GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II

PLASMALEMMA . Components of the Cell Membrane .

➢ A common term for cell membrane 1. Lipids
➢ It is the selective, structural barrier between the ❖ Phospholipids – held by hydrophobic
cell and outside world composed of a interactions
phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins ❖ Cholesterol and sterols – contributes to
and other lipids. membrane fluidity
History of Membrane Models . 2. Proteins
1. Gorter–Grendel Model (1925) ❖ A study by Larry Frye and Michael Edidin
➔ Proposed that plasmalemma is composed at Johns Hopkins University revealed that
of lipid bilayers. membrane proteins are mobile.
➔ The cell membrane has a phospholipid ❖ Integral proteins – proteins integrated
with hydrophobic tails facing inward and completely into the membrane structure;
hydrophilic heads facing outward. they have transmembrane hydrophobic
2. Davson–Danielli Model (1935) segment
➔ aka Sandwich Model of the plasmalemma ➢ G-Proteins – these are signaling
➔ Basically, the lipid bilayer is coated on both molecules embedded within the cell
sides by a layer of hydrophilic proteins. membrane
➔ The model could not explain the fluidity of ❖ Peripheral proteins – these are proteins
the membrane and the diversity of that are found on the interior and exterior
membrane proteins observed. membranes attached either to integral
3. Robertson Model (1957) proteins or phospholipids
➔ aka Unit Membrane Model 3. Carbohydrates
➔ TEMs suggested that all membranes have ❖ They can either be glycoproteins or
the same structure — a trilaminar model. glycolipids
➔ It suggested that there is a central lipid ❖ They play an essential role in cell-to-cell
bilayer flanked by two layers of proteins. recognition
➔ The model implied that the protein layers are ❖ They are collectively called glycocalyx as a
tightly associated with the lipid bilayer. combination of sugar “coatings”
➔ This did not fully address the mobility and ❖ They are hydrophilic and aid in the
variability of proteins within the interaction of the cell with its watery
membrane. environment and in the cell’s ability to
4. Singer–Nicolson Model (1972) obtain substances dissolved in the water.
➔ Proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model
➔ It suggested a dynamic structure where
lipids and proteins can move laterally
within the layer.
➔ It is a 2D fluid embedded with proteins
The Fluid-Mosaic Model .
❖ Phospholipids and most membrane proteins
are amphipathic, implying that they have a
hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.
❖ Although fluid, they are not randomly
distributed.

The Fluidity of Plasma Membranes .

★ Similar to an actual mosaic, the plasma
membrane has various classes of lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates moving with
respect to one another.
★ It CAN’T contract or expand; it is fairly rigid
and can burst.
★ Membranes are NOT STATIC! They are held by
hydrophobic interactions rather than CB.
Thus, they can move around sideways or
flip-flop across by switching phosp. layers.
★ In some evolutionary adaptations, variations
in plasmalemma composition occurred under
specific environmental conditions.
★ Some even have the ability to modify their
plasmalemma composition on their own — all
in order to maintain the appropriate
membrane fluidity for them to function
efficiently.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
Factors Affecting Plasmalemma Permeability . Cell-to-Cell Recognition .
1. Membrane Composition ❖ A protein can carry-out on or more functions:
A. Saturation ➢ Transport
➔ Saturated phospholipids have relatively ➢ Enzymatic Activity
straight tails, resulting in compressed form. ➢ Signal Transduction
❖ Lower temp. means more compressed, ➢ Cell-Cell Recognition
dense, and rigid structure.
➢ Intercellular Joining
➔ Unsaturated phospholipids have bent kinks
of about 30 degrees. ➢ Attachment to cytoskeleton or ECM
❖ Kinks help to push phospholipids away ❖ Proteins on a cell’s surface are important in the
to maintain them fluid even at low medical field.
temp. ❖ Carbohydrates are important for cell-cell
B. Length of Fatty Acids recognition, cell sorting for animal embryos,
➔ Shorter fatty acid chains reduce van der and rejection of foreign cells or molecules.
Waals forces, increasing fluidity.
❖ Membrane proteins are short which can be
➔ Longer fatty acid chains increase
glycolipids or glycoproteins, like the antigens
interactions, decreasing fluidity.
in RBCs.
C. Cholesterol Content
Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes .
➔ They lie alongside phospholipids in the
membrane which tends to dampen the ❖ Membrane surfaces have asymmetry: different
effects of temperature on the membrane. characteristics on the two sides.
➔ It acts like a buffer that prevents fluid ❖ There are differences in lipid composition
inhibition at lower temperature. between the sides of a membrane.
➔ It also is important in organizing ❖ The mechanism for generating this sidedness is
transmembrane protein clusters into lipid unknown. Different enzymes appear on the
rafts. two sides of membranes.

Selective Permeability of Plasma Membrane .

❖ The plasmalemma exhibits selective
permeability, meaning it allows some
substances to cross more easily than others.
❖ Nonpolar, small, and uncharged molecules
can easily pass through because they are
2. Sideway Movement of Phospholipids hydrophobic and dissolve in the bilayer w/o aid.
➔ Their rapid sideway movement allows ❖ Ionic and polar molecules are hydrophilic, and
phospholipids to change positions about thus impeded by the hydrophobic interior to
107 s-1. traverse the lipid bilayer.
➔ Proteins are larger than lipids and move ❖ Proteins built into the membrane also play key
more slowly; many of them are immobile roles in regulating transport.
because they are attached to the ● Channel proteins help the molecules to be
cytoskeleton or ECM; some of the move transported via passive transport.
★ Aquaporins - channel proteins that
highly directed and some simply drift.
allow passage of water molecules.
3. Temperature ● Carrier proteins help the molecules to be
➔ + temperatures = + KE = + movement = + transported via active transport. They have an
fluidity open and closed configuration. They are aka
4. Hydrostatic Pressure pumps.
➔ + pressure = + compress = - fluidity ★ Glucose transporter - only permits
5. Environmental Factors glucose passage, esp. in RBCs
★ Sodium-potassium pump -
➔ pH and concentration of ions affect maintains resting potential in many
proteins & other macromolecules, and cells to balance the membrane
thus the fluidity, indirectly. potential.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
Cell Transport System . C. Facilitated Diffusion
1. Passive Transport ➔ aka Facilitated Transport, hydrophilic
➔ These are cellular transport mechanisms molecules diffuse through membrane
that occur spontaneously without proteins by their concentration gradient.
requiring any energy input. ================================================
================================================ CHANNEL PROTEINS
➔ These provide corridors that allow specific
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
molecules or ions to cross the membrane
➢ It is a form of chemical potential energy ➔ They may be open all the time or gated.
➢ This is a region of space over which the CARRIER PROTEINS
concentration of a substance changes ➔ aka PUMPS, these proteins have open and closed
○ Moving against and up the concentration states which can be configured by the substance
gradient means moving from an area of binding into ligands.
lower to higher concentration. ➔ It is typically only for a specific substance and allows
○ Moving down, with, and along the the substance to move against its concentration
concentration gradient means moving from gradient.
an area of higher to lower concentration. ★ Channel proteins transport much more quickly than do
================================================ carrier proteins
A. Diffusion Classifications of channels / carriers :
➔ This is the movement of particles to spread ❖ Uniporter – carries 1 specific ion or molecule
out into the available space. ❖ Symporter – 2 same. ions / molec., same directions
➔ Each molecule moves randomly but a ❖ Antiporter – 2 diff. ions / molec., diff. directions
population of molecules moves
directionally. ================================================
➔ Simple Rule Diffusion: in absence of other 2. Active Transport
forces, the substance will diffuse down its ➔ This type of transport requires energy
concentration gradient, regardless of the because it requires the transport of
concentration of other substances.
substances against their conc. Gradient in
➔ Most of cell traffic occurs by diffusion; they
will move with their C.G. if they are order to balance the ECG.
permeable. ================================================
❖ Filtration – this is a variation of diffusion ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT
where materials move according to its ➔ This is the combination of electrical and chemical
CG, which is enhanced by pressure gradients that affects ionic movement.
allowing substances to pass through a ➔ EG & CG drive Na+ inward, while EG due to negatively
membrane . charged proteins drive K+ into while the CG drives K+
====================================================== outside the cell.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION ● Electrogenic Pump – a transport protein that
1. Pressure – + P = + KE = + Movement = + Diff generates voltage across a membrane,
2. Extent of CG – more net concentration = rapid diff. ; ================================================
less net concentration = slow diffusion
A. Primary Active Transport
3. Mass of Solute – heavier = slower ; lighter = faster
➔ A form of active transport that uses energy
4. Temperature – more temp. = more energy = more
from ATP Phosphorylation in order to
movement = higher rate of diffusion
change the configuration of pumps.
5. Solvent Density – higher solvent density = lower diff.
6. Solubility – nonpolar = faster diffusion ================================================
7. SA & Thickness of Plasmalemma – + SA & thic = + diff SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
8. Distance to be Travelled – + distance = - diff ; ➔ Animal cells have higher [K+] and lower [Na+], making
9. pH – neutral pH or optimal pH allow functionality the cell more electrically negative than the
====================================================== extracellular fluid.
B. Osmosis ➔ It helps to maintain the resting potential of a cell
➔ This is the diffusion of water through a
semipermeable membrane according to
the CG of WATER — inversely proportional
to the CG of solutes.
➔ It occurs when solutes are impermeable
with the membrane.
================================================
CELL-WATER BALANCE
● Tonicity – capability of a solution to affect the volume
of a cell by affecting osmosis.
○ Hypotonic: ECF lower osmolarity
○ Hypertonic: ECM has higher osmolarity
○ Isotonic: same osmolarity
● Osmolarity – describes the total osmoles
concentration of the solution
○ Osmotic P.: prevents inward flow
○ Turgor P.: pushes PM against CW
● Osmoregulation – homeostasis of conc.
○ Lysis: bursting due to hypotonic sol.
○ Crenation: shrinking / swelling, hypert. ================================================
================================================
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
B. Secondary Active Transport ★ Transcytosis – a variation of potocytosis by
➔ aka Cotransport, it uses the stored PE from which smaller substances are used to
the electrochemical gradient of Na+ in transport molecules to be released on the
order to actively pump other materials other side of the cell after processing.
against their concentration gradient. ★ Receptor-mediated Endocytosis – aided
================================================ with receptors, this type of pinocytosis by
which bulk quantities of solutes attach to
COTRANSPORT
solutes. After attachment, these receptors
➔ Using the potential energy stored from the ECG of
gather around coated pits where they are
Na+, the sodium-glucose cotransporter facilitates
invaginated, and the receptors recycle after.
the transfer of glucose actively.
======================================================
FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA
➔ In this genetic disease, the LDL receptors are
defective or missing entirely.
➔ This causes atherosclerosis because LDL (bad
cholesterol) is removed from the blood by
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
★ If uptake of a compound is dependent on
receptor-mediated endocytosis and the process is
ineffective, the material will not be removed from the
tissue fluids or blood.
======================================================

================================================
C. Bulk Transport
➔ This is a form of active transport that allows
the transport of more than one molecule
[especially macromolecules] at once in or
out of the cell where they are packaged in
vesicles.
◆ Exocytosis – it allows the export of waste materials by
enveloping them in transport vesicles until it fuses with
the plasma membrane where they are expelled.

END OF LECTURE 2.

◆ Endocytosis – a reverse of exocytosis where the plasma

membrane invaginates and pinches out that causes it to
form a vesicle that would transport the molecules inside.
○ Phagocytosis – a process of “cell eating” where it
engulfs large molecules by forming pseudopodia
and storing them in endosomes or food vacuoles.
I. Clathrin coats inner pseudopodia to stabilize it.
II. The pseudopodia engulfs the molecule, forming an
endosome or food vacuole.
III. The vesicle fuses with lysosome to be broken down
IV. Remaining waste particles are excreted to ECF
○ Pinocytosis – a process of “cell drinking” where the
cell engulfs water and other smaller particles from
ECF. Rather than pseudopodia, it invaginates.
Moreover, it happens in areas called coated pits
made of clathrin.
★ Potocytosis – a form of pinocytosis that uses
caveolin rather than clathrin also made of
lipid rafts & receptors, forming smaller
cavities than pinocytosis.