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“MARGARINE” PRODUCTION USING OIL BLENDS

FROM PALM KERNEL, COCONUT AND MELON

BY

IROANYA CHARITY IHUOMA FST/H2003/008

A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED

TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND

TECHNOLOGY (IMT) ENUGU

SEPTEMBER, 2005.

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TITLE PAGE

“MARGARINE” PRODUCTION USING OIL BLENDS FROM

PALM KERNEL, COCONUT AND MELON

BY

IROANYA CHARITY IHUOMA FST/H2003/008

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA

(HND) IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IMT)

ENUGU

SEPTEMBER, 2005.

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APPROVAL PAGE

THIS REPORT HAS BEEN APPROVED

By

MR. AGU A.C. SUPERVISOR

MR. AYOGU T.E. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated tot e love of my life Jest Christ who made this

work to be possible and to my parents Mr. & Mrs. J.M. Iroanya for their moral

upbringing and financial support. I will not live out my blossom friend who has

been an encouragement to me Mr. Bennedicth Okoye may God reward him.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to God Almighty who kept me all through my stay in the land of

Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Enugu. I willingfull to be

grateful for the selfless effort of my project supervisor Mr. Agu A.C. and his to

lerance, patience and readiness to help at any time.

My profound gratitude goes to my Director of school of Technology Mr.

A.C. Anih, my Head of Department Mr. Ayogu T.E. for their help and

guidance. My sincere gratitude goes to my lectures Mrs. Atu, Mrs. Ogbo A.I.,

to my brothers and sisters, my grand mother Mrs. Benice Umesi, Mrs. Oluchi

Ebogu my aunty for their encouragement.

I am grateful also to my roommates Rukayatu Idris, my brethren in the

fellowship for their prayers people like Brother Innocent Odoh, sister Obiageli

Agu etc God will bless you all. Dr. Timiebi Agray my senior friend that was

always their to help me God will bless you indeed.

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ABSTRACT

Palm kernel, coconut and melon oils were extracted and refined. Their physical

and chemical characteristics were examined. The refined oils were blended to

produce three samples of margarine: palm kernel oil margarine (PKO), palm

kernel and coconut oils margarine were tested for free fatty acid and Iodine

value with the following results 0.27,0.84, 1.68 Free Fatty Acid, 17.77, 20.30,

21.57 Iodine value for PKO, PCO and PCM margarine respectively. These

products were assessed organoleptically using 9 – point hedoic scale o both

samples and the standard were found to be significantly different at 5% level of

probability.

There was however no significant difference in taste and colour at the same

level of significance. Production of margarine using these three blends of oils

should be encouraged to add to the varieties of margarine in the market.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Approval Page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Table of Content

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Fats and Oils

2.1.2 Importance of Fats and Oils

2.1.3 Fats as Food

2.1.4 Essential Fatty Acids

2.1.5 Classification of Fats and Oils

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2.1.6 Composition of Seed Oils

2.1.7 Tropical Oil Seeds

2.2.0 Palm Kernel, Coconut and Melon

2.2.1 Coconut

2.2.2 Melon

2.2.3 General Methods of Extracting Seed Oils

2.2.4 Refining and Processing of Seed Oils

2.2.5 Hydrogenation

2.2.6 Storage of Processed Oil

2.2.7 Rancidity

2.2.8 Functions of Additives Used

2.2.9 Components Contributing Flavour and Colour

2.3.0 Margarine

CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Source of Material

3.2.1 Refining Procedure

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3.3 Determination of the Specific Gravity

3.3.1 Determination of Yield

3.3.2 Determination of Moisture Content

3.4 Method of Chemical Analysis on the Oils

3.4.1 Provide Value Determination

3.4.2 Free Fatty Determination

3.4.3 Determination of Iodine Value

3.5.0 Recipe for the Product

3.6.0 Production of Margarine

3.7.0 Methods of Analysis of Margarine

3.8.0 Sensory Evaluation

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Conclusion

4.2 Discussion

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

References

Appendices

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: Classification of Vegetable Oils.

TABLE 2: Chemical Composition of Palm Kernel Oil

TABLE 3

TABLE 4: Formulation of Samples

TABLE 5: Shows the Physical Analysis of the Oils

TABLE 6: Chemical Analysis of the Oils

TABLE 7: Chemical Analysis of the Margarine Samples

Production

TABLE 8: L.S.D. Sensory Evaluation on the Margarine

Samples.

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LIST OF FLOW CHART

FLOW CHART 1: Refining Process of Oil

FLOW CHART 2: Production Chart

FLOW CHART 3: Refining of Crude Oil

FLOW CHART 4: Production of Margarine

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Margarine, a butter substitute made originally from other animal fats, but

nowadays exclusively from vegetable oils, like homogenization and

pasteurization is a reach innovation. Margarine is made from water in

oilemulsion because margarine is oilemulsion. Today it is a manufactured

imitation of butter made by mixing a variety of fats that may include whale oil

or vegetable oils, hydrogenated to an appropriates degree. Stabilize, an oil

soluble dye and a proportion of soured skimmed milk to supply flavour.

Like its model, margarine is about 80% fat, 20% water and solids. It is

flavoured, coloured ad fortified with vitamin A and sometimes D to match

butters nutritional contribution. Single oil or a blend may be used. During

World War 1, coconut oil was favoured, in the thirties, it was cottonseed, and

in the fifties, soy. Today, soy and corn oils predominate. The raw oil is pressed

from the seeds, purified, hydrogenated, them fortified and coloured, either with

a synthetic carotene or with annatto, a pigment extracted from a tropical seed.

The water phase is usually reconstituted or skim milk that is cultured with

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lactic bacteria to produce a stronger flavour although pure diacetyl, the

compound most responsible for the flavour of butter, is also used. Emulsifiers

such as lecithin help disperse the water phase evenly throughout the oil, salt

and preservatives are also commonly added. The mixture of oil and water is

them heated, blended, and cooled. The softer tub margarines are made with less

hydrogenated, more liquid oils than other types of margarines.

In 1860s French Emperor Louis Napoleon III offered a prize to anyone

who could make satisfactory substitutes for buffer, suitable for use by the

armed forces and the lower classes.

French chemist Hippolyte Mege-Mouriezi invented a substance he called

oleomargarine, which become, in shortened form, the trade name margarine

and is now the generic term for a wide range of broadly similar edible oils. It is

sometimes shortened to oleoleomargarine which was made by taking clarified

beef fat, extracting the liquid portion under pressure, and then allowing it to

solidify. When combined with butyrins and water, it made a cheap and more –

or – less palatable butter substitute. Sold as margarine or under any of a host of

other trade names, butter substitutes soon became big business but too late to

help Mege-Mouriez. Although he expanded his initial manufacturing operation

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from France to the United States in 1873, he had little commercial success. By

the end of the decade, however, artificial butters were on sale in both the old

World and the new.

Margarine is naturally white or almost white; by forbidding the addition

of artificial colouring agents, legislators found that they could keep margarine

off kitchen tables. The bans became common place around the world and

would endure for almost 100 years. It did not become legal to sell coloured

margarine. In Australia, for example, until the 1960s.

In the mean time, margarine manufactures had made changes. Modern

margarine can be made from any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats,

and is often mixed with skim milk, salt and emulsifiers. Liquid fats are

transformed into suitable substrates by the chemical process of hydrogenation,

which renders them solid at room temperature. Many popular table spreads

today are blends of margarine and butter. Something that was long illegal in the

United States and Australia and no doubt parts of the world too and are

designed to combine and the lower cost and easy – spreading of artificial

butter with the taste of the real thing.

Three main types of margarine are common:

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Hard, generally uncoloured margarine for cooking or baking, which contains a

high proportion of animal fat. “Traditional” margarines for such use as

spreading on toast, which contain a relatively high percentage of saturated fats

and made from either animal or vegetable oils. Margarines high in mono – poly

– unsaturated fats, which are made from safflower, sunflower soybean,

cottonseed, or olive oil.

Margarine, particularly polyunsaturated margarine has become a major part of

the Western dieted states, for example, in 1930 the average person ate over 8kg

of butter a year and just over 1 kg of margarine By the and of the 20 th century,

an average American ate just under 2kg of butter and bearly 4kg of margarine.

Based on the fact that margarine can be obtained from vegetable fat and

animal fat, this study to produce margarine from palm kernel melon $ coconut

oils bland id to investigate if the product would be preferred over the sample in

the market by the consumers. The odour and taste in the oils would be removed

during processing for it not to affect the sample of margarine.

Physical, chemical and sensory evaluation test would be employed to

investigate the quality. With the results we will defer mine the degree of

acceptance of the proudly by the consumers.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are lipids, a heterogeneous collection of biochemical

substances, which have a common property of being soluble in organic

solvents (diethy ether, chloroform, benzen) and insoluble or sparing soluble in

water (Ihekoronye et al, 1985). Although chemically similar, a fat is solid or

semi-solid at ‘room’ temperature, while on oil remains liquid. However, some

oils such as palm oil & coconut oil are liquids in the hot countries where they

are produced but semi solid in the British climate.

Fats and oils fall into the same class of compound as carbohydrate and

proteins (macrountrients). These are essential nutrients without which life

would not be possible. Vegetable oils constitute the most important source of

edible oils and fats (Muller, 1988).

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2.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are valuable in the diet for three reasons:

i. They are the most concentrated of all Jounces of calories. For this

reason, a high proportion of fat enables a hard working person who is

expecting a large amount of muscular energy to obtain his daily needs

without having to consume an undue bulk of food.

ii. Fats are a source of the fat solubel vitamins A and D and of the natural

anti-oxidant, vitamin E.

iii. Fats make the diet more palatable; bread – and – butter, besides being

richer in calories than dry bread, is more agreeable still, fried fish and

chips make a more attractive dish than boiled fish and boiled potatoes,

and mayonnaise adds to the dietetic pleasures of green salad. The edible

fats and oils on the world markets are largely derived from the following

sources.

Vegetable oils Approximate percentage of the total

Cottonseed, groundnut,

Coconut soya bean, olive, 32

Sesame, palm sunflower,

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Seed, etc

Animal fats

Butter, ghee 24

Mutton fat, hard, beef-fat 22

Marine oils

Whale oil 3

Fish oil 2

In Modern industrial countries, food technologists are able to select from the

world’s supplies the diverse kinds of fats and oils listed abve and convert them

into forms suitable for use in shortening, confectionery coatings, in recipe

products such as mayonnaise and salad dressing, as cooking fat and in butter

and margarine. In this way, maximum advantage can be taken of fluctuations in

prices, and supply problems are overcome. Oils for salads and salad dressings

are selected for blandness of flavour and stability against rancidity. Naturally

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suitable oils such as maize or sunflower are its properties has been developed

as a less costly alternative.

Shortening for use in baked goods was traditionally made from lard or

beef fat, but the technologists has so improved the plasticity and the ability to

incorporate air of more plentiful vegetable oils, such as cottonseed and soya,

that they can be used instead. Many different types and combinations are thus

now readily available to suit products as diverse as batters and sponges.

Cocoa butter, because of the pleasant way it melts in the mouth, is ideal

for confectionery coatings. However, it is very expensive and substitutes

derived form cottonseed, coconut and palm-kernel oils have been developed.

No less ingenuity has been applied to the conversion of such varied starting

materials as whales oil and palm oil into a standardized product such as

margarine. All of these developments rely basically on applied chemistry, but

before such chemistry can be applied it is first necessary to extract the fat from

its source and purify it.

(Food Science and Technology by Magnus Pyke Obe, B.Sc pp. 140 - 141).

Generally, they are the source of polyunsaturated or essential fatty acids

needed for structural development of tissues and prevention of fat deficiency

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diseases which in man manifest as eczema. It has been reported by sarojini

1986 that diets of fat with high polyunsaturated fatty acids lowers blood

cholesterol levels. In additions, fats and oils pay a role in the natural flavour

and odour of foods. They also act as lubricating. Plasticizing and texturizing

agents (Sarojini 1986)

2.1.3 FATS AS FOOD

Animal fats used in foods include butter, lard, chicken fat, and suet. Cod-liver

and some other fish oils used therapeutically as sources fo vitamins A and D.

nutritionally fats and oils are valued as a source of energy. Because they

contain less oxygen than other nutrients, they oxidize more readily and release

more energy. Fats are digested in the human body chiefly by the enzyme lipase

aided by the bile. There are several theories to explain the method of

absorption of fats, favoured by many is the view that they are absorbed by the

epithelial cells of the living of the small intestine in the form of the fatty acids

and glycerol into which they are split by digestion and that a recombination to

re-form the fat occurs within the cells. Most of the fat then enters t he

lymphatic system through the villi. Medical research indicates the possibility

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that saturated fats in the diet contribute to the incidence of arteriosclerosis;

such fats may raise the cholesterol level of blood which is deposited in the

arteries. The Columbia Encyclopedia, sixth edition 2004.

2.1.4 ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (“EFA”)

After weaning, the native fats gradually disappear from the tissues and are

replaced by EFA and their derivatives. The age – related decline in our ability

to use oxygen and to produce energy corresponds closely to the substitution of

linoleum acid for the endogenous fats, in cardiolipin, which regulates the

crucial respiratory enzymes, they are generally similar to the seed oils in their

ability to promote cancer age – pigment formation, free radical damage, etc.

since vitamin A is important in the development of the eye, it is interesting that

claims are being made for the essentially of source of the fatty acid

components of fish oil, in relation to the development of the eye. The

polyunsaturated oils from seeds are recommended for use in paints and

varnishes, but skin contact with these substances should be avoided.

www.goggle.org.

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2.1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FATS AND OILS

Fats being those vegetable oils which are solid at ordinary temperature e.g.

coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, cocoa butter and peanut butter. Fats and

oils are classified into four major groups which are as follows:

Non – drying Oils

The non – drying oil remain liquid and do not form a film on exposure to air,

they react slowly or not at all with oxygen and have iodine vale that ranges

between 60 – 110 and freezing point of between 10 to 0 oc. It is a good source

of such essential fatty acids a s linoleic and / linoleum acids. Vegetable, in

these group groundnut oil, olive oil, and sesame oil (FAO, 1971). Another

example is castor oil which is used chiefly as an industrial raw material. The

edible non –drying oils are saponified to make soap (Fagbemi 1995) .

Drying Oil

They are those which about oxapidly on exposure to air and dry to form a thin

elastic film . they react in this way because they contain a large proportion of

unsaturated fatty acid especially linolenic acid with three double bonds in its

molecule. The rate at which Olin dmes in air is correlated with its iodine adility

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to absorb iodine, which is refers to as its iodine number. Dry oils a high iodine

vahe greater them 130 and include linseed, fungi sunflower, thiger seed oils

etc. they are used in manufacture of paints.

Semi – Drying Oils

Semi – Drying oils semi – drying oil form a soft surface film only affair long

exposure to air, They contain a larger proportion of linoleic and oleic acid

but little linolenic acid. They have lesser number of double bonds per 5

molecule and thus lower iodine value which fall between 80 – 140 (Pearson

1976) and solidifies between – 2 to 4oc (FAO, 1977) like the drying oils, these

group posses that ability to polymerise and to form a resistant film on drying.

They are useful industrially in making paints, varnishes and cosmetics but

seldom used for soap since they do not form hard soap. These oils are

important in human nutrition because of the high proportion of unsaturated

essential fatty oils. The most important oils in this class are the seed of cotton,

maize, sesame melon, soyabean etc.

Vegetable Fats

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These are rich in lauric acid, palmitic acid and lauric acid too and are

primarily used to manufacture soaps, candles, cosmetics non – dairy and dairy

products. They are also often claimed to enhance the effectiveness of

shampoos / suntan creams. Also their importance in margarine and solid

shortenings production is rising. They find use in manufacture of medicine,

detergents, resins and special types of industrial oils.

Table I: Classification of Vegetable Oils

Vegetable Oil Iodine Number Oil Percent Saponification Value

Drying Oil
Linseed 165 – 204 35 – 45 185 – 196
Tung 160 – 175 16 – 18 247 – 251

Semi Drying
Safflower 140 – 150 25 – 317 185 – 195
Sunflower 113 – 143 22 – 36 188 – 191
Soybean 103 – 152 12 – 24 189 – 195
Corn 103 – 133 1–5 159 – 198
Sesame 103 – 118 44 – 54 199 – 195
Cotton seed

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Rape seed 90 – 117 19 189 – 198

94 – 105 2 – 49 170 – 180

Peanut Non Drying

Olive 84 – 100 45 – 55 188 – 196

78 – 88 25 188 – 196

Palm (kernel) Vegetable Fat

Coconut 14 – 22 44 – 53 245 – 255

17 – 10 65 – 53 250 – 261

(Simpson et al 1986).

2.1.6 COMPOSITION OF SEED OILS

Vegetable oils are produced from fruits and seeds of plant. Oil seeds of

commercial importance are groundnut, sunflowers, linseed, olive seed, sesame,

rape seed, castor seeds, and oil palm. These are predominantly of triglycerols

that are stored mainly in the fleshy fruit exocarp or in seed endocarp

(Ekpenong, 1980). It consist of long chain of fatty acid ester derived from

single alcohol, glycerol.

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The fatty acid consists mainly of neutral fat with small amount of free

fatty acids, lecithin and cholester of esters. The most common of these acids

are palmitic and stearic acids which are saturated and oleic and linoleic are

unsaturated.

Unsaturated fatty acid have the capacity to take more hydrogen atoms,

for instance oleic acid (mono-saturated fatty acid) and linoleic (polysaturated

fatty). Oils which are liquid at room temperature contain more of unsaturated

and short – chain fatty acid.

2.1.7 TROPICAL OIL SEEDS

An acute shortage of edible oils and fats in Africa has called for an

increase in the importation of oils from the developed countries. To meet this

shortage, not only calls for increased product of the conventional oilseed but

also the exploitation and utilization of new sources of oil – bearing crops.

(Osagie e t al, 1986) reported that some local or lesser known seed species

have over forty percent (40%) oil content. This is higher than the yield of

common oilseeds such as sunflower (35%), safflower (30%), olive (25%) and

soybean (20%), (Baily, 1979). While among the lesser known sources are plum

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(Ube) Dacryodes edulis, Melon (48.8%). Others includes cashew (46.8%)

soursop (41.5%), water melon (49.7%), melon egusi (48.8%), musk melon

(42%), African Walnut (41%), Benniseed (48.3%), Benis proper (41.2%),

Rough skinned plum (70%) and African Mango “Ogbono” (70.1%). These oils

obtained from these seeds were nearly colourless, odourless and of good

appearance.

2.2.0 PALM KERNEL, COCONUT

The oil extracted from palm kernel is similar to coconut oil with, which

is interchangeable. It contain a high proportion of saturated fatty acid with

small amount of the lower molecular weight acids.

TABLE 2

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PALM KERNEL OIL PKO

Percent (%)

Caprylic acid (C8) 3.00

Capric acid (C10) 6.00

Lauric acid (C12) 50.00

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Myristic acid (C14) 16.00

Palmitic acid (C16) 6.00

Stearic acid (C18) 1.00

Oleic acid 16.50

Linoleic acid 1.00

(OPEKE 1987)

PALM KERNEL OIL (PKO)

Palm kernel oil is used mainly in the soap industry where its lauric acid

constituent makes soap. Soap made from it lather easily. Another feature of

soap making with palm kernel oil is the higher yield (14%) of glycerol as a by -

product. It is also used in candles.

Refined palm kernel oil is edible and when hardened by hydrogenation is

used to make margarine. It is also an important constituent of confectioneries

(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy 1985).

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2.2.1 COCONUT

Coconut oil is the least fattening of all the oils, pig farmers tried to use it

to fatten their animals, but when it was added to the animal feed, coconut oil

made the pigs lean.

Coconut and olive oil are the only vegetable oils that are really safe.

Coconut oil has the ability to prevent weight – gain or cure obesity, by

stimulating metabolism. It is quickly metabolized, and functions in some ways

as an antioxidant.

Coconut oil that has been kept at room temperature for a year has been

tested for rancidity, and showed no evidence of it. Since we would expect the

small percentage of unsaturated oils naturally contained in coconut oil to

become rancid, it seems that the other oils have an antioxidative effect. To

interrupt chain – reactions of oxidation is one of the functions of antioxidants,

and it is possible that a sufficient quantity of coconut oil in the body has this

function. It is well established that dietary coconut oil reduces the need for

vitamin E, but is antioxidant role is more general than that, and that it has both

direct and indirect antioxidant activities. Coconut oil is unusually rich in short

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and medium chain fatty acids. Shorter chain length allows fatty acids to be

metabolized without use of the carnitine transport system.

The addition of unsaturated fat tot he experimental heart – toxic oil –

rich diet protects against the damage to heart cells. Immunosuppressant was

observed in patients who were being “nourished” by intravenous emulsions of

“essential fatty acids”, and as a result coconut oil is used as the basis for

intravenous fat feeding, except in organ – transplant patients. For those

patients, emulsions of unsaturated oils are used specifically for their

immunosuppressive effects. Generally, aging, and especially aging of the

brains, is increasingly seen as being closely associated with lipid per oxidation.

By 1950, then, it was established that unsaturated fats suppress the

metabolic rate, apparently creating hypothyroidism. Over the next few decades,

the exact mechanisms of that metabolic damage were studied. Unsaturated fats

damage the mitochondria, partly bu suppressing the respiratory enzyme, and

partly by causing generalized oxidative damage. The more unsaturated the oils

are, the more specifically they suppress tissue response to thyroid hormone,

and transport of the hormone on the thyroid transport protein. Plants evolved a

variety of toxins designed to protect themselves from “predators”, such as

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grazing animals. Seeds contain a variety of towns, that seem to be specific for

mammalian enzymes, and the unsaturated oils also inhibit that enzyme.

Similar proteolytic enzymes involved in clot removed and phagocytes

appear to be similarly inhibited by these oils. Just as metabolism is “activated”

by consumption of coconut oil, which prevents the inhibiting effect fo

unsaturated oils, other inhibited process, such as clot removal and

phagocytosis, will probably tend to be restored by continuing use of coconut

oil. Brain tissue is very rich in complex forms of fats. The experiment (around

1978) in which pregnant mice were given diets containing either coconut oil or

unsaturated oil showed that brain development was superior in the young mice

whose mothers ate coconut oil. Supports thyroid function, and thyroid governs

brain development, including myelination, the result might simply reflect the

difference between normal and hypo thyroid individuals.

Various functions of coconut oil are coming into use as “drugs meaning

that they are advertised as treatments for diseases. Butyric acid is used to treat

cancer, lauric and myristic acids to treat virus infections, and mixtures of

medium – chain fats are sold for weight loss.

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Aspartic and glutamic acid promote seizures and cause brain damage,

and are intimately involved in the process of stress – induced brain aging, and

tryptophan by itself is carcinogenic. Treating any complex natural product as

the drug industry does, as a raw material to be fractionated in the search for

“drug” products is risky, because the relevant knowledge ion sought in the

search for an association between a single chemical and a single disease. While

the toxic unsaturated paint – stock oils, especially safflower, soy, corn and

linseed oils, have sold to the public precisely for their drug effects, all of their

claimed benefits were false. When people become interested in coconut oil as a

“health food”, the huge seed – oil industry operating through their shills are

going to attack it as an “unproved drug”. While components of coconut oil

have been found to have remarkable physiological effects as antihistamines,

antinfectives / antiseptics, promotes of immunity, glucocorticoid antagonist,

nontoxic anticancer agents.

2.2.2 MELON GROWING

The production of edible fruits of the water melon citrus vulgaris and the

musk melon (cucumis melon) including spanish melons. Persian melons and

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the so called spanish melons. Botanically, the melon fruit is pepo (a kind of

berry), the matured ovary and its seeds are completely surrounded b y an

extensive development of flower tissues to that which form the rind. The seeds

are attached to the ovary wall. In most forms there is no obvious demarcation

between the inner layers of edible tissues. Both water melon and musk melons

are frost tender, heat – tolerant, trailing of the family cucurbitaceae, order

violales – male and female flowers are borne on the same plant. They begin to

appear before the female. The latter are easily distinguished by the

undeveloped melon subtending the corolla. The pollen is sticy and heavy and

is carried to the female flowers by insects principally.

Varieties within a species intercross readily, but watermelons and

muskmelons will not cross with each other or with the cucumber, squash or

pumpkin. When a grown for planting, varieties within a species must be

separated by 1/4mi or more to minimize inter varietal crossing. Al though inter

varietal crossing does not affect the properties of the fruit in the generation in

which the cross occurs, the seeds from such crosses will produce mixed plants

and fruits may be of interior quality.

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CULTURE: Melons are grown extensively in humid regions without

irrigation, and in semi arid and arid regions with irrigation. In the more arid

districts, 2 – 3 acre-ft of irrigation water is required to grow a crop. Melons soil

is either naturally very fertile or has been enriched wit h green manures or

animal manures and commercial fertilizers. Methods are being develop to help

control weeds by chemical instead of by the more expensive hoeing and

cultivating along. Under Irrigation, the melon vines are kept trained along the

beds, out of the irrigation furrows between the beds, to avoid impeding the

flow of water and to keep the fruits away from the water and wet soil surfaces.

Availability and costs of competent labour for harvesting are major problems

of the grower.

Encyclopedia of science and Technology pp 276 – 277.

2.2.3 GENERAL METHODS OF EXTRACTING SEED OILS

Fats and oils are extracted commercially by pressing and solvent

extraction or a combination of both. Before edible oils are processed, the seeds

or fruits most be cleaned using sorters, sievers, aspirators and electro – magnets

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to remove dirts, dust, stone and iron fragments, foreign seeds. The fruits or

seeds are cooked for the following reasons –

- To rapture the oil cells, increase the fludity of oil,

- To coagulate the protein bodies, thereby facilitating the separation of oil

from proteineous materials,

- To inactivate the enzyme like lipases, which have adverse effect on the

quality of the oil meal

- To destroy micro – organisms and

- To precipitate phosphotidic material, in order to produce oil at lowest

refining (Fincher 1958 and Alderks, 1948).

After cooking, the oil seeds are pulverized and subjected to pressures up

to 13.79 x 106NM-2, for about 30 – 60 minutes. This is hot pressing, cold

pressing can also be carried out but gives a lower yield due to the high

temperature (138 – 170oc) maintained but a higher quantity. Gums, colours,

and flavour materials as well as free fatty acids are extracted (Bailey, 1948).

Pressing can be achieved using a hydraulic or screw press – some oil

seed pups may need to be bagged before subjecting to pressing. Usually about

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5.8% oil remains in the seed cake, which can only be removed by solvent

extraction.

In solvent extraction, the seed oil pulp is loaded into an extraction

column and solvent is added into it. The solvents used are hexane, prtroleum

either, benzene, titra (CCL4), trichloroethylene, carbon di-sulphide, the

alcohol. These are used singly or in combination. The solvents will penetrate

and dissolve out the oil. The mixture of oil and solvent is heated and the

solvent evaporates leaving the oil. The solvent extracted oil is purer than

pressed oil but this is more capital and fire hazards abound.

2.2.4 REFINING AND PROCESSING OF SEED OILS

Following extraction, oils are usually refined and may be subjected to

one or more of the following procedures.

These include physical, chemical and fractionation process.

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FLOW CHART SHOWING REFINING PROCESSES

PHYSICAL REFINING CHEMICAL REFINING

Crude Oil Crude Oil

Degumming Degumming

Bleaching Neutralization

Deodourization Bleaching

Refined Vegetable Oil Refined Vegetable Oil

FRACTIONATION REFINING

Crude Oil

Degumming

Neutralization

Crystallization

Fractionation

Oil Phase Fat Phase

Beaching Bleaching

Dcodourization Deodourization

Refined Oil Refined Oil (AVOP Manual, 1988)

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DEGUMMING (Desliming) is removal of phospholipids, resins, sugars,

proteinous compounds, trace metal and others. It is effected by mixing the oil

with water at 32 to 49oc (90 to 120of) and centrifuging the mixture which

removes any mucilaginous material which may retain some moisture that may

cause the oil the deteriorate (FAO/WHO, 1979).

NEUTRALIZATION: Is the use of chemical compounds to eliminate or

reduce the phopholipids, sugar, oil insolubles, water soluables fatty acids,

pigment and soap. It involves alkaline refining, although this method has a

technical problem like hydrolysis of soap stock, which tends to form soluble

emulsion. Sodium bicarbonate is the alkaline used. The soap phase is separated

from the centrifuging. In this case, the soap stock formed is then washed off

and the oil is dried under vaccum before other treatment.

BLEACHING: Is the removal of pigments and is carried out with

absorbents (bleaching earth such as fuller or activated carbon which absorbs

the soap and gums residues, traces of heavy metals, colouring agents both

natural and those which have been formed during storage. Bleaching also

removes oxidation products still remaining in the oil (hydroperoxides and

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peroxides) which might affect the keepability of the oil. After bleaching, the

mixture is filtered off to remove the spent earth.

DEODOURIZATION: Is done to remove the flavour, and odour.

Material which are naturally present in the fat or have been formed by

oxidative or hydrolytic reactions. The fat is deodourized by heating it with

steam under vaccum.

FRACTIONATION: Is the separation of mixtures of triglycerodes which

have its melting points ranging from – 50 to 80 oc. At any temperature within

the range, the oil can be fractionally crystallized by lowering the temperature to

produce the solid (fat) and liquid (oil) fractions. There are three processes used

namely

- Dry fractionation,

- Detergent fractionation,

- Solvent fractionation,

In dry fractionation, the oil is first tempered in a tank to produce crystals

after which it is transferred to the discontinuous flow by slurry to the self –

cleaning filter that then separates the solid and liquid phase. This method

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produces oils of high quality yield. The seeds used here are palm kernel seed,

cottonseed, and olive seed.

The detergent process makes use of the fat that when a partially

crystallized fat is mixed with a detergent solution the fat crystals are wetted by

the detergent and pass into suspension in the phase and the mixture can then be

separated by a centrifuge into an oil phase and a fat phase. The oil yield is not

as pure as in the first method due to soap stock formation.

In solvent fractionation, the oil is mixed with the solvent and cooled to

produce crystals. The fat is separated by filtration and both fractions are heated

to recover solvent by distillation. The solvents used are acetone and 2 – nitro

propane. Due to the solvent extraction, most of the natural flavour is lost.

(Anek et al, 1974, AVOP Tech Report, 1989).

2.2.5 HYDROGENATION

Hydrogenation of oils simply mean the addition of hydrogen to the double or

triple bonds of unsaturated fatty acids combined with glycerol in an oil. During

hydrogenation, one molecule of hydrogen is absorbed by each double bond.

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- CH2 = CH2 + CH3 – CH3

Commonly occurring unsaturated fatty acid found combination with

glycerol in vegetable oils are oleic (one double bond), Linoleic (two double

bonds), liholenic (three double bonds). Since they all contain eighteen carbon

atoms, complete hydrogenation converts them all into stearic acid (saturated

fatty acid). Stearic acid has a much higher melting point (70 oc) than any of the

other fatty acids, making the hydrogenated oil harden than the other oils.

Catalyst is needed for hydrogenation to proceed at a fast rate. Nicked

catalyst is used. The catalyst is added in small quantities to the oil contained in

a large closed steel vessel called converter. The temperature of operation is

170oc and at 4 atmospheric pressure. The oil is stirred and hydrogen gas is

pumped in. The oil is heated to start the reaction but heating is discontinued

because the process is exothermic.

(Tedder and Nechavatal 1987).

To produce edible fats suitable for specific purposes, such as margarine,

baking fat, ice – creams and confectionery, and many others; the oil must be

hydrogenated and blended.

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Hydrogenation is now a key process in modern fat technology because

the characteristics of oils can be changed in two important ways, namely – the

melting – points of an oil or fat can be raised to a controlled extent, thus

changing liquid oils into solid fats and imparting melting characteristics which

are suitable for required purposes. The resistance of an oil or fat to rancidity

can be increased by increasing the shelf – life of the product.

The hydrogenation process is usually carried out on the neutralized oil

prior to deodourization and consists simply of heating the oil (oils) with

hydrogen at a high temperature (280 – 300 OF) or (140 – 180Oc) in the presence

of a catalyst, usually finely divided nickely (Mckerrigan et al, 1958). Under

this condition, some of the unsaturated fatty acids are transformed into

saturated fatty acids. The saturated fats is difficult to digest and during

vigorous hardening, fat soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids, all of which

are nutritionally valuable may be destroyed to a large extent. The loss of

essential nutrients such as linoleic acid and vitamin A during the hydrogenation

of edible fats is produced b y the addition of high grade vegetables oils and

vitamin A supplements. (Sarojini, 1979).

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Hydrogenation is advantageous in that it bleaches the oil and increases

its stability and portability for transportation.

2.2.5 STORAGE OF PROCESSED OIL

Crude vegetable oils can be stored in large tanks for extended period of

time without serious oxidative deterioration provided they are kept clean, cool

and dry and have limited access to air. This stability is generally attributed to

their high tocopherol content (Norris 1984).

Crude oil is most stable. Refined, bleached and hydrogenated oils are at

intermediate stability while refined and bleached oils are the least stable. If

oxidative deterioration is to be avoided, partially processed oil demand more

careful storage and handling than crude oil, partially processed oils become

more sensitive to the effects of moisture, heat, light, trace metals and air. Crude

oil contain high levels of tocophenols and high level of phosphates as well.

The processing step of degumming or caustic refining essentially remove

all the phospholipids from the oil.

2.2.6 RANCIDITY

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The taste and smell of fats can be spoiled and they can become rancid,

for a number of reasons. Each kind of spoilage is, as a general rule, due to a

particular chemical or biological cause.

(a) ABSORPTION OF ODOURS

Many odours are due to very small traces of chemical substances, which

are soluble in fat. It follows that such smells for example, those of paint,

petroleum oils, boxes made from unseasoned resinous wood will be absorbed

by fats. Clearly, therefore, edible oils, fats and fatty foods must not be stored

where such smells are likely to be present.

(b) ENZYMIC BREAKDOWN

The living animal and vegetable cells in which fats occur in nature

contain enzymes, lipases, which posses the ability to split the chemical

molecule of the fat into its component parts, namely, glycerol and fatty acids.

Lipases are protein compounds and may remain as contaminants in unrefined

fats and oils. It fats are to be stored for any length of time, it is therefore

important to ensure that they are efficiently refined and substantially free from

moisture in which lipases could occur. Lipoxidases are also widely distributed

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in plants and animals. These enzymes cause rancidity by oxidizing the fat

molecule.

(c) MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTACK

Moulds, yeasts and bacteria in the presence of moisture and nutrients,

can all cause chemical deterioration of fats. It is important, therefore, to ensure
that animal tissues vegetable sources from which fats and oils are to be
extracted should be as free from microbiological contamination as possible.
For example, it has been shown that beef fat from a freshly killed animal had
only 0.1% of free fatty acids where as fat from tissues allowed to remain for
three days in a humid atmosphere contained 2.6% of free acid and usually had
tainted flavour. Fats after being refined must be kept free from moisture.
Microbial growth has been shown to occur on lard containing as little as 0.3%
moisture.

(d) OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY

One of the commonest and most disagreeable forms of rancidity is not
due to either enzymic breakdown or the action of micro organisms. It is the
development of tallow, ‘rancid’ flavours in perfectly well – refined and water

H H H H H H O – O H H

-C–C–C = C–C–C C–C–C – C–C–C–

H H H H H H H H H H H H
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Point of unsaturation Formation of peroxides
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free fats. This is due to chemical reaction with the oxygen of their air. In the
main, the action takes places most readily when the fats contain a proportion of
unsaturated fatty acid in their molecule. The CH 2 – group adjacent to the
double bond may become a hydro peroxide (- CH = CH – CH –) or a peroxide
may be formed thus! OOH
Besides being produced by oxygen itself, rancidity due to the formation of

peroxides is encouraged by a number of agents. Among these are:

(i) Light: It is common knowledge that fats exposed to strong light,

particularly sunlight, are peculiarly liable to oxidative rancidity, ultra – violet

light and light at the bleu end of the spectrum have an especially potent effect.

(ii) Peroxides: Chemical substances containing peroxides catalyse the

development of rancidity. Among these are such materials as turpentine or

benzyl peroxide; but of more direct importance, a small proportion of rancid fat

will itself initiate rancidity in a larger bulk with which it may be mixed.

(iii) Metals: Traces of metallic contamination, particularly copper and

also iron, which may be derived from containers or equipment. Even bright tin

– plate has been shown to affect the flavour of fats compared with non –

metallic surfaces such as lacquered tin or glass.

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(e) REVERSION

Some fats contain very small amounts of substances whose molecules

posses more than two double bonds. These substances may undergo molecular

rearrangement, which affects the flavour of the fat. In some instances this may

improve flavour. For example, part of the creamy taste in butter due to such

‘reversion’ resultant from contact with air is due to the formation of a

substance, 4 – cis – heptenal,

CH3. CH2. CH = CH. CH2. CH2. CHO, of which only a few parts per

100 millions may be present.

2.2.7 FUNCTIONS OF ADDITIONS USED SALT

Many margarine contain salt in amounts of 2 – 3%. The main purpose of

adding salt is to give taste an d favour. However salt inhibit the microbial

activities from entering the margarine. Salt also acts as preservatives against

microbial action in packed margarine.

MILK SOLID

There are several reasons for using milk in margarine.

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- The most important one is that during the production process, certain

flavours developed which are responsible for the characteristic butter

aroma.

- Milk contains emulsifying substances which help in the formation of the

margarine emulsion.

- Milk provides the pleasantly smelling brown precipitate in the margarine

where it is used for frying.

B- CARITENE

Satisfactory nutrition depends not only on the quality and quantity of food

consumed, but also on it qesthetic appeal. Coloured margarine are responsible

for creating appetite, B – carotene, a pigment present in palm oil is a

provitamins. It does contribute to the vitamin A of the margarine.

EMULSIFIER

Margarine made without special emulsions have a tendency to weep or

leak. To prevent this, emulsifier like fat soluble were added to stabilize the

margarine. It held the aqueous and fat phases together without separating the

emulsion.

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VITAMINS A + D

Fats are good carries for the fat soluble vitamins and provitamins mainly A and

D. Fat is protects these vitamins from oxidation.

FLAVOURS

Flavour is a very important factor sin the consumers acceptability of any

food. However, the flavour of margarine is induced by the use of artificial

butter flavour which impart diacetyl aroma. The butter flavour is due to butyric

acid present in the butter fat whchi is responsible for taste and aroma of

margarine (Stutie, 1979).

2.2.8 COMPONENTS CONTRIBUTING TO FLAVOUR AND ODOUR

Relatively few of the compound responsible for the flavour and ofours of

fats and oils are identified. They are attributed to natural components or

chemical reaction which occurred during storage and processing of the fat and

oil.

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Most of the natural component give this characteristics fat – like odour

referred to as pleasant and fresh. Whereas the chemical changes from oxidation

are responsible for objectionable odour of mildly off – flavour to putrid.

If steam distillation unit operation is employed most volatile components

would be expelled. Complete deodourization requires prolonged vacuum

treatment at elevated temperature example 160 – 200 oc and 230 – 260oc but

such treatment is not entirely desirable (Oyet 1990).

2.3.0 MARGARINE

Margarine is an economical manufactured food resembling butter in

appearance, form and composition except that the fat component consist of

vegetable and or animals fats largely not derived from milk. It’s production in a

variety of esthetically pleasing forms sometime preferred to the natural

prototype product for certain culinary, nutritional properties and advantage is

made possible due to the great number of available materials and the statutory

certitude in product definition and use of other ingredients. (Arnold and Matin

1974).

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Margarine is an emulsion of 80% fat phase and 16% aqueous phase

(Ihenkoronye and Ngoddy 1985). Any edible oil or fat may be used for its

production. The two phases are mixed together and with the aid of suitable

emulsifier, a stable emulsion is formed. It is processed until it forms a solid

product of desired consistency.

THE OIL BLEND: Several different oils including animal, vegetable and

marine oil (the actual oils being selected at any time depending upon cost and

availability as well as the type of product it is desired to make) are blended

together in preparing the oil phase.

The oil phase should have blend taste a wide plastic range and are

achieved by careful refining of oil and some are hydrogenated respectively,

hence the desired liquid. Solid ration is achieved by selective hydrogenation of

oil used.

THE AQUEOUS BLEND: The skimmed milk is matured after

pasteurization by adding a “starter” in the form of lactic acid bacteria and the

ripening and souring is allowed to continue until the desired flavour is

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produced. Small amount of other materials are added to the ripened milk and

these have an important influence on the final product. Artificial flavouring and

colouring agents vitamins A and D and salt are added.

PRODUCTION CHART II

Oil Mix Emulsifiers

Fermentation pasteurization
Neutrilizing Salt solv dyes
Vitamins A + D

Bleaching Mixing Skimmed Milk

Hydrogenation

Blending Mixing tank

Emulsifying

Margarine
(Coneuders, 1992)

Selection of the oil blend is great importance in determining the quality of the

margarine. The development of hydrogenation have made it possible for the

margarine manufacture to produce blends giving closely specified physical

properties from a wide range of raw materials.

BLENDS OF FATS FOR MANUFACTURE OF MARGARINE

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% % %

Coconut oil 50 – 60 Palm kernel oil 50 Hydrogenated

Hydrogenated Hydrogenated Groundnut oil 70

Vegetable fat 20 – 25 Palm oil 20 Coconut oil 10

Oil 20 – 25 Oil 30 Oil 20

Hydrogenated Hydrogenated Beef fat 25

Whale oil 25 Whale oil 20 Coconut oil 35

Coconut oil 50 Palm oil 15 Oil 40

Oil 25 Coconut oil 20

Palm kernel oil 20

Oil 20

Margarine manufacture, the mixture of oils mainly of plant origin from corn

cotton seed oil, palm oil, soyabean oil, sunflower which constituted 80% are

blended and H20, common salt, skimmed milk, or milk solids, emulsifiers

(such as lecithin and monoglycerides), dyes, vitamin A + D, make up the

remaining 20%. They are oil mixed together in the mixing tank, which

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contained the fats. The mixtures form a stable emulsion, which has the

appearance of a thick cream.

These after, the emulsion, is passed on to a machine called a rotator.

This cool the fats mixing rapidly and as it begins to crystallize along the inner

surface. The rate of crystallization and size of crystals formed play a large part

in determining the texture of the finished product.

Finally, the product coming out of rotator is the margarine and it is a

sufficient solid structure capable of being packed into tins, tubes or wrap

immediately.

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CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The bulk of the kernel, coconut and melon were obtained from Umuoka,

Amibo, Ubakala in Abia State. About 10kg cracked kernel was sorted, washed

and dried. It was ground in the milling machine and weighted. It was then

boiled with water in a ratio of sample to water 1:5 for 3 hours. About 2kg

cracked coconut was washed, reduced to small size, dried and ground in the

milling machine. It was then boiled with water in a ratio of sample to water 1:5

at the same time. During boiling, the leached oil being less dense floated on the

surface of the water.

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After boiling for 3 hours, it was allowed to cool such that the floated oil

solidified on the surface of water. This was scooped from the surface of the

water and melted by heating so that foreign matters like gum and other denser

particles settled under earth oil.

The oil was filtered and separated from the settled matters. The volume

and the specific gravity of the oils obtained was determined.

However, the water on which the oils float was drained off from the

samples (palm kernel cake and coconut cake) that settled under it.

3kg of melon was peeled, sorted, dried and ground in milting machine.

The oil was extracted using solvent extraction method with hexane.

The extracted oils were later refined as described in the flow chart

below.

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3.2 FLOW CHART FOR THE REFINING OF THE OILS

EXTRACTED

Crude Oil

Heating

Neutralizing

Washing

Drying

Deodourising

Drying

Deodorized Oil
3.2.1 REFINING PROCEDURE

About 500ml of crude oil was measured and boiled at a time. This was

neutralized with 30ml of 2m NaOH to remove excess free fatty acid, which

may lead to rancidity of the oil.

The oil was heated to its boiling point. The sodium hydroxide solution

was poured into the oil and stirred thoroughly and then allowed to stand for

some time for proper setting of the soap.

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The oil was decanted and separated from the settled soap. The oil was

then washed with hot water, the ratio of water to oil was 1:2. This was done

several times (about five times) until the water separated using separating

funnel was no more positive with phenolpthalain indicator. The oil was then

heated gently to remove traces of water in it. Deodourization was carried out

where the oil was subjected to a steam treatment from a source for about an

hour. The odouriferous materials and some amount of colour imparting

materials (carotene) are heat labile and as a result went off with the steam.

The heating of the oil was essential to prevent steam from condensing to

form water that could lead to rancidity by hydrolysis of the oil. During

steaming, some degree of hydrogenation took place.

3.3 DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE OIL

Specific gravity bottle was used to determine the specific gravity of the

oil. The cleaned and dried specific gravity bottle was weighed on a balance and

its weight was recorded. It was filled completely with water and weighed.

Weight of empty bottle was subtracted from the total weight, this gave the

weight of water.

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The water was poured away and the bottle was dried inside an oven and

filled with oil. The weight of oil was determined. The specific gravity of the oil

was calculated as.

Specific gravity = weight of oil

Weight of equal volume of water.

The same procedure was carried out for all the samples.

3.3.1 DETERMINATION OF YIELD

The percentage yield after extraction was calculated thus

Yield = weight of oil extracted x 100

Total weight of sample

For palm kernel – A given quality 10g was weighed and wrapped in a

filter paper into the soxhlet extractor and the oil was extracted. The same

method was carried out for all the samples using hexane as the solvent.

3.3.2 DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT OF OIL

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2g of the samples was weighed in petric dishes and place in oven at

110oc and left for 3 hours. It was further dried until a constant weight was

reached and the moisture content was calculated as:

% Moisture content = moisture loss x 100

Weight of sample

3.4 METHOD OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ON THE PALM KERNEL

MELON AND COCONUT OILS

3.4.1 PEROXIDE VALUE DETERMINATION

10g of the oil sample was weighed into 500ml conical flask. 500ml of

solvent mixture containing 60% glacial acetic acid and 40% chloroform was

added and shaken to dissolve the fat. 1ml of distilled water was added and

shaken vigorously well. It was carefully titrated with 0.1N sodium thiosulphate

(Na2 S2 O3). 1ml of 1% starch solution was added and titration continue

shaking the flask until blue colour of the iodine was completely removed. The

peroxide number was calculated as the milliequlvalent of peroxide per

kilogram of fat. If fat consumes 1ml of 0.1N Na2S2O3, the peroxide value is 10.

Peroxide value (PV) = T x M x 100

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Weight of sample used

Where T = titre

M = Molarity of Na2S2O3

The result is expressed as milliequivalent per 1000g of oil (milli eq/kg).

The same procedure was used for palm kernel, coconut oil and melon

peroxide value determination.

3.4.2 FREE FATTY ACID DETERMINATION

10g of the sample was accurately weighted into a 250ml stoppered flask.

50ml of ethanol was measured into a second flask and allowed to boil at its

boiling point while it was still over 70oc, it was neutralise with 0./N NaOH

using phenolphthalein as indicator.

The neutralised ethanol was poured on the oil in the first flask nad the

contents was mixed. They were boiled, while still hot, it was titrated using 0./N

NaOH. The end point was reached when the addition of a drop produced pink

colour which persist for 15 seconds. The acid value was then calculated.

Acid Value = 5.61 x T

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T = Volume in milliliters of 0./N alkali required.

W = Weight in grammes of sample taken.

The same procedure was used for the three samples.

3.4.3 IODINE VALUE

2g of iodine was dissolve in 50cm3 glacial acetic acid and mixed with 2.25g

iodine dissolved in 100cm3 glacial acetic acid. It was then diluted to 250cm 3

with glacial acetic acid.

0.5g of oil was weighed into 250ml glass stoppered bottle. 15ml of

chloroform was added to the oil and dissolved. 25ml of Wij’s iodine solution

was added. The bottle was kept in the dark for 30 minutes after which 20ml of

15% KI solution was added. The bottle was covered and shaked vigorously.

The stopper bottle was washed with 1ml boiled and cooled water. The titration

was done using 0./N sodium thiosulphate solution. The reagent was added at

constant shaking until yellow colour of the iodine almost disappeared. At his

point 2ml of 1% starch indicator was added before the titration continued.

When the blue colour disappeared the bottle was shaked vigorously which

enable the remaining iodine in the organic solvent layer to pass into the water

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layer. The titration was complete. The same procedure was used for the three

samples.

Iodine Value = (B – S) x N x O.1269 x 100

B = Volume of the sodium thiosulphate solution.

S = Volume of sodium thiosulphate required for

the sample.

N = Normality of the sodium thiosulphate.

W = Weight in grammes of the oil taken for the

analysis.

3.5 RECIPE FOR THE PRODUCT

Coconut oil

Palm kernel oil

Melon oil

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Additives

Refined palm kernel, coconut and melon oils

Blending

Addition of ingredients

Emulsification

Mixing

Packaging

Cooling

Margarine

FLOW CHART 4PRODUCTION OF “MARGARINE”

3.6.0 PALM KERNEL, MELON AND COCONUT

Palm kernel, melon and coconut before processing were obtained from Umoka,

Amibo, Ubakala in Abia state other materials such as B – carotene, butter

flavour, packaging materials (plastics), salt (Nacl), were bought within Enugu

State. Eggs from which egg yolks were derived and powder milk were bought

within the campus. While the remaining materials were obtained from the Food

Science and Technology Department Laboratory. The refined palm kernel,

coconut and melon oils were blended together, this was performed to re-

arrange the structure of the glycerol and change fatty acid in the oil. The oil

was distributed into three containers where in other ingredients such as the

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prepared aqueous phase made up of milk solution with about 4% salt were

contained.

Egg yolk to be used as an emulsifier was first of all separated from the

albumen and pasteurised at 61oc for 3.5 minutes.

TABLE 3. THE FORMULATION OF SAMPLES

SAMPLE NO SAMPLES CODES FAT PHASE AQUEOUS RATION

(ML) PHASE (ML)

I PKO 60.00 20.00 3:1

II PCO 80.00 20.00 3:1:1

III PCM 80.00 20.00 6:1:1:2

About 13ml of the pasteurised egg yolk was added to each sample and 60ml of

refined PKO was added to all.

SAMPLE I - PKO - Contained 100% refined PKO

SAMPLE II - PCO - Contained 75% refined PKO

and 25% coconut oil.

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Samples II - PCM - Contained 75% refined PKO,

12.5% refined coconut oil and

12.5% melon oil.

About 3mls of vanilla flavour (liquid) was added into each sample.

As the ingredients were added together in each container, they were mixed

together thoroughly using egg whisk. The container with its content was placed

inside cold water while mixing continue until the mixture started thickening.

At this time the egg whisk was removed and the container was closed

with its cover and immediately placed it inside freezer where it further

solidified to give a plasticised product known as margarine.

3.7.0 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF MARGARINE PRODUCED

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Chemical Analysis, which include the free fatty acid Iodine Value and Acid

Value were carried out on htr3 samples produced. The methods are as

described early in this chapter in 3.4.

3.8.0 SENSORY EVALUATION

After production of the samples, comparison was made between the

margarine samples produced and the one bought from the market based on

taste, colour, flavour and overall acceptability.

The subjective method used was nine panelists made up of students

constituted the panel. The coded samples were presented to these panelists

along with the industrially prepared samples as reference and were asked to

mark the amount of difference that exist between each sample and the

reference sample on nine hedonic scales.

The objective of this evaluation was to test the difference between

margarine produced during the project work and the one produced industrially.

Also to determine which one is most preferred among the samples produced.

CHAPTER FOUR

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4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

TABLE 5: Shows the physical analysis of the oils.

TABLE 6: Shows the chemical analysis of the oils.

TABLE 7: Shows the chemical analysis of the margarine

samples produced.

TABLE 8: Shows the LSD sensory evaluation on the

margarine samples.

TABLE 5: PHYSICAL ANALYSIS RESULT OF PALM KERNEL,

COCONUT, AND MELON OILS.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS RESULTS

PKO COCONUT MELON

Weight of samples after milling 8kg 1kg 2.5kg

Yield of samples 24.29% 67% 88.67%

Specific gravity of the oils 0.88g 0.88g 0.86g

Moisture content of the oils 5% 0.5% 0.375%

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TABLE 6: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULT OF PALM KERNEL,

COCONUT, AND MELON OILS.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS RESULTS

PKO COCONUT MELON

Acid value 4.42 5.61 10.66

Fat content 80% 100% 95%

Peroxide value 10.90 4.90 8.90

Iodine value 15.23 7.61 15.23

TABLE 7: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULT OF MARGARINE

SAMPLES PRODUCED

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS SAMPLES

PKO PCO PCM

Acid Value 0.55 1.68 3.37

Free Fatty Acid 0.27 0.84 1.68

Iodine Value 17.77 20.30 21.57

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TABLE 8

L.S.D. RESULT FOR SENSORY EVALUATION OF MARGARINE

SAMPLES

Sample Taste 0.35 L.S.D 0.50 Smell 0.38 Overall acceptability

Code Colour LSD 0.16

PKO 6 5.67a 6.44 6a

PCO 6.33 5.67a 6.78 6a

PCM 7.11 6.44b 6.56 6.33b

PRC 8.67 8.78c 8.33 7.56c

4.2 DISCUSSION

As shown in the table 5 above, the yield of oils extracted from their

samples after milling were 24.29%, 67% and 88.67% for palm kernel, coconut

and melon respectively. The yields from the samples were high except for the

palm kernel. During milling, the palm kernels and melon were broken into fine

particle sizes while the coconut was broken into paste.

Hexane was used in the extraction of the melon while hot water

extraction method was used for palm kernel and coconut samples. The colour

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of the oils extracted was yellow immediately after extraction and golden

yellow after refining. The specific gravity of the oils 0.88, 0.88, 0.86 for palm

kernel oil, coconut oil and melon oils were of standard. There moisture content

were 5%, 0.5% and 0.375% for palm kernel, coconut and melon which were

within standard.

Results of the chemical analysis (acid value, free fatty acid, peroxide

value, iodine value) carried out on both the raw samples and the margarine

produced are as shown on the table.

During the course of this work, no hydrogen was injected directly into

the oil but it is evident that some degree of hydrogenation took place at

different stages. During refining, boiled water was used to wash soap formed

during neutralization from the oil, during degumming oil was mixed with water

and during steaming. Though this processes it is assumed that hydrogen from

water molecule was absorbed by the double bonds thus made the oil to be

saturated and hence harden on cooling.

Sensory evaluation was carried out on the margarine samples produced,

which did not show significant difference at 5% level of probability. The

colour and overall acceptability of PKO and PCO margarine had no difference

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in their means. Their colour 5.67a while overall acceptability was 6a. The

mean of PRC was higher than that of PCM.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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5.1 CONCLUSION

Margarine production from oils extracted from palm kernel, coconut and

melon was achieved after the oils were refined.

The extracted oils have various moisture content, yield and specific

gravity, which was of standard. The peroxide, Acid Value and Iodine Value

were low because the oils used were fresh and not stored oil.

The refining processes carried out on the oils brought about improved

odour for the oils and as a result were used to produce acceptable product

(Margarine). The refined oils is expected to be useful in cooking, baking and

any process that vegetable oils can be used for.

The Margarine produced is soft margarine because it is made of

different oil blends which is high in Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) and

low in cholesterol which is good for healthy living.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

There are many vegetable oils in the market used for cooking, baking

and other purposes that coconut and melon oils are rare.

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Various methods of extraction should be carried out on them to enhance

its production. Coconut is used for many things but the refined oil is scarce.

I discovered there is palm oil and coconut oil blend margarine in the

market but that of palm kernel oil and coconut oil is not there.

I recommend that work should be carried out to improve the quality of

margarine produced using oil blends from palm kernel, coconut and melon oils

to add to margarine product in the market. Variety they say is spice of life.

REFERENCES

Akeju Olubanwo. H. (1996). Margarine production from Laboratory Scale

Extracted and deodourized Palm Kernel Oil. Pp. 11 – 40.

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Aizek A and Bull .J. (1974). Refining and Processing of Fats and in Journal

American Oil Chemist Society vol: 4. Pp. 189 – 192.

Arnold H.J. and Martin S.P., (1974). Encyclopedia of food technology. The

AVI publishing company Inc; West Port Connecticut. Pp. 574 – 580.

AVOP Technical Manual (1988). Vol: 2. Pp. 52 – 62.

AVOP Technical Report (1989). Processing of oil seeds and utilization of their

bye products. Pp. 898 – 900.

Fagbemi T.N; (1995). Quality Control Practical Manual. Vol: 1. Pp. 3 – 5.

FAO/WHO (1977). Report on role of fats in human nutrition Journal American

Oil Chemist Society. Vol.: 7. Pp. 891 – 894.

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Micerrigan A.A. Bibby and sons Ltd. (1959) Oil extraction in American Food

Journal: vol: 2. Pp. 1 – 5.

Muller H.U. (1988). Margarine in an Introduction to Tropical Food Science

Sixth Edition. P. 133.

Ihekoronye A.I. and Ngoddy P.O. (1985). Integrated Food Science and

Technology for the Tropics, Macmillan Publishers Limited, London and

Basingstoke. Pp. 58 – 180.

Komolafe M.F. Adegbola A.A., Are L.A. and Ashaye T.I. (1985). Agricultural

Science for West African School and Colleges, Second Edition, University

Press Limited Ibadan. Pp. 130 – 133.

Norris F.A. (1964). Extraction of fats and oils, also refining and leaching. In

Bailey’s Industrial fats and oils, D. Swern (Editor) Inter science Publishers,

New York. Pp. 18 – 19.

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Odo F.O. and Ishiwu C.N (1999). Experimented procedures for food and water

analysis. Amazing Grace Printing and Publishing Company Enugu. Pp. 27 –

34.

Olwayose W.I Osage A.E., Dawody O.A. (1985). Chemical quality parameters

and fatty acid composition of some under exploited tropical seeds Nigeria

Journal of applied science. Pp. 157 – 162.

Oraekie Francisca N. (1995). Production of Margarine from lesser known

sources plum (Ube) (Dacryodes edulis). Institute of Management and

Technology, Enugu. Pp. 3 – 18.

Sarojini T.R. (1986). Importance of fats and oils in Modern Biology. Revised

edition. P. 190.

Simpson B.B and Ogorgaly G. (1986). Processing fats and oil in economic

botany, plans in our world, first Edition. Pp. 297 – 319.

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Stuhie C.H. (1979). Physical requirements of Margarine production Journal

American Oil Chemistry vol:8. Pp. 31 – 34.

Tedder J.M. and Nechayatal A. (1987). Basic Organic Chemistry. A

Mechanical Approach Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. New

York, Brisbane, Tronto, Singapore. Pp. 206 – 207.

Temple (1976). Journal American Oil Chemical Society. Vol.: 53. Pp. 32 – 35.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

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CALCULATION ON VARIOUS ANALYSIS PERFORMED ON THE

OILS

1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE OILS

PKO COCONUT MELON

Weight of Density bottle Empty 18.8kg 18.8g 18.8g

Weight of Density bottle + H20 44g 44g 44g

Weight of H20 = (44 – 18.8) 25.2g 25.2g 25.2g

Weight Density bottle + oil 41g 41g 40.55g

Weight of oil (41 – 18.8) 22.2g 22.2g 21.75g

Specific gravity of the oils 22.2 25.2 25.2

= weight of oil 25.2

weight of water 0.88g 0.88g 0.86g

The specific gravity of the oils are 0.88g, 0.88g, 0.86g for palm kernel, coconut

and melon oils.

2. MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE OIL

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PKO Coconut Melon

Weight of empty petric dish 24.9g 22.4g 13.4g

Weight of petric dish + sample before drying 26.9g 24.4g 15.4g

Weight of sample before drying 2g 2g 2g

Weight of petric dish + sample after drying 26.8g 24.39g 15.325g

Weight of moisture loss 0.1 0.01 0.075

:. % Moisture Content = Moisture loss x 100 0.1 x 100 0.01 x 100 0.075x100

Weight of sample 2 2 2

5% 0.5% 3.75%

The moisture content of the oils are 5%, 0.5%, 3.75% for palm kernel, coconut

and melon samples.

3. FAT CONTENT

PKO Coconut Melon

Weight of empty flask (A) 134.5g 134.5g 134.5g

Weight of the sample (B) 2g 2g 2g

Weight of flask + oil after drying (C) 136.1g 136.5g 136.4g

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% Fat = C – A x 100 1.6 x 100 2 x 100 1.9 x 100

B 2 2 2

80% 100% 95%

The percentage fat content in the samples are 80%, 100%, 95% for palm

kernel, coconut and melon.

4. PEROXIDE VALUE OF THE OIL

PKO Coconut Melon

Weight of sample 10 10 10

Initial burette reading (S) 7.00 0.00 0.00

Final burette reading (B) 18.00 5.00 9.00

Volume of o./N Na2S2O3 used 18.7 5–0 9–0

11.00ml 5.00ml 9.00ml

BLANK TITRATION

Initial burette reading 0.00ml 0.00ml 0.00ml

Final burette reading 0.10ml 0.10ml 0.10ml

11 – 0.1 5 – 0.1 9 – 0.1

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10.90ml 4.90ml 8.90ml

Indicator used was starch indicator

Peroxide value = T x M x 100

Wt. Of sample used

5. YIELD OF OIL EXTRACTED

% Yield = Weight of oil obtained x 100

Total weight

PKO Coconut Melon

1.7kg x 100 1kg x 100 44.6g x 100

7kg 1.5kg 50.3g

% Yield 24.29% 67% 88.67%

6. FREE FATTY ACID FFA OR ACID VALUE

PKO Coconut Melon

Weight of oil sample 10g 10g 10g

Initial burette reading 0.00 0.00 0.00

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Burette reading after the initial neutralization 20.00 20.00 10.00

(without sample)

28.00 30.00 29.00

Burette reading after the final neutralization

(with sample) 8.00 10.00 19.00

4.49 5.61 10.66

Volume of 0./N NaOH used = Titre

Acid Value = Titre x 5.61

W 2.25 2.81 5.33

FFA = Acid Value

7. IODINE VALUE

PKO Coconut Melon

Weight of oil sample 0.5g 0.5g 0.5g

Initial burette reading 0.00ml 0.00ml 0.00ml

Burette reading (when yellow colour disappear) 3.00 18.00 5.00

Burette reading (when 2ml of starch is added) 6.00 25.00 6.00

Blank titre value 28.00 28.00 28.00

Final reading after complete titration 22.00 25.00 22.00

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Iodine Value (B – S) x N x 0.1 x 0.1269 x 100 15.23 7.61 15.23

APPENDIX II

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CALCULATION OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MARGARINE

SAMPLES PRODUCED

FREE FATTY ACID

Burette Reading SAMPLES

PKO PCO PCM

Final burette reading (ml) 1.05 4.00 6.05

Burette reading after initial neutralization 0.07 1.00 0.05

(ml)

Initial burette reading (ml) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Volume of 0.lN NaOH used (after 0.98 3.00 6.00

neutralization with sample) Titre

Acid value = Titre x 5.61 0.98 x 5.61 3 x 5.61 6 x 5.61

W 10 10 10

0.55 1.68 3.37

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FFA = Acid Value

2 0.27 0.84 1.68

10.00g f each sample was used. Indicator used was phenolphthalein indicator.

IODINE VALUE

PKO PCO PCM

Weight of oil sample 0.5g 0.5g 0.5g

Initial burette reading 0.00 0.00 0.00

Burette reading (when yellow colour 28.00 29 28.5

disappear)

Burette reading (when 2ml of starch is added) 33.00 32 31.5

Blank Titre Value

40 40 40

Final reading after complete titration

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33.00 32.00 31.5

Iodine Value (B – S) x N x 0.126 x 100

W 17.77 20.30 21.57

0.5g sample was used.

Starch indicator was used.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

NAME DATE

You are receiving samples of margarine produced out of oils blend containing

palm kernel, coconut, melon oils. You are to compare for taste, colour, smell

and overall acceptability.

You have been given a reference sample marked R, which you are to use

to compare each samples taste, colour, smell and over acceptability.

Determine whether the product is Excellent good or poor compared to

the reference. Mark the amount of difference that exist.

SAMPLE CODE TASTE COLOUR SMELL OVERALL

ACCEPTABILITY

PKO

PCO

PCM

PRO

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APPENDIX III

SCALE

Excellent 9

Very Good 8

Moderately Good 7

Good 6

Satisfactory 5

Accepted 4

Not Accepted 3

Poor 2

Very Poor 1

Tables showing how the samples was scored

COLOUR

Panelists PKO PCO PCM PRC TOTAL

1 5 7 8 9 29

2 7 6 6 9 28

3 5 4 8 9 26

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4 8 5 5 9 27

5 3 7 6 9 25

6 3 6 6 9 24

7 7 5 6 9 26

8 7 5 6 8 26

9 6 6 7 9 28

TOTAL 51 51 58 79 239

MEAN 5.67 5.67 6.44 8.78

Analysis of variance

Correction factor (cf) = (239)2 = 1586.69

4x9

Sample SS = (51)2 + (51)2 + (58)2 + (79)2 – cf

9 9 9 9

= 1645.22 – 1586.69

= 58.53

Panelist SS

(29)2 + (28)2 + (26)2 + (27)2 + (25)2 + (24)2 + (26)2 + (26)2 + (28) – cf

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4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

= 1591.75 – 1586.69

= 5.06

Total sum of squares =

52 + 72 + 52 + 82 + 32 + 32 + 72 + 72 + 62 + 72 …. + 92 – cf

1689 – 1586.69

= 102.31

Error SS = 102.31 – 5.06 – 58.53

= 38.72

Analysis of Variance Table

SCORE DF SS MS F VALUE 5% 1%

Sample 3 58.53 19.43 12.07 3.01 4.72

Panelist 8 5.06 0.63 0.39 2.36 3.36

Error 24 38.72 1.61

TOTAL 35 102.31 21.67

There is a significant difference among samples a

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Standard error of sample mean

SE = MS for error / number of judgements for each samples

1.61
9 = 0.18
In order to be significantly different, the difference between two sample means

must exceed SE X a factor obtained using turkey’s test. D – q (SE)

Least significant difference (LSD)

0.18 x 3.90 = 0.70

PRC – PKO = 8.78 – 5.67 = 3.11 > 0.70

PRC – PCO = 8.78 – 5.67 = 3.11 > 0.70

PRC – PCM = 8.78 – 6.44 = 2.34 > 0.70

PRC is significantly colourful than the samples.

TASTE

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Panelists PKO PCO PCM PRC TOTAL

1 6 7 7 8 28

2 5 5 8 9 27

3 6 6 7 9 28

4 5 7 7 8 27

5 4 6 3 9 22

6 6 7 8 9 30

7 8 8 9 8 33

8 6 5 8 9 28

9 8 6 7 9 30

TOTAL 54 57 64 78 253

MEAN 6 6.33 7.11 8.67

Analysis of variance

Correction factor (CF) = (253)2 = 1778.03

4x9

Sample SS = (54)2 + (57)2 + (64)2 + (78)2 – CF

9 9 9 8

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= 1816.11 - 1778.03

= 38.08

Panelist SS =

(28)2 + (27)2 + (28)2 + (27)2 (22)2 + (30)2 + (33)2 (28)2 + (30)2– cf

4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4

= 1795.75 – 1778.03 = 17.72

Total sum of squares = 62 + 52 + 62 + 52….. + 92 – CF

= 1863 – 1778.03

= 84.97

Error SS = 84.97 – 17.72 – 38.08

= 29.17

Analysis of variance table (TASTE)

SCORE DF SS MS F VALUE 5% 1%

Sample 3 38.08 12.69 10.40 3.01 4.72

Panelist 8 17.72 2.22 1.82 2.36 3.36

Error 24 29.17 1.22

TOTAL 35 84.32 2.41

Standard error of sample mean

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SE = MS for error number of judgements for each sample.

1.22
9 = 0.14

In order to be significantly different, the difference between two sample means

must excess

SE x a factor obtained using turkeys test

D = q (SE)

Least Significant Difference (LSD)

0.14 x 3.90 = 0.55

PRC – PKO = 8.67 – 6 = 2.67 > 0.55

PRC – PCO = 8.67 – 6.33 = 2.34 > 0.55

PRC – PCM = 8.67 – 7.11 = 1.56 > 0.55

Conclusion – PRC is significantly taste acceptable than PCM, PCO and PKO.

Panelists PKO PCO PCM PRC TOTAL

1 6 8 7 8 29

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2 9 7 8 8 33

3 5 6 7 8 26

4 7 7 6 9 28

5 3 6 4 8 22

6 6 5 7 8 26

7 7 7 7 8 29

8 7 8 6 9 29

9 8 7 7 31

TOTAL 58 61 59 75 253

MEAN 6.44 6.78 6.56 8.33

Analysis of variance

Correction Faction (CF) = (253)2 = 1778.03

4x9

Sample SS = (58)2 + (61)2 + (59)2 + (75)2 – CF

9 9 9 9

= 1799.00 – 1778.03

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= 20.97

Panelist SS =

(29)2 + (33)2 + (26) 2 + (28)2 + (22)2 + (26)2 + (29)2 + (29)2+ (31)2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

= 1798.25 – 1778.03

= 20.22

Total Sum of Squares = 62 + 92 + 52 + 72 --- + 92 – CF

= 1856 – 1778.03

= 77.97

Error SS = 77.97 – 20.22 – 20.97

= 36.78

Analysis of Variance Table

SCORE DF SS MS F VALUE 5% 1%

Sample SS 3 20.97 6.99 4.57 3.01 4.72

Panelist SS 8 20.22 2.53 1.65 2.36 3.36

Error SS 24 36.78 1.53

TOTAL 35 77.97 2.23

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Standard error of sample mean

SE = MS for error / number of judgement for each sample

1.53
9 = 0.17

In order to be significantly different, the difference between two sample means

must exceed SE x a factor obtained using turkey’s test

D = q (SE)

LSD. = 0.17 x 3.90 = 0.66

PRC – PKO = 8.33 – 6.44 = 1.89 > 0.66

PRC – PCO = 8.33 – 6.78 = 1.55 > 0.66

PRC – PCM = 8.33 – 6.56 = 1.77 > 0.66

Conclusion – PRC is significantly smell acceptable than PCO, PCM and PKO.

OVERALL ACCEPTABILITY

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Panelists PKO PCO PCM PRC TOTAL

1 5 7 7 8 27

2 8 6 6 7 27

3 5 5 6 8 24

4 6 6 6 7 25

5 3 7 4 8 22

6 6 5 7 8 26

7 7 6 8 7 28

8 7 5 6 7 25

9 7 7 7 8 29

TOTAL 54 54 57 68 233

MEAN 6 6 6.33 7.56

Analysis of Variance

Correction Faction (CF) = (233)2 = 1508.03

4x9

Sample SS = (54)2 + (54)2 + (57)2 + (68)2 – CF

9 9 9 9

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= 1522.78 – 1508.03

= 14.75

Panelist SS =

(27)2 + (27)2 + (24) 2 + (25)2 + (22)2 + (26)2 + (28)2 + (25)2+ (29)2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

= 1517.25 – 1508.03

= 9.22

Total Sum of Squares SS = 52 + 82 + 52 ---- + 82 – CF

= 1559 – 1508.03

= 50.97

Error SS = 50.97 – 14.75 – 9.22

= 27

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE

SCORE DF SS MS F VALUE 5%

Sample SS 3 14.75 4.92 4.35 3.01

Panelist SS 8 9.22 1.15 1.02 2.36

Error SS 24 27 1.13

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TOTAL 35 50.97 2.23

Standard error of sample mean

SE = MS for error / number of judgement for each sample

1.13
9 = 0.13

In order to be significantly different, the difference between two sample means

must exceed SE x a factor obtained using turkey’s test

D = q (SE)

LSD. = 0.13 x 3.90 = 0.51

PRC – PKO = 7.56 – 6. = 1.56 > 0.51

PRC – PCO = 7.56 – 6. = 1.56 > 0.51

PRC – PCM = 7.56 – 6.33 = 1.23 > 0.51

Conclusion – PRC is acceptable more than PCM, PCKO and PCO.

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