Temperature:  Mass flows across the system boundaries Excess reactant (%XS):

continuously. The distillation column is

°C:°R:(°F-32):(K-273.15) = 5:4:9:5 an example. Excess mol
2. Batch Process (closed system): consume all thelimiting reactant ¿ ×100 %
Specific Gravity: mol required ¿
 No mass flows across the system Solution:
ρ material 20 ° boundary. Baking cake is an example. Reactant that over and above the amount
( S . G )= (Temp) 3. Steady-state Operation: required. Basis of calculation: 1 hour
ρ reference 4 °  Compositions, conditions and flow rates
do not change with time. Conversion: percentage of reactant consumed If conversion is 10.0% then 12.0 mol C 2H4 are
°API Gravity: to generate product. It is a measure of how far consumed, and 6.0 mol of O2 are consumed.
General Equation: a reaction has gone.
141.5 For recycle:
° API = −131.5
[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]
60 ° F ACCUMULATION INPUT Yield: OUTPUT GENERATION CONSUMPTION
S.G. = − + − Let µ be moles of C2H4 in stream 5 (recycle)
60 ° F within system across boundary across
moles ofboundary within
desired product system
formed within system
×100 %Stream 2: contains 120.0 + µ mol C2H4.
Pressure: Total Balance: total amounts/flow rates moles that would have formed
Reactor have 10.0% conversion
if there wereno side−reactions
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 F 1=F 2+ F 3 ¿ the limiting reactant were Stream 3: contains 0.90(120.0 + µ) mol C2H4.
1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa 1. Mass units: generation and consumption completely consumed 20.0% of C2H4 leaves the separator in stream
terms must be 0. 4
1 atm = 101 325 Pa Selectivity (Ratio):
2. Mole units: generation and consumption
Energy: terms may not be 0 if chemical reaction is Stream 5 (recycle): contains C2H4
involved. moles of reactant consumed ¿ produce desired product ¿ ¿
Nm = Joule (J) ¿ molesµ )ofmol=µ
0.80∗0.90 ( 120.0+ reactant
molconsume
Component Balance: specified chemical ¿
1 cal = 4.1868 J compound (H2SO4, H2O, CH4) So, µ = 0.72 (120.0 + µ) = 308.6
Selectivity (Percentage):
1 BTU = 252 cal 1. No chemical reaction: generations and Thus, Stream 4:
consumptions terms are both 0 (for mass moles of reactant consumed ¿ produce desired product ¿ ¿
 1 BTU is the amount of energy required to and moles). 0.20∗0.90 ( 120.0+308.6 ) mol=77.2 mol C
increase the temperature of 1lbm of water by
¿ moles of reactant consume
2. Chemical reaction: generations and
1°F. consumptions terms must be evaluated by all reaction
A balance for C2H4 over the entire system is:
 1 calorie is the amount of energy required to based upon the reaction stoichiometry. (use
Recycle example: (to improve the overall
increase the temperature of 1 gram of water
by 1°C.
general equation).
conversion of the process). [ Accumulation ] =[ Input ]− [ Output ] + [ Gen
 1 CHU is the amount of energy required to Elemental Balance: terms of elements (O, C,
H, S and N). Problem:
increase the temperature of 1lbm of water by
1°C. C2H4 + ½ O2  C2H4O
Power: [ ACCUMULATION
within system
=
INPUT
][
into system
−
OUTPUT
outSuppose ][ ]
the conversion within the reactor is
of system
only 10.0%, and every hour 120.0 mol C H 2 4
J/s = Watt (W) and 60.0 mol O2 are fed to the process. What
Accumulation term: for steady-state processes,
are the flow rate and composition of the Thus, 42.8 mol C2H4 are produced and, 21.4
1 hp = 746 W accumulation term = 0.
production stream? mol O2 are consumed.
Material Balances: Material Balances with Chemical Reactions:
We add separator (Suppose the separator
*Set boundary over the system Limiting reactant (LR): removes all the C2H4O and 20.0 % of C2H4 and
20.0 % of O2).
1. Continuous Process (open system): Reactant that presents in less than its
stoichiometric ratio. (The one that runs out Calculate the flow rate and composition of the
first). The limiting reactant is the one relating product stream (i.e., stream ④), and the overall
to the desired product. conversion of C2H4.
Vapour Pressure: CLAUSIUS-CLAPEYRON Equation: PW<= PV\ Humidity and Material Balances
Theoretical relationship between dPV/dT.
Basis: P-T diagram Humidity definitions: Example: Water is being evaporated from a
room at a constant rate of 0.8 kg/h. Air enters
mol H 2 O PW the room with Tdb = 17.0⁰C and Twb = 8.0⁰C.
Molal humidity = = The air leaves the room with Tdb = 29.0⁰C and
mol dry air PT −PW Twb = 19.0⁰C.

m ass H 2 O What are the volumetric flow rates of the air

Absolute humidity (H )= =18.02¿ ¿ and leaving the room ?
entering
mass dry air
Solution:
Absolute Humidity is also known as Moisture
Content and Humidity Ratio.

PW
Relative humidity= ×100
PV
Basis: PV-T behaviour of a pure material
Relative Humidity is the ratio of the partial
ANTOINE Equation: relatively simple pressure of water vapour to the vapour Component balance of dry air (in stream i: Ai):
empirical equation that relates vapour pressure pressure of water at the same temperature.
to temperature. A 1= A 3
Relative humidity is also known as Relative
Saturation. No dry air entering in stream 2
PW /(PT −PW ) Component balance for moisture/water vapour
Percentage humidity = ×100(Wi):
In this equation A, B and C are constants that PV /(PT −PV )
vary for different compounds.
Percentage humidity is the ratio of the absolute
W 1 +W 2=W 3
*Remember that the Antoine Equation is an humidity of the humid air to the absolute
Absolute humidity:
approximation and any values calculated for humidity of air saturated with water vapour at
*At the critical point the difference between vapour pressure are estimates only. the same temperature.
the two phases disappears and there is no
mass H 2 O
Percentage Humidity is also known as
H=
discontinuous change in the properties of the **Use Steam Tables for data mass dry air
material. Percentage Saturation.
Humidity:
Wet-Bulb Temperature: temperature to Wi
*At the triple point the only point where the 3
Humidity is a measure of the amount of
So, for any stream: H i=
phases may co-exist simultaneously. estimate air humidity Ai
moisture (i.e. water vapour) in the air.
TC is the critical temperature Subs into moisture component balance:
Let: PT be the total pressure of the moist air,
PC is the critical pressure
PW be the partial pressure of water vapour, A 1 H 1+ W 2= A3 H 3
VC is the critical specific volume
PA be the partial pressure of dry air. *use psychrometric chart
Vapour Pressure: The vapour pressure of a
substance for given temperature is the pressure PT =PW + P A H1 = 0.0031 kg/kg dry air
at which the vapour condenses. It is the
H3 = 0.0098 kg/kg dry air
maximum pressure at which a vapour can exist The sum of the partial pressures equals the
without condensation occurring. (VP is a total pressure. W2 = 0.80 kg/h
function of temperature).
Since the maximum possible partial pressure of So, by substituting A1=A3 we have
the water pressure is the vapour pressure then,
Specific Volume = 1/density (ρ)
A1 = 119.4 kg/h

For volumetric flowrates, find specific volume

of each inlet and outler.

V1 = 0.826 m3/kg

V3 = 0.869 m3/kg

Calculate volumetric flowrate:

Flowrate 1 = 0.826 m3/kg × 119.4 kg/h

= 98.6 m3/h

Flowrate 2 = 0.869 m3/kg × 119.4 kg/h

= 103.8 m3/h

Air Conditioner: consists of cooler/condenser

and heater.

Enthalpy
T2
ĥ=∫ C P dT
T1