall be PVC sheathed, to
prevent inadvertent contact with other parts of the earthing system.

The earth bar link shall be closed at all times except during testing and shall be fitted with a
danger label reading “do not remove”.

Outdoor substations (ground-mounted transformers) shall not be fitted with earth bars because
of the dangers of theft and corrosion. Each above-ground item shall be directly connected to
the buried earth electrode system.

10.5.2 Inspection pits

Each earth rod associated with a substation shall be terminated in an inspection pit, to allow
the visual inspection of the rod and connections and the periodic testing of the rod.

Earth rods associated with overhead line poles shall not be fitted with inspection pits because
of the danger of theft.

10.6 Construction

10.6.1 Earth electrodes

Rods above 5m length shall be installed in drilled holes. The rods shall be terminated in
inspection pits. The drilled holes shall be 100mm diameter. The rod shall be inserted into the
hole and the hole shall be backfilled with a conductive concrete slurry. In low resistivity soils

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(types 1 and 2), which are liable to be corrosive, the rods shall be fitted with centring rings at
every 1m before inserting in the hole and backfilling. The arrangement is shown in Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6 - Drilled Earth Rod with Inspection Pit

Rods below 5m length shall be direct driven except in soil type 1, where they shall be installed
in drilled holes as a corrosion protection measure. For driven rods, the separation distance
between rods shall be 1 to 2 times the rod length (mean length in the case of rods of different
lengths).

All buried horizontal conductors except for operators’ earth mats shall be laid at a minimum
depth of 0.5m. The conductors shall be surrounded by at least 150mm of local soil of fine
texture, firmly compacted. Concrete anchors shall be cast around the conductors at 2m
intervals to deter theft. Plastic warning tape shall be laid approximately 0.3m above the
conductors. The arrangement is shown in Figure 10.7.

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Figure 10.7 - Horizontal Conductor in Soil

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Where conductive concrete backfill is specified, the trench shall be 0.3m wide and the concrete
shall be laid over the conductor to a depth of 0.1m – see Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8 - Horizontal conductor in Conductive Concrete

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At each point where horizontal buried conductors intersect, a joint shall be made. Tee joints
shall be made where above-ground conductors are bonded to horizontal buried conductors –
see Figure 10.9. All underground earthing joints shall be brazed or exothermically welded.
Bolted joints in inspection pits shall be wrapped in petrolatum tape.

Figure 10.9 - Buried Grid

10.6.2 Above-ground earthing systems

The conductors used for all above-ground connections to electrical equipment shall be
green/yellow PVC sheathed. Connections to extraneous conductive parts may be bare or PVC
sheathed. The conductors shall be clipped to cable tray/ladder or direct to steelwork or walls.

Earth bars shall be installed in protected locations (e.g. inside substations) where they are
secure from theft. They shall be mounted horizontally on a vertical wall or structural element.

Connections to earth bars or equipment enclosures shall be by brazed or crimped lugs, bolted
to the earth bar or enclosure. Connections to other components such as pipes, steelwork etc
shall be by suitably shaped proprietary clamps. Outdoor joints shall be coated with a Bitumastic
paint or wrapped with petrolatum tapes to prevent ingress of moisture.

Cable armour shall be terminated in one of the following ways:

a) In a cable gland to ensure continuity to the switchboard enclosure

b) In an earthing clamp, bonded to the switchboard earth bar

HV cable screens and interstitial cores shall be bonded to the switchboard earth bar using
conductors sized in accordance with section 7.1.2. A local earth block may be used where
convenient to connect together the bonds from the different components. The earth block
should be insulated from the switchboard enclosure. A common bonding cable is then
connected to the switchgear earth bar. A typical arrangement for an HV termination is shown
in Figure 10.10.

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Figure 10.10 – HV Cable Sheath Bonding

LV cable armour at cold sites shall be bonded to the switchboard earth bar.

For LV cables at hot sites, insulating glands or earthing clamps shall be used and the cable
armour shall be bonded directly to the switchboard neutral bar using a conductor sized in
accordance with section 7.1.2. All parts of the cable armour and bonding conductor must be
insulated from the switchboard enclosure.

10.6.3 Fences and gates

All metallic fencing shall be bonded directly to the underground earthing system unless
otherwise specified. Fencing shall be bonded at all corners and at 50m intervals. Underground
earth bonding connections shall be provided between gate posts, and between the posts of any
removable section of fence.

Any gates with electric actuators shall be bonded to their gateposts at top and bottom by means
of flexible bonds.

If separate bonding of the perimeter fence is specified, a separation distance of at least 2m

shall be maintained between all uninsulated parts of the main earthing system and that of the
fence. Any main earthing conductors that cross the fence must be insulated from the
surrounding soil for a distance of 2m either side of the fence.

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Two examples of fence bonding arrangements applicable to ground mounted transformers or
primary substations are shown in Figure 10.11 and Figure 10.12.

Figure 10.11 – Fence Bonded to Grid

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Figure 10.12 – Separately Earthed Fence

The following notes apply to Figure 10.11 and Figure 10.12:

 The earth grid design relative to the fence layout must be confirmed in a study.
 The grid conductor size shall be in accordance with Table 7.3 and Table 5.2.
 Fence bonding conductors shall be ≥ 50mm2 in accordance with section 7.1.3.

In the case of a distribution substation, if the site is hot and the fence is to be bonded to the
substation earthing system (rather than separately earthed), it must be bonded to the HV earth
electrode.

10.6.4 Surface coverings

Tarmac, where specified shall be laid to a minimum depth of 0.1m. The surface shall have slight
fall away from the substation to prevent the formation of puddles.

Stone chippings, where specified shall be laid minimum depth of 0.1m. The material shall be
screened, 50mm minimum size and washed. The resistivity must be not less than 2000Ωm
under wet conditions. This is a typical minimum figure for limestone. Most rock will have a higher
resistivity than this but if in doubt, laboratory tests should be carried out on samples of the
material.

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10.7 Example of Special Study

An example study has been carried out for an 11kV isolated (i.e. line-fed) package unit
substation. The details are as follows:

 Line length 10km

 Conductor type poplar
 Soil model ρ1 = 10,000 Ωm, d = 10m, ρ2 = 10 Ωm

Stage 1 assessment

The earth fault current at the substation site was calculated to be 860A. To achieve a RoEP of
430V would require an earth electrode resistance of 0.5Ω, which is not practicable in this case
(type 2 soil). The site was therefore classified as hot.

Stage 2 assessment

The study was carried out using CDEGS software. In order to keep the touch voltage below the
limit for tarmac (475V) and the step voltage below the safe limit for normal soil (315V with no
high-resistivity surface layer), it was found necessary to install a buried conductor 2m from the
substation plus four 15m earth rods spaced 30m apart. The calculation results are shown in
Table 10.4. The basic layout is shown in Figure 10.1. The software results are shown in
Appendix D.

Table 10.4 – special study for isolated package substation

Job ID Soil Description Rod Re Ie RoEP Hot Comment

type length zone
extent
m Ω A V m
PUS-1-ISOc 2 Ring plus 4 15 2.1 744 1560 16 Hot site
rods

10.8 LV Systems

Transformer neutrals shall be earthed as follows:

 At cold sites, they shall be bonded to the HV earthing system

 At hot sites, they shall be bonded to a separate earth electrodes located outside the
hot zone
LV multicore cable armour shall be bonded at both ends. At substations that are hot sites, it
shall be bonded to the switchboard neutral bar; at all other locations it shall be bonded to the
earth bar.

Each distribution pillar and service turret shall be bonded to its own earth electrode using CCS
cable.

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Target values of earth electrode resistance are given in section 10.1 above. As a guide, the
resistance of a single rod will be not greater than the values shown in Table 8.5 for the soil
types indicated.

Table 10.5 – Resistance of single rod

Soil Rod Length

Type
1 2 3 4 5
1 8.2 Ω 4.6 Ω 3.3 Ω 2.6 Ω 2.1 Ω
3 82 Ω 46 Ω 33 Ω 26 Ω 21 Ω

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11 OVERHEAD LINES

11.1 OHL tower earthing

11.1.1 General rules

Preliminary soil resistivity measurements along each line route typically at the same time as
the soil survey investigation shall be carried out. The number and location of test points shall
comply with proposed tower coordinates. The four point Wenner method (see Figure 12.4) shall
be used. Other methods of testing shall only be used with the prior agreement of ADDC.

The electrical footing resistance to earth of each tower shall be measured before the earth
conductors are erected. These measurements shall be recorded in the form of a tower footing
earth resistance profile of an approved type.

Touch and step voltages at towers can be expected to exceed the safe limits but it is not
normally required to correct this by earthing design. However, in the case of often-frequented
towers, individual studies should be carried out and appropriate safety measures applied to
protect workers and the public. These could include:

 Fencing off, using a non-conducting fence

 Applying insulation to the tower legs (e.g. 3M epoxy resin)
 Laying of high resistivity material on the soil (e.g. tarmac)

In the case of applied insulation coatings, the manufacturer should be consulted regarding
electrical properties and application methods.

11.1.2 Earthing materials

The following materials shall be used:

- Earthing rods shall be made of copper clad steel, with a minimum diameter of 17.2mm
and minimum length of 3m. There shall be provision for coupling rods to extend their
length if necessary. A bronze or brass bolted clamp shall be provided for connection
of earthing cables to the earthing rods. At least 3 layers of petrolatum tape shall be
applied over the bolted connection.

- Earthing cables (counterpoise) shall be of stranded copper clad steel cable (CCS 40%)
50mm2 or equivalent.

- Connection of the counterpoise to the tower steelwork shall be on the tower stub at
least 500 mm above the foundation surface by means of a compressed lug and two
galvanized bolts and nuts, washers and spring washer. The minimum diameter of the
bolts shall be 12 mm. The holes in the leg/stub steelwork shall be factory drilled prior
to galvanizing.

- The earthing counterpoise shall pass through the concrete chimney via an encased,
flexible PVC pipe and exit from the chimney at the required depth. On completion of
the earthing installation the PVC pipe entry shall be filled with a cement mortar mix or
grout.

- The depths of the upper ends of earthing rods and the depth of burial of earthing cables
shall not be less than the following values:

- Cultivated (soft) soil 800 mm

- Normal soil 500 mm

- Rocky ground 150 mm

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- Where drilling or augering methods are used for installing the earth rods, the holes
shall be back-filled with bentonite or conductive concrete.

- For all types of earthing system, each section of earthing cable shall be separately
bolted to the tower so that it can, if required, be disconnected for the purpose of earth
resistance measurements.

- At each tower connected to an earthing system, the electrical footing resistance to

earth with the system connected shall be measured. The measurements shall also be
in the tower footing earth resistance profile and kept available for reference.

- The terminal towers shall be connected to the substation earthing grid.

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Figure 11.1 – Typical tower counterpoise installation

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11.1.3 Basic earthing types

In the case of “in situ cast pile” tower foundations the basic earthing installation shall consist of
counterpoise cable connected to two diagonally opposite tower legs, passing through the whole
concrete pile via an encased, flexible PVC pipe. At the bottom of the pile the counterpoise shall
be terminated by several loops of cable (about 10m length). Additional earthing, where required,
shall consist of additional counterpoise cable attached to either two diagonally opposite legs or
all four tower legs, terminated by copper clad earthing rods. The counterpoise cable above the
ground shall be covered by PVC tube.

In the case of “pad and chimney” foundations, every tower shall be fitted with earthing on two
diagonally opposed legs. The earthing rods, one per leg, shall be connected to the tower legs
by an earthing counterpoise cable (Type A).

Where the measured tower footing resistance is greater than 10 ohms the earthing shall be
enhanced using one of the systems detailed below.

 Installation of earthing rods as described above but with one rod and earthing
counterpoise cable connected to each of the four tower legs (Type B).

 Installation of earthing rods as described above but with each rod being
extended in depth (Type C).

Alternatively, additional earthing rods can be connected via additional counterpoise cables. The
number and depth of rods required to achieve 10Ω depends on the soil resistivity and can be
estimated as follows:

Soil type No of rods Rod length (m) Spacing (m)

Min Max
1 2 2 3 6
Upper layer
2 2 2 depth + 1 6
3 2 2 6 12
Upper layer
4 2 3 depth + 5 10
5 2 7 15 30

The rods may be installed in a straight line or in 2, 3, or 4 lines at right angles (crow’s foot
arrangement) according to the site constraints.

In specific soils where normal earthing methods cannot provide sufficient reduction in
resistance, subject to approval of the ADDC , special measures and methods (deep grounding,
counterpoise connection to the adjacent tower, earth conductivity improving chemicals etc.)
may used.

Basic earthing types schematics are shown in Figure 9.2

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Figure 11.2 – Basic earthing types

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11.1.4 Alternative earthing types for non rocky ground

Every tower shall be fitted with earthing on two diagonally opposed legs. The counterpoise
cable, one per leg, shall be laid longitudinally to centreline at a depth not less than 800mm to a
distance of 30m from the footing and shall be connected to the tower legs (Type A Alternative).

Where the measured tower footing resistance is greater than 10 ohms the earthing shall be
enhanced using one of the systems detailed below.

 Installation as described above, but with 60m of counterpoise cable connected

to two diagonally opposed tower legs (Type B Alternative). This type of earthing
system shall be used in rocky soil where type A Alternative earthing does not
provide adequate earthing.

 Installation of counterpoise cable as described above but, with 90m

counterpoise cable connected to two diagonally opposed tower legs (Type C
Alternative). This earthing system shall generally be used where the ground
conditions are not favourable and rocky.

Alternatively, an additional 60m counterpoise cable shall be connected to each of other two
diagonally opposed tower legs.

In specific soils where normal earthing methods cannot provide sufficient reduction in
resistance, subject to approval of ADDC, special measures and methods (deep grounding,
counterpoise connection to the adjacent tower, earth conductivity improving chemicals etc.), ,
may be used.

Alternative earthing type schematics are shown in Figure 11.3.

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Figure 11.3 – Alternative earthing types

11.1.5 Earthing of over-sailed metal objects

Metal roofs of existing buildings constructed within 30 m of the centre of the lattice steel tower
line shall be securely earthed. A minimum of two earth connections shall be made to opposite
sides of the roofs by means of earthing (counterpoise) cable, which shall be led down the sides

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of the building to earth. The earthing cable shall be securely fixed in cleats to the sides of the
buildings and not less than 2 m of the cable shall be buried in the ground at a depth of at least
800 mm.

All metallic fences both new and existing, which cross under, or which are located near and
parallel to the transmission line shall be earthed as follows:

 One earthing rod shall be used to ground each 100 m of fence that is
parallel to and within 50 m of the centre line of the transmission line. One
earthing rod shall be used on each side of the right of way to earth fences
crossing under the line.

 Earthing rods, to which the fence wires shall be bonded, shall be driven to
a depth of not less than 1.5 m. All metallic fence gates within the right of
way shall be electrically bonded to the fences.

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11.2 Use of earth wires on overhead lines

To improve the lightning performance of the tall lattice steel tower overhead lines it is
recommended to install either one OPGW or one aluminium clad steel earth conductor
oversailing the phases.

To achieve acceptable lightning performance (<1 fault/100km/year) requires an average

Footing Resistance to Earth (FRE) = 10Ω or FRE combination equal to that value.

At suspension towers the earth conductor suspension clamp shall be securely bonded to the
tower steelwork by means of a multistrand aluminium flexible bond wire having a cross-
sectional area adequate to carry the current of 31.5 kA (25kA if 11kV) for not less than one
second.

The bond shall be terminated with compression lugs and shall not interfere with the suspension
clamp movement.

Figure 11.4 – suspension tower bonding – OPGW example

At tension towers the earth conductor clamps shall each be securely bonded to the tower
steelwork by means of suitable lengths of multistrand aluminium flexible bond wires having a
cross-sectional area adequate to carry the current of 31.5 kA (25kA if 11kV) for not less than
one second. The bond shall be terminated with compression lugs.

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Figure 11.5 – Tension tower bonding – OPGW example

33kV and 11kV swaged or folded steel poles with above ground height not more than 14m will
not benefit from an oversailing earthwire. The absence of an earthwire, provided that the footing
resistance is kept equal to or below 10Ω, will not significantly increase the back flashover
performance.

For cases with a persistently high back flashover fault rate, an alternative arrangement using
line surge arresters may be used.

33kV and 11kV wood and concrete poles with above ground heights of not more than 14m and
no earthing will benefit from a natural high value of basic insulation level and consequent
lightning impulse withstand voltage and the absence of earthwire will have no or insignificant
impact on the lightning performance of such a line.

11.2.1 Pole top fires on wood poles

A pole fire is caused by leakage current passing through a small area around the bolt in the
core of the pole (not creosoted and therefore liable to be moist) resulting in concentrated
overheating. All poles with high exposure to leakage currents (short creepage of insulators +
pollution) shall preferably be re-equipped with insulators having the minimum specified
creepage distance (Outdoor installations (Porcelain) 50mm/kV, Outdoor installations
(Composite) 40 mm/kV) ) and the following modification:

1) Connect all pin insulator spindles by simple galvanized flat tape or stranded conductor
(leak shunt cable)
2) Add grid gain washers (see Figure 9.6) under the crossarm bolts and strut holding
coach screws
3) Bring the combined leak shunt cables to the pole and fix between the coach screw
head and grid gain washer

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Figure 11.6 – Grid gain washer

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11.3 Earthing of wood, metal and concrete pole lines

11.3.1 Earthing materials general

The following materials or their equivalents shall be used:

- Earthing rods shall be made of copper clad steel, with a minimum diameter of 17.2mm
and minimum length of 3m. There shall be provision for coupling rods to extend their
length if necessary. A bronze or brass bolted clamp shall be provided for connection
of earthing cables to the earthing rods. At least 3 layers of petrolatum tape shall be
applied over the bolted connection. .

- Earthing cables (counterpoise) shall be of copper clad steel cable (40% CCS) 70mm 2
or equivalent.

- The depths of the upper ends of earthing rods and the depth of burial of earthing cables
shall not be less than the following values:

- Cultivated (soft) soil 800 mm

- Normal soil 500 mm

- Rocky ground 150 mm

- Where drilling or augering methods are used for installing the earth rods, the holes
shall be back-filled with bentonite or conductive concrete.

- For all types of earthing system, each section of earthing cable shall be separately
bolted to the pole so that it can, if required, be disconnected for the purpose of earth
resistance measurements.

- At each pole connected to an earthing system the electrical footing resistance to earth
with the system connected shall be measured.. The measurements shall also be
recorded as the pole footing earth resistance profile and shall be available for
reference.

- The terminal poles shall be connected to the substation earthing grid.

See section 11.1.1 above regarding special precautions at often-frequented poles.

11.3.2 Steel poles

33kV and 11kV swaged or folded steel poles shall be properly earthed in all circumstances.

The footing resistance shall be kept equal or below 10Ω. Stays, if used, shall not have insulators
installed.

Each pole shall be equipped with a M12 brass or phosphor bronze nut attached to the pole by
exothermic welding at least 300 mm above the foundation ground surface. For poles treated
with bitumen paint, the nut shall be attached at least 50mm above the edge of bitumen treated
surface. The nut shall preferably be attached in the factory during the pole manufacturing.
Poles attached to foundations via flanges and anchor bolts do not need to have the above
specified earthing terminal. A cable lug may be attached to the pole at the flange using a
phosphor bronze counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer to
replace the regular galvanized steel counter nut on any anchor bolt fixing point.

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Connection of the counterpoise to the pole shall be by means of a compressed copper lug and
one M12 brass bolt with tamper resistant hex or Torx head, one brass or phosphor bronze
counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer.
If the pole butt is encased in concrete the earthing counterpoise shall pass through the concrete
via a cast-in flexible PVC pipe and exit from the concrete at the required depth. On completion
of the earthing installation the PVC pipe entry shall be filled with a cement mortar mix or grout.

Figure 11.7 – Typical steel pole counterpoise installation

If the footing resistance of the pole exceeds 10Ω, earth rods interconnected via counterpoise
conductors shall be installed. The number and depth of rods required to achieve 10Ω depends
on the soil resistivity and can be estimated as follows:

Soil type No of rods Rod length (m) Spacing (m)

Min Max
1 none 1 3 6
Upper layer
2 none 1 depth + 1 6
3 1 1 6 12
Upper layer
4 1 3 depth + 5 10
5 1 7 15 30

The rods may be installed in a straight line or in 2, 3, or 4 lines at right angles (crow’s foot
arrangement) according to the site constraints. In the case of a pole mounted transformer, a
maximum of 3 lines at right angles shall be used.

In specific soils where normal earthing methods cannot provide sufficient reduction in
resistance, subject to approval of the Engineer, special measures and methods (deep
grounding, counterpoise connection to the adjacent pole, earth conductivity improving
chemicals etc.), may be used.

11.3.3 Wood or concrete poles

33kV and 11kV wood and concrete poles not carrying HV equipment, with above ground
heights of not more than 14m and no earthing will benefit from a natural high value of basic
insulation level and consequent lightning impulse withstand voltage and the absence of
earthwire will have no or insignificant impact on the lightning performance of such a line. For
that reason, these kinds of poles shall not be earthed.
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Stays, if used, shall have stay wire insulators installed.

Where earthing of HV equipment is specified, earth rods interconnected via counterpoise

conductors shall be installed. The earth electrode resistance shall be ≤ 10Ω. The number and
depth of rods required to achieve 10Ω depends on the soil resistivity and can be estimated as
follows:

Soil type No of rods Rod length (m) Spacing (m)

Min Max
1 1 1 3 6
Upper layer
2 1 1 depth + 1 6
3 1 1 6 12
Upper layer
4 1 3 depth + 5 10
5 1 7 15 30

The rods may be installed in a straight line or in 2, 3, or 4 lines at right angles (crow’s foot
arrangement) according to the site constraints. In the case of a pole mounted transformer or
manually operated switch, a maximum of 3 lines at right angles shall be used. A typical
arrangement is shown in Figure 9.8

In specific soils where normal earthing methods cannot provide sufficient reduction in
resistance, subject to approval of ADDC, special measures and methods (deep grounding,
counterpoise connection to the adjacent pole, earth conductivity improving chemicals etc.), may
be used.

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Figure 11.8 – Example of Pole Earthing

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11.4 Earthing of pole-mounted equipment

11.4.1 Pole mounted capacitor bank

Figure 11.9 – Typical wooden pole capacitor bank installation

11.4.1.1 Steel pole

Swaged or folded steel poles shall be earthed as described in 11.3 above.

A capacitor bank protective earth shall be attached to the holding crossarm using yellow/green
PVC covered 35mm2 copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer.

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The capacitor bank operational earth (star point) shall not be connected to the overall pole
earth and shall be installed using Yellow/GreenPVC covered copper clad steel stranded cable
not less than 50sqmm and attached to copper clad steel earthing rod (rods) installed separately
from the common steel pole earthing system. The separation between the capacitor bank star
point earth and the common steel pole earth shall be not less than 5 meters.

Surge arresters protecting the capacitor bank shall be attached to the holding crossarm using
bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze
bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be
earthed using the common steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

11.4.1.2 Concrete pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via a pole integrated earthing system and earthed
using a system identical to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above.

A capacitor bank protective earth shall be attached to the holding crossarm using yellow/green
PVC covered 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer.

The capacitor bank operational earth (star point) shall not be connected to overall pole earth
and shall be installed using yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad steel stranded cable of not
less than 50sqmm and attached to copper clad steel earthing rod (rods) installed separately
from the common concrete pole earthing system. The separation between the capacitor bank
star point earth and common steel pole earth shall be not less than 5 meters. The last three
meters above ground shall protected with UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

Surge arresters protecting the capacitor bank shall be attached to the holding crossarm using
bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze
bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be
earthed using the common pole earthing system.

11.4.1.3 Wooden pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via a common pole earthing system made of bare
copper clad steel stranded cable of not less than 50sqmm and earthed using a system identical
to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above. Earthing cable shall be attached to
the pole using galvanized or electro plated staples. The last three metres above ground shall
protected with UV resistant black HDPE pipe (see Figure 11.10).

A capacitor bank protective earth shall be attached to the holding crossarm using yellow/green
PVC covered 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer.

The capacitor bank operational earth (star point) shall not be connected to overall pole earth
and shall be installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad steel stranded cable of not
less than 50sqmm and attached to copper clad earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the
common concrete pole earthing system. The separation between the capacitor bank star point
earth and the common steel pole earth shall be not less than 5 meters. The last three metres
above ground shall protected with UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

Surge arresters protecting the capacitor bank shall be attached to the holding crossarm using
bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze
bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be
earthed using the common pole earthing system.

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Figure 11.10 – Typical earth conductor protection on wooden/concrete pole

11.4.2 Pole mounted autorecloser

This section also applies to any HV equipment operated via an earthed metallic control box
accessible from ground level.

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If the LV supply to the control box is derived from a dedicated transformer whose LV neutral is
earthed directly to the HV earthing system, the provisions of TS 41-24 section 15.4 shall be
applied to protect the operator from dangerous touch and step voltages.

For any pole mounted autorecloser which does not require an LV supply as detailed above, the
provisions of section 1.4.2.1 to 1.4.2.3 below shall be applied as shown in Figure 11.11 and
Figure 11.12.

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Figure 11.11 – Typical wooden pole autorecloser installation – front view

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Figure 11.12 – Typical wooden pole autorecloser installation – side view

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11.4.2.1 Steel pole

Swaged or folded steel poles shall be earthed as described in 11.3 above.

Surge arrester earths shall be attached to the autorecloser supporting bracket using bare
35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt,
nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed
the using common steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The autorecloser control box shall be insulated from the steel pole using appropriate rubber
inserts in the supporting brackets.

The control box protective earth shall not be connected to the overall pole earth and shall be
installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm
and attached to copper clad earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the common steel
pole earthing system. Separation between the protective earth and common steel pole earth
shall be not less than 5 metres.

Additional protection of operating personnel shall be provided either by the compulsory use of
dielectric (i.e. insulating) earth mats or by the installation of a protective earth mat. The
protective earth mat is made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor arranged as shown in Figure
11.11, installed no more than 30 cm below the ground surface and connected to the control
box protective earth.

11.4.2.2 Concrete pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the pole integrated earthing system and earthed
using a system identical to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above.

Surge arresters earths shall be attached to the autorecloser support bracket using bare
35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt,
nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed
using the integrated pole earthing system.

The control box protective earth shall not be connected to the overall pole earth and shall be
installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm
and attached to copper clad earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the integrated pole
earthing system. Separation between the protective earth and common integrated pole earth
shall be not less than 5 metres. The last three metres above ground shall protected using UV
resistant black HDPE pipe (see Figure 11.10).

Additional protection of operating personnel shall be provided either by the compulsory use of
dielectric earth mats or by the installation of a protective earth mat. The protective earth mat is
made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor arranged as shown in Figure 11.11, installed no more
than 30 cm below the ground surface and connected to the control box protective earth.

11.4.2.3 Wooden pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the common pole earthing system made of
bare copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm and earthed using a system identical
to the steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above. The earthing cable shall be
attached to the pole using galvanized or electro plated staples. The last three metres above
ground shall be protected using UV resistant black HDPE pipe (see Figure 11.10).

The control box protective earth shall not be connected to the overall pole earth and shall be
installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm
and attached to copper clad earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the common pole
earthing system. Separation between the protective earth and common pole earth shall be not

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less than 5 metres. The last three metres above ground shall be protected using UV resistant
black HDPE pipe (see Figure 11.10).

Additional protection of operating personnel shall be provided either by the compulsory use of
dielectric earth mats or by the installation of a protective earth mat. The protective earth mat is
made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor arranged as shown in Figure 11.11, installed no more
than 30 cm below the ground surface and connected to the control box protective earth.

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11.4.3 Pole mounted MV cable termination

Figure 11.13 – Typical wooden pole cable terminal installation

11.4.3.1 Steel pole

Swaged or folded steel poles shall be earthed as described in 11.3 above.

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Surge arrester earths shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using the
common steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The MV cable armour and sheath shall be attached to the crossarm supporting the termination
using bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall
be earthed using the common steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

11.4.3.2 Concrete pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the pole integrated earthing system and earthed
using system identical to steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above.

Surge arrester earths shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using the
integrated pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The MV cable armour and sheath shall be attached to the crossarm supporting the termination
using bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall
be earthed using the integrated pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

11.4.3.3 Wooden pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the common pole earthing system made of
bare copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm and earthed using a system identical
to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above. Earthing cable shall be attached to
pole using galvanized or electro plated staples. The last three metres above ground shall be
protected using UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

Surge arrester earths shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using the
common pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The MV cable armour and sheath shall be attached to the crossarm supporting the termination
using bare 35sqmm copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor
bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall
be earthed using the common pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

11.4.4 Pole mounted disconnector without earthing blades – in line sectionalizer

All new disconnectors shall be of the self-latching hook stick mechanism type without earthing
blades.

It is strongly recommended that existing disconnector handle mechanisms should be converted

into self-latching hook stick mechanisms (see Figure 11.14)

Where the disconnector is equipped with a self-latching hook stick mechanism, the pole shall
be seen as a pole with no MV equipment and the earthing of such a pole shall be as described
in 11.3 above.

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Figure 11.14 – Disconnector mechanisms

< insulated insert

manual handle mechanism hook-stick mechanism

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11.4.5 Pole mounted disconnector with earthing blades – terminal

Where there is a requirement for a new disconnector to be equipped with earthing blades then
the use of a self-latching hook stick mechanism as described in 11.4.4 is complicated and
undesirable. For that reason the regular manual handle (double with mechanical interlock) shall
be used and the earthing of this kind of pole mounted disconnector shall conform to the
instructions below (see Figure 11.15 and Figure 11.16).

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Figure 11.15 – Typical wooden pole cable earth blade disconnector installation- front view

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Figure 11.16 – Typical wooden pole cable earth blade disconnector installation- side view

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11.4.5.1 Steel pole

Swaged or folded steel pole shall not, for safety reasons, be used as supporting poles for
disconnectors with earth blades.

11.4.5.2 Concrete pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the pole integrated earthing system and earthed
using a system identical to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above.

Earth blades shall be attached to the disconnector frame using bare 35sqmm copper stranded
cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or
phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer. The disconnector frame shall be earthed using
the integrated pole earthing system.

The tubes of handle mechanism shall be equipped with insulation inserts appropriate for the
applicable voltage level.

The handle box protective earth shall not be connected to the overall pole earth and shall be
installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm
and attached to copper clad steel earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the integrated
pole earthing system. The separation between protective earth and common integrated pole
earth shall be not less than 5 metres. The last three metres above ground shall protected using
UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

Additional protection for operating personnel shall be provided either by the compulsory use of
dielectric earth mats or by the installation of a protective earth mat. The protective earth mat is
made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor arranged as drawn in Figure 11.15 and Figure 11.16,
installed no more than 30 cm below the ground surface and connected to the control box
protective earth.

11.4.5.3 Wooden pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the common pole earthing system made of
bare copper clad steel stranded cable not less than 50sqmm and earthed using a system
identical to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above. Earthing cable shall be
attached to the pole using galvanized or electro plated staples. The last three metres above
ground shall be protected using UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

The earth blades shall be attached to the disconnector frame using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer. The disconnector frame shall be
connected to the common earth conductor described above.

The handle box protective earth shall not be connected to the overall pole earth and shall be
installed using Yellow/Green PVC covered copper clad steel stranded cable not less than
50sqmm and attached to copper clad earthing rod (rods) installed separately from the
integrated pole earthing system. The separation between protective earth and common
integrated pole earth shall be not less than 5 meters. The last three meters above ground shall
protected using UV resistant black HDPE pipe.(see Figure 11.10)

Additional protection for operating personnel shall be provided either by the compulsory use of
dielectric earth mats or by the installation of a protective earth mat. The protective earth mat is
made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor arranged as drawn in Figure 11.15 and Figure 11.16,
installed no more than 30 cm below the ground surface and connected to control box protective
earth.

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11.5 Pole mounted MV/LV transformers

11.5.1 General

All pole mounted transformers shall be assumed to be hot sites (rise of earth potential > 430V).
The LV neutral shall be earthed outside the hot zone. The transformer tank shall be bonded to
the HV earthing system.

Application of the above system together with HV surge arresters may increase the incidence
of backflashover surges at the neutral LV bushing of the transformer. An LV surge arrester shall
therefore be mounted in parallel with the LV neutral bushing.

The scheme is shown in the following diagram:

Figure 11.17 – Schematic diagram for pole mounted substations

The distance from the HV earth electrode system to the boundary of the hot zone (430V
contour) depends on the soil resistivity and shall be assumed to be as follows:

Soil type Hot zone

extent
m
1 6
2 9
3 25
4 25

For soil type 5 (> 1000Ωm) a special design study shall be carried out.

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11.5.2 Pole mounted MV/LV transformers with overhead LV feeders

Figure 11.18 – Pole mounted substation with overhead LV feeders

11.5.2.1 General arrangement

If the pole mounted distribution transformer has only overhead outgoing LV feeders (either
bare conductors or ABC cables) then the protection of these feeders shall be provided solely
by pole mounted single phase cut out fuses, a pole mounted moulded case circuit breaker with
hot stick operation or a multi-pole NH fuse disconnector (hot stick operation). The LV protection
device shall be fully insulated and shall be attached to the pole or crossarm at a height not less
than 3 m above actual ground level.

11.5.2.2 Steel pole

Swaged or folded steel pole shall be earthed as described in 11.3 above.

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The surge arrester earth shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm
copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut,
counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed
using common steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The transformer tank shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using common
steel pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The low voltage neutral shall be earthed on an LV pole at least 1 span away from the pole
mounted substation.

11.5.2.3 Concrete pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the pole integrated earthing system and earthed
using a system identical to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above.

The surge arrester earth shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm
copper stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut,
counter nut, brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed
using the integrated pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The transformer tank shall be attached to the supporting crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper
stranded cable or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut,
brass or phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using the
integrated pole earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

The low voltage neutral shall be earthed on an LV pole at least 1 span away from the supporting
pole mounted substation.

11.5.2.4 Wooden pole

All pole mounted steelwork shall be earthed via the common pole earthing system made of
bare copper clad stranded cable not less than 50sqmm and earthed using a system identical
to the steel pole earth system as described in 11.3 above. Earthing cable shall be attached to
the pole using galvanized or electro plated staples. The last three metres above ground shall
protected using UV resistant black HDPE pipe (see Figure 11.10).

Surge arresters earth shall be attached to holding crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper strand
or braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or
phosphor bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using common pole
earthing system as described in 11.3 above.

Transformer tank shall be attached to holding crossarm using bare 35sqmm copper strand or
braid, copper cable lug and brass or phosphor bronze bolt, nut, counter nut, brass or phosphor
bronze flat washer and spring washer and shall be earthed using common pole earthing system
as described in 11.3 above.

Low Voltage neutral shall be earthed on LV pole at least 1 span away of pole mounted
substation.

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11.5.3 Pole mounted MV/LV transformers with cable or combined LV feeders

Figure 11.19 – Pole mounted substation with cable or combined LV feeders

11.5.3.1 Combined LV feeders

If the pole mounted distribution transformer has underground cable and overhead outgoing LV
feeders (either bare conductors or ABC cables) then the protection of these feeders is normally
provided by a pole mounted multi-way distribution pillar.

In this case it is advisable to provide a fibreglass non conductive pillar box attached to the
supporting crossarm (bracket) via standoff insulators.

Insulation of the pillar box shall be provided by standardised standoff insulators with a dielectric
strength of not less than 5kV.
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Figure 11.20 – Standoff insulators

If the pillar is equipped with an auxiliary socket or light then these circuits shall not use the box
earth point as a reference and shall be fed via RCD(s).

If the provision of a fibreglass non conductive pillar box is not possible, the conductive metal
pillar box shall be insulated from the the supporting bracket (crossarm) and a protective earth
mat shall be installed. The protective earth mat is made of 50sqmm CCS bare conductor
arranged as shown in Figure 11.19, installed no more than 30 cm below the ground surface
and connected to the pillar control box protective earth point.

General rules

Earthing of pole mounted transformers shall be installed as described in 11.5.3 above with the
following modifications and limitations.

 Pillars with conductive material boxes shall not be used on steel poles.
 For low voltage overhead line feeders, the neutral shall be earthed on an LV pole at
least 1 span away from the pole mounted substation.
 For low voltage underground cable feeders, the neutral shall not be earthed at the
transformer pole.
 For low voltage underground cable feeders, the neutral shall be earthed at the next
feeder pillar.
 For connections from pole-mounted transformers it is recommended to use un-
armoured cable with UV resistant HDPE cable duct.
 If an armoured cable already exists or is specifically required then the armour shall be
insulated from the feeder pillar.

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Figure 11.21 – Earthing diagram of pole mounted transformer with conductive pillar box

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Figure 11.22 – Earthing diagram of pole mounted transformer with non conductive pillar box

11.5.3.2 Cable LV feeders only

If the pole mounted distribution transformer has only underground cable outgoing LV feeders
then the preferable location of the LV pillar shall be outside the hot zone of the pole mounted
transformer. However, in some cases the feeder pillar must be pole mounted for safety reasons
(vandalizing) or in confined city areas. The general rules cover both positions but the specific
rules apply to the pole mounted option as detailed below:

General rules

Earthing of pole mounted transformers shall be installed as described in 11.5.3 above with the
following modifications and limitations.

 For low voltage underground cable feeders, the neutral shall not be earthed at the
transformer pole.
 For connections from pole-mounted transformers it is recommended to use un-
armoured cable with UV resistant HDPE cable duct.
 If an armoured cable already exists or is specifically required then the armour shall be
insulated from the feeder pillar.
 If the pillar is equipped with an auxiliary socket or light then those shall not use the
pillar box earth point as a reference and shall be fed via an RCD.
 Pole mounted transformer earthing systems, except those with pole mounted
conductive box pillars shall follow the diagram in Figure 11.22.

Specific rules for pole mounted pillar

 The pillar shall be attached to the supporting crossarm (bracket) via standardised
standoff insulators with a dielectric strength not less than 5kV.

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  It is recommended to use a fibreglass non conductive pillar box.
 If the provision of a fibreglass non conductive pillar box is not possible the conductive
metal pillar box shall be insulated from the supporting bracket (crossarm) and a
protective earth mat shall be installed. The protective earth mat is made of 50sqmm
CCS bare conductor arranged as drawn on figure 10, installed no more than 30 cm
below the ground surface level and connected to the pillar control box protective earth
point.
 For low voltage underground cable feeders, the neutral shall be earthed at the next
feeder pillar.
 Pillars with conductive material boxes shall not be used on steel poles.
 Pole mounted transformer earthing systems with pole mounted conductive box pillars
shall follow the diagram in Figure 11.21.

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11.6 Surge arresters (SA) and earthing

Surge arresters used on HV overhead lines are mainly gapless metal oxide varistor type Class
I.

Surge arresters are predominantly used as lightning surge protection on sensitive parts of the
HV network i.e. autoreclosers, transformers and cable terminals. The cable termination (and
cable itself) must be protected from surges causing non-repairable damage to the insulation.

Effective earthing of the surge arrester and selection of the correct surge arrester parameters
are important for efficient operation of the network.

It shall be compulsory to install the live connection first to the surge arrestor and then to the
protected object.

11.6.1.1 HV surge arrester parameters:

Nominal Maximum Discharge Maximum Recommended

System Voltage System Voltage Current continuous Residual Voltage
overvoltage
Unom (kV) Umax (kV) In (kA) Uc (kV) Up (kV)

11 12 10 10 34

33 36 10 30 101

11.6.1.2 Protective distance of Surge Arrester – maximum jumper length

Increasing the length of the SA jumper increases the overvoltage over the insulator (bushing,
cable termination etc.) of the protected object.

It is normal practice to keep the jumper as short as possible and preferably mount the SA in
parallel with the protected object e.g. on top of the transformer tank. A general
recommendation/rule is to keep the jumper length within the “protective distance l” of the surge
arrester.

Protective distances have been calculated considering a direct strike to a pole and taking the
typical surge overvoltage seen on the ADDC distribution pole network (not towers).

Maximum Surge Nominal System Wave front Recommended Protective

Surge impedance Voltage time Residual Voltage distance of SA
Current

Io(𝑘𝐴) Z (Ω) Unom (kV) t (μs) Up (kV) l(m)

40 400 11 5 34 1.9

40 400 33 5 101 1.6

60 400 11 5 34 1.3

60 400 33 5 101 1.1

11.6.2 Earthing of HV surge arrester

The surge arrester shall have the same earth point as the protected object`.

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If the protected object is made of conductive material (e.g. transformer tank) then an earthing
connection from the surge arrester to the protected object and then to the common earth is
acceptable.

The surge resistance of the earthing system is normally lower than the standard steady state
footing resistance due to ionization of the soil.

Metal poles and towers have a naturally low BIL level dictated only by the insulator. The footing
resistance requirements for such poles are not strict but shall be kept to 10Ω or below to assure
an acceptable lightning backflashover performance of the line when surge arresters are not
installed.

Concrete and especially wooden poles have a naturally high BIL level dictated by the surge
conductivity of the pole material and the consequent footing resistance requirements for such
poles shall be strictly limited to 10Ω or below to ensure the correct protective function of the
surge arrester.

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12 OPERATION, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

12.1 Operational safety measures

On attending any site, a brief visual inspection shall be made to observe whether there is any
obvious damage to the earthing installation. If any such damage is apparent, it shall be reported
and operations may only continue if full precautions are taken on the basis that all metalwork
is live i.e. operatives must wear dielectric boots and gloves.

If part of the earthing system is missing, clearly the safety criteria cannot be guaranteed. In this
case a risk analysis shall be undertaken and either the substation shut down or suitable
mitigation methods identified.

12.2 Measuring Equipment

Although mains powered voltage sources can be used, it is recommended that proprietary
measuring equipment, such as the Megger DET4TCR2 (see Appendix), be used. This does not
suffer from the inductive interference that mains-powered equipment might, and the integral
battery-operated power supply means the equipment is easily transported. It also provides
direct readout of resistance, and a simple formula can translate this into resistivity as required.

The test equipment comprises the following:

 Four-terminal test set such as Megger DET4TCR2, or similar

 Clamp-on tester such as Megger DET10/20C, or similar

 A set of four probes, usually stainless steel, of diameter 10 – 15mm, and length 300mm,
L-shaped to facilitate ease of handling and driving into the ground (these are usually
supplied with the test set)

 A mallet for driving the probes into hard ground (usually supplied)

 A set of four flexible stranded-copper leads, 1.5mm2 cross-section, and 50 – 100m

long. Longer leads might be necessary for large sites (these are usually supplied with
the test set)

 100m non-conducting measuring tape

 Micro-ohm meter with Kelvin 4-wire cable and probes

 Equipotential mat, 1m2, for standing on (alternatively a rubber mat)

 Clip short lead approximately 300mm long

 2-way ganged knife-switch with an in-air separation of at least 25mm between open
poles

 Communication link such as a mobile phone or two-way radio

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12.3 Measurement procedures – earth electrode resistance

12.3.1 General

An earth electrode resistance test shall be carried out on each newly completed earthing
system and as part of routine periodic maintenance (see 12.6 below).

The fall-of-potential method is included in refs [1], [2] , [4] and [11]. The only other method to
consider is the high current injection test, detailed in [11]. The advantage of this method is that
it may be the only way to test a large earthing system. Its disadvantage is that it is complex and
expensive.

12.3.2 Fall-of-potential method

The preferred method of measuring earth electrode resistance is by means of the Tag fall-of-
potential method. To do this, current is circulated between the earth electrode and a current
probe driven into the ground at a distance of at least ten times the geometric mean radius of
the substation earth electrode (see Appendix), or 20m, whichever is the greater; for large
substations, the current probe may have to be positioned several hundred meters from the
electrode boundary. A second lead should be connected from one of the voltage terminals of
the test set to the same point on the earth electrode as the current lead connection (see Figure
12.1). A second probe is connected to the second potential terminal of the test set, and this
probe is driven into the ground at 60% of the distance to the current probe. If a mains frequency
source is used, the second probe should be positioned on a line at 90° to the line to the current
probe to minimise inductive coupling between the current lead and voltage lead.

12.3.3 Interpreting the results

The earth electrode resistance relative to remote earth is given by the voltage reading on the
potential probe divided by the circulated current for a distance of 62%, but for a more reliable
result, the voltage probe should be moved at steps of 2 to 5m either side of the starting point,
and when two reading agree to within 5%, their average can be taken as the true resistance of
the earth electrode. If two readings cannot agree, then the current probe should be moved out
to a greater distance and the tests repeated as described above. The DET4TCR2 and similar
test sets give the reading directly in ohms.

12.3.4 Areas with extensive paved surfaces

The current probe, as far as possible, should be driven into open or exposed ground if such
can be found in the vicinity of the substation. In areas where the surface is paved with paving
slabs, concrete or Tarmac, consideration should be given to drilling holes into the surface to a
depth of 300mm at the appropriate distances, of diameter sufficient to allow the probe to be
positioned in the holes. Good electrical contact between the probes and the ground should be
ensured, which might mean using a saline solution; instruments such as the DET4TCR2 test
set will indicate if the current connection is not adequate, in which case holes should be drilled
to greater depths sufficient for the longer probes to be used. An alternative to drilling holes is
to use a metal plate of about 1m2 laid on the ground above a cloth soaked in saline solution.

12.3.5 Transferred potentials

Because of the possibility of transferred potentials from the substation earth electrode if an
earth fault should occur at the time of the measurements, double pole switches should be used
in the leads to the remote probes which should remain open until measurements are to be
made. In addition, rubber gloves should be used while handling the leads out to the remote
current probe or equipment. If the test equipment is to be located outside the boundaries of the
substation earthing system, consideration should be given to the use of an equipotential mat
on which the test equipment and testing personnel can stand on. A method statement should
be prepared indicating how any hazards will be mitigated (see the sample Method Statement
in Appendix B).

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12.3.6 Substations with isolated earth systems

Measurements should be carried out as described in Section 12.3.1.

12.3.7 Earth system connected to another earth system

12.3.7.1 Connection through a removable link

Where there exists a suitable disconnection point, such as a link box, this should be opened
and measurements be made in the direction away from the second earth system.
Measurements should be carried out as described in Section 12.3.1. In addition to those
described in Section 12.3.5, precautions should be taken against transferred potentials across
the opened link.

12.3.7.2 Solid connection

Where the two earthing systems cannot be disconnected, measurements should be made as
described in Section 12.3.1, but in a direction away from the second system (see Figure 12.2).
Current is measured in the two branches using a clamp-on meter, and the resistance of the
earth system under test is given by

𝑅 = 𝑅

where RE is the approximate resistance of the earth system under test

Rmeasured is the measured resistance
IA is the current to the adjacent earth system
IE is the current to the earth system under test

An alternative method is the Loop Resistance Measurement method. A clamp-on earth tester
is used (see Figure 12.3), and the earth resistance measured is approximately the resistance
of the system under test, where it is assumed that the combined parallel resistance of the other
earth systems is small compared with that of the system under test.

12.3.8 Earth system connected to a network of earth systems

12.3.8.1 Connection through removable links

Where removable links exist in the interconnections, they should be removed at the substation
under consideration, and measurements carried out as in Section 12.3.7.1. Precautions should
be taken against transferred potentials across the opened link or links.

12.3.8.2 Solidly interconnected systems

Where the interconnected earth systems are closely located, then an accurate measurement
of an individual earth system will be difficult, since the current probe will lie in the resistance
areas of the other earth systems. However, the procedure given in Section 12.3.7.2 can be
followed, where IA in the formula is now the sum of the currents in the interconnections. The
calculated resistance will be an upper limit.

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12.3.8.3 Interconnected pole-mounted substation

Three separate resistance measurements are required:

1. HV earth electrode resistance

2. LV overall earth electrode resistance

3. Resistance of the individual earth electrode resistance at the substation

The following items, connected in parallel, will contribute to the earth resistance value:

 HV earth electrode at the substation

 LV earth electrode close to the substation

 HV cable sheaths12.3.1

 LV neutral earths on the LV line beyond the substation

Individual measurements of each of the first three should be made using a clamp-on earth
tester (see Figure 12.3) at each of the earth connections. The actual value measured is that of
the electrode under test in series with the other electrodes in parallel, and if it is assumed that
their combined resistance is small, the measured value can be taken as the resistance of the
electrode under test.

12.3.8.4 11kV and 33kV pole mounted equipment

All non-functional (operational) protection earths such as those on switches, fuses, handles,
cabinets, etc shall be disconnected from the pole metal structures before the measurements
are made. To avoid shock from leakage currents across the insulators, a temporary short shall
be clipped across the point to be broken, and after the break has been made, the clip short
removed from the structure side first. Rubber gloves should be worn. The fall-of-potential
method described in Section 12.3.1 should be used to measure the electrode resistance. To
remake the join, the clip-short procedure should be reversed. A method statement should be
prepared to describe this procedure.

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12.4 Measuring procedures – soil resistivity

12.4.1 Procedure

If significant site filling or excavation is carried out, the soil resistivity survey should preferably
be carried after the operations and on compacted ground. Otherwise the survey should be
carried out before the site is disturbed.

Care should be taken that measurements are not taken where underground pipes, bare
conductors or cables are laid, or near railway lines or lengths of metal fencing, all of which can
provide short circuits for the test current and will distort the measured results. The locations
and routes of these may be determined from plans and engineering drawings for the location,
if available, otherwise a judicial assessment will have to be made; usually their presence
becomes evident in the results, especially where at least two sets of measurements are made
at each location. If the substation area is limited or otherwise not suitable, it may be necessary
to carry out the measurement at a nearby location which can be assumed to have similar soil.

The procedure for measuring soil resistivity is by means of the Wenner method, wherein a set
of four rod probes are equally spaced along a straight line and driven into the ground to between
100 and 200mm depth. The two outer probes act as the current probes where current from the
test set is circulated between the probes and through the ground. The two inner probes are the
connected to the voltmeter or potential terminals of the test set, and the voltage between these
is divided by the current to give a resistance. From the value of resistance at a given probe
spacing, the average resistivity down to depth equal to the probe spacing can be determined.
See Figure 12.4. The Wenner method is included in refs [1], [2], [4] and [11].

If the probe spacing is given as a, then the resistivity to depth a, ρa, is given as

ρa = 2π a Ra

where Ra is the resistance reading for spacing a. This equation is accurate to better than 2%
provided the spacing is greater than 10 x the driven depth of the probe; for a spacing of 5 x the
driven depth, the error is +7.5%, and for 3 x the driven depth it is +13.7%; due to other errors
in the measurements, these might not be considered significant. A more accurate formula
taking account of probe depth is given in [1].

The probe spacing should be stepped out as follows:

1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 meters.

For large sites, or where determination of resistivity at greater depths is desirable, the spacing
can be taken out at further steps of 10m, up to 60m. The apparent resistivity will be measured
down to a depth approximately equal to the spacing, and a plot of the resistivity for different
spacing’s will indicate the depth at which there are changes in resistivity. This information can
be used to model the design of the earth electrode system.

A second set of measurements should be made in the same location, but along a diagonal line
at approximately 90° to the first. For very large sites, a second pair of measurements can be
taken at a second location some tens of meters from the first, and so on until a representative
range of results have been obtained for the whole location.

12.4.2 Locations with readily-accessible surface soil

The measurements should be carried out as described in Section 12.4.1.

12.4.3 Locations with extensive surface paving

In locations having surfacing paving with paving slabs, concrete or Tarmac, consideration
should be given to using metal plates on saline-soaked cloth, and/or drilling the surface to

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enable the probes to be driven, as in Section 12.3.4 above. Measurements should then proceed
as described in Section 12.4.1.

12.4.4 Locations with dry sand surfaces

When probes are used in dry sand surfaces, the test meter might indicate that insufficient
current is being circulated. In such cases, the sand in the region of the probes, especially the
current probe, should be soaked in salty water to a depth of 500mm, and the probe driven into
the wet sand.

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12.5 Measuring procedures – joint resistance (“ductor” tests)

The resistance of bolted joints in the earth connections, especially those that are buried or
exposed to weathering, and including those made to structures, should be inspected for
deterioration, in which case their resistance should be measured using a micro-ohm meter. The
potential probes should be positioned between the current probes (see Figure 12.5), from which
the joint resistance can be determined; the reading will be given directly in micro-ohms with a
suitable test set.

The resistance of the joint should be compared with the resistance of a similar length of
unjointed conductor; recommendation for replacement of the joint will be provided for the case
where the resistance of the joint is more than 50% higher than the unjointed section.

The ductor tests should be repeated following the remaking of the joint.

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12.6 Routine maintenance

Periodic inspection and testing shall be carried out on all earthing installations as detailed
below. The following maintenance intervals are recommended, with the proviso that where
possible these should be tied in with other substation maintenance activities:

 Visual inspection 12 months

 Periodic test on suspect earth rods 12 months
 Substation earth electrode resistance test 5 years

Visual inspection shall be carried out with the equipment live. The inspector shall visually check
all accessible conductors and joints, checking particularly whether any items are decayed,
corroded, otherwise damaged, have been vandalised or are missing. He shall also check that
all warning notices are in place.

Earth rods that are suspected of being in danger of corrosion shall be routinely tested with the
substation live. One of the following methods shall be used:

a) Fall-of-potential test with the individual rod disconnected (12.3.7.1)

b) Clamp-on method (12.3.7.2)

Note: In order to obtain meaningful trending results, the same test method must always be used
for the same earth rod.

Earth electrode resistance tests on complete earthing installations shall be carried out with the
electrical systems de-energised.

The sequence of activities at a distribution substation is as follows:

1) Identify site
2) De-energise site (Safety note: earthing system may still carry high voltage under fault
conditions due to connections to other substations)
3) If standard earth bar is not provided disconnect all electrical equipment from earth
electrode system
4) If standard earth bar is provided, open link
5) Carry out fall of potential test on earth electrode system
6) Test resistance of joints
7) If standard earth bar is provided, close link
8) If standard earth bar is not provided, reconnect all equipment to earth electrode system
9) Re-energise site
10) Provide record of tests

All inspection and test results shall be recorded. Test results shall be analysed to detect trends.

There is no need for any maintenance to conductive concrete after installation.

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12.7 Diagrams

Figure 12.1: Tagg fall-of-potential method for determining earth electrode resistance.

1(a) General connections

1(b) Details of connections to the measuring test set

X is the electrode being measured

Y is the current probe
Z is the potential probe, stepped either side of the 62% distance
V & A are voltmeter and ammeter, from which the resistance is determined
(see note 1)
S is a double-pole switch

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Figure 12.2: Connection arrangement for an interconnected earth system with no
disconnection point

Figure 12.3: Measurements on an interconnected earth system using a clamp-on earth tester
(multiple adjacent earth systems)

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Figure 12.4: Wenner method for determining soil resistivity.

4(a) Connection arrangements

4(b) Details of connections to the measuring test set

Current is circulated between the two outer current probes, and the voltage is
measured between the two inner potential probes. The probes are spaced at
equal distances a, and this is varied to measure the resistivity to different
depths equal to a.
V & A are voltmeter and ammeter from which resistance for different values of
a is determined (see note 1), and substituted in the formula given in Section
5.1 to give the resistivity to depth a.

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Figure 12.5: Kelvin 4-wire resistance measurement (low resistance)

Rsubject is the resistance to be measured

P are the potential terminals
C are the current terminals
See notes 2 & 3

Notes to the figures

Note 1: The voltmeter, ammeter and current source are incorporated into a single test set, with
readings given directly in ohms.

Note 2: The voltmeter, ammeter and power supply are incorporated into a single test set, with
readings given directly in micro-ohms

Note 3: The clip probes should make good contact with the conductors being measured; for
stranded conductors, the clip probes should be presses slightly into the bundle of strands.

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13 NEUTRAL EARTHING OF EMBEDDED GENERATION SYSTEMS

13.1 General

Engineering Recommendation No.3 of the Electricity Distribution Code [15] sets out rules for
the connection of embedded generating plant up to 5MW. Two methods of operation are
identified:

(a) Parallel Operation with the DISCO’s System (including ‘short-term’ paralleling).
(b) Non-parallel Operation (alternative connection) to DISCO’s System.

Whenever new generation is to be added to the public supply system, it is essential to carry out
a fault current study and to ensure that the short circuit ratings of the switchgear are not
exceeded. Balanced 3-phase faults and single and two phase earth faults should be
considered. It should be noted that the zero phase sequence impedance of a synchronous
generator tends to be low, such that its fault current contribution to a close-up earth fault may
be considerably higher than that of a 3-phase fault.

The choice of neutral earthing method depends on following considerations:

a) Ensuring that every part of the distribution system has a neutral earthing point.
b) Limitation of earth fault currents, with regard to equipment ratings and safety.
c) Ensuring that earth faults can be detected and cleared by the protection.
d) Limitation of third harmonic currents.

If part of the distribution system is left without a neutral earthing point for any reason, there will
be a risk of line voltages appearing on two phases in the event of an earth fault on the third
phase. Furthermore, under certain fault conditions very high voltages with respect to earth can
build up.

Third harmonic currents are produced by generators and transformers. They may cause
overheating of equipment and should therefore be limited to values within the third harmonic
current withstand levels specified for the relevant equipment. This can be done by inserting
some impedance in the neutral-earth connection or by using generators and transformers that
produce low levels of third harmonics. Third harmonic currents and voltages may also cause
electromagnetic interference.

In all cases, the final earth connection (from the equipment star point or neutral earthing
resistor) should be made to the local earthing system of the power plant or substation, via a
removable link. Neutral earthing resistors should be of the metal grid type, fitted with protection
CTs as necessary. They should be thermally rated to carry their nominal current for at least
10s.

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The following types of embedded generation schemes are considered:

 HV synchronous generator directly connected.

 Synchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer.
 Asynchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer.
 LV synchronous generator embedded in LV distribution system (standby operation
only).
 LV synchronous generator embedded in LV distribution system (parallel operation).
 LV asynchronous generator embedded in LV distribution system.

The main distinction between synchronous and asynchronous generators is that synchronous
generators can operate autonomously without a connection to the utility system, whereas
asynchronous generators cannot. Inverter-connected generation such as PV or battery is
considered under the same heading as asynchronous.

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13.2 HV synchronous generator directly connected

This will typically be a diesel or gas turbine driven generator in the range 1-30MW, forming part
of a power station or an industrial customer’s distribution system. The connection voltage will
be 11kV.

The main neutral earthing point for the 11kV system will be the star-point(s) of the step-down
transformer(s) at the primary or grid substation, which are solidly earthed or earthed via a low
reactance on the ADDC system. In the case of a privately owned HV distribution system, a
different neutral earthing policy may apply; the installation must comply with the Electricity
Supply Regulations [12].

The generator will normally operate in parallel with the ADDC system. In the event of an outage
on the ADDC system, the generator may be required to trip or may be permitted to continue
running, supplying a non-paralleled system, depending on the particular circumstances. As a
general rule, Engineering Recommendation No.3 [15] requires that such systems should be
tripped on loss of the main ADDC supply.

The objectives of the neutral earthing in this case are:

 To enable earth fault protection to be implemented at the generator (where applicable).

 To limit 3rd harmonic currents.
 To provide a neutral earthing point if non-parallel operation is required.

Synchronous generators in this rating range are normally star connected. For a single generator
which only runs in parallel mode, Engineering Recommendation No.3 [15] requires that the
generator should be run unearthed (see Figure 13.1).

If the generator is required to operate in non-parallel mode, the star point must be earthed. The
method required by Engineering Recommendation No.3 [15] in this case is to switch the neutral
earthing connection such that the generator runs unearthed when it is synchronised to the
ADDC system but earthed when it is running non-paralleled (see Figure 13.2).

It may be necessary to solidly earth the star point to enable the system earth fault protection to
operate correctly. The 3rd harmonic circulating current between the generator and the
distribution system must be calculated. If it is found to be above the withstand rating of the
machines, it may be necessary to take precautions to limit it. The simplest method is to connect
a resistor between the generator star point and earth. The resistance value is normally
calculated to give a maximum earth fault current roughly equal to the generator full load current.

If more than one generator is connected to a busbar, to prevent circulating 3rd harmonic current
between generators a system of switching the neutral earthing connections can be
implemented such that only one of the generators is earthed at any one time (see Figure 13.3).

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 Figure 13.1

11kV

Figure 13.2

11kV

Figure 13.3

11kV

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13.3 Synchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer

This will again typically be a diesel or gas turbine driven generator, forming part of a power
station or an industrial customer’s distribution system. The connection voltage for the
transformer could be 11, 22 or 33kV. The main neutral earthing point for the HV system will be
the star-point(s) of the step-down transformer(s) at the primary or grid substation. All these
systems are presently solidly earthed (or via a low reactance) by ADDC.

The generator will normally operate in parallel with the ADDC system. In the event of an outage
on the ADDC system, the generator may be required to trip or may be permitted to continue
running, supplying a non-paralleled system.

The objectives of the neutral earthing in this case are:

 To provide a neutral earthing point at the generator voltage.

 To enable earth fault protection to be implemented at the generator voltage.
 To provide a neutral earthing point at the transformer HV connection voltage. If non-
parallel operation is required.

Earth faults on the ADDC system can be effectively isolated from those on the generator-
voltage system and vice-versa by using a Dy, Yd or Dd connected transformer. The transformer
may be supplied as part of a package, so ADDC standards may not apply. To block 3rd
harmonics, a transformer with a delta winding is preferred.

If the Yy connection is used, the HV star point should be unearthed and consideration should
be given to the provision of a tertiary delta winding (YYd connection) to block 3rd harmonics.
For some types of YYd transformers (with both neutrals earthed) the earth fault current can be
increased.

The generator neutral earthing system will normally be specified by the supplier. Synchronous
generators are normally star connected. A common and effective solution is to earth the
generator star point via a high resistance, limiting the earth fault current to approximately 10A
to prevent core burning (see Figure 13.4).

In order to guard against overvoltages caused by arcing earth faults, the following must be
observed:

R ≤ 1 / (3 ω C)

where:

R = neutral earthing resistance in Ω

ω=2πf
f = system frequency in Hz
C = system capacitance to earth in F

If the generator synchronising circuit breaker is on the transformer HV side, there is no need
for a neutral earthing point on the transformer LV winding; the neutral earthing at the generator
voltage is provided at the generator. However, if the breaker is on the LV side, some provision
should be made for the possibility of an earth fault occurring when the generator is not
synchronised. This could take the form of the main transformer LV star point or a separate
neutral earthing transformer, earthed via a high resistance (see Figure 13.5). The designer
must then take into account the effect of both neutral earthing points operating in parallel.
Alternatively, the transformer can be left unearthed and a neutral voltage displacement relay
fitted, to detect an earth fault on the unearthed system.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-
1:Page 113
If the generator will never supply a non-paralleled system, Engineering Recommendation No.3
[15] requires that there shall be no neutral earthing point on the HV side of the transformer. If
non-parallel operation is required, a neutral earthing point must be provided in the form of the
main transformer HV star point or a separate neutral earthing transformer, which should be
solidly earthed via a disconnector (see Figure 13.6).

Figure 13.4

11kV

Figure 13.5

11kV

If ≈ 10A If ≈ 5A

If ≈ 5A
Figure 13.6

11kV

If ≈ 10A

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-
1:Page 114
13.4 Asynchronous generator connected at HV via dedicated transformer

This will typically be a wind turbine driven generator. The connection voltage for the transformer
could be 11, 22 or 33kV. The main neutral earthing point for the HV system will be the star-
point(s) of the step-down transformer(s) at the primary or grid substation.

The generator will normally operate in parallel with the ADDC system. In the event of an outage
on the ADDC system, the generator will be required to shut down. There is thus no need to
provide a neutral earthing point on the HV side of the transformer.

The objectives of the transformer neutral earthing in this case are:

 To enable earth fault protection to be implemented at the generator voltage.

 To limit 3rd harmonics entering the ADDC system.

The generator neutral earthing system will normally be specified by the supplier. Asynchronous
generators may be delta or star connected, normally with no available neutral point. A typical
neutral earthing scheme for a 690V wind turbine generator is to use a transformer with a star
connected secondary and to solidly earth the star point (see Figure 13.7).

Earth faults on the utility system can be effectively isolated from those on the generator-voltage
system and vice-versa by using a Dy, Yd or Yy connected transformer. The Dy connection is
preferred, as it will block 3rd harmonics from entering the ADDC system. If the Yy connection is
used, the HV star point should be unearthed and consideration should be given to the provision
of a tertiary delta winding to block 3rd harmonics and to allow sufficient earth fault current to
flow on the secondary side of the transformer to operate the earth fault protection.

Figure 13.7

11kV

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1:Page 115
13.5 LV synchronous generator (standby operation only)

This will typically be a diesel generator rated up to 1MW, connected to a low voltage distribution
system, which may be supplied directly from ADDC or via a customer’s HV/LV distribution
system. The main neutral earthing point for the LV system will be the star-point of the step-
down transformer at the HV/LV substation.

In the case of an ADDC LV supply, the connection voltage will be 400V. The standard ADDC
transformer connection is Dyn. The neutral earthing system normally employed by ADDC is
TN-S-TT, as defined in the Electricity Supply Regulations. It is assumed here that a customer’s
distribution system will be similar.

The diesel generator will normally be arranged to start up on loss of the main supply so as to
re-energise the local system.

The objectives of the neutral earthing in this case are to:

 Provide a neutral earthing point for the non-paralleled system.

 Enable earth fault protection to be implemented on the non-paralleled system.

The simplest way to achieve the above is to solidly earth the generator star point (see Figure
13.8).

Figure 13.8

11kV

400V

INTERLOCK

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-
1:Page 116
13.6 LV synchronous generator (parallel operation)

This is similar the previous case, except that the system must be designed for the generator to
run in parallel with the mains supply from ADDC. It may also be required to run in non-parallel
mode on loss of mains.

When running in parallel with the mains, the generator can be run unearthed (see Figure 13.9).
Generators of this size range are less costly and more robust than larger ones, so generator
protection requirements are less critical. This arrangement will eliminate any 3rd harmonic
currents from the generator.

If non-parallel operation is also required, the generator star point must be earthed, preferably
solidly, to enable the system earth fault protection to operate correctly. If both parallel and non-
parallel operation are required, the preferred arrangement is to switch the generator neutral
earthing connection such that it runs un-earthed when in parallel with the mains and solidly
earthed when in non-parallel mode (see Figure 13.10).

This clause also applies to a PV array connected via an inverter designed for stand-alone
operation.

Figure 13.9

11kV
Figure 13.10

11kV

400V

400V

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-
1:Page 117
13.7 LV asynchronous generator

This will typically be a wind turbine generator. The connection voltage will be 400V as in the
previous two cases.

The generation can only operate in parallel with the mains, so it can rely on the main neutral
earthing system and does not require any neutral earthing of its own (see Figure 13.11).

This clause also applies to a PV array connected via an inverter designed for synchronised-
only operation.

Figure 13.11

11kV

400V

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-
1:Page 118
13.8 Recommendations

Case Generator Connection Mode of Neutral earthing method

voltage voltage operation Generator Transformer LV Transformer HV
winding winding
HV synchronous generator 11kV 11kV Parallel None
directly connected
HV synchronous generator 11kV 11kV Parallel Low resistance or
directly connected and non- solid, switched
parallel
Synchronous generator Specified 11, 22, 33kV Parallel High resistance High resistance if None
connected at HV via by supplier circuit breaker on LV
dedicated transformer side
Synchronous generator Specified 11, 22, 33kV Parallel High resistance High resistance if Solid via star point or
connected at HV via by supplier and non- circuit breaker on LV neutral earthing
dedicated transformer parallel side transformer,
switched
Asynchronous generator Specified 11, 22, 33kV Parallel None Solid None
connected at HV via by supplier
dedicated transformer
LV synchronous generator 400V 400V Non- Solid
embedded in LV distribution parallel
system
LV synchronous generator 400V 400V Parallel None
embedded in LV distribution
system
LV synchronous generator 400V 400V Parallel Solid, switched
embedded in LV distribution and non-
system parallel
LV asynchronous generator 400V 400V Parallel None
embedded in LV distribution
system

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-1:Page 119
14 APPENDIX A

a. Drawings

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-1:Page
120
Earthing Distribution in Substations in HOT Site

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-1:Page 121
Earthing Distribution in Substations in COLD Site

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for ADDC distribution system- APPENDIX-1:Page 122
 Appendix 2: AADC distribution System

Assessing the Rise of Earth Potential and Earthing of AADC Distribution System

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- Page 124
Contents Page

List of Abbreviations 4

List of used symbols 4

Reference Standards 4

Preface 5

Scope 5

Definitions 5

A) Back Ground 5

General Design Issues 8

B) 33 kV System Earthing 8

C) 11 kV System Earthing 8

D) 33 kV and 11 kV Neutral Earthing Reactor/Resistor 8

E) LV System Earthing 8

Soil resistivity measurements 8

Soil resistivity meters 9
Soil resistivity test location 9

1. EARTHING GRIDS AND EARTHING CONDUCTORS 9

1.1. Materials and cross-sections 9
1.2. Design concept 10
1.3. Backfill materials/ Ground Enhancing Materials 10
1.4. Joints 10
1.5. Earthing of metallic parts 10
1.6. Auxiliaries 10
1.7. Armours/Screens, OHGW/OPGW and Interstitial conductor 10
1.8. Galvanic Connection of protective Conductors 11

2. Protection from the potential transfer out of the substation 11

2.1. Metallic parts in ground 11
2.2. Transfer of potential to LV network 11
2.3. Check of transfer of potential to LV networks 11
2.3.1.Coefficient of the transfer potential for OHGW 11
2.3.2.Coefficient of the transfer potential for cable lines 13
2.4. Critical Cases of Potential Transfer 14
2.5. Additional safety measures when needed 15

3. Separation of 11kV Protective and 0.4kV Operational earthings 16

4. GUIDELINE FOR THE LAYOUT OF THE EARTHING SYSTEM OF RESISTANCE 20  SUPPOSING UNIFORM SOIL 18

5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 33 kV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (metallic grounded poles)20
5.1. System earthing 20
5.2. 33kV OHL on metallic poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW) 20
5.3. Protective and operational earthing 20
5.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 20
5.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings 20
5.6. Additional safety requirement 20

6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 33 kV CABLE NETWORK 21

6.1. System earthing 21
6.2. 33kV Cable Armours/Interstitials/Screens 21
6.3. Protective and operational earthing 21
6.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 21
6.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings (adjacent substations) 21

7. RECOMMENDATION FOR EARTHINGS IN PRIMARY AND PACKAGE UNIT SUBSTATIONS 33/11 kV 21

7.1. Introduction 21
7.2. Operational and Protective Earthing 21
7.2.1.Design guidelines 21
7.2.2.Outer Earth Grid 21
7.2.3.Earthing mesh 21
7.2.4.Earthing rods 22
7.2.5.Additional safety measures 22
7.2.6.Measurements 22

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 1
8. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11kV OHL NETWORK WITHOUT OHGW/OPGW (wooden poles) 24
8.1. System earthing 24
8.2. 11kV OHL without OHGW/OPGW on wooden poles 24
8.3. Protective and operational earthing 24
8.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 24
8.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings 24
8.6. Additional safety requirement 24

9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11 kV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (wooden poles) 25
9.1. System earthing 25
9.2. 11kV OHL on wood poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW) 25
9.3. Protective and operational earthing 25
9.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 25
9.4.1.Recommendation for separate protective earthing 25
9.4.2.Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing 25
9.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings 25
9.6. Additional safety requirements 25

10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11kV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (metallic grounded poles)26
10.1. System earthing 26
10.2. 11kV OHL on metallic poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW) 26
10.3. Protective and operational earthing 26
10.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 26
10.4.1.Recommendation for separate protective earthing 26
10.4.2.Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing 26
10.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings 26
10.6. Additional safety requirement 26

11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11kV CABLE NETWORK 27

11.1. System earthing 27
11.2. 11kV Cable Armours/Interstitial/Screens 27
11.3. Protective and operational earthing 27
11.4. Recommendation for protective earthing 27
11.4.1.Recommendation for separate protective earthing 27
11.4.2.Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing 27
11.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings (adjacent substations) 27

12. RECOMMENDATION FOR EARTHING OF DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS 11/0.4 kV IN OVERHEAD LINE NETWORKS 28
12.1. Introduction 28
12.2. Protective and Operational earthing 28
12.3. Design guidelines for earthing of brick built 11/0.4kV substations, Package units and 11 kV Switching stations in suburban areas 28
12.4. Earthing Earth Grids and rods 28
12.5. LV enclosures (Switchgears) 28
12.6. 0.4kV Operational earthing 28
12.7. Additional safety measures 28
12.8. Measurements 29
12.9. Design guidelines for earthing of Ground mounted transformer (GMT) in suburban areas 30
12.9.1.Earthing mesh and rods 30
12.9.2.LV enclosures (Switchgears) 30
12.9.3.0.4kV Operational earthing 30
12.9.4.Additional safety measures 30
12.9.5.Measurements 30
12.10. Design guidelines for earthing of Pole mounted transformer (PMT) in suburban areas 31
12.10.1.Earthing Earth Grids and rods 31
12.10.2.LV enclosures (Feeder pillars) 31
12.10.3.0.4kV Operational earthing 31
12.10.4.Additional safety measures 31
12.10.5.Measurements 32

13. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EARTHING OF DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS 11/0.4kV IN CABLE NETWORKS 35

13.1. Introduction 35
13.2. Protective and Operational earthing 35
13.3. Design guidelines for earthing of brick built 11/0.4kV distribution substations, Package units and 11kV Switching station free standing in
Urban areas 35
13.3.1.Earthing Earth Grids and rods 35
13.3.2.LV enclosures (Switchgears) 35
13.3.3.Additional safety measures 35
13.3.4.Measurements 35
13.4. Design guidelines for earthing of Ground Mounted Transformer (GMT) in urban areas 37
13.4.1.Earthing Earth Grids and rods 37
13.4.2.LV enclosures (Switchgears) 37

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 2
 13.4.3.Additional safety measures 37
13.4.4.Measurements 37
13.5. Design guidelines for earthing OF 11/0.4kV distribution substations inside residential and commercial buildings with foundation earthing 38
13.5.1.Earthing Earth Grids and rods 38
13.5.2.LV enclosures (Switchgears) 38
13.5.3.Additional safety measures 38
13.5.4.Measurements 38
13.6. Design guidelines for earthing of 11/0.4kV distribution substation inside residential and commercial building without foundation earthing 39
13.6.1.Earthing Earth Grids and rods 39
13.6.2.LV Enclosures (Switchgears) 39
13.6.3.Additional safety measures 39
13.6.4.Measurements 39

14. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS IN 0.4 kV NETWORK 41

14.1. LV earthing systems and Recommendation for Resistances 41
14.2. Guidelines for earthing of LV feeder pillars and service turrets 41
14.3. Guidelines for earthing of customer connection points (CCP) 41

15. MAINTENANCE AND ROUTINE TESTING PROCEDURES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS 41

15.1. INTRODUCTION 41
15.1.1.Maintenance strategies 42
15.2. Inspection, Testing and Maintenance 42
15.2.1.PROVISION for testing 42
15.2.2.SCOPE OF INSPECTION AND INTERVALS 42
15.2.3.USEFUL GUIDES FOR PREVENTING DAMAGE 43
15.2.4.STEALING OF EARTHING ELEMENTS 43
15.3. MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES 43
15.3.1.EARTHING RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 43
15.3.2.Touch and Step potential measurements 48
15.3.3.Continuity measurements 48
15.3.4.Potential hazards and Countermeasures during the tests 49
15.4. RECORD KEEPING AND REVIEW 51

16. Attachment A 52

17. Attachment B 54
17.1. Ratio of allowed step and touch voltages 54
17.2. Results of touch and step voltages obtained with software 55
17.2.1.Single earthing loop in backfill material 55
17.2.2.Single earthing loop in backfill material with vertical rods 55
17.2.3.Double earthing loop in backfill material with / without vertical rods 56
17.2.4.Smaller mesh in backfill material with rods in the corners of the loop 58
17.2.5.Bigger mesh in backfill material with rods in the corners of the loop 59
17.2.6.Single earthing loop directly in soil (no backfill material) with vertical rods 59
17.2.7.Mesh directly in soil (no backfill material) with vertical rods 61
17.2.8.Vertical rods 61

18. Attachment C - Self-controls before work 62

19. Attachment D- EXAMPLE OF INSPECTION/MAINTENANCE REPORT 63

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DOE Department of Energy

AADC Al Ain Distribution Company

IEC International Electro-technical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

HV 11 kV and 33 kV

LV Low voltage (up to 1 kV)

TN-C Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to neutral
via neutral conductor

TN-S Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to neutral
via separate conductor

TN-S-TT Combination of TN-S upstream and TT downstream

TT Supply transformer neutral bonded to earth and metalwork bonded to earth

locally

PMT Pole mounted transformer

GMT Ground mounted transformer

OHGW Over Head Line Ground Wire

OPGW Optical Ground Wire

LIST OF USED SYMBOLS

𝐸 – Maximum allowable touch voltage in [V] (for70 kg person)
E – Maximum allowable step voltage in [V] (for 70 kg person)
𝜌 – Specific soil resistivity in [Ωm]
𝑡 – fault duration time in [s]
𝑅 – Resistance of the protective earthing in [Ω];
𝑘 – The ratio of the actual touch voltage and the substation earthing potential rise (GPR)
𝑘 – The reciprocal value of factor k ;
𝐸 – Maximum allowable touch voltage
𝐼 – Current flowing through the protective earthing [A]
𝑍 – Per span impedance of the overhead ground wire []
Lline – The overall length of the feeder (line) in [km]
ls – The distance between two protective earthings in [m]
Tmax – The maximum allowable clearance in [s]

REFERENCE STANDARDS

1. IEEE Std 80-2013 – IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding

2. IEEE Std 81-2012 – IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System
3. IEC Std 60909 - 3 (2003) – Short-circuit currents in three-phase A.C. systems – Part 3: Currents during two separate simultaneous line-to-earth short
circuits and partial short circuit currents flowing through earth.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 4
PREFACE
This document has been prepared in accordance with the Electricity Distribution Code and forms part of Annex 1 of the Code. It applies to all Users of the
Electricity Distribution System under AADC ownership for development, operation and maintenance. DOE Electrical Wiring Regulation shall be applicable
for customer end earthing.
This recommendation relates to earthing for 33 kV, 11 kV and 0.4 kV system in Al Ain Distribution Networks. DOE/AADC Standard Technical Specification
for earthing shall be referred in addition to this engineering standard.
SCOPE
This engineering recommendation applies to earthing system in MV/LV network in Al Ain Distribution Network covering the following:
 Earthing System for 33/11 kV Primary Substations
 Earthing System for 33/11 kV Package Unit Substations
 Earthing System for 11/0.415 kV Distribution Substations
 Earthing System for 33 and 11 kV Overhead lines ( With and Without OHGW/OPGW)
 Earthing System for 33 and 11 kV Cable Network
 Earthing System in 0.415kV LV Network
DEFINITIONS
a) Earth: A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the earth or to some
conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the earth.
b) Earth current: A current flowing into or out of the earth or its equivalent serving as a ground.
c) Earth E lectrode: A conductor imbedded in the earth and used for collecting ground current from or dissipating ground current into the
earth.
d) Earth Potential Rise (EPR): The maximum electrical potential that a substation grounding grid may attain relative to a distant grounding
point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth. This voltage, GPR, is equal to the maximum grid current times the grid resistance.
e) Earth Return Circuit: A circuit in which the earth or an equivalent conducting body is utilized to complete the circuit and allow current
circulation from or to its current source.
f) Earth grid: A system of horizontal ground electrodes that consists of a number of interconnected, bare conductors buried in the earth,
providing a common ground for electrical devices or metallic structures, usually in one specific location.
g) Earth system: Comprises all interconnected grounding facilities in a specific area.
h) Step voltage: The potential difference between a person’s feet under earth fault conditions
i) Touch voltage: The potential difference between a person’s hand and foot under earth fault conditions
j) Transferred potential: A potential transferred into or out of a substation from or to a remote point, liable to cause high touch voltages

A) BACK GROUND
The intent of this engineering standard is to provide guidance and information pertinent to safe grounding practices in Al Ain Distribution Network.
The design of the earthing/grounding system shall be the safety of personnel and the proper operation of the electrical equipment during normal operation
and during transient disturbances such as short circuits in the electric power system and during lightning discharges.

 Earthing Principles
In principle, a safe earthing design has the following two objectives:
 To provide means to carry electric currents into the earth under normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipment
limits or adversely affecting continuity of service.
 To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of critical electric shock.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 5
 Calculation of the single-phase short circuit (IF)
(based on the sum of the neutral grounding and
protective grounding)

Determination of the tripping time of the protection

devces

Calculation of the maximum allowable voltage

Calculation of the reduction factor

(based on the sum of the neutral grounding and
protective grounding)

Calculation of the earth return current (IER)

Calculation of the current through protection

grounding

Determination of GPR, touch and step voltages on

the protection grounding

Figure a) - Flow diagram of calculation procedure

 Criteria for Designing of Earthing Systems

The earthing system has to be designed according to safety criteria, but also to withstand thermal overloads by ground fault currents. The difficulty
is that for both criteria there is influence of earth fault current and clearance time (depending on the earth fault current and the setting of the relays), being
dependant on the earthing resistance. That is why the methodology how to approach to the problem has to be defined.

 Maximum Allowable Touch and Step voltage

The earthing system is sized according to touch and step voltage (IEEE std.80-2013 ) - the values of the touch voltage has to be under maximum allowable
touch and step voltages for a body weight of 70 kg calculated as :

0.157
𝐸 = (1000 + 1.5 𝐶 ∙ 𝜌 ) 1.1
𝑡

where the 𝐶 is

𝜌
0.09 1 −
𝜌 1.2
𝐶 = 1−
2ℎ + 0.09

0.157 1.3
𝐸 = (1000 + 6 𝐶 ∙ 𝜌 )
𝑡

and
𝐸 – maximum allowable touch voltage in [V] (for 70 kg person)
𝐸 – maximum allowable step voltage in [V] (for 70 kg person)
𝜌 – specific soil resistivity in [Ωm]
𝜌 – specific resistivity of the surface material [Ωm]
ℎ – the thickness of the surface material [m] and
𝑡 – fault duration time in [s]
The touch voltage has to be under allowed value determined using (1.1) at any ground fault, and at any fault location, but also overall in the network where
touch voltage appears as a consequence of transferred potential.
 Earthing Resistance Criterion
The earthing resistance at fault location satisfies the safety conditions of touch voltage if protective earthing resistance (impedance) satisfies the criterion:

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 6
 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒  𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑘 ∙ 𝐺𝑃𝑅 𝐸
𝑘∙𝑅 ∙𝐼 𝐸 1.4
𝐸
𝑅 ≤
𝑘∙𝐼
𝑘 ∙𝐸
𝑅 ≤
𝐼

Where:
𝑅 – Resistance of the protective earthing in [Ω];
𝑘 – The ratio of the real touch voltage and the substation ground potential rise (GPR)
𝑘 – The reciprocal value of factor𝑘 ;
𝐸 – Maximum allowable touch voltage (see equation 1.1);
𝐼 – Current flowing through the protective earthing [A]
The coefficient 𝑘 depends of the construction of the earthing. The required value of resistance of protective earthing shall be proved through the measurement
before the commissioning and before issuance of Final acceptance certification.
 Equivalent Earthing Resistance
Equivalent earthing resistance (impedance) at the fault location is the impedance of parallel connected earthing resistance at the fault location and other
earthings being in galvanic connection such as: cables with the conductive outer sheath , surrounding earthings connected with overhead ground wires
(OHGW/OPGW) or cable metallic sheaths (cable tape screen or aluminum or galvanized steel wire amours).
 Driving Point Impedance
The driving point impedance is composed of the earth-wire impedance 𝑍 between two earthings and surrounding earthing of resistance𝑅 . The driving point
impedance in one direction (case of the infinite chain) is equal to:

𝑍 𝑍 1.5
𝑍 = + +𝑍 𝑅
2 2

 Fault Clearance Time

In 33kV networks, the most critical places during fault conditions can vary depending of the line length and presence of OHGW or cable
armours/interstitial/screens. The protection settings should be done to have clearance of 800 ms or less based on connection agreement in grid with Transco
for the current calculated for the fault at the beginning of the outgoing feeders at Grid stations.
In 11kV networks, the most critical places during fault conditions can vary depending of the line length and presence of OHGW or cable
armours/interstitial/screens. The protection settings should be done to have clearance of 450 ms or less for the current calculated for the fault at the beginning
of the feeder.
The input currents for determination of target earth resistance and safe earthing system are calculated using for the resistance (impedance) of the earthing
system on the fault place to be equal to 0 and keeping network impedance without neglecting. If some other protection characteristics (VI, EI) is used or there
are additional element / function (instantaneous), the clearance time is shorter and the safety certainly fulfilled.
 Input Earth-fault Current for Checking the Earthing Design and Determination of Earthing Conductor Cross-section
For the purpose of estimation of actual GPR required for estimation of transfer voltage and effective separation of 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing
, the value of earth-fault current is needed. The value is also needed for check of touch and step voltages if they are below maximum allowable.

𝐺𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 ×𝑅 1.6

𝐼 – Earth fault current (flowing into protective earthing)

𝑅 – Resistance of protective earthing
The values of 𝑅 are specified for each type of network (voltage level, cable/OHL, existing of protective conductor) in following sections of this document.
Earth fault current, which flows into protective earthing, 𝐼 could be calculated on one of following ways:
 as per IEC 60909-3,
 Using value at the beginning of the feeder, giving higher value then the real ones (approximation on safe side).
For the purpose of cross-section determination of Earthing conductors, following approximation of earth-fault current could be used neglecting the impedances
of the network (rough approximation is on safe side):

𝑈
𝐼 = 1.7
√3 × 𝑅

𝐼 – Approximate Earth fault current (neglecting network impedances)

𝑈 – Nominal network voltage
 Earthing Resistance of Combined Earthing in 220/33kV Grid Stations
This technical recommendation would be applicable in networks supplied from 220/33kV grid stations with Earthing resistance of combined earthing not higher
than 1Ω.
 Protective and Operational Earthing

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 7
In networks substations 220/33 kV and 33/11 kV, 33kV and 11kV protective earthings are connected to 33kV and 11kV operational earthings. The MV
cable armours/interstitial conductors/screens and OHGW/OPGW - lightning conductor (if installed) and other lightning protection installations are connected to
the protective earthing.
In distribution substations 11/0.4 kV, 11kV protective earthing is separated from 0.4kV operational earthing mostly in case of areas out of cities (poor soil
conditions and enough space for effective separation) whilst mostly it is combined in city zones and where soil conditions allow the same.
GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES
AADC network is supplied from high voltage Transco grid on 400 kV and 220 kV level, and from one source connected to AADC on 33kV located in Al Ain
Power Station (gas turbine power station). Interfaces with Transco grid stations are 220 kV / 33 kV substations. 33 kV neutral points of transformers 220 kV /
33 kV are dominantly grounded directly.
Primary substations in AADC network are supplied from 33 kV lines in the normally open loop configurations. Therefore, in practical operation 33 kV primaries
are fed radially from HV sources. 11 kV neutral points are directly grounded for all transformers 33 kV / 11 kV.
11 kV network configuration is reflecting its historical growth, and is presently of radial type with many branches. There are backup arrangements e.g. through
sectionalizers on OHLs. Backup supplies are often taken from primary substations other than the originating substation. Therefore, for practical considerations
it can be viewed that 11 kV network is mesh type and that uniformity of neutral earthing system needs to be maintained in case that present configuration
shall be retained.
AADC network includes no. of 11 kV / 0.415 kV substations, which cater the load for the end users. LV star points are also directly grounded, which is a most
typical solution worldwide.
The general characteristic of Al Ain area is that conditions for grounding systems are tough. This means high soil resistivity and aggressive soil chemical
composition. As a rule, the grounding systems are in sandy terrains, without permanent underground water.The following latest AADC Standard Technical
Specification document shall be referred for further detail:
 Specification (S-AAA-EARTH-GROUND)
 Technical Recommendation for Earthing (TRE)
 Technical Data Sheets (D-AAA-EARTH-GROUND) and
 Drawings.
B) 33 KV SYSTEM EARTHING
Neutral point of 220/33kV supply transformer of network 33 kV is in majority of the network directly connected to the earthing system through direct
connection of the transformer neutral with earthing grid (there is no additional resistance or inductance - solidly grounded). Exposed metallic parts of
elements of 33 kV network are connected to the 33kV protective earthing.
C) 11 KV SYSTEM EARTHING
Neutral point of 33/11kV supply transformer of 11 kV network is directly connected to the earthing through direct connection of the transformer neutral
with earthing grid (there is no additional resistance or inductance - solidly grounded). Exposed metallic parts of elements of 11 kV network are connected
to the 11kV protective earthing.
D) 33 KV AND 11 KV NEUTRAL EARTHING REACTOR/RESISTOR
From the safety point of view and optimization of earthing resistance, touch and step voltages are the main criterion. Usage of neutral reactor/ resistor
would increase the zero-sequence impedance, hence reduce the earth fault current and thus the safety criterion will still be satisfied for all pertinent
cases.
Sensitivity and selectivity of protection must be evaluated considering recommended values of protective earthings along the lines and applied neutral
earthing reactor/ resistor. The feasibility and benefit shall be reviewed with respect to the selectivity and sensitivity of protection since the values of earth
fault currents could drop in the range of load current especially for the OHLs in the remote areas.
E) LV SYSTEM EARTHING
LV network is directly earthed (solidly grounded).

 High Impedance Earth Fault (HiF) Protection

Based on the analysis of different measures for risk mitigation of undetected HiF, following protection scheme shall be used as additional protection in all 33kV
and 11kV OHLs:
11kV OHL Network:
 Sensitive earth-fault protection - set 10% above normal level of 11kV load unbalance (thumb rule recommendation could be 70 mA pick-up current). The
tripping time of the sensitive earth fault should not be greater than 3 sec.
 THD detection algorithm in zero-sequence current - set 10% above normal level of THD in 11kV load (thumb rule recommendation could be 10% THD
threshold)
 I2/I1 detection algorithm (protects only first half of the feeder or less if parallel circuits involved) - 20% pick up ratio I2/I1.
 Mechanical detection of broken conductor - installed only in the second half of the feeder at each tensile pole (H-pole) and at risky spans (road crossings,
crossings over the farm fences, nearby mosques or schools etc.)
33kV OHL Network:
 Sensitive earth-fault protection - set 10% above normal level of 33kV load unbalance. The tripping time of the sensitive earth fault should not be greater
than 3 sec.
 THD detection algorithm in zero-sequence current - set 10% above normal level of THD in 33kV load
 I2/I1 detection algorithm - 20% pick up ratio I2/I1 .

SOIL RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

Soil resistivity measurements shall be performed on every new site during the soil investigation stage - before any installation. These measurements are the
main input data for earthing design as per recommendations given in previous sections. Because of the variability of soil resistivity, IEEE standards 80-2013,
clause 13.4 require that the seasonal variation in resistivity be accounted for in earthing design. Hence, it is recommended to perform the soil resistivity
measurements during dry season.
The method of soil resistivity measurement most commonly used is that derived by Dr F. Wenner. The method employs four-rod electrodes driven into the
ground in straight line and equally spaced on distance A.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 8
 Figure b) – Principle of Wenner four-pin method for determining Soil resistivity

The outer two electrodes are used to circulate a ground return current and the inner two measure the potential difference. The ratio of this voltage to the
corresponding value of circulating current gives the measured value of the mutual resistance of the array. The value of the soil resistivity can than be deduced
from the formula.

By increasing the spacing A, the depth of penetration of the circulating current will be increased.
The basic premise of the soil resistivity test is that probes spaced at A distance across the earth, will read A in depth. Changing A (increasing), you get a
weighted average soil resistance from 0 down to A in depth, and all points in between. Formulae for earthing resistance of different earthing systems and layouts
assume model of soil as one-layer or two-layer homogeneous soil, hence it is the effective value of ρ that should be used for each layer. Precise deduction of
effective value of ρ for each layer from the raw data is very complex and usually processed with computer software to determine it. If the software is not available,
it is recommended for guide and design purposes to use the mean value of all the measured values for each layer separately.
It is recommended to perform soil resistivity measurements in steps A=1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30m. This is one “traverse” or set of measurements, and should be
repeated several times around the location at right angles and diagonally to each other to ensure accurate readings.
Soil resistivity meters
Care should always be given when selecting a soil resistance meter, as the electronics involved in signal filtering are highly specialized. Electrically speaking,
the earth can be a noisy place. Overhead power lines, electric substations, various signal transmitters and many other sources contribute to signal noise found
in any given location. Harmonics, 60 Hz background noise, and magnetic field coupling can distort the measurement signal, resulting in apparent soil resistivity
readings that are larger by an order of magnitude, particularly with large spacings.
There are two types of soil resistivity meters: Low Frequency and High Frequency models.
High-Frequency meters typically suffer from the inability to generate sufficient voltage to handle long traverses and generally should not be used for probe
spacings greater than 40m. Furthermore, the High-Frequency signal flowing in the current lead induces a noise voltage in the potential leads, which cannot be
completely filtered out: this noise becomes greater than the measured signal as the soil resistivity decreases and the pin spacing increases.
If High-Frequency meter is not able to establish circulating current than Low Frequency meters should be used. Low-Frequency meters, which actually generate
low frequency pulses (on the order of 0.5 to 2.0 seconds per pulse), do away with the induction problem from which the High-Frequency meters suffer. However,
they can be very expensive to purchase. Typically, the electronics filtering packages offered in Low-Frequency meters are superior to those found in High-
Frequency meters.
Soil resistivity test location
Soil resistivity testing should be conducted at the proposed site plot or as close as possible to it, taking into consideration the physical items that may cause
erroneous readings. There are two (2) issues that may cause poor quality readings:
1. Electrical interference causing unwanted signal noise to enter the meter.
2. Metallic objects ‘short-cutting’ the electrical path from probe to probe. The rule of thumb here is that a clearance equal to the pin spacing should be
maintained between the measurement traverse and any parallel-buried metallic structures.
Testing in the vicinity of the site in question is obviously important; however, it is not always practical. The geology of the area also plays into the equation as
dramatically different soil conditions may exist only a short distance away.
When there are poor conditions e.g. not enough space in which to conduct a proper soil resistivity test, one should use the closest available open field with as
similar geological soil conditions as possible.

1. EARTHING GRIDS AND EARTHING CONDUCTORS

1.1. Materials and cross-sections
The materials to be used in construction and reconstruction of the earthing system of the substations or distribution lines shall follow DOE /AADC latest Standard
Technical Specification S-AAA-EARTH-GROUND and Technical Data Sheet D-AAA-GROUND.
For the direct elements of earthing buried in ground it is not recommended the usage of the aluminium or steel earthing tapes coated with zinc (galvanized
strip).

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 9
Earthing conductors should be used for interconnecting the parts of the earthing (for example connecting of two Earth Grids of the earthing to each other),
connecting the earthing to fence, equalization bars inside substation, power transformer body, LV and MV distribution boards, etc. In case of the OHL, the same
earthing conductor is used to connect the earthing to the metallic poles, OHGW/OPGW, PMT and other metallic exposed structures on wooden, steel and
concrete poles.
Earthing conductors shall be of tinned copper or bare copper (where applicable) soft drawn concentric strands. Tinned copper wire has better performance (up
to 10 time longer durability), especially in soils with sodium, which accelerates the chemical reaction that forms the destructive oxide compound. As more of
these atoms combine, they weaken the integrity of the original metal making it brittle and crumbly, a process commonly known as corrosion.
To mitigate the risk from stealing of outdoor earthing conductors it is allowed to make it of aluminium instead of copper but bearing in mind requirements like
special tool and joint procedure between copper - aluminium (aluminium - aluminium) and increased requirement of cross-section due to lower current rating.
Cross-section of earth electrodes (vertical copper clad steel rods or horizontal mesh elements copper tape) and Earthing conductors shall be
designed to its thermal withstand capacity. The current rating of an earth electrode is specified in terms of its surface current density - equation is given in
Attachment A. The tables in Attachment A give declared current ratings for a range of standard Earth conductor sizes. The short-time rating of other conductors
can be calculated by given equation. The cross-section of the earthing conductors shall be designed not to exceed 405 C for copper (200C for tinned copper)
and 325 C for aluminium for 3 seconds based on a 30 C initial temperature.
For all MV and LV fault current carrying components, two conductors each sized for the full fault current shall be provided. Additional (duplicate or loop
connections) could be rated to carry 60 % of the full earth fault current.
For potential equalizing of the (indoor) substations with concrete floors, a galvanized iron mesh (consisting of the galvanized steel bars) of the minimum diameter
of 8 mm shall be cast in the concrete floors. It shall be connected to the earthing grid via potential equalizing bars (at minimum four locations in the substation).
On potential equalizing bars the ring made of copper tape placed in outer foundation earthing of the substation (where applicable) shall be connected.
1.2. Design concept
For achieving optimum characteristics of the earthing system (earthing resistance and a distribution of the potential), it is recommended to combine horizontal
and vertical earthing conductors. The earthing electrode should be in good contact with the soil and that is the main general reason of applying the backfill
material or GEM 320 mm around the copper clad steel rod.
1.3. Backfill materials/ Ground Enhancing Materials
Due to a specific soil characteristics in area of Al Ain, usage of Backfill materials of diameter 320 mm (bentonite or similar according to IEEE 80-2013 cl.
14.5.b) or GEM (according to IEEE 80-2013 cl. 14.5.d) is recommended for the vertical earth electrodes.
For horizontal earth electrodes the backfill material/ GEM should not be used.
Backfill materials/ GEM with low viscosity should be avoided due to very porous soil (higher cost due to extensive consumption of material).
One of the main reason for the increasing of earth resistance of the electrodes could happen if the indigenous soil is hostile to copper and (or) backfill material
i.e. acidic with a pH value of less than 6 or alkaline with a pH value of more than 10. In this case suitable non-corrosive soil of fine texture and good resistivity
(loam, clay, garden soil, not sand) should be imported and firmly rammed 150 mm around the electrode and (or) backfill material.
1.4. Joints
The joints of galvanic connection between earth grid and the earthing conductors (according to AADC Technical Data Sheet D-AAA-EARTH-GROUND are
performed by exothermic welding, cold pressure welding, bolting (min. two 8 mm bolts each with two washers, one spring washers and a nut)) or brazing. Bolted
connections might be used only at locations inside the buildings and shall be electrically tested (voltage drop test).
The way of performing joints of galvanic connection does not affect the design of electrical conductors size.
To prevent electrolytic action and to avoid drilling of the conductors, suitable insulated clips should be used in fixing of copper conductors to structures.
Galvanised clips should not be used. Whenever the drilling of conductor tape is necessary, it should not be drilled for a bolt having a diameter greater than one-
third of the width of the tape. If this diameter will be exceeded than a wider flag should be jointed to the tape. Where the copper conductor is supported or in
contact with galvanised steel it should be tinned to prevent the electrolytic action. Connection points between earthing conductor and galvanised steelwork shall
not be less than 150 mm above ground level. In any position subject to corrosion the finished joint shall be protected by a heavy duty bituminous paint.
Joints between aluminium and copper shall be of the bolted type and be installed in the vertical plane with the bottom of the overlap at a minimum distance of
150mm above ground level. The mating surface of the aluminium must be cleaned thoroughly by wire brushing and greased or an approved jointing compound
applied, and the copper surface should be tinned. After bolt tightening by torque spanner, excess grease and or compound must be wiped off and discarded
and the joint protected from the ingress of moisture by the application of suitable plastic compound or insulating shrinkable sleeve with mastic lining. Alternatively
the joint may be protected by heavy duty bitumastic paint.
Aluminium to aluminium joints should be welded using one of the following methods:
 Inert-gas tungsten arc (TIG) technique
 Inert-gas metal arc (MIG) technique
 approved cold pressure welding
Where the above type of welding is not possible or practicable then bolted type joints or alternatively an approved explosive welding technique may be used.
When making a bolted type joint the surface of the aluminium must be cleaned thoroughly by wire brushing and greased or an approved jointing compound
applied immediately to both mating surfaces. After bolt tightening by torque spanner, excess grease and or compound must be wiped off and discarded.
1.5. Earthing of metallic parts
Metallic parts inside the substations are connected to the earthing with the earthing conductors (S-AAA-EARTH-GROUND). Each metallic device within the
substation boundary must be equipped with an earthing bolt/screw of sufficient diameter to connect the Earthing system.
1.6. Auxiliaries
Flanges of the conductive insulators, hooks for fixing of the tension insulators and the footers of the supporting insulators are to be earthed if they are not in the
good galvanic connection with the grounded supporting steel structure. All metallic construction (outdoor), auxiliary structures, supports, apparatus, fences (all
posts), control/protection cubicles shall be connected to the Earthing system.
1.7. Armours/Screens, OHGW/OPGW and Interstitial conductor
The usage of the cable armour, copper screen, interstitial conductor and the overhead ground wire as earthing conductor is not allowed, i.e. it is not allowed to
use these elements as galvanic connection to the ground (to the nearest grounded point).
Armour, copper screen, interstitial conductor and the overhead ground wire (OHGW/OPGW) of the medium voltage distribution network (33 kV and 11 kV) are
on one end connected to the 11kV protective earthing of the supplied (downstream) distribution substations and to the 11kV operational earthing (neutral)
on end to primary substation.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 10
1.8. Galvanic Connection of protective Conductors
The recommendations in this document are based on the reduction factors taking into account distribution of the fault currents over protective conductor and
the earthing at fault place. In order to have safe solution in practice it is necessary to provide reliable galvanic connection of protective conductors of all
cable lines and of OHGW/OPGW of OHL lines to all earthings as specified in this document.

2. PROTECTION FROM THE POTENTIAL TRANSFER OUT OF THE SUBSTATION

2.1. Metallic parts in ground
Metallic water and drainage pipes and other metallic utilities in the ground are not to be connected to the protective earthing of the substations 220/33 kV and
33/11kV. The metallic pipes are galvanically separated from the earthing by insertion of the isolation materials at the places where the pipes are incoming to
the substation.
2.2. Transfer of potential to LV network
The faults in the 220 kV and 33 kV networks results in transfer of the potential to the LV side. These potentials are transferred through the cable protective
armour/Interstitial/screen or overhead ground wires of the 33 kV and 11 kV networks to the 11/0.4 kV substations, and further to the low voltage network and
consumers installation causing the dangerous step and touch voltages which in some cases can be higher than maximum allowable. This happens in cases of
combined earthing systems in 11/0.4 kV substations, but also when the 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing in substation 11/0.4 kV are not effectively
separated.
The maximum allowable potential, which can occur on combined earthing from the potential transfer, is equal to 1000 V. If the 11kV protective and
0.4kV operational earthing in substations 11/0.4 KV are effectively separated, the maximum allowable potential which can occur on the operational earthing is
equal to 300 V – based on this criterion 0.4kV operational earthing is to be distanced to proper distance from 11kV protective earthing.
It is recommended to perform checking of transfer potential for every new constructed 220/33kV or 33/11kV substation. For the existing network, it is
recommended to perform the check for the critical cases defined in this standard.
2.3. Check of transfer of potential to LV networks

For the fault at the 220 kV bus in substation 220/33 kV the transferred potential to the first substation (𝑈 ) 11/0.4 kV is equal to

𝑈 =𝑘 ∙𝑈 =𝑘 ∙𝑟∙𝐼 ∙𝑍 2.1

Where are:
𝑘 – Coefficient of the transfer potential (for the fault at 220 kV network it consists of two parts, which are to be multiplied: through 33 kV network and through
11 kV network);
𝑈 – Voltage at the earthing system (GPR) at the fault location (220 kV side in the substation 220 kV / 33 kV);
𝑟 – reduction factor of the feeding line (𝑟 = 0.35 for the three-phase cable with the protective sheath of cross-section of 25 mm2 around each phase conductor,
𝑟 = 0.6 for the OHGW of cross-section 95 mm2 which is usually used in 33 kV network, 𝑟 = 0.7 for the OHGW of cross-section 35 mm2 which is usually used in
11 kV network);
𝐼 – fault current at the 220 kV buses in substation 220/33 kV;
𝑍 – Overall resistance/impedance of the earthing system of the substation 220/33 kV;

In addition to the limit value of 1000 V, originating from the voltage stress of the equipment, voltage 𝑈 should also satisfy following condition originating from
safety of electric shock (basic safety criterion is given by equation 1.4, where the origin of appearing of GPR is different - instead of ground potential rise due
to a fault at the observed location, it appears due to transfer of potential):

𝑈 ≤𝑘 ∙𝐸 22.2

Where 𝐸 represents the maximum allowable touch voltage, depending on clearance time.
The transferred potential to the LV network is calculated according to above equation 2.1 in steps quoted with following bullets:
 To calculate the maximum earth-fault current that can occur at 220 kV side in the substation 220 kV / 33 kV.
 According to the type of network 220 kV (OHL or cable) of the incoming feeder to determine reduction factor r.
 According to the network type (OHL or cable) and configuration (earthed towers/poles/PMTs, span length, etc.) of the outgoing feeders to determine
the coefficient of the transfer potential 𝐤 𝐢 (could be obtained from Figure 2.1 - Figure 2.5 or from table 2.1).
 To calculate the overall earthing impedance at the 220 kV fault place 𝑍
 To check the safety, if the transfer voltage is smaller than maximum allowable touch voltage (criteria specified by equation 2.2).
If the criterion of 1000 V for GPR or criterion (2.2) is not fulfilled, additional safety measures are needed – described in chapter 2.5.
2.3.1. Coefficient of the transfer potential for OHGW
The values of coefficient 𝒌𝒊 are presented on Figures 2.1 - 2.4, valid for connection between substations 220/33 kV and 33/11 kV is done with OHGW of cross-
section of 95 mm2 for 33 kV and 35 mm2 for the 11 kV network; the values on all Figures are obtained for earthing resistance of the supply substation 220/33 kV
of 1 . The span length was taken to be 100 m for 33 kV OHL (Figure 2.1) and 100 m, 250 m and 500 m for 11 kV OHL (Figure 2.2 - 2.4).

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 11
 The coefficient of the transfer potential
1
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 5 Ω
0.9 R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 10 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 20 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 40 Ω
0.8

0.7

0.6
Coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
Number of towers (poles)

Figure 2.1 – The coefficient of the transfer potential across the 40 towers/poles of 33 kV OHL (earthing span length 100 m, OHGW cross-section 95 mm2).

The coefficient of the transfer potential

1
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 5 Ω
0.9 R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 10 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 20 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 40 Ω
0.8

0.7

0.6
Coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
Number of towers (poles)

Figure 2.2 – The coefficient of the transfer potential across the 40 towers/poles of 11 kV OHL (earthing span length 100 m, OHGW cross-section 35 mm2)

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 12
 The coefficient of the transfer potential
1
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 5 Ω
0.9 R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 10 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 20 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 40 Ω
0.8

0.7

0.6
Coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Number of towers (poles)
Figure 2.3 – The coefficient of the transfer potential
across the 20 towers/poles of 11 kV OHL (earthing span length 250 m, OHGW cross-section 35 mm2)

The coefficient of the transfer potential

1
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 5 Ω
0.9 R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 10 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 20 Ω
R2 = 1 Ω; Rt = 40 Ω
0.8

0.7

0.6
Coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Number of towers (poles)

Figure 2.4 – The coefficient of the transfer potential across the 20 towers/poles of 11 kV OHL (earthing span length 500 m, OHGW cross-section 35 mm2)

2.3.2. Coefficient of the transfer potential for cable lines

The coefficient 𝒌𝒊 could be obtained from the Figure 2.5 which is given for the worst case:
 connection between substations 220/33 kV and 33/11 kV is done with cable’s protective armour/Interstitial/screen of cross-section of 25 mm2,
 there is only one substation 33/11 kV on the 33 kV line,
 earthing resistance of the supply substation 220/33 kV is 1 .
In other cases like there are more substations on the 33 kV line or lower earthing resistance of the supply substation, the coefficient of the transfer potential
decreases.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 13
 The coefficient of the transfer potential
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3
Rsupplied = 1 Ω
0.2
Rsupplied = 2 Ω
0.1 Rsupplied = 4 Ω

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Distance between two substation [km]

Figure 2. are given values of the coefficient 𝒌𝒊 for the different distances between two substations (supply substation 220/33 kV and supplied substation
33/11 kV, i.e. supply substation 33/11 kV and supplied substation 11/0.4 kV).

The coefficient of the transfer potential

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
coefficient ki

0.5

0.4

0.3
Rsupplied = 1 Ω
0.2
Rsupplied = 2 Ω
0.1 Rsupplied = 4 Ω

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Distance between two substation [km]

Figure 2.6 – The coefficient of the potential transfer for different distances between supply and one supplied substation on cable line with cross-section of the
protective armour/Interstitial/screen is equal to 25 mm2 (around each phase)

Table 2.1 – The values of the coefficient ki at the first substation on the cable line 11 kV (the distance between adjacent earthings is 500 m, earthing resistance
of the supply substation 1 Ω).

Number of the substation on the line 1 2 3 4 5

RPG = 2  (case of combined earthing in urban areas) 0.930 0.767 0.645 0.605 0.601

RPG = 4  (case of combined earthing in urban areas) 0.967 0.887 0.797 0.733 0.705

RPG = 20  (case of separated earthing in urban

0.994 0.980 0.965 0.946 0.926
areas)

2.4. Critical Cases of Potential Transfer

The critical case of potential transfer regarding its position is when substation 11/0.4 kV is in the vicinity of the substations 220/33/11 kV and 33/11 kV; as the
distance of substation 11/0.4 kV decreases, the situation becomes worse (the fault current and consequent transferred potential rise).
The next critical case is when there are no additional parallel earthings to the earthing at the fault location. This is the case when there are no parallel lines
(OHL or cable) - for example newly build substations or not widely branched networks.
Since the OHLs are used in rural areas, where, as a rule, 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing can be effectively separated, there is no danger of
appearing high transferred potential. In addition to separation of the earthings, the convenient fact is existence of earthings of OHL towers on small distances,
reducing the value of transferred potential.
Consequently, according to procedure from this section, transferred potential should be checked for 33 kV and 11 kV cable line networks in the situation when
following cases exist:

 newly constructed supplying station without many constructed outgoing lines;

 11/0.4 kV substation is in the vicinity of 220/33kV or 33/11kV substation;
 There are not many substations 33/11kV and 11/0.4kV on the cable circuit.

Transfer of potential to LV network by the fault at 220 kV:

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The value of coefficient of transferred potential obtained from figure 2.5 for one substation on the line 33 kV and the distance from substation 220 kV / 33 kV of
1 km amounts ki 33 = 0.7 (see figure 2.5). For the case of combined earthing systems in substations 11 kV / 0.4 kV maximum coefficient of transferred potential
ki 11 = 0.93 (for RPG = 2  - according to table 2.1 and the fact that there can be one substation with the resistance of earthing 2 ; if there are more than 7
substations, the resistance of earthing can be 4  and in this case ki 11 would be 0.705). So, in critical case total coefficient of transferred potential amounts
ki = ki 33 · ki 11 = 0.7 · 0.93 = 0.651. The criteria for safety check are:
1) if GPR by earth fault at 220 kV side in substation 220 kV / 33 kV is lower than 1000 V / 0.651 = 1536 V and
2) condition (2.2) should be fulfilled, where 𝐸 represents the maximum allowable touch voltage depending on clearance time of the protection in 220 kV
network. For example, if the calculated phase to ground fault current at 220 kV side is equal 9.56 kA (the line to ground short-circuit power 3277 MVA), overall
impedance should be Zu < 1536 / (0.3 · 9560) = 0.535 ; with the earthing resistance of combined earthing of substation 220 kV / 33 kV of RPG = 0.5 , the
criterion would be at minimum - accurate calculation has to be performed or one more cable line 33 kV should be connected; another possibility is not to
energise the power line 33 kV with only one substation 33 kV / 11 kV on it before building the second substation on the line, where it is sufficient to build the
earthing system of the second substation and to connect it on the line (it is not necessary to build complete substation). So, the thumb rule is Grid substation
to have at least one normally built cable line 33 kV with minimum 2 primary substations on it, or there should be at least 2 feeders 33kV (not
necessarily energised, but with earthing systems of the cable lines 33 kV connected to the earthing system of Grid substation 220/33kV).
Transfer of potential to LV network by the fault at 33 kV:
Maximum voltage transferred to LV network in case of fault in 33 kV network, where there is only one cable line 11 kV supplied from substation 33 kV / 11 kV,
is calculated as follows. For network 220 kV of line to ground short-circuit power of 3277 MVA and transformer 220/33/11 kV of rated power 140 MVA and short
circuit voltages of 0.58%, 10.1% and 3.8% for primary, secondary and tertiary, respectively, earth fault current amounts 6.78 kA. The coefficient of transferred
potential amounts ki = ki 11 = 0.93. The criteria for safety check is: 1) if GPR by earth fault at 33 kV side in substation 33 kV / 11 kV is lower than
1000 V / 0.93 = 1075 V overall impedance should be Zu < 1075 / (0.3 · 6780) = 0.528 ; the situation is somewhat worse than for the case of the fault at 220 kV
- So, the thumb rule is 33/11kV substation to have at least one normally built cable line 11 kV with minimum 5 distribution substations on it, or there
should be at least 5 feeders 11kV (not necessarily energised, but with earthing systems of the cable lines 11 kV connected to the earthing system
of substation 33/11kV).
2.5. Additional safety measures when needed
If the criteria of transferred voltage to LV network are not fulfilled, possible actions (one or more) to be done are as specified under below bullets. Each of the
actions are oriented to the change of relevant components in criterion defined by equation (2.2) (equation (2.1) is used to calculate transferred potential to the
first substation, appearing in criterion (2.2)). After performing one or more changes, the calculation is to be repeated and the criteria of transferred voltage to
LV network checked again. Application of the items (one or more and which ones) strongly depends on the situation on the terrain and each case should be
analyzed from practical point of possibility of implementation and the costs.
 If possible, the 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing in 11/0.4 kV substation should be efficiently separated (on needed distance between
each other – target voltage on 0.4kV operational earthing 300 V)
 The decrease of the resistance of the earthing in supply substation 220/33 kV, i.e. 33/11 kV
 The decrease of 33kV tower earthing resistance e.g. to 5Ω
 The decrease of the part of the earth-fault current flowing through the earthing of the substation 220 kV / 33 kV, by lowering the value of the reduction
factor of the feed lines using the protective conductor of larger conductive cross-section. Accordingly, the voltage at the earthing system (GPR) at the
fault location is reduced. The protective conductor of larger conductive cross-section is to be placed at least at 5-6 spans near the supply substation.
 The decrease of the part of the earth-fault current flowing through the earthing of the substation, by lowering the value of the earthing resistances of
the feed lines and/or downstream lines. Accordingly, the voltage at the earthing system (GPR) at the fault location is reduced. The earthing systems
of lower earthing resistances are to be placed at least at 5-6 earthing systems near the supply substation. There are two positive effects of lowering
down the earthing resistances: decrease of GPR at fault location and reducing the coefficient of transferred potential ki (downstream).
 Usage of neutral reactor/ resistor, which increases the zero-sequence impedance, hence reduce the earth fault current and thus the GPR, which is
transferred to lower voltage network.
 It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed
metallic part / equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface
material e.g. in remote areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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3. SEPARATION OF 11KV PROTECTIVE AND 0.4KV OPERATIONAL EARTHINGS
It is considered that substation in the OHL or Cable network is located in suburban area, therefore it is expected that there is sufficient place for the non-
combined earthing of the 0.4kV operational and 11kV protective earthing of the PMT, GMT, PU or brick built substations (11/0.4 kV). So, for OHL and cable
networks which have enough space and the soil conditions are poor (ρ>300Ωm) or in the case of OHL without OHGW, non-combined earthing of the 0.4kV
operational and 11kV protective earthing shall be used and it is not allowed to interconnect it. If the soil conditions are good (ρ<300Ωm) or there is no sufficient
space to effectively separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings, combined 11kV protective with 0.4kV operational earthing should be used in
which case recommendation from Section 11 should be followed.
The required distance between 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing is determined according to Figure 3.1-Figure 3.6; they show the dependence of
ratio of surface potential and GPR on the distance from boundary Earth Grid (in case of double loop with the rods, this is outer loop and in case of mesh it is
boundary Earth Grid where the rods are connected - basically in corners of boundary Earth Grid). The needed distance from the outer Earth Grid to 0.4kV
operational earthing is read from the graphics starting from the ratio Umax oper / GPR on ordinate axis; Umax oper represents the potential on the 0.4kV operational
earthing which should not be exceeded during the fault: Umax oper = 300 V if there is sufficient space to effectively separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV
operational earthings, i.e. Umax oper = 1000 V if there is no sufficient space to effectively separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational; 0.4kV operational
earthing comes approximately to the potential on the surface where it is positioned. For the value Umax oper / GPR on ordinate axis, the needed distance is read
out on X axis using Figure corresponding to applied type of grounding system. GPR could be calculated as per guidelines indicated in IEEE.
Examples:
 for Umax oper = 300 V and Earth Grid / mesh with one rod of length 9.6 m and GPR 3000 V: ratio Umax oper / GPR = 10 %, from Figure 15.2, needed
distance is around 25 m
 for Umax oper = 1000 V and Earth Grid / mesh with one rod of length 9.6 m and GPR 3000 V: ratio Umax oper / GPR = 33 % , from Figure 15.2, needed
distance is around 5 m
 for Umax oper = 300 V and Earth Grid / mesh with four rods of length 9.6 m and GPR 3000 V: ratio Umax oper / GPR = 10 %, from 15.5, needed distance is
around 45 m
 for Umax oper = 300 V and one rod of length 9.6 m and GPR 3000 V: ratio Umax oper / GPR = 10 %, from 15.6, needed distance is around 20 m.
The manner of distancing for the earthing systems with no rods, with one, two, three or four rods are shown in Figure 3.7.

100
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR [%]

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Surface distance from outer contour [m]

Figure 3.1. - Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for Earth Grid (single Earth Grid, double Earth Grid or mesh) with no rods

100
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR [%]

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Surface distance from outer contour [m]

Figure 3.2 - Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for Earth Grid (single Earth Grid, double Earth Grid or mesh) with one rod of length 9.6 m

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 16
 100
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR [%]

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Surface distance from outer contour [m]

Figure 3.3 - Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for Earth Grid (single Earth Grid, double Earth Grid or mesh) with two rod of length 9.6 m

100
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR [%]

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Surface distance from outer contour [m]

Figure 3.4- Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for Earth Grid (single Earth Grid, double Earth Grid or mesh) with three rod of length 9.6 m

100
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR [%]

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Surface distance from outer contour [m]

Figure 3.5 - Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for Earth Grid (single Earth Grid, double Earth Grid or mesh) with four rod of length 9.6 m

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 80
Ratio Surface Potential / GPR

60
[%]

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Surface distance from outer Earth Grid [m]

Figure 3.6 - Change of ratio of surface potential to GPR for one rod of length 9.6 m

1 – Outer Earth Grid of 11kV protective earthing; 2 – copper earth rod; 3 – LV earthing pit.
Figure 3.7 – Distance of LV earthing pit from the boundary Earth Grid of 11kV protective earthing (the value of distance d from outer Earth Grid determined
from Figure 3.1 - Figure 3.6)
4. GUIDELINE FOR THE LAYOUT OF THE EARTHING SYSTEM OF RESISTANCE 20  SUPPOSING UNIFORM SOIL
This section offers the guidance for the needed size of the earthing systems with and without loops (Earth Grids). The loops (Earth Grids) are buried directly in
soil and the rods should be in backfill material/ GEM of diameter 320 mm. As previously stated, the recommendation for practical building of the earthing system
is adding one by one rod and checking if the target earthing resistance is reached. This guidance is not the design rule, which guarantees achieving
the earthing resistance of 20  since the soil will never be ideal uniform, but can be used for rough estimation based on the roughly estimated unique soil
resistivity.
The recommendation for the size of earthing systems is as follows.
Simple earthing rods (in backfill/ GEM material of diameter 320 mm):
 up to 170 m, rod of length 4.8 m
 up to 200 m, rod of length 6.0 m
 up to 225 m, rod of length 7.2 m
 up to 250 m, rod of length 8.4 m
 up to 280 m, rod of length 9.6 m
Quadratic loop (at the depth 0.8 m (calculations are done for depth 0.5 m since the thickness of the soil above the copper conductor of the loop might be
reduced due to acting of the wind)), buried directly in soil and the number and the length of rods (in backfill/ GEM material of diameter 320 mm) for different
soils:
 up to 380 m, Earth Grid 5 m x 5 m, no rod is required,

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 from 300 m to 400 m, Earth Grid 5 m x 5 m, one rod of length 9.6 m
 from 500 m to 500 m, Earth Grid 5 m x 5 m, two rods of length 9.6 m
 from 575 m to 600 m, Earth Grid 5 m x 5 m, three rods of length 9.6 m
 from 640 m to 650 m, Earth Grid 5 m x 5 m, four rods of length 9.6 m

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5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 33 KV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (METALLIC GROUNDED POLES)
5.1. System earthing
OHL network 33kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 220/33kV power transformer. Figure 5.1 presents conceptual connections of system earthing.

Figure 5.1 – Concept of system earthing in 33kV OHL network

5.2. 33kV OHL on metallic poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW)
The 33 kV OHL network contains the OHGW/OPGW, which is placed on the metallic (grounded) poles and connects adjacent towers poles and theirs 33kV
protective earthing resistances. Typically, used overhead ground wire in 33 kV OHL network is a copper wire of minimum cross-section 95 mm2. Cross-section
less than 95 mm2 should not be used, while actual cross-section should be determined taking into account thermal short circuit withstand properties.
5.3. Protective and operational earthing
33kV Protective and 33kV operational earthing of the 33kV OHL network with OHGW/OPGW are connected.
5.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
The 33 kV overhead line is placed on the metallic structure, which are grounded trough the earthing grid (Earth Grid), and connects the neighboring metallic
towers (and theirs earthings) and primary substations 33/11 kV. The resistance of the 33kV protective earthing should not be greater than 20 . If the
33 kV OHL line supplies substations 33 kV / 11 kV from which 11 kV lines are cables supplying urban areas, the resistances of 33kV protective earthing should
ensure transferred potential to LV (0.4kV) side to be below allowed limits (see Section 14.). If the criteria is not fulfilled, the value of 33kV protective earthing
resistance should be lowered from 20  down to 5 . The 33kV protective earthing is to be implemented with one quadratic loop 5 m x 5 m of cooper tape
around the pole at 0.8 m depth with vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the
Earth Grid each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance. If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of
additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located
in corners of the Earth Grid. The number of installed rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
5.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings
The distance (or span length) between two 33kV protective earthings should not be greater than 100 m (maximum distance between two towers earthed with
earthing system of resistance not greater than 20  (down to 5  - see 3.4)). In general, this would mean that every tower needs to be earthed.
5.6. Additional safety requirement
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 33 KV CABLE NETWORK
6.1. System earthing
Cable network 33kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 220/33kV power transformer. Figure 6.1 presents conceptual connections of system
earthing.

Figure 6.1 – Concept of system earthing in 33kV Cable network

6.2. 33kV Cable Armours/Interstitials/Screens
33kV three-core cables contain steel armour tape, copper Interstitial conductor and copper tape screen. The armour/Interstitial/screen conductor of 33kV cable
connects the 33kV protective earthings of the connected substations at both ends. The outer sheath of the cable is made of the non-conductive materials (PE-
ST7). The armours/interstitials/screens influence the zero impedance of the cable – the total cross-section of armours/interstitials/screens of more than 25 mm2
ensures validity of the recommendations from this document and safety by earth faults. Bigger cross-section of armours/interstitials/screens improves the safety
and lead to safe conditions by earth faults when the recommendations from this document are complied.
6.3. Protective and operational earthing
33kV protective and 33kV operational earthing are connected.
6.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
The armour/screen/interstitial conductor of 33 kV cable connects the 33kV protective earthing of the supplied 33/11kV substations. It is recommended that
the resistance of the 33kV protective earthing at the 33/11kV substation should not be greater than 1Ω.
6.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings (adjacent substations)
No requirements for the distance, i.e. by the check it was supposed that the distance is bigger than 1000 m. Check of safety was performed for numerous cases
(different number of substations on cable line, with variable lengths between substations varying - from 1000 m to 10 km).

7. RECOMMENDATION FOR EARTHINGS IN PRIMARY AND PACKAGE UNIT SUBSTATIONS 33/11 KV

7.1. Introduction
This section of the recommendation relates to the earthing of primary and package unit substations 33/11 kV. The earthing system conceptual layout for Primary
substation 33/11kV is shown in Figure 7.1 and for Package unit 33/11kV is shown in Figure 7.2.
7.2. Operational and Protective Earthing
Earthing in primary and package unit substations 33/11 kV is done as combined earthing - the 33kV protective earthing and 11kV operational earthing (power
transformer neutral point) are connected.
On the combined earthing are connected: bodies of power transformers and station supply transformers, cable armours, copper screens and interstitial
conductors, housings of all electrical equipment, all electrical protection conductors and cable armour, secondary electrical circuit of the instrument transformers,
surge arresters, overhead ground wires (OHGW/OPGW), earthing conductors of the lightning installation, pipelines, metallic fences and gates and all other
metallic part of equipment and apparatus which do not belong to the electrical circuit exposed to increased potential due to ground fault. In addition, on the
combined earthing are connected the neutral points of power transformers and station supply transformers.
Metallic water and drainage pipes and other metallic utilities in the ground should be galvanically separated from the earthing by insertion of the isolation
materials at the places where the pipes are incoming to the substation.
The concept guideline of combined earthing of the primary and package unit substations 33/11 kV is given in further text of this Section.
7.2.1. Design guidelines
In foundation of the object (building) of substation, the first Earth Grid (ring) is to be placed (foundation earthing).
Reinforced concrete construction could be used as the foundation earthing only in case when steel reinforcement has direct contact (over the concrete) with
the soil. In that case, the first Earth Grid does not required to be installed.
On distance of 1 m from the wall and at the depth of 0.8 m, an Earth Grid for the reduction of non-uniformity of potential on the surface and consequent reduction
of touch voltage is placed. This Earth Grid (second ring of the earthing) is connected to the foundation earthing directly and connected to the main earthing
mesh of the substation.
For all MV and LV fault current carrying components, two conductors each sized for the full fault current shall be provided. In all electrical rooms like GIS,
LVAC/DC (battery) rooms, basements, etc. galvanized iron potential equalizing meshes shall be provided (according to the AADC specification S-AAA-EARTH-
GROUND and Technical Data Sheets D-AAA-EARTH-GROUND ). It shall be connected to the earthing grid via potential equalization bars at four locations.
7.2.2. Outer Earth Grid
The outer Earth Grid of the mesh is placed at 1 m from the fence (outside of the substation) at the depth 0.8 m. Metallic fences and gates, as well as foundation
steel reinforcements, shall be connected to the outer Earth Grid.
7.2.3. Earthing mesh
Earthing conductors should be placed under or near each element of substation, as illustrated in Figures 7.1 and 7.2. The rule which has to be followed in
placing the earthing conductor forming the mesh inside the outer Earth Grid is that the maximum loop inside the mesh does not exceed 10 m x 5 m.
Entire substation earthing mesh (also the upper surface of the rod) is buried at depth 0.8 m.

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7.2.4. Earthing rods
The earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill material of 320mm are to be placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time
measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (1Ω). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of
19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the
certain Earth Grid. The number of installed rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
7.2.5. Additional safety measures
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.
7.2.6. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and final acceptance of the substation 33/11 kV, the substation’s overall earthing system resistance has to be measured. The safety
conditions of the touch and step voltage shall be measured and verified to be below maximum allowable as per equations 1.1 and 1.3. For all substation (in
both OHL and Cable line network) 33/11 kV, the earthing resistance should not exceed 1.
Testing procedures should be done according to and IEEE Std 81-2012.

1 – Earth Grid for potential control around the object; 2 – outer Earth Grid of the earthing mesh; 3 – boundary wall; 4 – earth rod in backfill material; 5 – earthing
conductor; 6 – transformer 33/11 kV; 7 – auxiliary transformer 11/0.4 kV; 8 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 9 – MV cable for neutral earthing; 10 –
additional surface material; 11 – lighting post.
Figure 7.1 –Concept of combined Earthing of the Primary substation 33/11 kV

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1 – Earth Grid for potential control around the object; 2 – outer Earth Grid of the earthing mesh; 3 – fence; 4 – earth rod in backfill material; 5 – earthing
conductor; 6 – Power transformer; 7 – Auxiliary transformer; 8 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 9 – MV cable for neutral earthing 10 – Additional
surface material.
Figure 7.2 – Concept of combined Earthing of the Package unit substation 33/11 kV

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8. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11KV OHL NETWORK WITHOUT OHGW/OPGW (WOODEN POLES)
8.1. System earthing
OHL network 11kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 33/11kV power transformer. Figure 8.1 presents conceptual connections of system earthing.

Figure 8.1 – Concept of system earthing in 11kV OHL network with wooden poles without OHGW

8.2. 11kV OHL without OHGW/OPGW on wooden poles

11kV OHL are installed on wooden poles.
8.3. Protective and operational earthing
11kV Protective and 11kV operational earthing of 11kV OHL network without OHGW/OPGW are not connected.
8.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
The 11kV OHL is placed on the wooden poles and connects various electrical equipment (such as pole mounted transformers (PMT) 11/0.4 kV, Re-closers,
sectionalizers, switches, TRMs etc.). At locations where electrical equipment is connected to 11kV OHL, it is necessary to implement the 11kV protective
earthing.
Since there is no OHGW present (near-by earthings not interconnected), for this type of networks combined 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing is
not allowed i.e. it must be effectively separated. Needed distance to achieve efficient separation is defined in Section 3. The resistance of the 11kV protective
earthing should not be greater than 20.
8.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings
No requirements for the distance since 11kV protective earthings along the line are not connected (no OHGW/OPGW).
8.6. Additional safety requirement
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11 KV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (WOODEN POLES)
9.1. System earthing
OHL network 11kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 33/11kV power transformer. Figure 9.1 presents conceptual connections of system earthing.

Figure 9.1 – Concept of system earthing in 11kV OHL network with wooden poles with OHGW

9.2. 11kV OHL on wood poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW)
The 11kV OHL network contains the OHGW/OPGW, which is placed on the wooden poles and connects adjacent 11kV protective earthings. Typically used
overhead ground wire currently in AADC 11 kV OHL network is a copper wire of minimum cross-section 35 mm2. Cross-section less than 35 mm2 should not
be used, while actual cross-section should be determined taking into account thermal short circuit withstand properties.
9.3. Protective and operational earthing
11kV Protective and 11kV operational earthing of the 11kV OHL with OHGW are connected.
9.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
The 11kV OHL is placed on the wooden poles and connects various electrical equipment (such as pole mounted transformers (PMT) 11/0.4 kV, Re-closers,
sectionalizers, switches, TRMs etc.). At locations where electrical equipment is connected to 11 kV OHL it is necessary to implement the 11kV protective
earthing.
If there are no 11/0.4kV distribution transformers, 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 9.4.1.
If there are 11/0.4kV distributions, there are two possibilities - to combine or separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing. Separated 11kV protective
and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when there is possibility for effective separation (suburban areas) and soil condition is poor (ρ>300Ωm). Combined
11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when soil condition is good (ρ<300Ωm) or there is no space for effective separation (this is typically a
case in urban areas). Needed distance to achieve efficient separation is defined in Section 3. If they are separated, the resistance of the 11kV protective
earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 9.4.1. If they are combined, the resistance of the combined earthing should not be
greater than value defined in paragraph 9.4.2.
9.4.1. Recommendation for separate protective earthing
The resistance of the 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than 40. The detailed description of the design of the separated earthing of
resistance below 40 is given in Section 12.

9.4.2. Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing

The resistance of the combined earthing should not be greater than
 2 , for up to 7 substations on the line
 4 , if there are 8 or more substations on the line
The detailed description of the design of the combined earthing of resistance below 2/4  is given in Section 12.
9.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings
The distance (or span length) between two 11kV protective earthings should not be greater than 500 m. If the section between two 11kV protective earthings
is larger than 500 m the additional earthings (as specified in 9.4) have to be installed in such way that the distance of between the earthings is lower than 500 m.
9.6. Additional safety requirements
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11KV OHL NETWORK WITH OHGW/OPGW (METALLIC GROUNDED POLES)
10.1. System earthing
OHL network 11kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 33/11kV power transformer
Figure 10.1 presents conceptual connections of system earthing.

Figure 10.1 – Concept of system earthing in 11kV OHL network with metallic poles

10.2. 11kV OHL on metallic poles with Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW/OPGW)
The 11 kV OHL network contains the OHGW/OPGW which is placed on the metallic (grounded) poles and connects adjacent towers. Typically used overhead
ground wires in 11kV OHL network is a copper wire of minimum cross-section 35 mm2. Cross-section less than 35 mm2 should not be used, while actual cross-
section should be determined taking into account thermal short circuit withstand properties.
10.3. Protective and operational earthing
11kV Protective and 11kV operational earthing of 11kV OHL network with OHGW are connected.
10.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
The 11 kV OHL is placed on the metallic structures which are grounded trough the earthing grid (Earth Grid) and connects the neighboring metallic towers and
various electrical equipment (such as PMT 11/0.4 kV, Re-closers, switches, sectionalizers, TRMs etc.). At locations where electrical equipment is connected to
11 kV OHL it is necessary to implement the 11kV protective earthing.
If there are no 11/0.4kV distribution transformers, 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 10.4.1.
If there are 11/0.4kV distributions, there are two possibilities - to combine or separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing. Separated 11kV protective
and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when there is possibility for effective separation (suburban areas) and soil condition is poor (ρ>300Ωm). Combined
11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when soil condition is good (ρ<300Ωm) or there is no space for effective separation (this is typically a
case in urban areas). Needed distance to achieve efficient separation is defined in Section 3. If they are separated, the resistance of the 11kV protective
earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 10.4.1. If they are combined, the resistance of the combined earthing should not be
greater than value defined in paragraph 10.4.2.
10.4.1. Recommendation for separate protective earthing
The resistance of the 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than 40 . The detailed description of the design of the separated earthing of
resistance below 40  is given in Section 12.
10.4.2. Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing
The resistance of the combined earthing should not be greater than
 2 , for up to 7 substations on the line
 4 , if there are 8 or more substations on the line
The detailed description of the design of the combined earthing of resistance below 2/4  is given in Section 12.
10.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings
For this type of the network the distance (or span length) between two 11kV protective earthing (each pole is earthed) should not be greater than 100 m.
10.6. Additional safety requirement
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN OF EARTHING IN 11KV CABLE NETWORK
11.1. System earthing

Cable network 11kV is with solidly earthed neutral point of supplying 33/11kV power transformer. Figure 11.1 presents conceptual connections of system
earthing.

Figure 11.1 – Concept of system earthing in 11kV Cable network

11.2. 11kV Cable Armours/Interstitial/Screens

11kV three-core cables contain steel armour tape, copper Interstitial conductor and copper tape screen. Three-core cables contain steel armour tape, copper
Interstitial conductor and copper tape screen. The armour/Interstitial/screen conductor of 11 kV cable connects the 11kV protective earthings of the connected
substations/equipment at both ends. The outer sheath of the cable is made of the nonconductive materials (PE-ST7). The armours/interstitials/screens influence
to the zero impedance of the cable – the total cross-section of armours/interstitials/screens of more than 25 mm2 ensures validity of the recommendations from
this document and safety by earth faults. Bigger cross-section of armours/interstitials/screens improves the safety and lead to safe conditions by earth faults
when the recommendations from this document are respected.
11.3. Protective and operational earthing
11kV Protective and 11kV operational earthing are connected.
11.4. Recommendation for protective earthing
If there are no 11/0.4kV distribution transformers, 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 11.4.15.
If there are 11/0.4kV distributions, there are two possibilities - to combine or separate 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing. Separated 11kV protective
and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when there is possibility for efficient separation (suburban areas) and soil condition is poor (ρ>300Ωm). Combined
11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing are used when soil condition is good (ρ<300Ωm) or there is no space for effective separation (this is typically a
case in urban areas). Needed distance to achieve efficient separation is defined in Section 3. If they are separated, the resistance of the 11kV protective
earthing should not be greater than value defined in paragraph 11.4.1. If they are combined, the resistance of the combined earthing should not be
greater than value defined in paragraph 11.4.2. Additional requirements to fulfil the safety from transferring of dangerous voltages are specified in following
paragraphs.
11.4.1. Recommendation for separate protective earthing
The resistance of the 11kV protective earthing should not be greater than 20 . The detailed description of the design of the separated earthing of
resistance below 20  is given in Section 3.
11.4.2. Recommendation for combined protective and operational earthing
The resistance of the combined earthing should not be greater than
 2 , for up to 7 substations on the line
 4 , if there are 8 or more substations on the line
The detailed description of the design of the combined earthing of resistance below 2/4  is given in Section 12.
11.5. Distance between adjacent protective earthings (adjacent substations)
The distance between two 11kV protective (or combined) earthings should not exceed:
 1000 m if the 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are separated
 500 m if the protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are combined

If in practice the distance between two substations 11 / 0.4 kV is bigger than recommended 1000 m (500 m) cable’s protective armour/Interstitial/screen should
be earthed at each 500 m (or less).

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12. RECOMMENDATION FOR EARTHING OF DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS 11/0.4 KV IN OVERHEAD LINE NETWORKS
12.1. Introduction
This section of the recommendation relates to the design of the earthing systems in distribution substations 11/0.4 kV (PMT (pole mount transformer), GMT
(Ground Mounted Transformer), Package Units and brick built substations) and 11kV switching stations which are directly or over cable connected to the
medium voltage overhead line network (MV OHL).
If substation is connected to 11 kV OHL network with OHGW/OPGW through underground cable, or there is any other cable section across the OHL, it is
necessary that across the cable the galvanization (of the protective wires) of two neighboring sections is provided.
Recommended typical design explained in the following text should be verified by contractor during project implementation by calculation using the measured
soil resistivity.
12.2. Protective and Operational earthing
If there is enough space for effective separation (according to Section 3.) and soil resistivity is higher than 300Ωm (poor soil condition), 11kV
Protective earthing and 0.4kV Operational earthing should be separated. Separated 11kV Protective earthing and 0.4kV Operational earthing is also
the only option when there is no Overhead ground wire present.
Alternative to the separated earthing, if soil resistivity is less than 300 Ωm (good soil conditions) and there is Overhead Ground Wire, it is
recommended to adopt combined 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing - in such case, all design guidelines for stations in Cable networks given
in Section 11. shall be applicable for OHL networks and this section shall not be followed.
It is necessary to highlight that in case of separation of 11kV Protective and 0.4kV Operational earthing as per this section, there is a risk of
undetected LV earth-fault (small fault current) within the transformer metallic body in which case it is recommended to consider additional LV earth-
fault protection.
If there is a case that AADC is not the owner of LV switchgear, it is recommended also to combine 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing due to issues
on safety procedures for personnel working in LV switchgear (danger of touching neutral conductor or cable armour/screen being connected to remote earth
potential while the earth fault at 11kV happen) - in such case guidelines for earthing systems in distribution substations in cable networks ( refer Section 11)
shall be followed.
On the 11kV protective earthing are connected: bodies of distribution transformers, overhead ground wires (OHGW/OPGW), housings of all electrical equipment,
all electrical protection conductors, MV cable armours, interstitials and copper screens, secondary electrical circuit of the MV instrument transformers, surge
arresters, earthing conductors of the lightning installation, pipelines, metallic fences and gates and all other metallic part of equipment and apparatus not
belonging to electrical circuits. In such way, the equalization of the potential is performed inside the substation.
For all MV and LV fault current carrying components, two conductors each sized for the full fault current shall be provided.
On the 0.4kV operational earthing are connected: the neutral of the low voltage side of the distribution transformer, LV cable armours/copper
screens, secondary electrical circuit of the LV instrument transformers, LV cable neutral and PE (if existing) conductor.
12.3. Design guidelines for earthing of brick built 11/0.4kV substations, Package units and 11 kV Switching stations in suburban areas
The earthing system conceptual layout for brick built 11/0.4kV Distribution substation, PU and 11kV Switching station in suburban areas is shown in Figure
12.1. The earthing shall be done as following:
12.4. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
In foundation of the substation, the first Earth Grid (ring - horizontal earthing conductors) is to be placed inside foundation (foundation earthing).
Reinforced concrete construction could be used as the foundation earthing only in case when steel reinforcement has direct contact (over the concrete) with
the soil. In that case, the first Earth Grid does not need to be installed.
On distance of 1 m from the wall of the substation at the depth of 0.8 m the Earth Grid is placed with vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill
material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (20Ω without
OHGW/OPGW and 40Ω with OHGW/OPGW). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16
x 1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the certain Earth
Grid. The number of installed rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
For equalizing of the potential in the building (container), galvanized iron mesh (maximum size of the loop 50x50 cm) shall be cast into the surface of all building
(container) floors. The potential equalization bars shall connect it to the 11kV protective earthing system as well as with steel concrete reinforcement of the
building.
12.5. LV enclosures (Switchgears)
LV enclosures (switchgears) in the substation belonging to the LV side and other metallic structures or equipment parts (not belonging to the main circuitry)
carrying the LV equipment shall be isolated from the ground and from all other metallic structures which are connected to the 11kV protective earthing - this is
to be done by GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic) panels or the metallic LV enclosure shall be coated by rubber or PVC.
In the case that this requirement is not possible to achieve e.g. in Package units substations where metallic LV switchgear is embedded, this section shall not
be followed and all design guidelines for stations in Cable networks given in Section 11 shall be applicable.
During repairing and maintenance on LV cables inside LV switchgears, only distribution transformer shutdown is required, but before any repairing and
maintenance on LV cables, pertaining cable must be fully (on both ends) isolated. Hence, all LV Feeder pillars/ Service turrets supplied by distribution
substation, in addition to phase isolation links must be equipped with Neutral and Protective (PE wire and cable sheath) circuits isolation links and insulated
cable glands.
12.6. 0.4kV Operational earthing
The 0.4kV operational earthing shall be made of two separate earthing rods placed in earthing pits. 0.4kV operational earthing has to be positioned at required
distance (defined and given in section 3) from the 11kV protective earthing and shall be implemented as two vertical earth rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with
backfill material of 320mm; overall maximum earthing resistance 40 . If the target resistance is not achieved, the installation of additional rods of 14.4m (12 x
1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required at distance minimum 10m away as shown on the layout.
12.7. Additional safety measures
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.
Due to risk of undetected LV earth-fault (small fault current) within the transformer metallic body, it is recommended to consider additional LV earth-
fault protection.

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12.8. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and Final acceptance, the 11kV protective earthing system resistance (20Ω without OHGW and 40Ω with OHGW/OPGW) and 0.4kV
operational earthing resistance (40Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target values. The safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step
voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.
Testing procedures should be done according to IEEE Std. 81-2012.

1 – First ring; copper tape placed in foundation earthing of the substation; 2 – Earth Grid for the potential control (1 m from the building, at 0.5 m depth);
3 – vertical earthing (earth rods); 4 – power transformer; 5 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 6 – isolator; 7 – equalization of the potential inside
substation; 8 – LV switchgear (not grounded - isolated from the ground); 9 – MV switchgear; 10 – LV cable (cable conductor 1x50 mm2); 11 – Neutral point
earthing pit; vertical earth rod with backfill material; 12 – Isolating link; 13 – LV cable incomer
Figure 12.1 – Earthing system of the brick built distribution substation, PU and switching station (suburban area)

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12.9. Design guidelines for earthing of Ground mounted transformer (GMT) in suburban areas
The earthing system conceptual layout for 11/0.4kV GMT in suburban areas is shown in Figure 12.2. The earthing shall be done as following:
12.9.1. Earthing mesh and rods
The 11kV protective earthing is formed of the earth mesh (horizontal earthing conductors) and vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill
material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the mesh each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (20Ω without OHGW/OPGW
and 40Ω with OHGW/OPGW). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with
backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the mesh. The number of
installed rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
The outer Earth Grid of the mesh is placed at 1m from the fence (outside of the substation). Additional mesh conductors should be placed under each element
of substation, the maximum loop inside the mesh should not exceed 10m x 5m (5m between the lines of positioning the equipment (elements of substation)).
12.9.2. LV enclosures (Switchgears)
Guidelines stipulated in chapter 12.3.2 shall be followed.
12.9.3. 0.4kV Operational earthing
Guidelines stipulated in chapter 12.3.3 shall be followed.
12.9.4. Additional safety measures
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.
Due to risk of undetected LV earth-fault (small fault current) within the transformer metallic body, it is recommended to consider additional LV earth-
fault protection.
12.9.5. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and Final acceptance, the 11kV protective earthing system resistance (20Ω without OHGW and 40Ω with OHGW/OPGW) and 0.4kV
operational earthing resistance (40Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target values. The safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step
voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.
Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012.

1 – Neutral point earthing pit; vertical earth rod with backfill material; 2 – Low voltage cable 1x50 mm2; 3 –11kV protective earthing mash (copper tape buried
at 0.8 m); 4 –earth rod in backfill material 5 – earthing conductor; 6 – conductor for fence earthing; 7 – armour reinforce of foundation; 8 – Fence of the
substation.; 9 – MV switchgear; 10 – LV switchgear not grounded - isolated from the ground; 11 – Additional surface material; 12 – LV cable incomer
Figure 12.2 – Earthing system of the ground mounted transformer (GMT) (suburban area)

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12.10. Design guidelines for earthing of Pole mounted transformer (PMT) in suburban areas
The earthing system conceptual layouts for 11/0.4kV PMT in suburban areas are shown in Figures 12.3, 12.4 and 12.5 depending on the target resistance
value and soil resistivity. The earthing shall be done as following:
12.10.1. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
For lower values of target grounding resistance (without presence of OHGW/OPGW - 20 ) and higher soil resistivity (ρ>558 Ωm), the Earth Grid of size
5 m x 5 m (eventually more (see chapters 17.2.1, 17.2.2 and 17.2.6 of Attachment B; since the values in column Resistance () are given for supposed soil
resistivity 500m, they should be multiplied with the ratio of real soil resistivity ( m) / 500  m)) is to be placed around the pole at 0.8 m depth with vertical
earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the Earth Grid (Figure 12.3) each time measuring
and targeting the earthing resistance (20Ω). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x
1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the Earth Grid.
The number of installed rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
For higher values of target grounding resistance (presence of OHGW/OPGW - 40 ) and lower soil resistivity (ρ<558 Ωm), the Earth Grid is not necessarily to
be applied. This is to be checked in design stage of the substations - guidance is given in this Engineering standard (see Table 17.34 in chapter 17.2.8 of
Attachment B; since the values in column Resistance () are given for supposed soil resistivity 500m, they should be multiplied with the ratio of real soil
resistivity ( m) / 500  m).
In this case, simple earthing system (Figure 12.4) of just one vertical rod (4 to 8 rods, each 1.2m long) with backfill material 320mm without Earth Grid could be
used; the rod should be as close as possible to the pole. It is also allowed to use more rods if required to reach the target resistance (40Ω) and to connect them
with the copper tape (Figure 12.5), with the distance between the rods of minimum 5m.
12.10.2. LV enclosures (Feeder pillars)
There are two possibilities for installation of LV enclosures (Feeder pillars):
 recommended solution - to relocate LV metal enclosure (Feeder pillar) just above one of 0.4kV operational earthing pits and its metallic body should
be connected to the 0.4kV operational earthing; it is not necessary to position LV pillar above 0.4kV earthing, but the distance between the 11kV
protective grounding and position of LV pillar should not be less than the distance between the 11kV protective grounding and the 0.4kV operational
grounding.
 to isolate LV enclosure (Feeder pillar) from the ground and from all other metallic structures which are connected to the 11kV protective earthing - this
is to be done by GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic) panels or the metallic LV enclosure shall be coated by rubber or PVC. In this case, Feeder pillar could
be located below the PMT.
In both previous cases, only distribution transformer shutdown, during repairing and maintenance on LV cables inside LV Feeder pillar, is required.
In addition, it must be highlighted that, before any repairing and maintenance on LV cables inside LV enclosures, pertaining cable must be fully (on both ends)
isolated. Hence, all LV enclosures (Service turrets) supplied by PMT, in addition to phase isolation links must be equipped with Neutral and Protective (PE
wire and cable sheath) circuits isolation links and insulated cable glands.
Standardized LV cutout fuses are installed below the transformer and isolated by GRP or installed in LV enclosure coated by rubber or PVC.
12.10.3. 0.4kV Operational earthing
Guidelines stipulated in chapter 12.6 shall be followed.
12.10.4. Additional safety measures
It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part /
equipment in order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote
areas due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.

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Due to risk of undetected LV earth-fault (small fault current) within the transformer metallic body it is recommended to consider additional LV earth-
fault protection.
12.10.5. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and Final acceptance, the 11kV protective earthing system resistance (20Ω without OHGW and 40Ω with OHGW/OPGW) and 0.4kV
operational earthing resistance (40Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target values. The safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step
voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.
Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012.

1 – the Earth Grid; 2 – vertical earthing (earthing rod); 3 –Earthing conductor; 4 – Low voltage cable conductor 1x50 mm2 for neutral earthing; 5 – Neutral point
earthing pit; vertical earth rod with backfill material; 6 – LV pillar relocated above 0.4kV operational earthing or isolated below the PMT; 7 – additional surface
material
Figure 12.3 – Earthing system of the Pole mounted transformer with Earth Grid and rods (applicable for lower target resistance value (20Ω) and soil resistivity
more than 558Ωm)

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1 – vertical earthing (earthing rod) positioned near the pole; 2 –Earthing conductor; 3 – Low voltage cable conductor 1x50 mm2 for neutral earthing; 4 – Neutral
point earthing pit; vertical earth rod with backfill material; 5 – LV pillar relocated above 0.4kV operational earthing or isolated below the PMT; 6 – additional
surface material
Figure 12.4 – Earthing system of the Pole mounted transformer with rod without Earth Grid (applicable for higher target resistance value (40Ω) and soil resistivity
less than 558Ωm)

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 33
1 – earthing tape; 2 – vertical earthing (earthing rod) - first rod positioned near the pole; 3 –Earthing conductor; 4 – Low voltage cable conductor 1x50 mm2 for
neutral earthing; 5 – Neutral point earthing pit; vertical earth rod with backfill material; 6 – LV pillar relocated above 0.4kV operational earthing or isolated below
the PMT; 7 – additional surface material
Figure 12.5 – Earthing system of the Pole mounted transformer with rods connected with tape without Earth Grid (applicable for higher target resistance value
(40Ω) and soil resistivity less than 558Ωm)

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13. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EARTHING OF DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS 11/0.4KV IN CABLE NETWORKS
13.1. Introduction
This section of the recommendation relates to the design of the earthing systems in distribution substations 11/ 0.4 kV (GMT (Ground Mounted Transformer),
Package Units, brick built substations and switching stations) operating in the medium voltage cable line network.
Recommended typical design explained in the following text should be verified by contractor during project implementation by calculation using the measured
soil resistivity. Guidelines for measurement of Soil resistivity shall be referred.
13.2. Protective and Operational earthing
If there is not enough space for effective separation of 11kV Protective earthing and 0.4kV Operational earthing, these earthings must be combined.
Also, if there is enough space and soil resistivity is less than 300Ωm (good soil conditions), 11kV Protective and 0.4kV Operational earthing should
be combined. The maximum allowable GPR that can occur on the combined earthing of the substation in the urban area is equal to 1000 V - in such case
guidelines from this section shall be followed.
Alternative to the combined earthing, if soil resistivity is higher than 300 Ωm (poor soil conditions) and there is enough space for effective separation
of 11kV Protective earthing and 0.4kV Operational earthing, it is recommended to adopt effective separation - in such case all design guidelines for
stations in OHL networks shall be referred as applicable for cable networks and this section shall not be followed.
If there is a case that AADC is not the owner of LV switchgear, it is recommended also to combine 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing due to
issues on safety procedures for personnel working in LV switchgear.
On the combined earthing are connected: bodies of distribution transformers, overhead ground wires (OHGW/OPGW), housings of all electrical equipment, all
electrical protection conductors, MV cable armours, interstitials and copper screens, secondary electrical circuit of the MV & LV instrument transformers, the
neutral of the low voltage side of the distribution transformer, LV cable armours/copper screens, LV cable neutral and PE (if existing) conductor, surge arresters,
earthing conductors of the lightning installation, water and drainage pipelines, metallic fences and gates and all other metallic part of equipment and apparatus
not belonging to electrical circuits. In such way the equalization of the potential is performed inside the substation.
For all MV and LV fault current carrying components, two conductors each sized for the full fault current shall be provided.
13.3. Design guidelines for earthing of brick built 11/0.4kV distribution substations, Package units and 11kV Switching station free standing in
Urban areas
The earthing system conceptual layout for brick built 11/0.4kV Distribution substation, PU and 11kV Switching station in urban areas is shown in Figure 13.1.
The combined earthing shall be done as following:
13.3.1. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
As a rule, there is reinforced concrete construction and it should be used as the foundation earthing. If it does not exist or if there is no direct contact (over the
concrete) with the soil, the Earth Grid (ring - horizontal earthing conductors) is to be placed (element 1 on Figure 13.1).
On distance of 1 m from the wall of the object at depth of 0.8 m outer Earth Grid shall be placed with vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill
material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (2Ω or 4Ω as per
Section 11). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with backfill material of
320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the certain Earth Grid. The number of installed
rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
For equalizing of the potential in the building (container), galvanized iron mesh (maximum size of the loop 50x50 cm) shall be cast into the surface of all building
(container) floors. The potential equalization bars shall connect it to the 11kV protective earthing system as well as with steel concrete reinforcement of the
building.
13.3.2. LV enclosures (Switchgears)
Since 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are combined, there are no special requirements for LV switchgear at the substation or for Feeder pillars
and Service turrets within the LV network.
13.3.3. Additional safety measures
If the voltage on LV neutral and all metallic bodies of electrical equipment in LV due to transfer voltage (see Section 2) rises above 1000 V, safety criteria with
the setting of protection in MV network specified in this document would not be fulfilled. That is why additional safety measures in the LV network have to be
applied in the case of combined 0.4kV operational and 11kV protective earthing:
 The proper equalization of the potential connecting PE conductor and all metallic parts in the building at central equalization bar. This have to be done
in every building supplied from this type of distribution substation.
 Installation of the potential control rings and It is necessary to use the additional surface material of approved gravel with a minimum thickness not
less than 10 cm and 1 m around exposed metallic part / equipment objects/structures which are connected to the substation earthing (such as metallic
enclosures caring the telecommunication and LV equipment, LV feeder pillars, LV service cabinet, metallic lampposts and poles or pylons etc.). in
order to increase the tolerable step and touch potential due to any ground fault. As there is a risk of losing the surface material e.g. in remote areas
due to erosion, embankment around the gravel such as curbstones should be used.
13.3.4. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and final acceptance, the combined earthing system resistance (2Ω or 4Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target value. The
safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.
Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012 .

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1 – First ring; copper tape placed in foundation earthing of the substation; 2 – Earth Grid for the potential control (1 m from the building, at 0.8 m depth);
3 – vertical earthing (earth rods); 4 – power transformer; 5 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 6 – isolator; 7 – equalization of the potential inside
substation; 8 – LV switchgear; 9 – MV switchgear; 10 – LV cable incomer; 11 – Buried metallic structures such as water pipes connected to the substation
earthing; 12 – Isolation link
Figure 13.1 – Earthing system of the brick built distribution substation, PU and switching station with combined earthing – free standing in Urban area

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13.4. Design guidelines for earthing of Ground Mounted Transformer (GMT) in urban areas
The earthing system conceptual layout for GMT in urban areas is shown in Figure 13.2. The combined earthing shall be done as following:
13.4.1. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
The combined earthing is formed of the earth mesh (horizontal earthing conductors) and earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill material of 320mm
which should be placed one by one in all four corners of the mesh each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (2Ω or 4Ω as per Section 9.). If
the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are
required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the mesh. The number of installed rods would depend on
the soil resistivity.
The outer Earth Grid of the mesh is placed at 1m from the fence (outside of the substation). Additional mesh conductors should be placed under each element
of substation, the maximum loop inside the mesh should not exceed 10m x 5m (5m between the lines of positioning the equipment (elements of substation)).
13.4.2. LV enclosures (Switchgears)
Since 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are combined, there are no special requirements for LV switchgear at the substation or for Feeder pillars
and Service turrets within the LV network.
13.4.3. Additional safety measures
Measures stipulated in chapter 13.3.3 shall be followed.
13.4.4. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and final acceptance, the combined earthing system resistance (2Ω or 4Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target value. The
safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.
Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012.

1 –11kV protective earthing mash (copper tape buried at 0.8 m); 2 –earth rod in backfill material 3 – earthing conductor; 4 – conductor for fence earthing; 5 –
armour reinforce of foundation; 6 – Fence of the substation.; 7 – MV switchgear; 8 – LV switchgear; 9 – LV cable incomer; 10 – Isolation link
Figure 13.2 – Earthing system of the ground mounted transformer (GMT) with combined earthing in Urban area

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13.5. Design guidelines for earthing OF 11/0.4kV distribution substations inside residential and commercial buildings with foundation earthing
The earthing system conceptual layout is shown in Figure 13.3. The combined earthing shall be done as following:
13.5.1. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
As a rule, there is reinforced concrete construction and it should be used as the foundation earthing. If it does not exist or if there is no direct contact (over the
concrete) with the soil, the Earth Grid (ring - horizontal earthing conductors) is to be placed (element 1 on Figure 13.3). If the foundation earthing (connected to
metal piping to the object e.g. water supply or drainage) has earthing resistance lower than 2  or 4  (as per section 11), there is no need for the additional
earthing. If the foundation earthing does not fulfil required target resistance, additional Earth Grid at 1 m from the foundation, at the depth 0.8 m, with vertical
earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time measuring and
targeting the earthing resistance (2Ω or 4Ω). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x
1.2m) with backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the certain Earth
Grid. The number of installed rods would depend of the soil resistivity.
For equalizing of the potential in the substation, galvanized iron mesh (maximum size of the loop 50x50 cm) shall be cast into the surface of substation floors.
The potential equalization bars shall connect it to the 11kV protective earthing system as well as with steel concrete reinforcement of the building.
13.5.2. LV enclosures (Switchgears)
Since 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are combined, there are no special requirements for LV switchgear at the substation or for Feeder pillars
and Service turrets within the LV network.
13.5.3. Additional safety measures
Measures stipulated in chapter 13.3.3 shall be followed.
13.5.4. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and final acceptance, the combined earthing system resistance (2Ω or 4Ω) shall be measured for verifying to be below target value. The
safety conditions of maximum allowable touch and step voltage shall be measured and verified as per equations 1.1 and 1.3.

Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012 .

1 – Foundation earthing of the object; 2 – power transformer; 3 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 4 – isolator; 5 – equalization of the potential inside
substation; 6 – LV cable incomer; 7 – MV switchgear; 8 – LV switchgear; 9 – Isolation link.
Figure 13.3 – Foundation earthing of the residential or commercial building used as the combined earthing of the distribution substation

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13.6. Design guidelines for earthing of 11/0.4kV distribution substation inside residential and commercial building without foundation earthing
The earthing system conceptual layouts are shown in Figures 13.4 and 13.5. The combined earthing shall be done as following:
13.6.1. Earthing Earth Grids and rods
If residential or commercial building does not have its own foundation earthing i.e. it is not possible to install earthing Earth Grid in the foundation, then combined
earthing of the substation shall be designed as additional earthing (connected to metal piping to the object e.g. water supply or drainage) which is placed outside
of the building, having earthing resistance lower than 2 , i.e. 4  as per Section 11. The options, depending on the available space around the building, are:
Solution a) As on Figure 13.4 - earthing consists of the Earth Grid (ring) at the depth 0.8 m, with vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m) length with backfill
material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance (2Ω or 4Ω as per
Section 11). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with backfill material of
320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the certain Earth Grid. The number of installed
rods would depend on the soil resistivity.
Solution b) As on 13.5 - earthing consists of the Earth Grid (ring) at the depth 0.8 m placed around the foundation, with vertical earthing rods of 9.6m (8 x 1.2m)
length with backfill material of 320mm placed one by one in all four corners of the outer Earth Grid each time measuring and targeting the earthing resistance
(2Ω or 4Ω as per Section 11). If the target resistance is not achieved after placement of 4th rod, the installation of additional rods of 19.2m (16 x 1.2m) with
backfill material of 320mm are required; additional rods are to be placed between the existing rods which are located in corners of the certain Earth Grid. The
number of installed rods would depend of the soil resistivity.
For equalizing of the potential in the substation, galvanized iron mesh (maximum size of the loop 50x50 cm) shall be cast into the surface of substation floors.
The potential equalization bars shall connect it to the 11kV protective earthing system as well as with steel concrete reinforcement of the building.
13.6.2. LV Enclosures (Switchgears)
Since 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are combined, there are no special requirements for LV switchgear at the substation or for Feeder pillars
and Service turrets within the LV network.
13.6.3. Additional safety measures
Measures stipulated in chapter 13.3.3 shall be followed.
13.6.4. Measurements
Prior to commissioning and final acceptance, the combined earthing system resistance shall be measured for verifying to be below target value (2Ω or 4Ω
according to section 11.). The safety conditions of the touch and step voltage shall be measured and verified to be below maximum allowable as per equations
1.1 and 1.3.

Testing procedures should be done according to section 15 and IEEE Std 81-2012.

1 – The Earth Grid of the earthing; 2 – earth rod; 3 – power transformer; 4 – potential equalizing earth bar (copper); 5 – isolator; 6 – equalization of the potential
inside substation; 7 – LV switchgear; 8 – MV switchgear; 9 – LV cable incomer; 10 – LV cable 1x50mm2; 11 – Isolation link
Figure 9.4 – Combined earthing of the substation placed outside of the residential and commercial building without the foundation earthing – solution a)

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1 – Earth Grid for the potential control (1 m from the building, at 0.5 m depth); 2 – vertical earthing (earth rod); 3 – power transformer; 4 – potential equalizing
earth bar (copper); 5 – isolator; 6 – equalization of the potential inside substation; 7 – LV switchgear; 8 – MV switchgear; 9 – LV cable incomer; 10 – Isolation
link;
Figure 13.5 – Combined earthing of the substation inside the residential and commercial building without foundation earthing – solution b)

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14. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS IN 0.4 KV NETWORK
14.1. LV earthing systems and Recommendation for Resistances
The value of 40  is recommended for the value of 0.4kV operational earthing if the 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthings are separated (the value
originates from the requirements for the protection when the short circuit between MV and LV sides of transformers appears). If the 0.4kV operational and 11kV
protective earthing are connected, the value of needed grounding resistance is as specified in this engineering standard. The Electricity Wiring Regulation
should be fully complied.
14.2. Guidelines for earthing of LV feeder pillars and service turrets
LV switchgears and Feeder pillars which are part of the 11/0.4kV distribution substations shall be grounded or isolated in accordance with relevant sections of
this recommendation.
All metal works of Feeder pillar/ Service Cabinets supplied downstream from distribution substations 11/0.4kV, including cable screens and any internal
structural steel work in connection with 0.4kV operational earthing shall be securely connected together in such a way that a firm metallic connection exists
between each metallic component of the Feeder pillar/ Service Cabinet. Feeder Pillars/Service Cabinet shall be equipped with copper earth bar for connection
of earthing system should be fully complied as per the Electricity Wiring Regulation. Due to requirements of specific safety procedure when repairing or
maintaining LV cable inside LV switchgear inside distribution substations with separated 11kV protective and 0.4kV operational earthing i.e. pertaining cable
must be fully (on both ends) isolated, all LV Feeder pillars/ Service turrets supplied from such distribution substations must be equipped with isolation links in
Neutral and Protective circuits (PE wire and cable sheath).
From safety point of view by ground faults, the following is recommended: Earth Grid around the object (copper tape, 1 m from foundation, buried directly in soil
at the depth 0.8 m) and one earth rod (copper clad steel rod of length 3.6 m, buried directly in soil). Conceptual layout is shown in Figures 14.1.
If the voltage on LV neutral and all metallic bodies of electrical equipment in LV due to transfer voltage rises above 1000 V, safety criteria with the setting of
protection in MV network specified in this document would not be fulfilled and additional measures stipulated in paragraph 13.3.3 must be applied.

Figure 14.1 – Example of earthing (conceptual design) of LV-Feeder Pillar (also applicable to LV service cabinet/turrets/lampposts) - potential control ring of
copper tape, buried directly in soil at the depth 0.8 m, earth rod of length 3.6 m
14.3. Guidelines for earthing of customer connection points (CCP)
The CCP is deemed to be at the incoming cable connection from the Distribution Company. This is most commonly at the Main Distribution Board and before
the main circuit-breaker. Main Distribution Board shall have tinned copper earth bar for connection of earthing system in order to form TN-S-TT system earthing.
The earthing system should be as specified in chapter 14.2.

15. MAINTENANCE AND ROUTINE TESTING PROCEDURES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS

15.1. INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on technical issues related to the maintenance and routine test procedures recommended to verify and maintain the performance and
integrity of earthing systems. AADC network comprises of 6000km of OHL and 29000km of underground cables, which are straddled in very wide Al Ain area,
with very adverse climatic conditions and topographies. Earthing systems, like all outdoor equipment, require much higher maintenance effort than for indoor
equipment. Since AADC network is exposed to all kinds of normal and abnormal influences, maintenance and periodical testing play significant role in providing
quality, safe and uninterrupted service to its valued customers.
Maintenance is defined as the act of preserving or keeping in existing condition that are necessary in order for equipment to operate as it was originally intended.
The main reason for making measurements is to verify the adequacy of a new earthing system and to ascertain those additional measures that are necessary
to protect personnel and equipment. Measurements are also necessary after major changes affecting the basic requirements and at regular intervals (routine

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testing) to check the condition (required parameters) of the earthing installations. Although the execution of measurements may imply some difficulties, they will
generally give more reliable results than can be obtain by calculations. When the soil is non-uniform, measurements to check the theoretical calculations are
necessary.
Over time, corrosive soils with high moisture content, high salt content, and high temperatures can degrade earth electrodes and their connections. Stealing of
elements of earthing system completely diminishes its safety purpose as well. Hence, assessing the condition of earthing system periodically is necessary.
Important objective of periodic measurements is to establish ongoing documentation of the stability and continued performance of the earthing system and to
detect any unsuspected and undesirable changes.
15.1.1. Maintenance strategies
Maintenance activities can be generally divided as following:
o Inspection - Measures to determine and assess the condition of installation (e.g. integrity check)
o Servicing - Measures to insure the installation is preserved in desired condition (e.g. cleaning and tightening of equipment)
o Repair - Measures to restore the desired condition (e.g. adding of earth rods or surface material)
Several maintenance strategies are generally used in electrical systems:
 Corrective maintenance (CM)
 Time based maintenance (TBM)
 Condition based maintenance (CBM)
 Reliability-Centered maintenance (RCM)
In CM strategy, replacement and repair is performed only if a failure occurred. In cases where equipment investment costs are low and a fault will have only
a minor effect, this procedure results in the lowest overall cost.
A TBM strategy has predefined intervals determined by empirical feedback, where components are replaced or repaired after specified period of use.
CM and TBM has been usual strategy in power utilities for many years.
A CBM strategy is driven by the technical condition of the components. Under this approach, all major parameters are considered in order to determine the
technical condition. For this reason required diagnostic is needed i.e. inspection and measurement.
Globally, general maintenance of equipment is shifting towards Condition Based Maintenance (CBM), which are driven, by the technical condition of the
components.
RCM additionally includes a reliability based component. The aim of this approach is to include the influence and the importance of the equipment in the network
as well as the actual condition of the equipment. This strategy is not recommended for earthing systems since it would imply very high installation costs for
diagnostic equipment as well as numerous real time measuring points. In addition, focus of RCM is on large equipment which failure is important for the system
as a whole (e.g. Power transformers, GIS...)
Considering the fact that main role of earthing systems is proper dissipation of fault current and hence safety for human and livestock, considering above as
well as following reasons and CBM should be followed:
1. Keeping proper record of soil resistivity measurements and site acceptance test records of earthing resistance and touch and step voltage.
2. Ensure several 11kV lines (PMTs and other equipment) have with complete or partial connections to protective and operational earthing (without cutting
or broken wires)
3. Ensure measured earthing resistances in the field in line with specified (hundreds of ohms)
4. Ensure integrity of OHGW spans and its properly connected to the earthing collecting wire and/or pertinent cable sheaths/ armours
5. In the statistics of trips and shutdowns, reduce rate of broken conductors, burned Insulators or jumpers and pole top fires
6. Planning AADC’s asset replacement program and making adequate level of CM and TBM.
7. Grounding systems are technically simple (un-complex) equipment, so assessing of it does not require extensive time and data knowledge but only simple
measurements and visual checking
8. CBM of grounding systems could be performed together with the assessing and maintenance of other field equipment with no particularly higher cost of
the measures in most of the cases

15.2. Inspection, Testing and Maintenance

Periodic tests should be made at approximately the same time each year to minimize confusion resulting from seasonal changes having tests at least 4 days
after storms or fogs and only during the day (9.00AM - 5.00PM) avoiding influence of humidity and moisture on the earthing system. Additionally, SAT and
maintenance measurements should be made only in summer season period (April-October).
15.2.1. PROVISION for testing
Where it is proposed to segregate electrodes from the rest of the earthing system for testing purposes, disconnecting facilities in the form of substantial bolted
links should be fitted. Once a main earth grid has been established in a substation, it is extremely difficult to achieve segregation of independent sections of the
grid for periodic testing. Where rod groups are employed as part of the substation electrode system, links should be provided such that each group can be
separately tested to determine its earthing resistance and thus its integrity. Separate bolted links for each earth electrode of a group in close proximity are not
required. Where main earth grids on adjacent sites are connected together, it is usually practical to insert links in the tie connections to enable segregation of
the sites. It is preferable to locate these links in a sunken concrete box, or they can be mounted on walls, structures, posts etc. where they will be readily visible
and can be suitably labelled. In the case of indoor substations, these links should be mounted at convenient points of the substation wall.
For the testing purposes of separated operational earthing (transformer neutral point), disconnecting facility shall be provided as well.
15.2.2. SCOPE OF INSPECTION AND INTERVALS
Following scope should be performed on all new and/or reconstructed substations and lines for which new Earthing recommendation will be applied. Scope
could be applied also for existing earthing systems whereas initial testing (same as for SAT) should be performed after which periodical testing and inspection
would follow.
Visual/ Physical inspection shall obtain all visible parts of the earthing system. If applicable pulling or tugging on conductors and connections to ensure
soundness is a necessary part of these inspections, but proper PPE shall be used, without damaging the system in the process.
Every time equipment is used by personnel:
 Visual inspection of general condition - Report damage and initiate repair
 Visual inspection must determine if:
o Cable for earthing of transformer neutral point (power and auxiliary) is cut/ damaged.
o OHGW/OPGW is broken/ damaged.
o Interconnections between OHGW/OPGW and cable sheath/ armour are opened/ damaged.
o Interconnections between OHGW/OPGW and collection wires are opened/ damaged.
o Any burnings (sparks) on suspension structures, bolts and other (inter)connections are present.

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 o Lightning arresters or other overvoltage devices appear damaged.
o Down conductors, collection wires and terminals are cut/ damaged.
Every year from the date of commissioning:
 Visual/physical inspection of general condition - Report damage and initiate repair

 Beside above mentioned requirements, Visual/physical inspection must determine if:

o The system is in good repair.
o Interconnections between cable sheath/ armour and earthing and(or) N/PE bars are loosened.
o There are any other loose connections that might cause high resistance joints.
o Corrosion or vibration has weakened any part of the system specially earthing connection bars.
o backfill material around earth rod is ran away from the rod or with cracks appearing - In this case earthing resistivity should be checked
o Isolation between cable sheaths/ armours (if applicable) at entries of LV switchgears and feeder pillars is broken, bypassed or short-circuited by
spurious paths.
o braided bonding wires are excessively frayed
o Surface material (crushed/rock, pea gravel or any other approved material) are moved (cracked or blown away) from the protected structure
o Conductors and system components are securely fastened to mounting surfaces. Relocate connections as necessary to better protect against
accidental displacement.
o Additions or alterations to the protected structure require additional protection.
Every 5 years from the date of commissioning:
Besides above-mentioned visual/ physical checking, following shall be performed as well:
 Measuring of earthing resistance (protective and operational earthing) - Report non-conformities and initiate repair like:
o replacing of damaged conductors / connections
o checking of loose joints, clean and re-tighten to nominal torque of pertinent connections (clamps, N/PE bars, potential equalizing bars, anchor bolts,
screws and other fixing structures)
o adding/ replacing of earthing rods and tapes

Measuring of continuity within substation - Report non-conformities and initiate repair:

o between N/PE bars and operational earthing system
o between potential equalizing bars and protective earthing system
o between potential control rings and potential equalizing bars
o between iron equalizing mash and potential equalizing bars
o between exposed steel structures like roller doors, ladders, handrails, cranes, lamp posts etc. and potential equalizing bars
o between cable trays and potential equalizing bars
o between doors of switchgears, control gears, other enclosures and potential equalizing bars
o between conductive raised floor supports and potential equalizing bars
o between expansion joints at the crossings

Checking of condition of backfill material as per manufacturer's manual (only if it is the reason for previous non-conformities) - Report it and initiate repair like:
o adding of backfill material
o replacing of copper clad steel rods with new backfill (type) material
Every 10 years from the date of commissioning:
Beside above mentioned checking, following shall be performed as well:
Measuring of touch and step voltage at various places as applicable - Report non-conformities and initiate repair like:
o reducing of earthing resistance
o adding of surface material

15.2.3. USEFUL GUIDES FOR PREVENTING DAMAGE

One of the main reason for the increasing of earth resistance of the electrodes could happen if the indigenous soil is hostile to copper and (or) backfill material
i.e. acidic with a pH value of less than 6 or alkaline with a pH value of more than 10. In this case suitable non-corrosive soil of fine texture should be imported
and firmly rammed 150mm around the electrode.
In order to avoid possible damage of the earthing electrodes and conductors, it should be prudent to wait as much as possible until the civil works of constructing
the trenches, plinths and other structures have largely been completed. Earthing elements laid in the vicinity of drainage and soak-away pits or any other similar
civil works should maintain a separation of at least 500mm to avoid mechanical damage or breakage during subsequent disturbance of the ground in connection
with the civil works.
To prevent electrolytic action and to avoid drilling of the conductors, suitable insulated clips should be used in fixing of copper conductors to structures.
Galvanized clips should not be used. Whenever the drilling of conductor tape is necessary, it should not be drilled for a bolt having a diameter greater than one-
third of the width of the tape. If this diameter will be exceeded, then a wider flag should be jointed to the tape. Where the copper tape conductor is supported or
in contact with galvanized steel it should be tinned to prevent the electrolytic action. Connection points between earthing conductor and galvanized steelwork
shall not be less than 150mm above ground level. In any position subject to corrosion, the finished joint shall be protected by a heavy-duty bituminous paint.
15.2.4. STEALING OF EARTHING ELEMENTS
To minimize risk from cutting and stealing of earthing elements of the pole mounted equipment, all visible and accessible elements (collecting wires, neutral
cable etc.) up to 3m above ground shall be suitable protected e.g. installed in metallic tube. AADC could also consider using aluminium-earthing conductors
instead of cooper or to use concrete poles instead of wooden poles since collection wire is embedded in the pole itself.
In addition, it is recommended that single LV operational earthing should not be earthed via separate single core cable directly from the transformer since it is
accessible for cutting. Instead, it is recommended to provide LV operational earthing by earthing of Neutral bar i.e. in this way earthing conductor would be
below the LV feeder pillar and not easy accessible for stealing.
15.3. MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES
15.3.1. EARTHING RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Earthing resistance measurements of new system shall be performed during Site acceptance (before commissioning), after warranty period (before handing
over) and every 5 years from commissioning as part of regular assessing of condition. When carrying out these measurements, the system (substation, feeder

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etc.) must either be made 'dead' or test procedures adopted which safeguard the operator from any rise of earth potential resulting from a system fault occurring
during the test .
There are two types of earthing resistance testing — traditional and clamp-on — both have unique strengths. For their effective use, both must be understand.
Merely clamping on to any accessible point in an electrical earthing system does not constitute effective earthing testing. A well-equipped earth-testing program
will take advantage of both technologies. Main difference is that traditional methods involve using of auxiliary electrodes (probes) and shall be performed on
isolated earthing systems (disconnected of earthing systems of nearby substations) whilst clamp-on method does not involve any auxiliary electrodes and does
not require isolation of earthing system. The application of clamp-on testers is limited as described in following chapters.
Traditional methods used for resistance measurements given in following chapters involve the passing of a constant current into the earth and measure the
voltage drop across it by means of auxiliary electrodes. The resistance is unique in one respect in that only one terminal is positively available; the other
terminates over an infinite area in the main body of the earth. In order that current can be made to flow through this resistance it is necessary to provide a
second auxiliary electrode that will absorb the return current from the ground. The location of this electrode needs to be at sufficient distance from the electrode
under test such that it does not distort the natural flow of current into the earth around the test electrode. Excessive resistance of auxiliary electrodes can inhibit
its function. This is caused by high soil resistivity or poor contact between the auxiliary electrode and the surrounding. To ensure good contact with the earth,
stamp down the soil directly around the auxiliary electrode to remove air gaps formed when inserting the probe. If this is not enough, pour salt water around the
auxiliary electrodes. This reduces the auxiliary electrode's contact resistance without affecting the measurement. Traditional measurements could be performed
either by composite instruments or by injection of power-frequency currents.
Measured value of earthing resistance will also result in a value of maximum ground potential rise (GPR) which occurs under earth fault condition. Multiplication
of measured earthing resistance with the relevant value of earth fault current will give the required value of maximum GPR.

15.3.1.1. Measurements of Earthing resistance by composite instruments

There are several makes of commercially available composite instruments, which incorporate the above principles and give direct reading of the resistance but
it is not recommended to use them for the Site acceptance test but only for periodical checking and estimation of earthing resistance of small earthing
systems (covering less than 25 m2). Main reason for this is relatively small value of injected current. Other reason is that these instruments are designed to
measure resistance only, hence they are not suitable for the systems which impedance as may be the case with extended earths such as OHGW or cable
sheaths/ armours connected to the earth electrode and acting in parallel with it. For earthing systems covering a larger site area, the distance to the auxiliary
current electrode may become prohibitively long and this can produce appreciable error due to induction effects in long measuring leads.
For the correct result the location of the potential electrode should either be 61.8% of the distance measured from the test electrode to the auxiliary current
electrode and on the line between them, or, the potential electrode should be located at a greater distance within the sector zone of ground defined as 29 on
either side of the line between the test and the auxiliary current electrodes measured at the test electrode. Following figure gives the principle of this method
and tables gives guidance for appropriately distancing the test probes (inner and outer stakes).

Figure 15.1 – Principle of Earthing resistance measurement by composite instrument

Depth of the tested electrode Distance to the inner stake Distance to the outer stake
[m] [m] [m]

2 15 25

3 19 30

6 25 40

10 31 50
Table 1 – Distancing of the test probes from the single earth rod

Diagonal of the grid Distance to the inner stake Distance to the outer stake
[m] [m] [m]

3 31 49

6 42 68

9 50 80

12 57 92

15 65 105
Table 2 – Distancing of the test probes from the earth grid with rods
It is recommended also every Earthing resistance measurement performed by composite instruments to be repeated on a different traverse i.e. position of the
auxiliary current electrode and potential electrode to be spotted on the opposite side of the test electrode.

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15.3.1.2. Measurements of earthing resistance by Power frequency current injection

Above-mentioned problems and errors can be minimized and accuracy improved by significantly increasing the current circulating through the electrodes. In
practice, this involves the use of strong power source and individual current and voltage circuits. The value of resistance is derived by Ohm's law from the
measured quantities in these circuits. Such a measure is often referred to as the "fall of potential" method (Figure 15.2). Details of the method are given in
AADC Standard specification SAT-AAA-EARTH-RES .

Figure 15.2 – Principle of earthing resistance measurement by Current injection

When caring out these measurements the following points of guidance should be observed:
a) The current lead should ideally be routed to avoid parallelism with other conductors e.g. OHGW, cable sheaths, metallic pipelines - in which induced
currents can flow.
b) If the voltage lead is placed parallel to the current lead, an EMF will be induced in the former when current flows in the latter and thus an error can be
present in the deduced value of resistance. Hence, right angles to one another should be used to avoid induction.
c) To produce a voltage large enough such that any induced voltages that may be present can be ignored. A reference value of at least 10 times is
recommended - practically this means that a measured voltage of 10 V or more is required. In small size substations, which may have a resistance
ranging from 10Ω-40Ω, the current would have to range from 1A-0.25A. In medium and large size substations the resistance may range from 0,1Ω-1Ω
for which a current of 100A-10A would be required.
d) To deliver currents of above magnitude requires a substantial source of supply and the source voltage needs to be high if the resistance of the auxiliary
electrode is high. In many cases, the substation 415V, 50Hz auxiliary supply or a transportable diesel/ generator set suitable for single phase operation
can be used.
e) At the lower currents requirement (small substations), an auxiliary current electrode and cable conductor may be used. At the higher currents
requirement (medium and large substation) it is better to use conductors of one of the lines radiating from the substation and to use the substation
earth at the other end of the line as the auxiliary current electrode (earthing system of the remote end substation) or, in the case of an OHL, at an
earthed tower several kilometres away its route. Lines which carry extended earth (presence of OHGW for OHL or cable sheaths/ armours for power
cables) could be also used for this purpose but in that case OHGW or cable sheath/ armour needs to be disconnected from the ground since the
induced current would be established trough them making errors in measurements since these currents do not enter the ground.
f) To obtain a correct voltage reading the potential probe should be moved out radially from the substation (as shown on Figure 15.3) until a constant
value (maximum 10% variation) is obtained (saturation of Ground potential rise). When possible it is desirable to make a second test with substantially
different current magnitude to check on the linearity of the measurement.
g) Whenever possible it is desirable to repeat the measurement on a different traverse in order to verify the reliability of the test arrangement and
measurement.

Figure 15.3 – Example of determination of earthing resistance from "fall of potential" method

15.3.1.3. Measurements of Earthing resistance by clamp-on meters

During the last decade, a new technology appeared in the market, in the form of the clamp-on ground tester. This testing device was developed specifically for
improving the speed and convenience of the ground test, which does not impose any auxiliary electrodes and can be used on the system in service. The Fall
of Potential test can be labor intensive and time consuming. Even the expedient methods still require you to string leads and drive probes. The clamp-on tester
just clamps it over the ground rod and take a reading. However, this convenience is both an advantage and a drawback for the end-user.

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The simplicity of clamp-on tests can lead to trouble. Many end-users tend to clamp around any convenient point and take away the reading without question.
To be effective, the user of this piece of test equipment must be aware of its principle of operation, where it will and will not work, and the applications for which
traditional methods only must be employed.
The clamp-on approach was derived from the original “shortcut” procedure (i.e. the “2-point” test method) which can be quite inaccurate because the remote
probe must be of negligible resistance, which may not be the case. The clamp-on test avoids this problem by relying on multiple return paths, which are in
parallel with each other. By the Law of Parallel Resistances, the return resistance virtually cancels out, and the tester measures only the resistance of the soil.
The jaws of a clamp-on tester contain two windings. When clamped over a ground rod and energized, a CT in the tester induces a test current in the circuit via
electromagnetic coupling. The current travels through the soil and returns to the earthing system by means all other available system grounds. Since multiple
parallel utility grounds, for instance, are normally plentiful, their total resistance is negligible, and the test measures principally the resistance of the intervening
soil. The tester accurately measures the current flow, and the second winding in the jaws sense the voltage drop around the loop. The clamp-on tester can be
an enormous time saver, but unlike its traditional three-point counterpart, it cannot be used everywhere. The clamp-on tester should not be used in the following
situations:
 Measuring of the earthing systems which does not have the connection with earthing of near-by substation (there is no OHGW or cable sheath
connection) and hence no return path exists for the test current.
 Commissioning of new earthing systems, as they will not yet be connected to the earthing of near-by substation and hence no return path exists for the
test current.
 Test any complex ground system where a metallic loop exists; test current will return through metal and not be forced into the soil. These include
systems such as substation grounds and various other multiple interconnected ground systems.
 Perform any test where a client require conformance to a reference standard; the clamp-on test method has not been incorporated into any
independent standard.

There is one additional caution in the use of a clamp-on tester. If there is extremely low resistance reading of less than an ohm, it is almost certain that you are
not testing the earthing system but rather some form of continuous loop of wire or metal. This can happen when the clamp-on tester is placed in the wrong
location within the earthing system or when the ground wire is touching some metal enclosure during the test. Operators must make sure they do not
inadvertently clamp around a wire that is looped back around to itself. The clamp may have to be applied directly around the earth rod itself, below all bonds.
Figure 15.4 presents proper position of clamp-on tester while figure 15.5 and figure 15.6 show typical mistakes, which lead to the incorrect measurements.

Figure 15.4 – Proper position of clamp-on meter (there is only one down connection to the earthing electrodes)

Figure 15.5 – Example of clamp-on meter measuring metallic loop instead of earthing resistance

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Figure15.6 – Example of clamp-on meter measuring metallic loop instead of earthing resistance

As a conclusion, it is not recommended to use clamp-on tests for earthing resistance measurement as SAT and FAC measurement. It could be used for
periodical measurements only of simple earthing systems where return path for the test current exists as following:
 There needs to be only 1 down connection to the earthing electrodes (simple earthing system) i.e. several connections to the earthing electrodes will
make loops and measured resistance will be very small
 There need to be at least 3 nearby earthing systems connected to the same system in order to have accurate measurement

Previous two points limit the usage of clamp-on testers only on following cases:
 33kV and 11kV OHL towers and its equipment with presence of OHGW
 Protective and operational earthing of 11/0,4kV PMTs with presence of OHGW
 11/0,4kV Distribution substations and package units which have only one down connection to the earthing electrodes and there are at least 3 more
earthing systems of near-by substations interconnected by cable sheaths/armours
 11kV TRMs and sectionalizers where there are at least 3 more earthing systems of near-by substations interconnected by cable sheaths/armours
 Service turrets and Customer connection points

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15.3.2. Touch and Step potential measurements

Under earth fault conditions on a power system, earth currents will flow through the substation earth electrode(s) resulting in a rise of earth potential at that
location. It is necessary to know what is the maximum values of actual touch and step voltage in order to verify safety criteria as this may affect the personnel,
customers, livestock or the services and installation of other authorities.
Touch and Step potential measurements of new system shall be performed during Site acceptance (before commissioning and FAC) and every 10 years from
FAC as part of regular assessing of condition.
Touch/step voltage measurements shall be performed on isolated earthing systems (disconnected of earthing systems of nearby substations). Measurements
could be performed on the system in service but additional safety measures adopted. The method (set-up) for these measurements is the same as for the
earthing resistance measurement (Figure15.2) - the injection of power frequency current of appropriate magnitude into the whole of the substation earth
electrode system and by measuring following resulting voltages:
 for the real touch voltage - potential difference (voltage) between earthed metal structure and ground in 1m distance (simulation of the person standing on
the ground and touching the structure), or potential difference between two earthed metal structures reached by both hands at the same time. Direct
extrapolation of measured voltage to the injected current up to the relevant value of earth fault current will give the required value of real touch voltage.
More details on touch voltage measurements are given in AADC standard specification SAT-AAA-EARTH-TOUCH.

 For the real step voltage - potential difference (voltage) between feet around in 1m distance, that can affect a person standing on the ground. When
measuring the step voltage on an installation component the electrode shall be set up 1 m away from the accessible installation component and on a damp
cloth or a film of water on the base. Direct extrapolation of measured voltage to the injected current up to the relevant value of earth fault current will give
the required value of real step voltage. More details on step voltage measurements are given in AADC standard specification SAT-AAA-EARTH-STEP.

15.3.3. Continuity measurements

Continuity measurements of main and secondary earthing connections should be inspected to ensure that all joints and connections are sound and secure.
The purpose is to ensure that any earthing system is a continuous and a low resistance path allows the passage of fault currents of sufficient magnitude to
operate the protective device during fault conditions within the required disconnection time. Also, measurement confirms the “zero” potential between metal
parts, both extraneous and exposed-conductive-parts, within an installation to reduce the effects of electric shock for the personnel.
These measurements shall be performed during Site acceptance (before commissioning) and FAC and every 5 years after handing over to AADC as part of
regular assessing of condition. Pertinent connections do not need to be disconnected during the measurement.
There are two methods to perform these tests - either by ohm-meters or by clamp-on testers. Both methods can be performed on either ‘dead’ or equipment in
service but respective safety procedures shall be adopted.
Resistance measured during continuity tests should not be greater than 1Ω.
First type of measurement is performed by calibrated ohm-meter (capable of reading 0,01Ω) and a wander lead (long length test conductor that can be moved
to different points in an installation). Method is presented in figure 15.7. It is very important that instrument is nulled from the resistance of test leads and wander
lead. If instrument does not have a null function than these resistances should be subtracted from the actual reading. In the case of non-conformities, the
conductor should be disconnected from parallel paths (disconnection of both ends) and re-tested, deficiencies should be determined and repaired.

Figure 15.7 – Example of continuity test by ohm-meter

Second type of the continuity measurements is by usage of clamp-on meters (Figure 8). Principle of measurement is already given in chapter 3.1.3. Big
advantage of this type of measurements is that it can be performed more quickly and it is more accurate i.e. clamp-on testers takes into account complete loop
with inter-connections whilst ohmmeters measures only the smallest resistance between two points. Drawback is the price of clamp-on testers, which can reach
10 times the price ohmmeters. Figure 7 presents the complete loop with all inter-connections measured by clamp-on meter. If non-conformity is noted, the loop
needs to be investigated and deficiencies (loose connection or breakage of conductors) found.

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 Figure 8 – Example of continuity test by clamp-on tester

15.3.4. Potential hazards and Countermeasures during the tests

As mentioned in previous chapters routine testing and inspection could be performed on substation in service. Workers maintaining, repairing, modifying, and
testing earthing systems must be thoroughly familiar with test equipment operation; earthing, and bonding theory and practices; referenced specifications; and
specific requirements and procedures in this instruction. All personnel involved must review and discuss the pertinent test procedures and address the safety
aspects of the testing activities.
It is very important for the personnel to be aware of the fact that earthing systems which involves presence/ interconnection with OPGW/ OHGW and/or Cable
sheaths/armours are safe only when integrity of the same is not disturb i.e. its condition needs to be known and checked before starting any inspection at
particular location.
Following table summarizes potential hazards, which should be taken care as well. In addition, Attachment C gives some useful self-controls before doing any
work and identification of hazardous tasks.

Potential hazards Countermeasures

Possible earth-fault in the Use rubber-soled shoes and insulating gloves when handling the
substation while the testing is test leads and/or clamp-on tester, also when doing physical
underway inspection especially pulling or tugging on conductors.
Use insulating mat or board where the instrument is located.
Avoid placing yourself in series with the leads while performing
the test. Provide fused connections where feasible to enhance
safety.

Possible electrical shock during the Do not come in contact with the cable containing the current
course of the test probes. Also, caution the public and post any appropriate warning
signs.
Have a list of emergency telephone numbers and nearest
hospital.

Possible electrical short in the Handle leads and probes with caution. Use rubber-soled shoes,
handling of the remotely grounded insulated gloves and insulating mat or board where the instrument
test leads is located. Disconnect the P2 lead from the test instrument before
allowing anyone to handle the remote leads and ground probes.

Falling while walking over rough Be aware of the surroundings and walk cautiously. Survey area
terrain ahead of time to determine potential hazards. Wear safety helmet,
safety shoes and glasses.

Changes in normal working Postpone the work until better conditions exist.
environment such as sand storms,
fog and other poor visibility

Snake bites Avoid placing of test probes in areas where snakes may nest. Be
aware of the surroundings and walk cautiously.

Body dehydration Since routing of the test leads involves walking long distances,
dehydration may occur. Have sufficient drinking water available
to avoid dehydration.

Vehicle traffic hazards Place "Men working" signs where appropriate.

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 Have a list of emergency telephone numbers and nearest
hospital.

Camels and other animals trying to Personnel shall be cautious and stop the test if animals approach
encroach into the worksite the test area. If the farm is near-by, advance coordination shall be
done with livestock owner.

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15.4. RECORD KEEPING AND REVIEW
After completion of the Site Acceptance Tests (Pre-Commissioning Tests) and FAC, Contractor shall compile the original signed Test Report Results and submit
it to the Contracting Officer and/or his Authorised Representative. Site acceptance test reports shall be kept trough out the life span of the equipment/ system.
Each maintenance interval should be documented. After periodical inspection and testing, inspectors must compile and maintain records of their inspections
and tests to include:
 Station name
 Date action was performed
 Inspector's name
 Weather and soil conditions
 Type and serial number of measurement equipment
 A sketch of the earthing system with dimensions showing test points, and where services enter the facility.
 A sketch of the test area with location of the probes during the test and special terrain features along the probe directions.
 General condition of earthing elements and other pertinent components
 General condition of corrosion protection measures
 Earth resistance measurements of the various parts of the earth system
 Continuity measurements of the various parts of the facilities
 Touch and step voltage measurements at various locations
 Variations from the requirements of the instruction
 Discrepancies noted and corrective actions taken
 Date of repairs

Example of Inspection/Maintenance report is given in Attachment D.

Responsible engineers shall review records for deficiencies and analyze the data for undesirable trends. If test values differ substantially from previous or
original tests obtained under the same test procedure and conditions, determine the reason and initiate necessary repairs. Repairs could be categorized by
their critical nature, such as whether the repairs need to be done immediately before returning to service or whether they could be scheduled for future date.
Periodical Test and inspection records shall be kept at least 10 years for annual activities and 20 years for five-year activities. The results of the maintenance
records and the analysis of the data should lead management toward either increasing or decreasing the maintenance frequency, or toward determining that
the frequency and procedures are adequate.

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16. ATTACHMENT A

For the earth electrodes (vertical and horizontal elements buried in ground), the limit of the surface current density is given by the following formula:

57.7
𝑖 = 10 ×
𝜌×𝑡

𝑖 – Conductor surface current density (amps/mm2) - area in contact with the soil

𝜌 – Soil resistivity (ohm meters)

𝑡 – fault duration (seconds)

The short time rating for Earthing conductors can be calculated with the following formula:

1
𝑖 =𝐴×𝑘× × log 𝑒
𝑡

Where

𝑖 – Conductor current (amps)

𝐴 – cross sectional area (mm2)

𝜃 – Final temperature (C) - maximum 405C for copper, 200C for tinned copper, 325C for aluminium

𝜃 – Initial temperature (C)

𝑡 – Time (s)

𝑘 – 226 for copper, 148 for aluminium, 78 for steel, 41 for lead

𝛽 – 234.5 for copper, 228 for aluminium, 202 for steel, 230 for lead

Following tables give declared current ratings for a range of standard conductor sizes. Single (spur) connection means that there is no division of the earth-fault
current. For all MV and LV fault current carrying components, two conductors each sized for the full earth fault current shall be provided. Additional (duplicate
or loop connections) could be rated to carry 60 % of the full earth fault current.

Copper conductor ratings:

Copper tape (mm) Stranded copper conductor (mm)

Fault current (kA) Single (spur) Additional Single (spur) Additional

connections (Duplicate or connections (Duplicate or loop)
loop) connections
connections

4 for 3s 25 x 4 25 x 4 19/1.53 19/1.53

8 for 3s 25 x 4 25 x 4 19/2.14 19/1.78

12 for 3s 25 x 4 25 x 4 37/1.78 19/2.14

13.2 for 3s 31.5 x 4 25 x 4 37/2.03 19/2.14

18.5 for 3s 40 x 4 25 x 4 37/2.25 37/1.78

22 for 3s 50 x 4 31.5 x 4 37/2.03

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 26.8 for 3s 40 x 6.3 40 x 4 37/2.25

40 for 1s 50 x 4 31.5 x 4

These copper sizes are calculated on a temperature rise of 375C above an ambient of 30C.
Aluminium conductor ratings:

Aluminium tape(mm) Stranded aluminium conductor (mm)

Fault current (kA) Single (spur) Additional Single (spur) Additional

connections (Duplicate or connections (Duplicate or loop)
loop) connections
connections

4 for 3s 20 x 4 20 x 2.5 19/2.14 19/1.53

7.5 for 3s 25 x 4 20 x 4 37/2.03 19/2.14

12 for 3s 40 x 4 25 x 4 37/2.03

13.2 for 3s 50 x 4 25 x 4 37/2.03

18.5 for 3s 40 x 6 40 x 4 37/2.25

22 for 3s 50 x 6 50 x 4

26.8 for 3s 60 x 6 40 x 6

40 for 1s 50 x 6 50 x 4

These aluminium sizes are calculated on a temperature rise of 295C above an ambient of 30C.

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17. ATTACHMENT B

Characteristics of different topologies of earthing systems

This Section contains the results of calculations on numerous earthing systems using CYMEGrd software. The aim is to offer set of predefined grounding
systems possible used in practice. For each of them kd was determined, as well as the earthing resistance. The calculations were done as the earthing systems
are in homogeneous soil resistivity of 500 m. The values of kd are not affected by soil resistivity, i.e. they remain the same for homogeneous soils of resistivity
different from 500 m. If the resistivity of homogeneous soil amounts  [ m], the earthing resistance of the analyzed earthing system can be easily calculated
as the product of earthing resistance calculated and specified in this Section for 500 m (R*) with the ratio  / 500: R = R*  / 500. It should be noted that as a
rule, the soil is not homogeneous and these so obtained earthing resistances can be used for an estimation based on the roughly estimated unique soil resistivity
of the soil. Example: the single earthing loop 5 m x 5 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.8 m in homogeneous soils of resistivity 150 m would have earthing
resistance of 13.88  150 m / 500 m = 4.164 .
17.1. Ratio of allowed step and touch voltages
According to IEEE Standard 80-2013 [3] (cl.8.3), the accidental voltage (touch and step voltages) should not exceed the following values (these
equations are given for the body weight of 70 kg; for the weight of 50 kg, instead of the coefficient 0.157, the value of 0.116 is used):

0.157
𝑈 = (1000 + 6 𝐶 𝜌 ) 1717.1
𝑡

0.157
𝑈 = (1000 + 1.5 𝐶 𝜌 ) 1717.2
𝑡

𝜌
0.09 1 −
𝜌 1717.3
𝐶 =1−
2 ℎ + 0.09

where
Cs is the surface layer derating factor
ρs is the surface material resistivity in Ω·m
ρ is the resistivity of the earth beneath the surface material in Ω·m
hs is the thickness of the surface material in m
ts is the duration of shock current in seconds

From equations 17.1 - 1717.3 it can be seen that allowed value of step voltage is lower than the allowed value of touch voltage. For example, if there would be
no additional surface material (ρ = ρs) and the ratio of allowed step and allowed touch voltage for relative low soil resistivity of ρ = 100 m would amount
Ustep allowed / Utouch allowed = (1000 + 6 · 100) / (1000 + 1.5 · 100) = 1.39;
For very low soil resistivity of ρ = 50 m it would amount Estep 70 / Etouch 70 = 1.2.
Therefore, allowed step voltage is at least 20 % higher than allowed touch voltage.
Table 1717.1 contains examples of the effect of placing of additional surface material of different resistivity and the thickness - it contains the ratios of allowed
touch voltages when there is additional surface material in respect to the situation when there is no additional surface material (soil of specific resistance 500 m
and clearance time of 0.45 s).

Thickness of the additional surface material [m]

Resistivity of the additional
Surface material [m] 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2

5000 3,03 3,66 3,97 4,15

10000 5,29 6,62 7,26 7,65

15000 7,54 9,57 10,56 11,15

20000 9,80 12,53 13,86 14,64

Table 1717.1 – Increase of allowed touch voltage achieved with different additional surface materials (for soil with resistivity of 500  m)
Note: It should be noted that IEEE standard 80-2013 is based on assumptions on safe side – the hand and foot contacts resistances are equal to zero, also,
glove and shoe resistances are equal to zero. The only used resistance in IEEE calculations represents the resistance of the human body, which is equal to
1000 Ω. In this way, there is significant safety margin in respect to the situation of applying personal protective equipment.
In previous text the importance of the factor kd, representing the ratio of GPR to Utouch real is discussed and it is explained that the value of kd should be higher
than 1.5 to fulfil the safety with the recommended earthing resistance and protection setting. In following chapter, the results of finite elements calculations,
using CYMEGrd software, are presented. The results from [9] shows that kd factor of the earthing systems with vertical rods only has much worse characteristics
regarding kd factor than other types of earthing system. The best performance according to this criterion shows [9] the solution of double loop and the rods in
corners of outer loop. Nevertheless, application of double loop seems to be more complex (and more expensive) solution comparing with the option to put
additional surface material of high specific resistance (generally: specific resistivity 10000 , thickness 100 mm, 1 m around metallic part exposed to increased
potential due to ground fault). That is why in technical recommendation double loop is not suggested as the earthing systems. In general, for towers (including
PMT) the rods (for lower soil resistivities and higher needed values of the earthing resistances) or single Earth Grid with the rods (for higher soil resistivities and
lower needed values of the earthing resistances) are recommended; for substations or GMT the mesh is recommended.
In order to offer more information about the relevant practical characteristics of different topologies of the earthing systems, numerous calculations using finite
elements software are performed and the results are contained in further text of this Section.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 54
The calculations of potential distribution on the surface for both earthing systems with loops and with meshes show that maximum touch voltage appears in the
central point of the loop. In addition, maximum step voltages appear outside the outer loop - it appeared that the most critical step voltages appear in direction
defined by the diagonal of the outer loop.
According to previously exposed, the safety is fulfilled if the kd factor, defined for the potential in the centre of the loop, is bigger than 1.5 and if the maximum
step voltage, determined on the direction defined by diagonal, is bigger than 1.5 (this is on safe side - as shown in previous part of this chapter, the criterion for
step voltage can be 1.5 / 1.2 = 1.25).

17.2. Results of touch and step voltages obtained with software

Five sets of calculations, for six different topologies of the earthing systems, were performed:
 single earthing loop
 single earthing loop with vertical rods in the corners of the loop
 double earthing loop with and without vertical rods in the corners of the loop
 smaller mesh with vertical rods in the corners of the loop
 bigger mesh with vertical rods in the corners of the loop
 vertical rod

Two options for horizontal elements of the earthing systems were considered: to place them into the backfill material (300 mm x 100 mm) and to use copper
type 40 mm x 4 mm placed directly into the soil. The rods were always in backfill material of diameter 320 mm.
All calculations were done for the fault current of 1000 A and soil resistivity of 500 m; these values do not affect the ratios kd = GPR / Umax touch and
GPR / Umax tstep.

17.2.1. Single earthing loop in backfill material

Side Resistance Umax touch Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V)
(m) (Ω) (V) (V) touch step
3 52,93 54034,8 9517,3 16702 5,68 3,24
5 35,99 36799,3 9328,7 10259 3,94 3,59
Depth 0.5m

7 27,68 28323,8 8531,2 7392,2 3,32 3,83

9 22,66 23205,7 7751,3 5774,6 2,99 4,02
11 19,28 19751,1 7079,6 4736,7 2,79 4,17

Table 17.2 – The single earthing loop at the depth of 0.5 m

Side Resistance Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V) Umax touch (V)
(m) (Ω) (V) touch step
3 51,56 52634,7 8882,3 14607 5,93 3,60
5 35,19 35985,1 8701,3 9000,2 4,14 4,00
Depth 0.6m

7 27,12 27753,7 8033,8 6193,8 3,45 4,48

9 22,24 22768 7349,5 5076,5 3,10 4,48
11 18,94 19396,3 6745,2 4165,9 2,88 4,66

Table 17.3 – The single earthing loop at the depth of 0.6 m

Side Resistance Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V) Umax touch (V)
(m) (Ω) (V) touch step
3 49,35 50398,4 8422,4 12241 5,98 4,12
5 33,91 34679,4 7847 7596,9 4,42 4,56
Depth 0.8m

7 26,22 26840,8 7297,3 5172,2 3,68 5,19

9 21,55 22068,3 6736,9 4048,8 3,28 5,45
11 18,38 18829,8 6228,2 3325,4 3,02 5,66

Table 17.4 – The single earthing loop at the depth of 0.8 m

Conclusions: The criteria for the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages are above 2.5. It should be noted that the situation improves as the depth
increases (the resistance decreases and the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages increase). Loops of the side bigger than 11 m are not than
recommended - in such cases the mesh is recommended - in general, the outer loop should be divided to limit the size of the biggest loop to 10 m x 5 m.

17.2.2. Single earthing loop in backfill material with vertical rods

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 44,60 45565,5 6637,3 11978 6,87 3,80
3,6 31,00 31717,4 2499,5 6163,4 12,69 5,15
Loop 3m x 3m

6 24,18 24755 1420,1 3975,6 17,43 6,23

9,6 18,59 19133,7 973,67 2546,62 19,65 7,51
12 16,24 16641,4 711,6 2045,6 23,39 8,14
14,4 14,49 14920,6 678,251 1706,9 22 8,74
Table17.5 – The single earthing loop 3 m x 3 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.5 m

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 Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 32,60 33347,2 7569,5 8110,5 4,41 4,11
3,6 25,09 25681,2 3920,9 4794,9 6,55 5,36
Loop 5m x 5m

6 20,31 20797,9 2312,4 3228,7 8,99 6,44

9.6 15,9885 16463,2 1426,39 2092,03 11,54 7,87
12 14,10 14448,3 1041,1 1676,3 13,88 8,62
14,4 12,66 13040,4 915,193 1392,46 14,25 9,37
Table 17.6 – The single earthing loop 5 m x 5 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.5 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Loop 5m x 5m

1,2 31,00 31710,6 6465,6 6063,3 4,90 5,23

24,24
3,6 24814,9 3487,8 3643,2 7,11 6,81
19,80
6 20276,5 2133,7 2538,8 9,50 7,99
12 13,88 14228,3 1014,8 1374,1 14,02 10,35
Table 17.7– The single earthing loop 5 m x 5 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.8 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Loop 7m x 7m

1,2 25,86 26470,3 7447,1 6088,9 3,55 4,35

21,19
3,6 21702,7 4703,5 3928,4 4,61 5,52
17,73
6 18159,9 3061 2770,6 5,93 6,55
12 12,71 13024,2 1433,2 1486,7 9,09 8,76
Table 17.8– The single earthing loop 7 m x 7 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.5 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Loop 9m x 9m

1,2 21,54 22053,5 7027,5 4862,9 3,14 4,54

18,38
3,6 18827,4 4986,1 3317,6 3,78 5,68
15,78
6 16172,2 3516,6 2430,4 4,60 6,65
12 11,66 11952,1 1769,1 1357,7 6,76 8,80
Table 17 –The single earthing loop 9 m x 9 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.5 m
Loop 11m x 11m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 18,52 18966,9 6564,2 4043,8 2,89 4,69
3,6 16,25 16647,4 5013,1 2865 3,32 5,81
14,24
6 14597 3755,2 2162 3,89 6,75
12 10,81 11083,8 2031,8 1256,1 5,46 8,82
Table 17.10– The single earthing loop 11 m x 11 m with the rods and at the depth of 0.5 m

Conclusions: The ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages are somewhat better than by the earthing systems with single loops only. The ratio is bigger for
bigger ratios of the length of rods to the side of the loop Based on the results for the loop 5 m x 5 m (Table 17.7 and Table 17.8), the same can be concluded
as for the loop without rods: the situation improves as the depth increases (the resistance decreases and the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages
increase).

17.2.3. Double earthing loop in backfill material with / without vertical rods
It is fixed that the length of side of square of the smaller loop is 2 m shorter than the side of bigger loop; also, smaller loop was always at the depth of 0.5 m.
Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
No 26,23 26843 4923,4 6768 5,45 3,97
7mx7m, 5mx5m

1,2 24,78 25365,1 4406,4 5674,9 5,76 4,47

Double loop

3,6 20,79 21294,2 2968 3795,5 7,17 5,61

6 17,57 17996,7 1996,9 2713 9,01 6,63
12 12,68 12993,6 940,87 1501,2 13,81 8,66
Table 17 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 7 m x 7 m at the depth of 0.5 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
11mx11m, 9mx9m

No 18,05 18488,4 4878,7 4219,75 3,79 4,38

1,2 17,48 17902,9 4593,7 3656,7 3,90 4,90
Double loop

3,6 15,68 16064,5 3665,4 2683,4 4,38 5,99

6 13,94 14280,4 2820,5 2062,7 5,06 6,92
12 10,73 10995,9 1540 1260,8 7,14 8,72
Table 17.1217 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 11 m x 11 m at the depth of 0.5 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Double loop

No 32,89 33806,2 3724,52 7025,43 9,08 4,81

5mx5m,
3mx3m

1,2 30,31 30314,4 3167,9 5748,93 9,569 0,01

3,6 24,06 24755,3 1893,31 3682,76 13,08 6,72

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 56
 6 19,74 20316,5 1248,85 2571,04 16,27 7,90
9,6 15,68 16146,8 820,681 1713,65 19,67 9,42
12 13,87 14288,9 674,321 1388,86 21,19 10,29
14,4 12,49 12861,7 576,457 1163,34 22,31 11,06
Table 17.13 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 5 m x 5 m at the depth of 0.8 m

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
No 25,18 25772,1 4355,4 4991,5 5,92 5,16
7mx7m, 5mx5m

1,2 23,86 24429,3 3907,5 4240 6,25 5,76

Double loop

3,6 20,17 20654,8 2652 2960 7,79 6,98

6 17,15 17564 1808,4 2169,5 9,71 8,10
12 12,48 12794 910,5 1216 14,05 10,52
Table 17– The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 7 m x 7 m at the depth of 0.8 m

Rod Resistance Umax Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V)
(m) (Ω) touch (V) (V) touch step
No 22,61 23270,7 4600,41 4353,59 5,06 5,35
1,2 21,61 22239,5 4206,65 3739,27 5,29 5,95
3,6 18,66 19209,4 3035,1 2688,93 6,33 7,14
8mx8m, 6mx6m

6 16,10 16578,2 2161,08 2011,98 7,67 8,24

Double loop

9,6 13,29 13687,7 1412,85 1404,67 9,69 9,74

12 11,92 12283 1128,23 1152,17 10,89 10,66
14,4 10,83 11163 934,808 969,78 11,94 11,51
Table 17.15 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 8 m x 8 m at the depth of 0.8 m

Rod Resistance Umax Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V)
(m) (Ω) touch (V) (V) touch step
No 18,87 19429,5 4601 3530 4,22 5,50
1,2 18,24 18773,1 4307,08 3018,16 4,36 6,22
10mx10m, 8mx8m

3,6 16,24 16723,6 3359,8 2264,58 4,98 7,38

6 14,36 14784,9 2543,48 1753,17 5,81 8,43
Double loop

9,6 12,12 12483,7 1740,37 1262,87 7,17 9,89

12 10,97 11305,5 1404,68 1047,88 8,05 10,79
14,4 10,04 10341,2 1166,79 888,15 8,86 11,64
Table 17 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 10 m x 10 m at the depth of 0.8 m

Rod Resistance Umax Umax step GPR/Umax GPR/Umax

GPR (V)
(m) (Ω) touch (V) (V) touch step
11mx11m, 9mx9m

No 17,46 17890,2 4454,65 3139,61 4,02 5,70

1,2 16,94 17351,9 4200,3 2750 4,13 6,31
Double loop

3,6 15,26 15634,7 3362,1 2096,4 4,65 7,46

6 13,62 13957,7 2601,8 1645,5 5,36 8,48
12 10,56 10826,8 1468,5 1003,5 7,37 10,79
Table 17 – The double earthing loop with bigger loop of 11 m x 11 m at the depth of 0.8 m

Conclusions: As expected, double loop improves the situation, i.e. increases the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages; solution with the inner loop on
0.5 m and outer loop on 0.8 m increases the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages over 4.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 57
17.2.4. Smaller mesh in backfill material with rods in the corners of the loop

Two variants were analyzed: with one strip dividing the outer loop (mesh contains two loops) and with two strip dividing the outer loop (mesh contains three
loops); the mesh is buried at the depth of 0.5 m, except the mesh of outer size 12 m x 12 m and two loops, which is buried at 0.8 m.

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Mesh 8m x 8m,

1,2 22,82 23366,4 4322,0 5154,8 5,41 4,53

3,6 19,39 19859,0 2993,8 4055,8 6,63 4,90
2 loops

6 16,57 16971,8 2092,9 2545,0 8,11 6,67

12 12,13 12429,4 1074,0 1403,0 11,57 8,86
Table17.18 – The mesh of outer contour 8 m x 8 m, containing two loops

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Mesh 8m x 8m,

1,2 22,46 22998,8 2773,2 5015,6 8,29 4,59

3,6 19,23 19699,3 1980,8 3448,2 9,95 5,71
3 loops

6 16,50 16901,1 1430,3 2520,2 11,82 6,71

12 12,11 12414,7 770,0 1405,0 16,12 8,84
Table 17.1917 – The mesh of outer contour 8 m x 8 m, containing three loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 19,23 19691,0 4182,6 4165,6 4,71 4,73
Mesh 10m

3,6 16,88 17294,2 3154,5 2959,5 5,48 5,84

2 loops

6 14,78 15149,2 2348,0 2229,5 6,45 6,79

10m,

12 11,17 11449,4 1281,2 1284,2 8,94 8,92

Table17 .20 – The mesh of outer contour 10 m x 10 m, containing two loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 18,85 19305,1 2768,6 4023,0 6,97 4,80
Mesh 10m

3,6 16,68 17089,1 2133,6 2894,1 8,01 5,90

3 loops

6 14,68 15042,8 1624,1 2195,2 9,26 6,85

10m,

12 11,14 11422,5 922,8 1280,0 12,38 8,92

Table 17.21– The mesh of outer contour 10 m x 10 m, containing three loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 17,84 18273,4 4089,4 3797,3 4,47 4,81
Mesh 11m

3,6 15,86 16247,5 3181,8 2743,2 5,11 5,92

2 loops

6 14,03 14376,9 2430,4 2096,7 5,92 6,86

11m,

12 10,75 11023,7 1369,3 1233,3 8,05 8,94

Table 17– The mesh of outer contour 11 m x 11 m, containing two loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 17,46 17885,6 2740,4 3656,1 6,53 4,89
Mesh 11m

3,6 15,64 16025,9 2172,4 2673,9 7,38 5,99

3 loops

6 13,91 14254,7 1689,5 2058,7 8,44 6,92

11m,

12 10,72 10989,8 989,6 1225,1 11,11 8,97

Table 17.2317 – The mesh of outer contour 11 m x 11 m, containing three loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 16,65 17058,7 3993,5 3488,5 4,27 4,89
Mesh 12m

3,6 14,96 15324,3 3187,0 2555,2 4,81 6,00

2 loops

6 13,35 13680,5 2489,9 1977,8 5,49 6,92

12m,

12 10,37 10631,6 1446,7 1186,5 7,35 8,96

Table 17.24 – The mesh of outer contour 12 m x 12 m, buried at 0.5 m, containing two loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 16,00 16395,1 3456,6 2507,9 4,74 6,54
Mesh 12m

3,6 14,48 14838,5 2788,5 1922,5 5,32 7,72

(2 loops)

6 13,01 13328,9 2201,6 1525,1 6,05 8,74

12m

12 10,20 10455,0 1305,1 948,8 8,01 11,02

Table 17.25 – The mesh of outer contour 12 m x 12 m, buried at 0.8 m, containing two loops
x

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 16,27 16670,2 2702,0 3348,5 6,17 4,98
Mesh 12m

3,6 14,73 15088,9 2193,8 2482,6 6,88 6,08

(3 loops)

6 13,22 13543,7 1743,9 1936,4 7,77 6,99

12m

12 10,33 10590,5 1049,4 1174,4 10,09 9,02

Table 1717.26– The mesh of outer contour 12 m x 12 m, buried at 0.5 m, containing three loops

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Conclusions: The ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages are over 4 for all analyzed meshes; taking some reserve, it can be concluded that ratios GPR
to maximum touch / step voltages are over 4 if maximum size of the loop on which the outer contour is divided does not exceed 10 m x 5 m. Another
recommendation resulting to further improvement and safety is to put the strip along the equipment (case of ground mounted substation), as it is being done in
current practice. It is not necessary, but will certainly reduce the touch voltage since in that way maximum distance on which touch voltage appear is 1 m. The
values in Table 17.24 and 17.25 confirm once more the advantage of deeper burying the earthing system. Having in mind this and the practical situation that
the wind can move certain send layer, it is recommended to bury the earthing system 0.8 m; in such a way, there is certain reserve - the earthing system
will have needed.

17.2.5. Bigger mesh in backfill material with rods in the corners of the loop
Four big meshes are analyzed: the first two were with the loops 12 m x 6 m, of outer contour 24 m x 24 m and 48 m x 48 m and two with the loops 10 m x 5 m,
of outer contour 20 m x 20 m and 40 m x 40 m. All meshes were buried at 0.5 m.
Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Mesh 24mx 24m

1,2 8,84 9058,8 1635,7 1693,1 5,54 5,35

3,6 8,48 8697,0 1460,3 1385,2 5,96 6,28
(8 loops)

6 8,08 8284,4 1296,0 1184,6 6,39 6,99

12 7,09 7267,2 975,8 861,9 7,45 8,43
Table 1717.27 – The mesh of outer contour 24 m x 24 m, three loops inside of size 12 m x 6 m (8 loops)

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Mesh 48mx48m

1,2 4,51 4627,6 677,6 712,0 6,83 6,50

3,6 4,45 4562,5 624,0 603,7 7,31 7,56
(32 loops)

6 4,37 4482,7 577,7 538,6 7,76 8,32

12 4,15 4254,6 490,7 437,2 8,67 9,73
Table 17.28 – The mesh of outer contour 48 m x 48 m, three loops inside of size 12 m x 6 m (8 loops)

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
1,2 10,36 10619,1 1749,9 2056,9 6,07 5,16
Mesh 20mx20m

3,6 9,84 10092,7 1520,4 1661,4 6,64 6,07

(8 loops)

6 9,27 9505,7 1317,2 1399,3 7,22 6,79

12 7,92 8124,9 944,1 980,8 8,61 8,28
Table 17.29– The mesh of outer contour 20 m x 20 m, three loops inside of size 10 m x 5 m (32 loops)

Rod (m) Resistance (Ω) GPR (V) Umax touch (V) Umax step (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step
Mesh 40mx40m

1,2 5,34 5476,4 732,9 874,6 7,47 6,26

3,6 5,24 5379,0 662,6 738,5 8,12 7,28
(32 loops)

6 5,13 5260,2 605,8 654,9 8,68 8,03

12 4,80 4925,9 508,9 522,0 9,68 9,44
Table 17.30 – The mesh of outer contour 40 m x 40 m, three loops inside of size 10 m x 5 m (32 loops)

Conclusions: The characteristics of bigger meshes having the same loops as the small once (2, i.e. 4 times bigger than the small loops) are better than the
characteristics of the smaller meshes. Naturally, the earthing resistance of bigger meshes is smaller, but the results yield the conclusion that the ratios GPR to
maximum touch / step voltages are higher. So, the value of the ratios GPR to maximum touch / step voltages are kept over 4 if the maximum loops of the
meshes is not bigger than 10 m x 5 m. Another recommendation on save side is to put the strip along the equipment (case of ground mounted substation), as
it is being done in current practice. The mesh should be buried to 0.8 m in order to have certain reserve, i.e. that the earthing system preserve needed
properties also in case when 30 cm soil is removed due to acting of the wind.

17.2.6. Single earthing loop directly in soil (no backfill material) with vertical rods

The loop with 1, 2, 3 and 4 rods in the corners were analyzed. The length of the rods was fixed to 9.6 m; they are placed in backfill material of diameter 320 mm.
As stated, the loops were positioned directly in the soil, at the depth 0.5 m.

Number of rods Resistance () GPR (V) Umax touch (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step* GPR/Umax step**
1 26,08 26828,70 8122,57 3,30 5,05 10,10
2 19,94 20528,80 4650,78 4,41 6,15 11,19
3 17,42 17939,10 3792,00 4,73 6,50 11,56
4 15,67 16140,20 2198,45 7,34 7,93 10,38
Table17.31 – The single earthing loop 5 m x 5 m with the different number of rods in corners of the length 9.6 m (the depth of 0.5 m)

*Calculated between the corner and 1 m from the corner (on opposite side of the rod)
**Calculated between 1th and 2nd m from the corner (on opposite side of the rod)

Comparing the results for 4 rods with the line in Table 17.6 for the rod of 9.6 m (similar earthing systems, with only difference that the result in Table 17.6 is for
the loop placed in backfill material 300 mm x 100 mm), it can be concluded that backfill material influences the value of maximum touch voltage: when backfill
material is not used, all other parameters of the earthing systems remain similar, but the touch voltage increases, but the ratio GPR / maximum touch voltage
still remains high (7.34). The conclusion is that presence of the backfill material is not of essential importance for the equalizing of the potential. A backfill
material also does not influence much the distribution of the current and potential and consequently the earthing resistance is not significantly influenced by a

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 59
backfill material. The main benefit of using backfill material is reducing the contact resistance to the surrounding soil; consequently, the total value of the earthing
resistance, being the valued check by the measurement of the earthing resistance, is reduced.
Since the addition of the materials of high resistivity 1 m from any metallic part is recommended throughout Engineering standard, a question of step voltages
becomes important. Namely, by putting the materials of high resistivity 1 m from any metallic part, the criterion for allowed calculated value of touch voltage (it
is calculated as there is no additional material) significantly increases; the additional material also increase the allowed calculated value of step voltage between
the corner and 1 m from the corner. In this situation of importance becomes the step voltage between 1st and 2nd m from the corner. In order to investigate the
step voltage, a set of calculations was performed – the calculation results corresponding to the Table17.31 are shown in Table17.31. Results of additional
calculations showed that the values of step voltages in direction between * and ** presented in Table17.31 are between them – it means that the values in
Table17.31 are the critical ones and can be considered as the input data for checking the safety of step voltage. The results show that the ratio GPR to maximum
step voltage between 1 and 2 meters from the loop is always bigger than 8 – that is why the value 8 by safety check can be used.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 60
 GPR/Umax step
Number of rods GPR (V)
0-1m, near the rod 0-1m, opposite of rods 1-2m, near the rod 1-2m, opposite of rods
1 26829 6,05 5,05 8,45 10,10
2 20529 6,61 6,15 9,07 11,19
3 17939 7,61 6,50 10,00 11,56
4 16140 7,93 - 10,38 -
Table 17.32– Step voltages by the single earthing loop 5 m x 5 m with the different number of rods in corners of the length 9.6 m (the depth of 0.5 m)

17.2.7. Mesh directly in soil (no backfill material) with vertical rods

The earthing system similar to the one treated in Table17 . (length of the rods 1.2 m – 4.8 m), with the only difference that the loop is positioned directly in soil
(no backfill material) is treated.

Rod (m) Resistance () GPR (V) Umax touch (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step* GPR/Umax step**
1,2 21,41 22036 6873 3,21 5,00 7,72
Mesh 10m x 10m,

2,4 19,54 20115 5740 3,50 5,60 7,81

3,6 17,91 18440 4802 3,84 6,12 8,14

2 loops

4,8 16,51 17003 4050 4,20 6,58 8,50

Table 1717.33 – The mesh of outer contour 10 m x 10 m, containing two loops, with rods in each of the corners

*Calculated between the corner and 1 m from the corner

**Calculated between 1th and 2nd m from the corner
The case of the rod 1.2 m is extremely inconvenient case (the lowest ratio of GPR to touch voltage). The ratio dropped comparing to situation when the loop is
in backfill material - it is bigger than 3.
Conclusion is based on the result of the calculations given in Table17.31 and Table 17.32 is that the contour with any rods in the corners can.
The results show that the ratio GPR to maximum step voltage between 1 and 2 meters from the loop is bigger than 8 if the rods are longer than 3.6 m – the
recommendation is to use the rods of length 3.6 m or more, yielding the value 8 to be used by safety check.

17.2.8. Vertical rods

The rod earthings of different lengths (4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 rods of 1.2 m each) were analyzed; the rods are placed in backfill material of diameter 320 mm. The rods
start at the depth 0.5 m.

length (m) Resistance () GPR (V) Umax touch (V) GPR/Umax touch GPR/Umax step* GPR/Umax step**
4,8 59,06 60548,30 36954,20 1,64 7,65 8,44
6 50,50 51825,60 30454,5 1,70 8,24 8,86
Depth 0.5m

7,2 44,30 45482,60 25920,60 1,75 8,74 9,25

8,4 39,56 40639,70 22577,10 1,80 9,17 9,59
9,6 35,82 36808,00 20008,70 1,84 9,55 9,91
Table 17.34 – One rod at the depth of 0.5 m

*Calculated between the rod and 1 m from the rod

**Calculated between 1th and 2nd m from the rod

The results show that the characteristic GPR to maximum touch voltage is bad comparing to other earthing systems, but the criterion to be bigger than 1.5 is
fulfilled for all rods longer than 4.8 m.
The results show that the ratio GPR to maximum step voltage between 1 and 2 meters from the rod is always bigger than 8 – that is why the value 8 by safety
check can be used.

ER08-Rise of earth potential and earthing system for AADC distribution system- APPENDEX-2:Page 61
18. ATTACHMENT C - SELF-CONTROLS BEFORE WORK
Simply asking question of oneself could be the first step of a personal hazard / risk analysis. If one can honestly answer "yes" to all of the following questions,
he or she has done a good job of controlling his or her own safety. If one responds "no" to any of the questions, there is a safety concern that he or she should
address before proceeding with the work.
a) Do I fully understand the scope of the task?
b) Am I trained and qualified to perform this task safely?
c) Have I performed this task before; if not, have I discussed the details with my supervisor?
d) Have I thought about possible hazards associated with this task and taken steps to protect myself against them?
e) Have I determined whether or not I will be near exposed energized parts?
f) If I am going to be exposed to energized parts, can they be put into an electrically safe work condition? [If "No", skip to item i).]
g) Did I verify, using appropriate protective and test equipment, that the conductors or equipment are in a de-energized state?
h) Have I applied a lockout/tagout device?
i) If I will be exposed to energized parts, do I know what voltage levels are involved?
j) Do I know the safe approach distance to protect against the electrical shock hazard?
k) Do I know the safe approach distance to protect against the electrical arc/ flash hazard?
l) Have I obtained required safety document for work?
m) Do I have the proper electrical PPE for this type of electrical work?
n) Do I have the appropriate voltage-rated tools and test equipment, in the proper working order, to perform this task?
o) Have I considered and controlled the following factors in my work environment?
1. Close working quarters;
2. high traffic areas;
3. Intrusion/ distraction by others;
4. Flammable/ explosive atmosphere;
p) Do I understand that doing job safely is more important than the time pressure to complete the job?
q) Do I feel that all of my safety concerns about performing this task have been answered?

No matter how simple a task might first appear to be, a hazard/ risk analysis and the electrical safety self-control questions should be applied.
The following tasks are some examples of possible hazardous tasks in electrical work:
a) Measuring, testing, and probing electrical system components
b) Working near battery banks
c) Opening electrical equipment enclosure doors or removing covers
d) inserting or pulling fuses
e) Drilling, or otherwise penetrating, earth, walls, or floors
f) Pulling conductors and other leads in cable trays or enclosures
g) Lifting leads or applying jumpers in control circuits
h) Installing or removing temporary grounds
i) Operating switches or circuit-breakers
j) Working inside equipment enclosures

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19. ATTACHMENT D- EXAMPLE OF INSPECTION/MAINTENANCE REPORT

INSPECTION/MAINTENANCE FORM

Facility Date

Location Inspector

PART I - Earth electrodes system

A: Configuration (Sketch or attach drawing):

B: Identify:
Earthing Rod size and length
Earthing tape size and length
Interconnecting cable size/ depth

C: Joints in Earthing pits:

General condition: Excellent Good Poor

Unacceptable

Specific deficences:

D: Soil conditions:
Type of soil: Soft sand Hard sand Rock

Other comments:

D: Resistance measurements: Resistance : Ohms

Months since last measurement:
Value of last measurement: Ohms

Attach sketch or drawing (Indicate probe locations, spacings, etc.)

E: Weather at time of resistance measurement:

Wet Dry Temperature C Mist

Days since last storm: Same day Less 1 month More 1 month

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 PART II - Earthing conductors and Bonds

F: General overall condition:

Excelent Good Poor Unacceptable

F: Inspection checklist:

1 Check all accessible connections for

looseness, corrosion and physical damage

2 Check for additions or modifications made since last

inspection
3 Check interconnections between cable sheath/armour
and earthing system are damaged

4 Check interconnections between OHGW and earthing

system are damaged

5 Check for any burning spakrs on suspension

structures, bolts, lightning arresters etc.

5 Check earthing pits if backfill material ran ovay from

electrodes or cracked

6 Check condition of corrosion protection measures

G: Specific Deficiences (Observations):

Location Condition of deficiency Corrective action taken

H: General Comments:

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I: Continuity measurements:
Connection between: Resistance in miliohms
N/PE bars and operational earthing:
potential equalizing bars and protective earthing:
potential control rings and potential equalizing bars:
iron equalizing mash and potential equalizing bars:
exposed steel structures and potential equalizing bars:
cable trays and potential equalizing bars:
doors of switchgears and potential equalizing bars:
raised floor supports and potential equalizing bars:
expansion joints at the crossings:

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