Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00536-8

REVIEW PAPER

Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference

to postharvest handling
Matia Mukama1 · Alemayehu Ambaw2 · Umezuruike Linus Opara1,2

Received: 22 July 2019 / Accepted: 24 June 2020

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
The thermophysical data of fruit is vital to the study and optimization of postharvest handling processes. However, data
available in the literature are not always consistent and must not be used directly. It is crucial to examine the accuracy and
reliability of the property data. Also, models to predict the thermal properties of fruit are not distinctly identified and included
in the list of models for food materials. The aim of this review is to show the gaps in fruit properties data with emphasis on
those properties that are important during postharvest handling. This paper also presents a review of the measurement and
prediction techniques for the thermophysical properties of fruit. Fruit thermophysical properties vary with temperature,
moisture content, cultivar, and even between the various parts of the same product. The presented review is a valuable input
for developing mathematical models that predict cooling rate, cooling time, cooling uniformity and refrigeration energy usage
during postharvest handling processes (e.g. precooling and cold storage), as well as for applications related to prediction and
monitoring of temperature induced fruit quality changes.

Keywords Cold chain · Refrigeration · Processing · Thermal conductivity models · Specific heat capacity · Thermal
diffusivity · Postharvest technology

Introduction activities, the growth and proliferation of microorganisms,

thus retarding deterioration. The control strategies are gov-
Fruits are seasonal and have limited shelf life before senes- erned by the thermophysical properties of the produce, the
cence and associated losses. A common postharvest chal- ambient condition and the associated packaging and han-
lenge is to prolong the shelf life of perishable commodities dling accessories [3–6]. Understanding the rate and degree
for the fresh market. This is achieved through strict control of heat and moisture exchange between the produce and its
of environmental conditions (airflow, temperature, humidity) surroundings is crucial to achieve the desired quality, shelf
and gas composition in the atmosphere during postharvest life and market price.
handling. This includes rapid cooling of the produce imme- The cold chain processes during postharvest handling
diately after harvest and control of temperature and humidity involve creating chilled air at the optimum storage tempera-
during storage, transportation and at the retail display [1, ture using a refrigeration system and maintaining uniform
2]. Cooling of produce reduces the respiration, enzymatic circulation of the chilled air through and around the stack of
produce by using air circulation units. The sizing, selection
and operation of the refrigeration and air circulation systems
* Umezuruike Linus Opara requires knowledge of the thermophysical properties of the
[email protected]; [email protected] produce, the packaging, temperature and humidity of the
1 surrounding air [3–5, 7–9]. Mathematical models are fre-
Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African
Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department quently used to study the cooling rate, cooling uniformity
of Food Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch and energy usages of precooling, cold storage and refriger-
University, Stellenbosch, South Africa ated transport of produce. The reliability of these models
2
Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African are dependent on the accuracy of the thermophysical data
Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department [9–19].
of Horticultural Science, Faculty of AgriSciences,
Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

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 M. Mukama et al.

The main thermophysical properties relevant for mod- Thermal treatments for postharvest
elling and analysis of thermal postharvest processes are handling of fruit
thermal conductivity (k), thermal diffusivity (α) and spe-
cific heat capacity (Cp) of the cooling medium (which is Thermal processing involves transfer of heat energy to or
usually air), the produce and the packaging material. These from a product. Table 1 summarizes some of the most
values are interrelated as Cp = k/ρα, where ρ is the density common thermal treatment processes during postharvest
of the material. Thermal properties of materials involve handling of fruit. Precooling is the quick removal of the
parameters associated with the three modes of heat trans- field heat shortly after the harvest of a crop. Different
fer: radiation, conduction, and convection. Radiation is the methods of precooling are available, including room cool-
transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. This form of ing, forced-air cooling, vacuum cooling, hydro cooling or
heat transfer is crucial before harvest when fruit is hanging spray cooling and package icing. Among these, forced-
on the tree. Radiant waves from direct sunlight during the air cooling (FAC) is the most favoured cooling technique
summer months can result in sunburn damage and losses [12, 30]. Fruit for distant markets should be kept cool and
due to sunburn damage is a major source of economic loss at the optimum condition during transportation. Refrig-
in the marketing fresh fruit due to fruit discolouration and erated containers (reefers) are the most used means of
variability in texture [20]. Conduction is the movement of transporting fresh produce to distant markets. Reefers are
heat to or from the produce due to temperature gradient. In designed to distribute chilled air from the floor, via spe-
fruit, like all materials, conduction of heat is dependent on cific T-shaped decking. The air delivery system should be
the produce thermal conductivity which is also affected by powerful enough to ensure enough and uniform flow of air
factors like the fruit moisture content and porosity [3, 21]. through the stacked produce inside the shipment [31, 32].
Convection involves the combined processes of conduction Refrigerated storage room is used to keep the quality of
(heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid produce beyond their normal shelf life. Chilled air is con-
flow). In postharvest handling of produce, the bulk fluid is stantly circulated through the stack by use of air driving
usually chilling air from the refrigeration unit. In hydro cool- equipment and heat is removed from the produce and other
ing cases, it is chilled water. The chilling air is forced to flow sources by the refrigeration/cooling unit. In addition, cold
through and around the stacked produce to extract the excess storage rooms are occasionally used for additional treat-
heat from the produce and circulate back to the refrigeration ments like gassing and fungicide applications [33, 34].
unit to reject the extracted heat [22, 23]. As in the precooling process, the effectiveness of the air
Thermal operations in the postharvest deals with living distribution, heat exchange and energy usage of the storage
materials characterised by properties with strong spatial operation are affected by the design of packaging boxes
and temporal variability [24]. During processing, the ther- and their stacking patterns in the room. Non-uniform flow
mal properties of these materials change in time and space of air inside the cool store could cause uneven cooling
depending on the composition, the physical structure of the leading to loss of product quality.
food and the ambient condition [25–27]. For instance, for Retail (display) cooling systems minimizes radiation
stone fruit like plums, there could be significant property dif- and other sources of heat during sales in stores and super-
ferences between the seed and the flesh parts of the fruit. It markets. While keeping the produce cool, display cool-
is important to know the cooling history of the flesh part, the ers should allow good visibility and ensure free access
stone part and the stone-flesh interface to accurately model to stored food for shop customers. This is accomplished
the heat transfer phenomena. If the seed part is prominent, by an insulation barrier called air-curtain developed by
it plays a significant role in the moisture and heat transfer recirculating air from the top to the bottom of the display
process [28]. Hence, the error incorporated in models that structure. The air curtain is a non-physical barrier between
uses a single average or effective property value could be chilly air inside the case and the warm shop environment.
significant [29]. The modelling and thermal analysis of the air curtains is
In this paper, a review of the thermophysical properties required to assess the effect of air circulation in front of
of fruit relevant to postharvest handling are presented and the cabinet and the disturbance created by the consumers
discussed, including an overview of the thermal treatments taking food from the shelves [35–37].
applied to maintain quality. In addition, recent advances in
the measurement and prediction of fruit thermophysical
properties are highlighted. Modelling the thermal processes in the postharvest

The modelling of the thermal processes in the postharvest

is based on the mathematical statement of the conservation

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Table 1  Thermal treatments in postharvest handling of fruit

Thermal treatment Examples Mode of action Reference(s)

Cold treatment Precooling Fruit temperature is brought down to the recommended storage [16, 23, 99]
temperature in the shortest time possible to reduce detrimen-
tal fruit physiological and biological changes. Methods used
include hydro cooling, forced air cooling etc
Refrigerated transport Fruit are transported in reefers that are maintained at recom- [31, 32, 100, 101]
mended temperature and relative humidity of particular fruit.
Aim is to minimise detrimental physiological and biological
changes in fresh fruit
Refrigerated storage Fruit are kept in a room maintained at the recommended tem- [34, 40, 102, 103]
perature and relative humidity for a particular fruit. Aim is to
minimise detrimental physiological and biological changes in
fresh fruit
Refrigerated retail display Fruit are displayed in cabinets on shelves maintained at the [36, 37, 104–106]
recommended temperature and relative humidity conditions.
Aim is to minimise detrimental physiological and biological
changes in fresh fruit
Heat treatment Hot air treatment Hot air between 35 and 39 °C is blown onto the fruit. Helps [107–110]
control insects, prevent fungal development, reduces chilling
injury in citrus, increases sugar levels, decrease polyphenol
oxidase action, increase in stress proteins, etc
Hot water treatment Fruit is dipped in water at varying temperatures for varying [109–112]
times up to 63 °C for less than one minute. This may trigger
increase in sugars and fatty acids, increase flavonoids, induce
defence cell and structure proteins, etc
Intermittent warming Intermittent warming is the periodic exposure of fruit under cold [110, 113, 114]
storage to short warming cycles. Reduces fungal proliferation
and chilling injury in some fruit

laws (conservation of mass, momentum and energy). The

Table 2  Properties in the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations
continuity Eq. (1) and Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
(RANS) Eq. (2) are the basic mathematical formulations Property Description Unit
that govern the motion of the cooling fluid. µ The dynamic viscosity of air kg ­m−1 s−1
∇⋅𝐔=0 (1) µt Turbulent viscosity of air kg ­m−1 s−1
Cpa Heat capacity of air J ­kg−1 K−1
((
𝜇 + 𝜇t
) ) ρa Density of air kg ­m−3
𝜕𝐔 1
+ ∇ ⋅ (𝐔 ⊗ 𝐔) − ∇ ⋅ ∇𝐔 − SU + ∇p = 0 ka0 Thermal conductivity of air W ­m−1 K−1
𝜕t 𝜌a 𝜌a
Cpp Heat capacity of the produce J ­kg−1 K−1
(2)
ρp Density of the produce kg ­m−3
The spatiotemporal distribution of the air temperature kp Thermal conductivity of the produce W ­m−1 K−1
and the produce temperature are estimated using additional kt Turbulent thermal conductivity W ­m−1 K−1
Eqs. (3) and (4) hpa Convective heat transfer coefficient W ­m−2 K−1
(
𝜕Ta
)
(( ) ) ( ) Tp Temperature of produce K
(𝜌a Cpa ) + 𝐔 ⋅ ∇Ta = ∇ ⋅ ka + kt ∇Ta + hpa Tp − Ta Ta Temperature of air K
𝜕t
(3) U Velocity m ­s−1
T Time s
𝜕Tp
(4) P Pressure Pa
( ) ( )
(𝜌p Cpp ) = ∇ ⋅ kp ∇Tp + hpa Ta − Tp + Qr − Qv
𝜕t Su Momentum source term m ­s−2
Table 2 summarizes the symbols and thermophysical
property data required corresponding to the model Eqs. modelling of these systems is computationally difficult. To
(1), (2), (3) and (4). this end, the method of volume averaging is employed. This
Due to the complexity and size-scale of a fully loaded approach assumes the stack as a porous medium and elimi-
cold storage room and a reefer container, mathematical nates the complex geometry of stacked packaging systems

13
 M. Mukama et al.

[7, 8]. This considerably simplifies the geometry discretiza- on the thermal properties of pomegranate fruit, Mukama
tion (meshing) step and the subsequent computation. The et al. [46] found that the aril part of the fruit recorded higher
porous medium approach is obtained by modifying Eqs. (3) values of specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity
and (4) [15, 16, 38]. Taking averages over an elemental vol- compared to the mesocarp and peel, while the peel had the
ume of the medium we have, for the solid phase, Eq. (5): lowest density.
𝜕Ts
= (1 − 𝜑)∇ ⋅ ks ∇Ts + (1 − 𝜑)q��� (5)
( )
(1 − 𝜑)(𝜌C)S s Specific heat capacity of fruit
𝜕t
and, for the fluid phase, Eq. (6): The specific heat capacity (Cp) of a material determines the
) 𝜕Tf ( amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilo-
+ 𝜌Cp f v ⋅ ∇Tf = 𝜑∇. kf ∇Tf + 𝜑q��� (6) gram of mass by 1 K [47]. Specific heat values of whole fruit
( ) ( )
𝜑 𝜌Cp f f
𝜕t
ranged from 1.72 to 4.05 kJ kg−1 K−1 with an average value
The subscripts s and f refer to the solid and fluid (air of 3.74 kJ kg−1 K−1. Fruit with high water content generally
in this case) phases, respectively, C is the specific heat of have higher specific heats. For example, melons have aver-
the solid, φ is the porosity of the stack, v is the volume age specific heat capacity of 4.05 kJ kg−1 K−1 [48].
of the fluid, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure of Specific heat values have been reported to increase
the fluid, k is the thermal conductivity, and q′′′ (W ­m−3) is with an increase in fruit moisture content. A similar trend
the heat production per unit volume [38]. Hence, addition- is reported with regards to temperature [47, 49–52]. The
ally, properties like porosity and airflow resistances of the effect of moisture content has however shown to be strong
porous domain are incorporated for the purpose of applying compared to temperature [50, 53]. Kumar et al. [44] reported
the porous medium approach. These two additional proper- a linear increase of specific heat of tomatoes with tempera-
ties are the properties of the stack determined by the shape, ture ranging from 30 to 130 °C, just like Aghbashlo et al.
size and stacking of the produce, the packaging design and [50] for berberis between 50 and 70 °C, (1.97–3.28) kJ
orientation [15, 39, 40]. ­kg−1 K−1. On the other hand, Singh et al. [54] reported neg-
ligible effect of temperature on the specific heat of unfrozen
food products. Different cultivars of the same fruit may also
have different specific heat values. For instance, at 40 °C,
Thermophysical properties of fruit
50% moisture content, Golden Delicious, Idared, Jonagold
and Jonathan apple cultivars had specific heat capacity of
The heat exchange between a fruit and its surrounding
3.22 kJ kg−1 K−1, 3.04 kJ kg−1 K−1, 2.82 kJ kg−1 K−1, and
depends on the thermal properties of the fruit and the sur-
2.42 kJ kg−1 K−1, respectively [55]. This is linked to differ-
rounding cooling medium. The most important properties to
ence in fruit material composition and microstructure [41].
analyse thermal processes are thermal conductivity, thermal
diffusivity, specific heat and density of the produce, pack-
aging materials and the cooling medium [5, 9, 41–45]. In Thermal conductivity of fruit
addition, the respiration and transpiration properties and the
accompanying heat and moisture generations during storage Thermal conductivity (k) measures the heat conducting
of fruit are crucial to design and optimize thermal processes ability of a material. Materials with low thermal conduc-
in the postharvest. tivity have a lower rate of heat transfer than materials with
The thermal properties of the cooling medium (air) and high thermal conductivity. Fruit thermal conductivity val-
most packaging materials are well established and can be ues ranged between 0.13 and 0.89 W m−1 K−1, average
effortlessly obtained from literature. On the other hand, 0.53 W m−1 K−1 (Table 3). Similar to specific heat capacity,
produce, being biological materials, have thermal proper- fruit with high moisture content have higher values of ther-
ties that vary in time, temperature and moisture content mal conductivity. This is attributed to the higher thermal
(Table 3). The absence of any consistent trend is apparent conductivity of water compared to other fruit contents [41,
in Table 3. This signifies the caution required when using 56]. From data that had fairly close measurement method
literature data in prediction models. Also, there may be con- and conditions where stated (Table 3), the variation between
siderable difference between fruit parts. This is especially same fruit values of thermal conductivity, taking the big-
important for fruit containing prominent stony-core sur- ger value as the denominator, was 8.81% in pear [57, 58].
rounded by fleshy or pulp tissue, such as mangoes, cherries Both authors used the probe method. This variation can be
and plums [28]. The ligneous core—the seed has radically attributed to fruit varietal differences (microstructure) and
different physical and may thus have thermal parameters measurement error [41, 42].
different from those of the edible part, the pulp. In a study

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Table 3  Thermal properties of different horticultural fruit from literature

Category Fruit type Temperature Moisture con- Density, ρ (kg Thermal Specific heat Thermal con- Reference(s)
(°C) tent (%) ­m−3) diffusivity, α capacity, CP ductivity, k (W
(× 10−7 ­m2 s−1) (kJ ­kg−1 K−1) ­m−1 K−1)

Pomes Apple 30 – 813 1.36 3.81 0.42 [61]

Apple 40 – 813 1.51 3.86 0.48 [61]
Apple 50 – 813 1.72 3.85 0.54 [61]
Apple 40 88 – 1.78 – 0.54 [115]
Apple 6–28 – – 0.88–1.19 – 0.404–0.423 [62]
Apple 0–30 85 – 1.37 – – [116]
Apple 40 88 – – 3.83 – [117]
Apple (green) 28 88.5 790 – – 0.422 [57]
Apple (red) 28 84.9 840 – – 0.513 [57]
Apple (red) 0–30 85 840 1.4 – – [118]
Apple (grated) 6–28 – – 1.28–1.38 – 0.553–0.575 [62]
Apple (juice) 6–28 – – 1.43–1.47 – 0.660–0.642 [62]
Pear 28 86.8 1000 – – 0.595 [57]
Pear – – 990 – – 0.543 [58]
Pear (bartlet) – 83.8 – – 3.73 – [43]
Berries Strawberry 28 88.8 900 – – 0.462 [57]
Strawberry 5 92 – 1.27 – – [116]
Straw berry 20 41 – 1.2 – – [120]
jam
Figs 23 40 1241 0.96 0.310 [120]
Avocado 41 – – 1.54 – – [116]
Avocado 28 64.7 1060 – – 0.429 [57]
Avocado – 74.27 – – 3.67 – [75]
Acerola (pulp) 40 92 1000 1.528 4.172 0.65 [51]
Tomato (pulp) 20–150 – – – 2.25–3.00 – [119]
Tomato (pulp) 22 – 1032 – – – [44]
Blueberry 40 82 1001 1.51 4.050 0.64 [51]
(pulp)
Blueberry 84.61 – – – 3.83 – [75]
Blackberry 85.64 – – – 3.91 – [75]
Acai (pulp) – 93.8 1047 – – – [29]
Kiwi 30–90 – – – 3.893 – [53]
Pomegranates 25 76.5 986.99 1.69 3.302 0.546 [2]
Cranberries – 83.02 670 1.06 3.509 0.248 [120]
Cranberries – 86.54 – – 3.91 – [75]
Raspberries – 82.7 – – 3.73 – [43]
Berberis 50–70 19.3–74.3 – – 1.965–3.281 0.132–0.489 [50]

13
 M. Mukama et al.

Table 3  (continued)
Category Fruit type Temperature Moisture con- Density, ρ (kg Thermal Specific heat Thermal con- Reference(s)
(°C) tent (%) ­m−3) diffusivity, α capacity, CP ductivity, k (W
(× 10−7 ­m2 s−1) (kJ ­kg−1 K−1) ­m−1 K−1)

Drupes Peach 28 88.5 930 – – 0.581 [57]

Peach 14 90 980 – 3.892 0.54 [121]
Peach 27.4 – – 1.39 – – [116]
Peach (no 25–50 85.1 – – 3.77 – [43]
stone)
Peach – 86 – – – 0.58 [122]
Plums, blue 26 88.6 1130 – – 0.551 [57]
Apricots 14 90 1000 – 3.134 0.5 [121]
Apricots – 86.35 – – 3.87 – [75]
Cherry (sour) 86.13 – – 3.85 – [75]
Plum (no seed) – 80.3 – – 3.65 – [43]
Plum – 68 – – – 0.54 [122]
Plum –16 – – - – 0.245 [123]
Nectarine 8.6 82.9 990 – – 0.585 [57]
Nectarine – – – – 3.5 0.65 [122]
Olive (pulp) – 75.97 1057.6 1.239 3.609 0.473 [28]
Melons Watermelon – 95 1003 1.48 4.05 0.616 [48]
Cantaloupe – 89.78 – – 3.93 – [75]
Melon
Yellow melon – – – – 4.03 – [53]
Citrus Orange (pulp) – 82.1–82.7 1030–1060 1.5–1.56 4.025–4.068 0.63–0.66 [124]
Orange – – 1010 – – 0.554 [58]
Orange – 89.2 1004 1.45 3.91 0.588 [48]
Orange 28 85.9 1030 – – 0.580 [57]
(peeled)
Lemon 40 – – 1.07 – – [116]
Lemon – 90 1032 1.46 3.93 0.592 [48]
Lemon 28 91.8 930 – – 0.525 [57]
(peeled)
Lime (peeled) 28 89.9 1000 – – 0.490 [57]
Lime – 90.7 1003 1.47 3.94 0.595 [48]
Grapefruit 26 90.4 950 – – 0.549 [57]
(peeled)

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Table 3  (continued)
Category Fruit type Temperature Moisture con- Density, ρ (kg Thermal Specific heat Thermal con- Reference(s)
(°C) tent (%) ­m−3) diffusivity, α capacity, CP ductivity, k (W
(× 10−7 ­m2 s−1) (kJ ­kg−1 K−1) ­m−1 K−1)

Tropical Pawpaw – 88 889 1.69 3.88 0.582 [48]

Mango – 84 1068 1.39 3.78 0.562 [48]
Mango (pulp) 20–80 52–90 991.2–1192 1.39 2.730–4.093 0.377–0.623 [59]
Mango –10 to–30 60–80 – 3.904–6.033 1.721–2.031 0.677–1.134 [49]
Mango 60–100 60–80 – 1.433–2.052 3.655–3.919 0.507–0.855 [49]
Guava – 81 1071 1.38 3.7 0.547 [48]
Cupuacu (pulp) 25–55 89.83 1036 1.46 3.82 0.578 [29]
Banana (puree) – – 980 - – 0.475 [58]
Banana – 74.26 – – 3.56 – [75]
Banana (puree) 80 – 1115 – 3.642 0.595 [125]
Banana 27 75.7 980 – – 0.481 [57]
Banana – 71 964 1.5 3.45 0.498 [48]
Banana – 71–21 – 1.97–1.26 1.8–3.0 0.894–0.154 [52]
(unripe)
Papaya 20 – – – 3.02 – [126]
Caja (pulp) 30–90 – – – 4.037 – [53]
Pineapple 27 84.9 1010 – – 0.549 [57]
Pineapple – 85 983 1.52 3.8 0.567 [48]
Cashew apple 30–90 – – – 4.027 – [53]
(pulp)
Cashew – 88 930 1.61 3.88 0.582 [48]
Pitanga (pulp) 30–90 – – – 3.967 – [53]
Soursop fruit 30–90 – – – 3.865 – [53]
(pulp)
Soursop – 83 – 1.55 3.75 0.557 [48]
Graviola (pulp) 25–55 88.96 1013 1.5 3.97 0.603 [29]
Cocoa (pulp) 30–90 – – – 3.746 – [53]
Passion fruit 0.4–68.8 50–80 995–1240 – 2.5–4.0 0.412–0.635 [35]
(Juice)

Mercali et al. [51], Aghbashlo et al. [50], Bon et al. [59], At low temperatures (− 10 to − 30) °C, Laohasongkram
and Figura and Teixera [26] found more dependency of et al. [49] observed an increase in the thermal conductiv-
thermal conductivity on moisture content than temperature. ity of mangoes with a decrease in temperature. However,
Sweat [57] also found a strong correlation between thermal thermal conductivity increased with an increase in moisture
conductivity and fruit water content except for fruit consid- content. They also observed that the thermal conductivity
erably less dense than water. In a study to determine the ther- values of frozen mangoes were higher than values above
mal properties of Berberis fruit, using the transient line heat freezing temperatures. This can be attributed to the higher
source method, Aghbashlo et al. [50] also observed increase thermal conductivity of ice (2.23 W m−1 K−1) in comparison
in the thermal conductivity with both moisture content and to water (0.604 W m−1 K−1) [60].
temperature increase [0.1324–0.4898 W m−1 K−1, between
50–70 °C and 19.3–74.3% moisture content).

13
 M. Mukama et al.

Thermal diffusivity of fruit

Thermal diffusivity (α) measures the rate at which heat is

conducted through a material. It represents the rate of tem-
perature change during temperature removal or addition
to a given volume of food product during processing [47].
Thermal diffusivity relates the heat conducting ability of a
material to its heat storability [43]. Thermal diffusivity of
fruit range between 0.88 and 2.05 × 10−7 ­m2 s−1. (Table 3).
However, similar to specific heat and thermal conductivity,
any comparison of values should be based on measurements
done at similar conditions of temperature and moisture con-
tent since thermal diffusivity of fruit has been shown to be
affected by temperature and moisture content [49, 61–63].
Temperature, moisture content and their interaction sig-
nificantly affected the thermal diffusivity of mangoes at both
low − 10 to − 30 °C and high temperatures 60–100 °C, rising
with a rise in temperature and moisture content at high tem-
perature measurements [49]. However, at low temperature,
a decrease in thermal diffusivity with an increase in tem-
perature was observed for the mangoes. At constant tem-
perature, the diffusivity increased with increase in moisture
content [49]. Martínez-Monzó et al. [61] and Bozikova [62] Fig. 1  Heat conduction through a slab material: T
­ 1 and T
­ 2 are surface
temperatures
also reported a linear increase of thermal diffusivity with
increase in temperature in apples. Fruit growth stage may
also affect the thermal diffusivity of fruit. For example, in where q is the heat flux (W ­m−2), k is the thermal conduc-
Marsh grapefruit, Bennett et al. [64] observed an increase tivity (W ­m−1 K−1), dx is the thickness of the sample (m),
in the effective thermal diffusivity as the fruit ripened, lost T1 is temperature at the high temperature side and T2 is the
peel thickness and became denser. temperature (°C) at the low temperature side of the sample,
both kept constant in time. Steady-state technique generally
takes a long time to reach the required equilibrium and may
Measurement techniques be expensive since it requires a well‐designed installation
system [65]. This technique involves time independent meas-
Measuring the thermal conductivity of fruit urements of the thermal conductivity using a heat source and
heat sink principle. It is more suited for low moisture prod-
Thermal conductivity is measured in several ways depending ucts. Notable methods in this category are the guarded hot
on the type of material and the medium temperature. The plate, concentric cylinder and concentric sphere methods.
two main categories of thermal conductivity measurement The material to be measured is placed between the plates,
techniques are steady-state methods and transient methods. one acting as a heat source while the other, a heat sink [66].
The steady‐state technique takes measurements when the The transient or non‐steady‐state techniques determine
temperature of the material reaches complete equilibrium thermal conductivity using measurements taken from tran-
that is when the temperature at each point of the specimen sient sensors during a heating process. Measurements in this
is constant and does not change with time. Figure 1 depicts category are relatively quick, which gives it an advantage
steady-state conduction of heat through a plane wall. Equa- over steady‐state techniques [43]. The disadvantage is that
tion (7) gives the corresponding heat conduction equation, the mathematical analysis of the data is in general more dif-
also called the Fourier’s law, as the rate of heat flow (q) ficult. This technique has been widely used in the determi-
through thickness dx, in the direction normal to surface area nation of the thermal conductivity of most foods and hence
A, under a steady state temperature difference dT = T1 − T2. it is discussed in greater detail below. Transient methods
( ) generally employ needle probes or wires [67] (Fig. 2).
k T 1 − T2
(7) The probe method is based on the solution of the
q=
dx line heat source placed within an infinite, isotropic, and
homogenous specimen of thermal diffusivity, α. Heat flow
radially around the probe in the specimen is in accordance

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Fig. 2  Schematic a hot needle and b hot wire embedded in specimen

to the general Fourier equation. The isotherms formed T = mo + m2 t + m3 ln t, 0 < t < th (9)
within the specimen represent perfect cylinders (Fig. 2)
of infinite length with continually increasing radii [68]. [ ]
This is represented by Eq. (8) [65, 69]. t
T = m1 + m2 t + m3 ln , t > th (10)
( 2 ) t − th
𝜕T 𝜕 T 1 𝜕T
=𝛼 + (8) where mo is the ambient temperature at time 0 °C, m1 is
𝜕t 𝜕r2 r 𝜕r
final temperature after heating (°C), m2 is the rate of back-
where T is temperature (°C) at time t (s) and r is the radial ground temperature drift (°C s­ −1), m3 is the slope of the
distance from the line source (m). Single and double probes line relating the change in temperature against logarithm
are used in the measurements. Figure 3a depicts schematic of time (°C) [65]. Once the constants of Eqs. (9) and (10)
view of the single-needle probe technique. In this technique, are determined through curve fitting, the thermal conduc-
heat is applied to the needle for a duration of th (s) while ­ −1 K−1), is calculated as in Eq. (11), q is the
tivity, k (W m
simultaneously monitoring the temperature and then the power dissipated per unit length of heater (W ­m−1). Data in
heating is turned-off for an extra duration called the cooling- the linear portions of the graph of the heating and cooling
period. Then models are fitted to the temperature–time data phases are used for fitting the equations as the initial plot of
of the heating and cooling periods to provide the thermal temperature vs ln(t) and ln(t/(t − th) is nonlinear, influenced
conductivity value. For instance, Eqs. (9) and (10) are used by probe thermal properties [65, 68].
to model the temperature–time history of the heating and q
cooling periods, respectively [69]. k= (11)
4𝜋m3

Fig. 3  Schematic view of the single (a) and dual (b) needle probes [68]

13
 M. Mukama et al.

The dual needle heat-pulse sensor consists two needles 1

spaced typically 6 mm apart (Fig. 3b, r = 6 mm). One needle
k=
b1 (17)
is a line heat source and the other is a thermocouple. A short
duration pulse is applied to the heater and the thermocou-
r2
ple’s temperature response to the heat pulse is used to deter- 𝛼= (18)
4b2
mine the thermal properties of the sample. The temperature
rise of the thermocouple at distance, r, is given by Eq. (12)
[65, 70]. Measurement techniques of specific heat capacity
( 2 ) of fruit
q r
ΔT = Δ exp − (12)
4𝜋kt 4𝛼t
Different methods have been used by several researches to
where ΔT is the temperature rise measured by the thermo- determine the specific heat capacity of agricultural and food
couple (°C ­s−1), r is the distance between the line heat source materials. These include hot wire method (transient line heat
and the temperature sensor (m), q is the power dissipated per source method), method of mixtures, guarded plate method,
unit length of heater (W m ­ −1), k is the thermal conductivity and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) [5, 41, 52, 71].
(W ­m K ), α is the thermal diffusivity (­ m2 ­s−1), and t is
−1 −1 The dual needle probe, described in “Measuring the thermal
heating time (s). Equation (12) is used to fit a set of observa- conductivity of fruit” above, can be used to determination the
tions and with a mathematical inverse method the thermal specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusiv-
conductivity and thermal diffusivity are calculated. After ity, and thermal resistivity of a material.
obtaining the thermal conductivity, density, ρ (kg m ­ −3)) The method of mixtures is the most widely used technique
and thermal diffusivity α ­(m2 ­s−1), the specific heat, Cp (J for measuring the specific heat capacity of agricultural prod-
­kg−1 K−1) is calculated from Eq. (13). ucts due to its simplicity [41]. In this method, a sample of
interest with a known mass (Msample) is first set at a deter-
k mined initial temperature (T1) and then added in an adiabatic
𝛼= (13)
𝜌CP vessel (a calorimeter) at a determined initial temperature (T2)
and with known mass (Mcalorimeter) and specific heat capacity
Alternatively, the readings can be processed taking into
(Cp(Calorimeter)). Then, the sample is mixed with a specific mass
consideration both the heating and cooling phases, Eq. (14)
of a liquid with known properties (water, in general—Mwater,
relates to the first t seconds, while the heat is on and Eq. (15)
Cp(water)) at T2. After thermal equilibrium the entire system
is for the cooling period, while the heat is off [65, 67].
will attain a temperature T3, where T2 < T3 < T1. The sample
Hence, the temperature–time data of the heating and cool-
specific heat capacity (Cp) is then obtained by applying the
ing periods is fitted to Eqs. (17) and (18) using a non-linear
energy balance for the system assuming the heat loss from the
least squares procedure.
sample (= MsampleCp(T1 − T3)) is equal to the sum of heat gain
( )
b by the water (= Mwater CPwater(T3 − T2)) and the calorimeter
T ∗= bo t + b1 Ei 2 (14) (= Mcalorimeter Cp(calorimeter)(T3 − T2)) using Eq. (19).
t
( ) ( )
Mwater CP(water) T3 − T2 + MCalorimeter CP(calorimeter) T3 − T2
{ ( ) [ ]} CP =
b2 b2
( )
Msample T1 − T2
T ∗= bo t + b1 Ei − Ei (15)
t t − th (19)
In the DSC method, a single heat thermogram—a record
of heat flow as a function of heat or temperature is used to
( )
4𝜋 T − To
T ∗= (16) calculate the specific heat of a sample. The thermogram is
q
generated by the system recorder after the sample is placed
where To is the ambient temperature at time 0 (°C), T is the in a special cell whose temperature is increased at a constant
temperature after heating time (t) (°C), q is the heat input heating rate [47]. The area under the thermogram is propor-
per unit length of probe (W ­m−1). t is the instantaneous time tional to the heat energy absorbed or lost by the product in the
when temperature is recorded (s), th is the first seconds (s), heating or cooling process [41]. The DSC method is based on
while the heat is on, bo, b1 and b2 are the constants to be fit. the definition of specific heat rewritten as in Eq. (20) [72, 73]:
The thermal conductivity, k (W ­m−1 K−1) and thermal dif- [ ]
fusivity, α ­(m2 ­s−1) are then computed using Eqs. (17) and 1 𝜕H 1 𝜕H∕𝜕t 1 ΔP
[ ]
CP = = = (20)
(18), r is the radial distance between the two needles (m). m 𝜕T m 𝜕T∕𝜕t m 𝛽

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

where H is the enthalpy (J), m is the mass (kg), T the temper- mass fraction of ice (x ice) in frozen food applicable to a
ature (K), ΔP is difference between power to the sample and wide variety of foods with satisfactory accuracy within
the reference (W), and β is heating rate (K s­ −1). The DSC range − 45 °C ≤ T ≤ Tf, and − 2 ≤ Tf ≤  − 0.4 °C [77].
method can scan a wide range of temperatures making it
1.105xwo
suitable for the determination of the effect of temperature on xice = (
(23)
)
specific heat of foods, however, the equipment is expensive, 1 + ln 0.7138
(Tf −T+1)
requires calibration, and uses small sample sizes 5–15 mg
[43, 49]. Kumar et al. [44] used the DSC to measure the where xwo is the mass fraction of water in the unfrozen food,
specific heat of tomatoes at 10 °C intervals between 20 and Tfis initial freezing point of food (°C), and T is food tem-
130 °C (Table 3). perature (°C).
The guarded plate method of specific heat capacity deter-
mination works on the principle that the electric heat sup-
plied to a product in between thermal guards that are also Predicting the thermal conductivity of fruit
electrically heated in a given time is equal to the heat gain by
the specimen (Eq. 21). The specific heat is then calculated Generally, food materials are non-homogeneous, varying in
from the heat gain as in Eq. (22). The guards and the product composition and structure not only between products, but
are kept at the same temperature [41]. However, this method also within a single product. Estimating the thermal proper-
may not be fit for irregular shaped specimen like fruit unless ties of foods based on composition requires detailed knowl-
specially shaped fitting thermal guards are available. edge of the mass fractions of the various food components.
Constituents commonly found in fruit include water, protein,
Q = Cp WΔT = VIt (21)
fat, carbohydrate, fibre, and ash. Standard laboratory gravi-
metric techniques can be used to determine the component
VIt mass fractions. Alternatively, publications such as Holland
Cp = (22)
WΔT et al. [78] and USDA [79] state typical compositions for a
where Cp is the specific heat (J ­kg−1 K−1), V is the average wide range of food materials and food products. In conjunc-
voltage in time t (V s­ −1), I is the average current in time t (A tion with such composition data, the Choi and Okos [80]
­s−1) and ΔT is the temperature change (°C). Table 4 presents model has been used to predict the thermophysical proper-
a summary of some of the common measurement methods ties of the constituents as function of temperature. Then,
for thermal properties and density of fruit. the estimation of the thermal properties of a food product is
made by taking into account the mass average of the com-
ponents and the structure of the food material (i.e., how the
different constituents are structured in space inside the food).
Prediction techniques In this regard, the parallel or perpendicular models Eqs.
(24) and (26) are used to estimate the thermal conductiv-
Frozen foods: ice fraction ity of food, based on analogies with electrical resistance
[81]. The two models have been used to predict the upper
In frozen foods, the fraction of ice strongly affects the and lower bounds of thermal conductivities of most foods
thermophysical properties of the food [74, 75]. The ther- [74, 75]. The parallel model is a summation of the thermal
mophysical properties of frozen foods vary dramatically conductivities of the food constituents multiplied by their
with temperature because the ice and water fractions in volume fractions (Eq. (24)).
the food vary with temperature and these have different ∑
thermophysical properties. Initially some water crystal- k= xiv ki (24)
lises in the food, concentrating the remaining solution
which further lowers its freezing point. Therefore, in where xiv is the volume fraction of the constituent i, calcu-
predicting the thermal properties of frozen foods, it is lated using Eq. (25), where ρi is the density of the constituent
paramount to determine how much of the water is frozen i (kg ­m−3):
and how much remains unfrozen at a given temperature. x ∕𝜌
For example, when determining the thermal conductiv- xiv = ∑ �i i � (25)
ity of frozen foods, the thermal conductivity of the ice/ xi ∕𝜌i
water mix is determined and then combined successively
The perpendicular model is a reciprocal of the sum of
with the thermal conductivities of the rest of the food
volume fractions divided by their thermal conductivities
constituents in the thermal conductivity models [9, 75].
(Eq. 26).
Tchigeov [76] proposed Eq. (23) for calculation of the

13
 Table 4  Summary of different methods used in the determination of thermal properties and density of fruit
Method Measured property Operating principle Limitations Additional comment Reference(s)

13
Transient line heat source Specific heat capac- Temperature change of the wire Free convection due to probe Most suited for fruit [3, 43, 49, 50, 57, 58, 66,
method ity heated by a controlled source heating in high moisture Fast method 128–129]
Thermal conduc- (heat pulse) and embedded in the foods could give erroneous High accuracy
tivity test material for a particular time results Works well at high pressure meas-
Thermal diffusivity period is dependent on the mate- Probe sizes may not be suit- urements
rial thermal properties able for some fruit or fruit
parts
Method of mixtures Specific heat capac- The specific heat is determined Method assumes that heat Modern calorimeters have an adi- [41, 50, 122]
ity from the heat exchange balance loss that is not accounted abatic jacket to minimise heat
after the sample is dropped in the for is negligible exchange of the calorimeter and
calorimeter and equilibrium tem- Needs a calibration run with its surroundings
perature is achieved. Heat loss reference material of known It’s a simple and accurate method
from the measured substance = to heat capacity
the heat gain by water
Differential Scanning Calo- Specific heat capac- Heat flow rate to the sample pro- Uses very small sample sizes Can scan a wide range of tempera- [41, 43, 44, 47, 49, 130, 131]
rimetry (DSC) ity grammed in a specified environ- Expensive equipment tures
ment is monitored vs. time or Suitable for the determination of
temperature. The area under the the effect of temperature on spe-
thermogram (heat flow against cific heat of foods in short time
temperature) generated by the
system recorder is proportional
to the heat energy absorbed or
lost by product in the heating or
cooling process
Thermal diffusivity tube Thermal diffusivity Based on the analytical solution for Suitable for fruit pulps but Cylinder filled with sample, with [29, 49, 51, 132, 133]
the heat diffusion equation in a not whole fruit thermocouple at thermo-centre is
long cylinder placed in a temperature gradi-
ent, then temperature is recorded
throughout the experiment. Then
temperature and time is correlated
through an exponential fit
Cylindrical cells method Thermal conduc- Conduction inside the cell is Suited for liquid samples The liquid whose properties [59, 132, 134]
tivity described by the Fourier equation are being determined fills two
Specific heat in cylindrical coordinates, with concentric cylinders 180 mm in
boundary conditions correspond- length, separated by an annular
ing to heat transfer between two space of 2 mm
concentric cylindrical surfaces
kept at constant temperature
Pycnometry True density Pyncometer, a calibrated flask Best suited for liquid samples Measurements can be made at dif- [5, 52, 132]
that allows weighing of known ferent temperature in a water bath
volume of liquid
M. Mukama et al.
 Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

1
k = ∑� v � (26)
xi ∕ki

The density of food material can be estimated based on the

mass fractions of the individual components using Eq. (27):
1−𝜀
Reference(s)

𝜌 = ∑� (27)
[135, 136]

�
xi ∕𝜌i

[2, 136]
where ɛ is the food porosity, xi is the mass fraction of the
individual food constituents and ρi is the density of the food

Applicable to samples of any shape

sample holder of known volume,
outgassed with helium gas, pres-

constituents (kg ­m−3).

A pre-weighed fruit is placed in a

sure is recorded. Helium is then

Presence of air bubbles can cause

introduced into 2nd chamber of
known volume and pressure is

Method is accurate but requires

Earlier models used to predict thermal conductivity of food

items include methods like dilute dispersion of small spheres
very precise calibration

Easy and cheap method

in a continuous phase [82] (Eq. 28), Levy [83] and the Kopel-
Additional comment

man [84] models. The models consider two distinct phases of

the food materials. When foods contain more than two distinct
recorded too

phases, the models must be applied successively when deter-

mining thermal conductivities of such food materials [75].
error

[ ( )]
1 − 1 − a kd ∕kc b
k = kc (28)
suspended in the liquid, not
absorb liquid and not touch

1 + (a − 1)b
pressure inside the sample
occur during the measure-

the bottom or the sides of

chamber may give rise to

measurement of volume
moisture content should

significant errors in the

No significant change in

where k is the thermal conductivity of mixture (W ­m−1 K−1),

Small variations in gas
Ideal for dry fruit only

Sample should remain

kc is thermal conductivity of continuous phase (W m ­ −1 K−1),

kd is thermal conductivity of dispersed phase (W ­m−1 K−1),
the container

a is 3kc/(2kc + kd), b is Vd/(Vc + Vd), where Vd is volume of

Limitations

dispersed phase (­ cm3) and Vc is volume of continuous phase

ment

­(cm3).
Levy [83] modified Eq. (28) to derive Eq. (29) for thermal
outside of an immersion liquid of
fruit and the other without, using

conductivity determination
of gases in 2 chambers, one with

Buoyant force method is based on

Relationship between weight and
Balance of pressure and volume

the Archimedes principle, the

Volume of water displaced in

sample is weighed inside and

[ ]
k2 (2 + Λ) + 2(Λ − 1)F1
k = kc (29)
(2 + Λ) − (Λ − 1)F1
graduated cylinder
Operating principle

the ideal gas law

where Ʌ is the thermal conductivity ratio (Ʌ = k1/k2), k1 and

known density

k2 are thermal conductivities of food components (phases)

1 and 2, respectively. While
{ }
) [( )2 8R ]0.5
2 2
(
1
F1 = 0.5 − 1 + 2R1 − − 1 + 2R1 −
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
Measured property

(30)
Apparent density

where
True density

(Λ − 1)2
𝜎= (31)
(Λ + 1)2 + (Λ∕2)

and ­R1 is the volume fraction of component 1 (Eq. 32)

Volumetric displacement
Gas stereopycnometer
Table 4  (continued)

[ ( )( )]−1
1 𝜌1
R1 = 1 + −1 (32)
x1 𝜌2

Here, x1 is the mass fraction of component 1, ρ1 and ρ2 are

method
Method

densities (kg ­m−3) of components 1 and 2, respectively.

13
 M. Mukama et al.

Kopelman [84] developed several expressions for thermal based on composition as given by the Choi and Okos [80]
conductivity for homogeneous and fibrous foods: For homo- model (Eq. (37)).
geneous food materials: (a) for an isotropic, two-component ∑
system composed of continuous and discontinuous phases, CP = CPi xi (37)
in which thermal conductivity is independent of direction
of heat flow and the thermal conductivity of the continuous where Cpi is the specific heat capacity of the individual food
phase is assumed to be much larger than that of the discon- components (kJ k­ g−1 K−1) and xi is the mass fraction of the
tinuous phase (Eq. 33). food components. In the absence of detailed composition of
a food, Chen [42] proposed a simpler model (Eq. 38) based
on the mass fractions of solids (xs) in the unfrozen food item.
[ ]
1 − L2
k = kc (33)
1 − L2 (1 − L)
CP = 4190 − 2300xs − 628xs3 (38)
(b) as in (a) but the thermal conductivity of the discontinu-
ous phase is much higher than that of the continuous phase, Below freezing point, Eq. (39) [85] and Eq. (40) [42]
Eq. (34) is used to determine the thermal conductivity of can be used to predict the apparent specific heat of the fro-
the mixture zen material. Apparent specific heat considers the sensible
heat from temperature change and latent heat from fusion of
water to make ice [74, 75].
[ ]
1 − [1 − M]
k = kc (34)
1 − M(1 − L) [ ( )]
) LO to − tf
(39)
(
where kc is the thermal conductivity of the continuous phase Ca = Cf + xwo − xb
to − t
(W ­m−1 K−1) and L is the volume fraction of the discontinu-
ous phase, M = L2(1 − kd /kc) and kd and kc is the thermal
conductivity of the discontinuous and continuous phases (W xs RTO2
Ca = 1.55 + 1.26xs − (40)
­m−1 K−1), respectively. Ms t 2
For fibrous food materials, thermal conductivity depends
on the direction of heat flow relative to the food fibres [85]: where Ca is the apparent specific heat (kJ ­kg−1 K−1), Cf is
(a) for heat flow parallel to the food fibres (Eq. (35)) specific heat of fully frozen food (kJ ­kg−1 K−1), xwo is mass
fraction of water above initial freezing point, xb is mass frac-
tion of bound water, Lo is latent heat of fusion of water (kJ
[ ( )]
kd
(35)
2
k∥ = kc 1 − N 1 −
kc ­kg−1), to is freezing point of water (°C), tf is initial freezing
point of food (°C), t is food temperature (°C), xs is mass
(b) For heat flow perpendicular to the food fibres fraction of solids, R is universal gas constant, To is freezing
(Eq. (36)) point of water (°C) and Ms is relative molecular mass of
[
1−P
] soluble solids in food.
k⊥ = kc (36) Simple linear models such as Siebel model [86] have also
1 − P(1 − N)
been used to predict specific heat capacity of foods. These
where N is the volume fraction of the discontinuous phase, equations are obtained from curve fitting of experimental
P = N(1 − kd/kc). data. Table 6 lists some examples of models in this cate-
Table 5 lists thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and gory. Similar to thermal conductivity models, while some
density models for fruit or fruit groups from experimental of the models consider water content of the fruit temperature
studies in literature. While some models are only based on only, other models are based on the temperature of the fruit,
the water content of the fruit, others are based on the tem- while the rest are based on both water content and the fruit
perature of the fruit at that particular time, while the rest temperature.
consider both temperature and water content of the fruit for
thermal property prediction. These models are listed in that
order (water content, temperature, water content + tempera- Respiration and transpiration behaviours
ture) in Table 5. of fruit

Predicting the specific heat capacity of fruit Respiration of fruit

The specific heat capacity of a food item at temperatures The respiration and transpiration activities of produce are
above its initial freezing point can be obtained based on gen- crucial considerations in designing and operating thermal
eralized predictive models for specific heat capacity of foods processes. Respiration is an enzymatic process by which

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Table 5  Prediction equations for thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and density of fruit based on temperature and moisture content
Property Prediction equation Type of model Units Fruit Limitations R2 Reference(s)

Thermal k = 0.148 + (0.00493 W) Linear regression W ­m−1 °C−1 Fruit & vegetables Limited to water – [57]
conduc- contents > 60%
tivity and fruit denser
than water
k = 0.283 − 0.256−0.256 W Least square cor- Btu ­ft−1 h−1 °F−1 Apple (cv. Grany S) – 0.967 [127]
relation
k = 0.27 + 0.0037 W Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Plum – 0.98 [122]
k =  − 0.035 + 0.0085 W Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Nectarine – 0.95 [122]
k = 0.11 + 0.0053 W Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Peach – 0.99 [122]
W
k = 0.084 + 0.546 1+W + 0.0059T Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Mango pulp – 0.993 [59]

k = 0.003(T − 273.15) + 0.2762 Linear Regression W ­m−1 K−1 Apple (cv. Jonathan) 273–333 K 0.9989 [55]
k = 0.0031(T − 273.15) + 0.2826 Linear Regression W ­m−1 K−1 Apple (cv. Golden 273–333 K 0.9967 [55]
D)
k = 0.003(T − 273.15) + 0.3337 Linear Regression W ­m−1 K−1 Apple (cv. Jonagold) 273–333 K 0.9902 [55]
k = (0.232 ± 0.003) + (0.359 ± 0.004)W + ((1.1 Linear polynomial W ­m−1 °C−1 Passion fruit juice – 0.996 [35]
2 ± 0.02) × 10−3)T
k = 0.459 − 7.2 × 10−3 T − 2.5 × 10−3 W + 1.7 Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Mango 60–100 °C 0.823 [49]
× 10−4TW
k = 0.099 − 9.0 × 10−3 T + 0.010 W + 4.9 × Linear regression W ­m−1 K−1 Mango − 10 to − 30 °C 0.908 [49]
10−4T2
k = 0.0797 + 0.5238 W + 0.00058 T Linear regression W ­m−1 °C−1 Orange juice – 0.97 [132]
2 nd
Thermal α = 0.1273 + 0.0003 T + 4E-06T 2 order polynomial 106 ­m2 s−1 Tomato puree 20–130 °C 0.995 [44]
diffusiv- correlation
ity a = 0.0068(T − 273.15) + 0.9968 Linear Regression 107 ­m2 s−1 Apple (cv. Idared) 273–333 K 0.9979 [55]
a = 0.0047(T − 273.15) + 1.0292 Linear Regression 107 ­m2 s−1 Apple (cv. Jonathan) 273–333 K 0.9907 [55]
a = 0.0057(T − 273.15) + 1.0005 Linear Regression 107 ­m2 s−1 Apple (cv. Golden 273–333 K 0.9952 [55]
D)
a = 0.0053(T − 273.15) + 1.1127 Linear Regression 107 ­m2 s−1 Apple (cv. Jonagold) 273–333 K 0.9819 [55]
7
α × 10 = 3.921 − 0.058 T − 0.024 W + 4.7 × 10 Linear regression m2 ­s−1 Mango 60–100 °C 0.943 [49]
−4
TW + 2.1 × 10−4T2
α × 107 = 0.026 − 0.232 T + 0.041 W − 1.3 × 10 Linear regression m2 ­s−1 Mango − 10 to − 30 °C 0.932 [49]
−4
TW − 5.3 × 10−3T2
αexp = 7.9683 × 10−8 + 5.9839 × 10−8 W + 0.0 Linear regression 10−7 ­m2 s−1 Orange juice – 0.97 [132]
215 × 10−8 T
Density 𝜌=
𝜌W Linear polynomial kg ­m−3 Passion fruit juice – 0.991 [35]
(0.599±0.004)+(0.421±0.006)W
ρ = 0.636 + 0.102 InW Least square cor- g ­cm−3 Apple (cv. Grany S) – 0.978 [127]
relation
(
M
) (
M
)2 Empirical model kg ­m−3 Plum – 0.87 [122]
𝜌 = 1206 + 110 M W − 260 M W
WO WO

(
M
) (
M
)2 Empirical model kg ­m−3 Peach – 0.87 [122]
𝜌 = 677 + 812 M W − 477 M W
WO WO

(
M
) (
M
)2 Empirical model kg ­m−3 Nectarine – 0.87 [122]
𝜌 = 867 + 585 M W − 411 M W
WO WO

ρ = 1428.5–454.9 W − 0.231 T Linear regression kg ­m−3 Orange juice – 0.97 [132]

ρ = (686 ± 21) + (1008 ± 10 Linear polynomial kg ­m−3 Passion fruit juice – 0.999 [35]
)((−1.2 + 0.1)W) − (0.55 ± 0.01)T
W
𝜌 = 1417 − 453.2 1+W + 0.1878T Linear regression kg ­m−3 Mango pulp – 0.995 [59]

T = temperature (°C, except for [55] in K), W = Water content (w/w (wet basis) except for [60] and 129 on dry basis, [49] and Sweat et al. (1974)
on %), MW/MWO = moisture content ratio from initial (MWO) to moisture content at measurement time (MW)

13
 M. Mukama et al.

Table 6  Prediction equations for specific heat capacity of fruit

Prediction equation Units Fruit Temp range (K) R2 Reference(s)

Cp = 0.837 + 3.349 W kJ ­kg−1 K−1 All foods – – [86]

Cp = 1.382 + 2.805 W kJ ­kg−1 K−1 All foods T ≥ Tcr – [25]
Cp = 2.11 + 0.0017 W kJ ­kg−1 K−1 Plum – 0.99 [122]
Cp = 2.89 + 0.012 W kJ ­kg−1 K−1 Nectarine – 0.90 [122]
Cp = 2.53 + 0.017 W kJ ­kg−1 K−1 Peach – 0.99 [122]
Cp = 10.581 (T − 273.15) + 2891.3 kJ ­m−3 K−1 Apple (cv. Golden D) 273–333 0.99 [55]
Cp = 9.0199 (T − 273.15) + 3060.9 kJ ­m−3 K−1 Apple (cv. Jonagold) 273–333 0.99 [55]
Cp = 3913.5 + 1.016 T − 0.0017 T2 J ­kg−1 K−1 Tomatoes 293–403 0.94 [44]
Cp = 1.00802 + 0.01897 W + 0.001188 T kJ ­kg−1 K−1 Berberis – 0.99 [50]
W
Cp = 1.119 + 3.274 1+W + 0.00152T kJ ­kg−1 K−1 Mango pulp – 0.99 [59]
Cp = 1424.34 + 2673.19 XW + 2.446 T J ­kg−1 K−1 Orange juice – 0.97 [132]

T = temperature (°C, except for [55] in K), W = water content (w/w (wet basis) except for [60] on dry basis, and Aghbashlo et al. (1974) on %).
Tcr = freezing temperature (°C)

fruit cells convert sugars and oxygen into carbon dioxide,

( )
i
y
Vf CO2 − y
water, and heat–heat of respiration (Eq. 41). This heat of RCO2 =
CO2
(42)
respiration contributes to the total cooling load in cold chain
( )
W t − ti × 100
operations [87]. Exhaustion of the sugar reserves from the
fruit leads to senescence (ageing) and then death or decay ( )
of the fruit. Proper ventilation of packaged produce and gas Vf yiO − yO2
RO2 =
2
(43)
control in modified and controlled atmosphere packaging ( )
W t − ti × 100
prevent these unwanted changes [88–92].
where RCO2 and RO2 is the carbon dioxide production rate and
C6 H6 O2 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 2816 kJ (41)
oxygen consumption rate (ml k­ g−1 h−1), respectively, Vf is
Fruit are classified as either climacteric or non-climac- the free volume in the jar minus volume occupied by fruit
teric based on their respiratory patterns. Climacteric fruit (ml), W is weight of fruit (kg), yCO2 and yiCO are concentra-
2
can be harvested at maturity stage but before ripening, at this tion of carbon dioxide (%) at time t (h) and initial time—
stage respiration is minimum. They experience a respiratory time zero, ti (h), respectively, and yO2 and yiO are concentra-
climacteric characterised by a rapid rise in respiratory rate at
2
tion of oxygen (%) at time t (h) and initial time—time zero,
start of ripening that slows down when the fruit is fully ripe ti (h), respectively.
[87]. During ripening, climacteric fruit produce a lot of eth- The respiratory heat is then determined from Eq. (44)
ylene, thus ethylene treatment is used to control the rate and [96, 97]
uniformity of ripening of climacteric fruit [93]. Examples
include apple, pear, bananas, peach, plums, tomatoes etc.
) ( RCO + RO )
2816
(
(44)
2 2
Qr = × 𝜉
Non-climacteric fruit ripen only when still attached to the 6 2
parent plant. Their sugar acid content does not increase once
detached from the plant. Their respiration rates progressively where Qr is the heat of respiration (J ­kg−1 h−1), ξ is the
slow down as they grow and after harvest. Non-climacteric amount of heat produced out of the total respiration energy.
fruit produce very little ethylene and do not respond to eth- ξ varies between 0.8 and 1.0 [97]. Table 7 gives a list of the
ylene ripening treatment [94]. Examples include berries, respiration heat of selected fruit from literature at 20 °C.
citrus, pomegranate, pineapple, etc.
Respiration rate can be calculated from carbon dioxide Fruit transpiration
evolution and oxygen consumption as in Eqs. (42) and (43),
respectively [90]. The percentages of these gases are meas- Transpiration (moisture loss) in fruit involves the transport
ured by taking head space gas concentration of fruit samples of moisture through the skin of the commodity, evapora-
in closed jar (closed system method of determining fruit tion of this moisture from the commodity surface and the
respiration). convective mass transport of the moisture to the surround-
ing. Excessive moisture loss leading to shrivel is a main

13
Thermophysical properties of fruit—a review with reference to postharvest handling

Table 7  Heat of respiration of fruit at 20 °C (h). Predicting moisture loss of produce and associated heat
Fruit Heat of respiration (mW References
production/loss is crucial for the proper design of posthar-
­kg−1) vest handling processes, packaging and predicting the fresh
life of fresh produce [95, 96].
Avocado 218.7–1029.1 [137]
Strawberries 303.1–581.0 [137, 138]
Blueberries 153.7–259.0 [137]
Pears 89.2–207.6 [137] Conclusion and future prospects
Apples 50.0–103.8 [137]
Grapes 97.0 [137, 139] The thermal properties of fruit are important in the design
Plums 53.3–77.1 [140] and operation of cold storage rooms and refrigerated trans-
Water melon 51.4–74.2 [137, 141] port equipment as well as in the estimation of process times
for precooling, refrigeration, freezing, heating and drying
of fruit and fruit products. The transient line heat source
method, that makes use of wires and probes, is the preferred
challenge in fresh fruit markets affecting saleable weight,
measurement technique for fruit thermal properties.
appearance, texture, nutritional quality and fruit flavour [1,
Generally, measured thermal property values vary con-
95].
siderably with temperature and moisture content of the fruit.
The rate at which fruit under storage lose moisture is
Hence, care should be taken in reading property data from
dependent on the prevailing vapour pressure deficit in the
literature. Given the high variability of biological materi-
surrounding atmosphere, rate of air movement around the
als, accurate measurement of the thermal properties of fruit
produce, fruit surface area to volume ratio, skin structure,
is a difficult task. Therefore, the most viable option is to
heat of respiration, maturity level, and number of pores on
predict these thermal properties using correlation equations
fruit surface [87]. Equation (45) gives a simple model for
(existing in the literature) that account for the effects of
moisture transport [87, 97].
chemical composition and temperature. There are a variety
M = kt (PS − Pa ) (45) of correlation equations to predict fruit thermal properties.
The Choi and Okos correlations are the most widely used
where M is the transpiration rate (mg ­kg−1 s−1), kt the tran- models. However, one should evaluate the practicality of
spiration coefficient of particular fruit (mg ­kg−1 s−1 Pa−1), this technique considering the structure of a fruit (morphol-
Pa ambient vapour pressure (Pa), and Ps evaporative vapour ogy: the size and property of seeds, mesocarp, epicarp, etc.)
pressure (Pa). The transpiration coefficient represents the as a whole. The properties of the different tissue parts and
reciprocals of resistance of moisture transfer, this resistance their spatial arrangement determine the thermal dynamics
depends on the surface structure of the fruit, fruit respiration of an individual fruit. Thus, it is recommended to take into
and dissolved substances in the fruit water [97, 98]. consideration the morphology of the fruit when using ther-
Energy to drive moisture from the fruit surface is both mal property data as different parts (tissues) of the fruit can
internal (heat of respiration) and external (convective heat affect the heat diffusion differently, creating a more complex
from fruit surrounding), this is shown in Eq. (47) [95]. The system than assumed in the various correlation models.
internal and external heat energies are used for latent heat of
moisture evaporation and sensible heat of fruit temperature Acknowledgements This work is based on the research supported in
change [95]. This heat balance is shown in Eq. (48) [96]. part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Num-
ber: 64813). The opinions, findings and conclusions or recommenda-
tions expressed are those of the author(s) alone, and the NRF accepts
( )
Qr W + hA Ta − Tp
Lm = (47) no liability whatsoever in this regard. We acknowledge the DAAD
𝜆 (German Academic Exchange), the Regional Universities Forum for
Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM), and Stellenbosch
𝜕Tp University Consolidoc 2020 award. Research reported in this publica-
Qr W + hA(Ta − Tp ) = Lm 𝜆 + WCp (48) tion was supported in part by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture
𝜕t Research under award number – Grant ID: DFs-18-0000000008.

where Lm is the rate of moisture evaporation from produce

(kg ­h−1), Qr is the respiratory heat (J k­ g−1 h−1), W is the
weight of fruit (kg), h is the convective heat transfer coef-
ficient of the fruit (J ­m−2 °C−1 h−1), A is the surface area
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