INDUS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Semester: IV Subject: COMPLEX ANALYSIS(MA0411)

UNIT-II
THEORY OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

7 hours

1. Limit, continuity and differentiability of complex functions

2. Analytic function, Cauchy-Riemann equations in Cartesian and polar forms (without proof)

3. Harmonic functions, conformal mappings, some standard conformal transformations: trans-

lation, magnification and rotation, inversion.

1 Functions of Complex Variable

• Let z = x + iy be a complex variable, where x and y are real numbers and i2 = −1. Then the
function f (z) is called a complex function and is denoted by w = f (z)

• w = f (z) is also complex in general and so we have w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where u(x, y) and
v(x, y) are real valued functions and respectively the real and imaginary parts of the w.

2 Limits and Continuity

• A function w = f (z) is said to have a limit l as z approaches to a point z0 if for a given small
positive number , we can find a positive number δ such that for all z 6= z0 in the (circular)disk
|z − z0 | < δ, we have |f (z) − l| < . Symbolically,

lim f (z) = l
z→z0

• A function w = f (z) is said to be continuous at z = z0 , if:

(1) f (z0 ) is defined;

(2) lim f (z) exists and
z→z0

(3) lim f (z) = f (z0 )

z→z0

• If f is continuous at each point of its domain D, then we say that f is a continuous function.

• Algebra of Limits: Let f (z) and g(z) be two functions for which lim f (z) = l and
z→z0
lim g(z) = m exists. Then we have:
z→z0

1. lim [f (z) ± g(z)] = l ± m

z→z0

2. lim [f (z) · g(z)] = lm

z→z0

f (z) l
3. lim = , provided m 6= 0
z→z0 g(z) m

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 • Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then the limit of f (z) at z0 = x0 + iy0 can be written as:
lim u(x, y) + i lim v(x, y)
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )

• w = f (z) is continuous at z = z0 when u(x, y) and v(x, y) both are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

• A polynomial function is a continuous function on the whole of C

• A rational function is a continuous function at every point of its domain of definition.

3 Differentiability of a complex function

• Let z0 + ∆z be a point in the neighbourhood of z0 . A function f (z) is said to be differentiable
f (z + ∆z) − f (z) f (z) − f (z0 )
at a point z0 , if the limit lim or lim exists. The limit is
∆z→0 ∆z z→z0 z − z0
denoted by f 0 (z0 ) and is known as the derivative of f (z) at z0 .

• Algebra of differentiable functions: Let f (z) and g(z) be two functions defined in the
neighbourhood of z0 and assume that f and g are differentiable at z0 . Then we have:

(i) f ± g is differentiable at z0 and (f ± g)0 (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) ± g 0 (z0 )

(ii) f g is differentiable at z0 and (f g)0 (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 )g(z0 ) + f (z0 )g 0 (z0 )
 0
f f f 0 (z0 )g(z0 ) − f (z0 )g 0 (z0 )
(iii) If g(z0 ) 6= 0, then is differentiable at z0 and (z0 ) =
g g g(z0 )2
• A polynomial function is differentiable on the whole of C.

• A rational function is differentiable at every point of its domain of definition.

4 Cauchy-Reimann(C-R) Equations in Cartesian co-ordinates

• Necessary conditions for a function f (z) to be differentiable at z0 :
If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at z0 ∈ C, than the first order partial derivates of
u and v, i.e. ux , uy , vx , vy exists at this point and satisfy the Cauchy Reimann equations:

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Note: If f (z) is differentiable at a point z0 = (x0 , y0 ), then

           
0 ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
f (z0 ) = +i = −i = +i
∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x (x0 ,y0 )

• Sufficient conditions for a function f (z) to be differentiable at z0 :

For f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) if

(i) ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous functions and

(ii) f (z) satisfies Cauchy Reimann Equations

at z0 = (x0 , y0 ) then f (z) is said to be differentiable at z0 .

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5 Analytic Functions
• A single-valued function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 in the domain D of a z−
plane, if:

(i) f (z) is differentiable at z0

(ii) f (z) is differentiable in some neighbourhood of z0 .

• A function f (z) is said to be analytic in a domain D, if it is analytic everywhere in D.

• An analytic function is also known as holomorphic or regular or monogenic function.

• A function which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane is known as entire function.

• The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) to be
analytic in a domain D of z− plane are:

(i) ux , uy , vx , vy are continiuous functions of x and y in D.

(ii) CR equations, i.e. ux = vy and uy = −vx are satisfied everywhere in D.

• If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic everywhere in a domain D, then it is differentiable

everywhere in D and hence it satisfies CR− equations everywhere in D. Thus,

f 0 (z) = ux − iuy = vy + ivx

• A polynomial functions with complex co-effecients is analytic everywhere in the complex plane.

• A rational function is analytic everywhere in its domain.

• The real and imaginary part of an analytic function are called conjugate functions.

• Determination of an Analytic function whose either real or imaginary part is

known

1. Method: 1 For a given analytic function f (z), assume that Re [f (z)] = u(x, y) is given.
This method will find Im [f (z)] = v(x, y) and hence f (z) can be evaluated.
∂u ∂u
(i) For u(x, y), find and .
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u
(ii) As = , integrating w.r.t y keeping x constant, we obtain
∂y
Z  ∂x
∂u
v= dy + φ(x), where φ(x) is to be determined.
∂x
∂u ∂v ∂u
(iii) Differentiate v obtained in (1ii) w.r.t. x and use in (1i) to compare =−
∂y ∂x ∂y
and obtain φ0 (x).
(iv) Integrate φ0 (x) w.r.t. x and substitute in (1ii) to get v(x, y).
(v) Thus, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is obtained. Use both functions to obtain f (z) in
terms of z.
2. Method: 1 If Im [f (z)] = v(x, y) is given, then u(x, y) and hence f (z) can be found
using the following steps:
∂v ∂v
(i) For v(x, y), find and .
∂x ∂y

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 ∂v ∂u
(ii) As = , integrating w.r.t x keeping y constant, we obtain
∂y
Z  ∂x
∂v
u= dy + φ(y), where φ(y) is to be determined.
∂y
∂v ∂v ∂u
(iii) Differentiate u obtained in (2ii) w.r.t. y and use in (2i) to compare =−
∂x ∂x ∂y
and obtain φ0 (y).
(iv) Integrate φ0 (y) w.r.t. y and substitute in (2ii) to get u(x, y).
(v) Thus, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is obtained. Use both functions to obtain f (z) in
terms of z.
3. Method: 2 (Milne-Thomson Method / Short cut method) For a given analytic
function f (z), assume that Re [f (z)] = u(x, y) is given.
This method will find f (z) in terms of z and Im [f (z)] = v(x, y) can be evaluated from
f (z) by substituting z = x + iy.
∂u ∂u
(i) For u(x, y), find and .
∂x ∂y
(ii) Substitute x = z and y = 0 in (3i) to obtain ux (z, 0) and uy (z, 0)
(iii) Evaluate f (z) by integrating ux (z, 0) − iuy (z, 0) w. r. t. z.
4. Method: 2 If Im [f (z)] = v(x, y) is given, then u(x, y) and hence f (z) can be found
using the following steps:
∂v ∂v
(i) For v(x, y), find and .
∂x ∂y
(ii) Substitute x = z and y = 0 in (4i) to obtain vx (z, 0) and vy (z, 0)
(iii) Evaluate f (z) by integrating vy (z, 0) + ivx (z, 0) w. r. t. z.

• Determination of an Analytic function whose sum or difference of real and imag-

inary parts are known:
Let f (z) = u + iv be a complex function. Then if (z) = iu − v = −v + iu
Thus, (1 + i)f (z) = (u − v) + i(u + v). Let F (z) = (1 + i)f (z) = U + iV
So, U = u − v and V = u + v

1. If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function, where u − v is given, then Re [F (z)] is known

and methods in (1) or (3) can be used to find F (z) and hence f (z).
2. If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function, where u + v is given, then Im [F (z)] is known
and methods in (2) or (4) can be used to find F (z) and hence f (z).

• A function f (x, y) is said to be harmonic in a domain D, if

(i) f (x, y) satisfies Laplace’s equation. i.e. fxx + fyy = 0

(ii) fxx , fxy , fyy are continuous functions of x and y in D.

• The real and imaginary part of an analytic functions are harmonic functions. They are called
conjugate harmonic functions of each other.

• If u and v are random harmonic functions, then it is not necessary that u + iv is an analytic
function.

• CR equations in Polar form Let f (z) be analytic function in its domain.

In polar form, f (z) = f (reiθ ) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ).
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v −1 ∂u
Then the CR equations in polar form are given by: = and = .
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
−i
The derivative f 0 can be calculated using: f 0 (z) = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) = iθ (uθ + ivθ )
re
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 ∂ 2 φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂ 2φ
• Laplace equation in polar form is given by: ∇2 φ = + +
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2

6 Conformal Mapping
• For a complex function w = f (z), z = x + iy is an independent variable and w = u + iv is a
dependent variable.

• Thus, z and f (z) = w cannot be plotted on the same set of axes as four variables x, y, u, v are
involved.

• We plot z and f (z) in two different planes.

• The plane containing the independent variable z = x + iy is called the z− plane or xy− plane.

• The plane contianing the dependent variable w = u + iv is called the w− plane or uv− plane.

• Thus, corresponding to each point (x, y) in z− plane, we have a point (u, v) in w− plane
which is the image of (x, y) under a given function f .

• We say that w = f (z) is a mapping or transformation of a point P within a region in z−

plane called the domain to a point P 0 within a region in w− plane called the range.

• Let C1 and C2 be two smooth curves in z− plane intersecting at a point z0 at an angle α

with 0 < α < π. Let C10 and C20 be the corresponding curves in w− plane under w = f (z)
intersecting at w0 as shown in figure below.

• If C10 and C20 intersect at angle α, when w = f (z) is called isogonal mapping.
Example of an isogonal mapping is f (z) = z̄ as arg (z̄) = −arg (z)

• If C10 and C20 intersect at angle α preserving the sense of rotation, then w = f (z) is called
conformal mapping.

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• If f (z) is an analytic function then w = f (z) defines a conformal mapping except at point
where f 0 (z) = 0. These points are called critical points.

• Conformal mapping by some elementary functions:

1. Identity Transformation: w = z
2. Translation: w = z + α, α ∈ C
3. Rotation: w = eiθ z, where θ is a real constant.

Note: If θ > 0, the rotation is counter clockwise and if θ < 0, the rotation is clockwise
4. Stretching or Magnification: w = az, where a is a positive real constant.

Note: If 0 < a < 1, the graph is contracted if a > 1, the graph is stretched.
5. Linear Transformation: w = αz + β, where α and β are complex constants.
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6. Inversion: w =
z
1
• Under the transformation w = :
z
1. A circle or a line that passes through the origin transforms into a line.
2. A circle or a line that does not pass through the origin transforms into a circle.