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Layouts of Angkor Mandirs - and The Science Behind It

Layouts of Angkor Mandirs- And the Science Behind It

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15 views33 pages

Layouts of Angkor Mandirs - and The Science Behind It

Layouts of Angkor Mandirs- And the Science Behind It

Uploaded by

Uday Dokras
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Layouts of Angkor Mandirs- and the science behind it

Dr Uday Dokras

A space can be sacred, providing those who inhabit a particular space with sense of
transcendence—being connected to something greater than oneself. The sacredness may be
inherent in the space, as for a religious institution or a serene place outdoors. A spatial
experience is a multi-sensorial and simultaneous experience that involves built environments,
people, context and purposes and is capable of enhancing emotional connection within space.
Experiencing space is a subtle act of the human body and mind. We use our eyes to visually
probe a space, making thousands of subconscious computations every second. Spatial
experience is not restricted to the interiors of buildings. The sensations one has in nature’s
open spaces may be re-created by art. Temples, Cathedrals, City squares and even gardens,
achieve a variety of expression comparable with that of interiors. The exterior of a single
building, particularly one that is isolated from other architecture, does not create a space. It
occupies the space of nature.

Thus, it may be experienced as sculpture, in terms of the play of masses in a void.


The aesthetics of masses, like that of spaces, is rooted in one’s psychology. When a tall
temple or a mountain is called majestic, we are projecting human attributes. To arouse
predictable patterns of experience, architects try to plan monuments to praise humanity and
the divine.

When one stands to observe even the simplest building, parts of it will be out of sight. To
appreciate spaces, movement is required and consequently PERIFEREY or what we call
LAYOUT.

Most of the architectural remains that survive from Ancient and Medieval India are
religious in nature.In different parts of the country, distinct architectural style of temples
was result of geographical, ethnic and historical diversities. Two broad orders of temples in
the country are known as Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south.At times, the Vesara
style of temples is also found as an independent style, created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders.As temples grew more complex, more surfaces were
created for sculpture by adding more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls
and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine.

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

1.Sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’)


It was a small cubicle with a single entrance which grew into a larger chamber in time. It
is made to house the main icon.

1. Entrance to the temple


It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of
worshippers and is known as a mandapa.

2. Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire


It can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower,
called a vimana, in South India.

1
3. The vahan
It was mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or
dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.

4. Many Hindu temples, feature mithun (embracing couple)


sculptures, considered auspicious.Usually, they are placed at the entrance of the
temple or on an exterior wall or they may also be placed on the walls between the
mandapa and the main shrine.

Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

 In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with
steps leading up to it.
 Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways.
 While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

2
 There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the
shikhara.
 There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts of
India; however, the most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at
the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called
the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
 The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is
the phamsana, which tends to be broader and shorter than latina ones.
o Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over
the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising
tall towers.
 The third main sub-type of the nagara building is generally called the valabhi type.

o These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.

Balinese Hindu temple as an

exa
mple

3
Typical Balinese temples are divided into three areas, as shown in the photo to the left. They
are the Jaba or outer courtyard, the Jaba Tengah middle courtyard, and the Jeroan--the
innermost and sacred courtyard. The features of these three courtyards can be seen more
clearly in the larger diagram below.
Introductory Concepts -The Importance of a site
What is the site of construction?
From the above simple example of a Balinese site we can construe that construction site is an
area or piece of land where construction work is taking place. Sometimes construction sites
are referred to as 'building sites'. This usually implies that buildings or houses are being
constructed, whereas 'construction site' covers oncepts-a wider scope of work. The term
'building site' is often used interchangeably with construction site, although this tends to
indicate that buildings (and sometimes, more specifically, housing) are being constructed,
whereas the term 'construction site' can refer to all types of works, such as road construction,
sewer construction.

Location or site means the specific place or position of a proposed or existing sign.
What is the site area for planning?

Site area (SA): the total land area on which development authorisation is sought,
measured on a horizontal plane.
Net development area (NDA): the extent of the site area upon which one or more buildings
or other operations and their ancillary space can be built, measured on a horizontal plane.

4
What is site location in architecture?
Location – where the site is situated. Neighbourhood context – the immediate surrounding
of the site including data on zoning and buildings and other impacts on our project. Zoning
and size – dimensional considerations such as boundaries, easements, height restrictions, site
area, access along with any further plans.

What is construction site analysis?


Site analysis is a preliminary phase of architectural and urban design processes dedicated to
the study of the climatic, geographical, historical, legal, and infrastructural context of a
specific site.
Site surveys are inspections of an area where work is proposed, to gather information for a
design or an estimate to complete the initial tasks required for an outdoor activity. It can
determine a precise location, access, best orientation for the site and the location of obstacles.
The type of site survey and the best practices required depend on the nature of the project.
Examples of projects requiring a preliminary site survey include urban construction. Today,
typically of a tight grid of high resolution (high frequency) reflection seismology profiles to
look for possible gas hazards in the shallow section beneath the seabed and
detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks,
existing pipelines) using multibeam echosounders.

5
What is a layout plan?

A site layout plan, sometimes called a block plan, shows a detailed layout of the whole site
and the relationship of the proposed works with the boundary of the property, nearby roads,
and neighbouring buildings.
What is layout example?
The definition of a layout is an arrangement, plan or design. An example of a layout is a
drawing of how a house will be built. (informal) An establishment or property, especially a
large residence or estate.
What is a layout in design?
Layout design is the process of arranging visual and textual elements on-screen or on-paper
in order to grab a reader's attention and communicate information in a visually appealing
way.
What is layout and its purpose?
The basic objective of layout is to ensure a smooth flow of work, material, and information
through a system. The basic meaning of facility is the space in which a business's activities
take place.
What is good layout?
A good layout would be able to co-ordinate all operations. The layout should be designed
taking into account the inter-relationships between various equipment, departments and
personnel. It is therefore important that while planning the layout the complete picture of the
organization is considered.

Angkor Model

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What is the layout of a building called?
Plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on a
horizontal plane, like a map. The term may be used in general to describe any drawing
showing the physical layout of objects.
In architecture and building engineering, a floor plan is a technical drawing to scale, showing
a view from above, of the relationships between rooms, spaces, traffic patterns, and other
physical features at one level of a structure.
Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths.
Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, etc. Floor
plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or
symbols for electrical items.
It is also called a plan which is a measured plane typically projected at the floor height of 4 ft
(1.2 m), as opposed to an elevation which is a measured plane projected from the side of a
building, along its height, or a section or cross section where a building is cut along an axis to
reveal the interior structure.
Similar to a map, the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a
conventional map, a plan is drawn at a particular vertical position (commonly at about four
feet above the floor). Objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown 'cut' in
plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or
shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an
object on a horizontal plane, like a map.
The term may be used in general to describe any drawing showing the physical layout of
objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the displayed objects at an exhibition,
or the arrangement of exhibitor booths at a convention. Drawings are now reproduced
using plotters and large format xerographic copiers.
A reflected ceiling plan (RCP) shows a view of the room as if looking from above, through
the ceiling, at a mirror installed one foot below the ceiling level, which shows

7
the reflected image of the ceiling above. This convention maintains the same orientation of
the floor and ceilings plans – looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and
architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, and ceiling forms as part of
the documents provided for construction.
The art of constructing ground plans (ichnography;"track, trace" and "to write"; was first
described by Vitruvius and included the geometrical projection or horizontal section
representing the plan of any building, taken at such a level as to show the outer walls, with
the doorways, windows, fireplaces, etc., and the correct thickness of the walls; the position of
piers, columns or pilasters, courtyards and other features which constitute the design, as to
scale.
Building blocks

Floor plans use standard symbols to indicate features such as doors. This symbol shows the
location of the door in a wall and which way the door opens. A floor plan is not a top view
or birds eye view. It is a measured drawing to scale of the layout of a fl oor in a building. A
top view or bird's eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical
four foot height above the floor level. A floor plan could show:

 interior walls and hallways


 restrooms
 windows and doors
 appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc.

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 interior features such as fireplaces, saunas and whirlpools
 the use of all rooms

Plan view
A plan view is an orthographic projection of a three-dimensional object from the position of a
horizontal plane through the object. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top. In
such views, the portion of the object above the plane (section) is omitted to reveal what lies
beyond. In the case of a floor plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be
omitted. Whenever an interior design project is being approached, a floor plan is the typical
starting point for any further design considerations and decisions.
Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their viewing plane is
outside of the object.

A plan is a common method of depicting the internal arrangement of a three-dimensional


object in two dimensions. It is often used in technical drawing and is traditionally
crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes
through.

The Plan of Hindu temple architecture

Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style,
though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an
inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of
a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. This chamber often has an open area designed for
movement in clockwise rotation for rituals and prayers. Around this chamber there are often
other structures and buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the
garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The
shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama,
a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between
garbhagriha and mandapa. There may be other mandapas or other buildings, connected or
detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound.
Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, values and the
way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the
cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu
temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the
masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the
eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture. [2] The form and
meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place
where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge
and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and
Vastu Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple
builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative
expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles
in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life.[6
Early structures
Excavation of the huge Temple of Vāsudeva next to the Heliodorus pillar in Besnagar. Show
that the Temple measured 30x30 meters, and the walls were 2.4 meters thick. Pottery remains

9
assigns the site to the 2nd century BCE. Further excavations also revealed the outline of a
smaller elliptic temple structure, which was probably destroyed by the end of the 3rd century
BCE The platform and the base of the Heliodorus pillar are visible in the immediate
background.
Remains of early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE)
and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated
to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism.

Steps in Temple Construction

Steps in Temple Construction: The procedure for building a temple is extensively


discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning
beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary
from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction:
1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land
should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug,
water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then
the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again
involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are
placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the
place of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done,
like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals
Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and
waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to
take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good
omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements
Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja
(to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town)
Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)

Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing
kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa
as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes
of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as

10
prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and
kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs
carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's
drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using
a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses
the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is
being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds
mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple.
This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the
distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and
fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the
temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals.

The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver,
and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during
the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking
and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as
precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding
to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds
and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is
described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid
made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious
significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid,
usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square
belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance
attached to each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the
outer squares cover the gods of lower rank.

Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in
garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the
temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The
relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the
temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for
humans until quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that
it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face
the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary,
along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great
importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following
major elements 1. an entrance, often with a porch. one or more attached or detached
mandapas or halls 3. the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber'- the
tower build directly above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design
Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally
conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight.

According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of
Architecture, the vibration of the spaceconsciousness, which is called time, is the creative
element, since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial
forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire
universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant
product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called

11
talam or layam. Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space
measure, vastu science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space
vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of
measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam
(eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human
form, it is found that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units.

The Agamas are a collection of several literature and scriptures of Hindu schools. The term
literally means tradition or "that which has come down", and the Agama texts describe
cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four
kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold
desires.These canonical texts are in Tamil and Sanskrit. Agamas were predominant in South
India but Sanskritized later.

Small Hindu Temple of Kidel, Java- Marianne North

The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala- The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or
manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a
square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and
results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the
shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The
square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection
beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle,
hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandalavastu,
the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala
represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in
whom the temple rests.

The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-
purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those
who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In order to

12
establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala
upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution
of the vastupurusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical
foundation supports the weight of the building. Based on astrological calculations the border
of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirtytwo smaller squares called nakshatras.
The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of the
single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and
their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent
cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled
over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four
directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the
sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha
or pure space. The vastupurusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the
building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple
construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-
purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of
the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground
plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are
fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid,
the circle and the curve are most prominent.

The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller
chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan
consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the
main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple
and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of
the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual
called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter
within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of
the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly
resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled
with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the
twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the
presence of the corresponding Devata.

The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator,
best known for his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan
(1919-1983), who adopted the name Silpi,

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up
the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw
up a construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various
temples to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another
Vastu Mandala.

13
Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is
the name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture
(vāstuśāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular
diagram (one only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before
starting the construction. Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain
texts, the compartments (koṣṭha) of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities
associated with the plots of the site diagram.

In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight
Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve
as menas of identifying the compartments later on.This is the process under which the
Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is put to use in site planning and
architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules or pada.
Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site
and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A Mandala They are proportional
relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-two such
schemes.
 sakala, whole; 2. pecaka, couch; 3. pīṭha, pedestal; 4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal; 5.
upapīṭha, low pedestal; 6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal; 7. sthaṇḍila, altar; 8. caṇḍita,
circumcised; 9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner; 10. āsana, seat; 11. sthānīya, local; 12.
deśya, regional; 13. ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised; 14. bhadra, auspicious; 15.
mahāsana, great seat; 16. padmagarbha; lotus-womb; 17. triyuta; thrice-yoked; 18.
karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered; 19. gaṇita; computed; 20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the
sun; 21. susaṃhita, well-endowed; 22. supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse; 23.
viśālaka, capacious; 24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-womb 25. viśveśa; lord of the world;
26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment; 27. viprakānta; Brāhmaṇa-spouse 28. viśālākṣa,
large-eyed; 29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion; 30. viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the
world, 31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse, 32. candrakānta, moon’s spouse.

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Temple layout Sreeneevasan’s Blog

Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot
(which does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot;
mahapīṭha, sixteenplot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and
paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot, schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes
the assignment of deities to the plots. The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and
assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra
chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine squares or the pīṭha of nine squares
with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he marks either the upapīṭha
diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks two circles, one on the
floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar. During padavinyāsa, ritual marking of the
plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form of vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of
the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched out across it, while reciting the
mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the vāstumaṇḍala, cluster of forty-five deities,
who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his limbs and thus occupy plots in the four
quarters of the site. He invokes the deity corresponding to each plot and “situates” it
thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its
specifie venerational mantra.

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2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled
Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a
number of schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of
plot-disposition is a conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is
constructed out of geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the
number of plots in the scheme is always a perfect square.

Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi)
and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in
the shape of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area
may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: 1.
circular (vritta), 2. triangular (trikona), 3. rod shaped (dandakriti), 4. bow shaped (dhanur
akara) 5. other irregular shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a
land of such “un approved” shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and
rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same
principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a
square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. In case of a rectangular site, it
must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit) should be more than
its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south
shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east
and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the
temple should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi
( Basil) plants with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral
plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much
recommended. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan,
Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The
entire process is rich in symbolism. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth,
signifying the four directions which bind and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of
existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of existence. The ground plan, again, is
symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu Purusha represents
terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and equilateral
triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The
position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion
of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the
outer cells house deities of lower order.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead
from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and
so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west
axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected
in the architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu
mandala Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for
deciding upon the location, the orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of
retinue-divinities. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.

The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends
from Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). The Vastu purusha mandala
is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having
astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border
representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all

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cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8)
the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided.

The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings
and the engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to
its west are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits
reside in the outer ring. There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding
Brahma. Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma). Dikpalas or guardian deities of
different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal management, are an important part of
the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu , Kubera and Isana; reside in the East ,
South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North and North-East respectively. All
except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a method that determines the
requirements of architecture in relation to its directions. Establishing Vastu Mandala on the
site The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences
that constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site
the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the
time for

commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained. Horizontal and vertical dimensions:
From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next proceeds to develop the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and
the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical
alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The subdivisions of the
ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the
mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums).

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The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the
structure above the main shrine or chapel) and the prakara (the walls). The construction of the
temple follows in three dimensional forms, in exactly the patterns laid out by the mandala.
The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance
of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top elevation). In order to
establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site.

The ground for civil construction is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells, by drawing
10 lines from East to West and 10 lines from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities
are installed. In addition the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after
performing Vastu Homa. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of
construction is a sacred rite in itself. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of
effectiveness, in the manner that the actual foundation supports its weight. Vastu Shanti Puja
is a spiritual and religious process to offer prayers to the Vastu Purush who is the Lord,
protector and soul of the house and seek the blessings for positivity and prosperity. During
this worship, people also pay their tribute to the deity of directions, five elements of nature,
and natural forces. Some of the major objectives of performing Vastu Shanti Pooja are – To
eliminate any kind of faults relating to interiors exteriors, or structures of buildings. To seek
forgiveness of God for the damage done to the nature during construction. To ask for the
blessings of Vastu Purush for happiness, wealth and good health. Offer prayers to Vastu
Purush for protection of home or office from natural calamities. To appease any form of
supernatural force which might be dangerous for the occupants

Significance of Vastu Shanti Puja Vastu is a place where nature and human beings live
together in harmony. Vastu Shanti Puja, also known as Vastu Dosh Nivaran Puja, brings a
striking balance between both of them by removing all the hurdles or negativities present in
the environment and preventing unforeseen destruction and misfortune to finally improve the
Vastu of a place. The puja is performed to appease Vastu Devta to seek his blessings and bless
one’s home or workspace with prosperity and harmony. Vastu Puja is also conducted to
reduce the harmful impacts of the Vastu Dosha caused by the construction faults in the Vastu
of a place and to maintain a balance between the eight directions and the five elements of
nature. People worship Vastu Purush or Vastu deva on several occasions such as land
worship, Griha Pravesh, door installation, well mining, foundation laying, foundation mining,
and others.

Garbhadhana, Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the
first stone (square in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the
north-western corner of the building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of
the foundation is taken up. The foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth
level, except in the middle portion of the garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually
constructed first. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it
involves letting in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious
stones, several metals, minerals, herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The
following is a little more detail about it.

The Brahmasthana , the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually
come up, is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the
grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu

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Purusha) to enter within the buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the
earth. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-
purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. In the
thirty-two units representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions), the units of Brahma and the
twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the
presence of the corresponding divinity .An Image of Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also
placed in the box. Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also represents theenergy that
supports the universe. The box also contains nine precious stones – diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, pearls, yellow sapphire, and blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade – to appease
the nine planets. A stone slab (adhara- shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot
is buried.And, over this slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera.

The copper pot signifies the womb; and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum
constructed around it is the body. That pot represents the roots of the “temple-tree”; and the
icon its sap. The four walls around the icon represent the branches spreading around. The
structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series of tiers. The roof resting over the walls is
called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest. The imagery suggested is that of a tree with
birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a model of a growing tree. Another set of
symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi); the walls of the
sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it the fire (tejas). The final tier of the Vimana
is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha).The sanctum is thus a constellation
of five elements that are basic building blocks of all existence. Once the garbhadhana and
agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the temple commences
according to the plan. When the foundation is finished the vertical structure is raised. The
external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures and
paintings. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the
different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe. It is

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believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada, Ashviyuja and Karhika months
facing east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south; In
phalguna, Chaitra and Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana,
he sleeps facing north. The doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective
months.

Mini Cosmos

Temple Layout and its symbolism The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is
a mini cosmos. The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The
ideal Temple should have at least one entrance, an ArdhMandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall,
a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. The design comprises:

1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at
the entrance to the Temple. 2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine
immediately after the Rajagopuram. 3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for
offerings, called the Balipeeta. 4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. 5. The
passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main
Deity is installed. 6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-
Griha”. 7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a
structure or sanctuary called the “Vimana”. 8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity
is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome. 9. There is a circumnutating passage or
“Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa.

The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
“Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The
procedure of worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”.

 TEMPLE LAYOUT : The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a
deity and to facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a
Hindu temple is a symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west
alignment; the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the
western side. The entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to

20
symbolize its significance. Vaikanasagamas and the silapashastras stipulate the rules
for the selection of the site and construction of the temple buildings. Most of the
temple adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also seems to be based on
the concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of small shrines
normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The region
wise categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region
Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South
India vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular
in the Tamil country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as
Dravida-Satanga-Vimana. This type consists of six important parts from the base to
the final. These six parts are linked to the angas of human beings. There are 1.
upapitha, 2. adhisthana, 3. pada or bhiti, 4. prastara, 5. sikhara and 6. griva (Kalasa)
humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada :
Forso Prastara : Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana
constitute the basement. The upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the
height of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the wall part of htehouse that houses
themulbera. It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such as the kumbha
panjara and kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The
kumbhapanjara is of the shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural
addition. The kosthapanjara houses Avaranamurts.

 WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India


temple style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls,
with entrances through large gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf
the enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased
fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic invasions that jeopardized
the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple complex came to
include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Accordingly, the
templecities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city surrounded by its
mountain ranges (city walls).

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Angkor layout

 PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple structures (moving from east to west)
include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by
passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of
the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the
level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa. Mandapa. The
mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha griha;
it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in
the garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will
have a second mandapa — called the maha mandapa — that is located in between the
external mandapa and the garbha griha. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha
griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity
resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha
griha. The images since the early chola period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the
following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti
Garbhagraha West Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal Vishnu Vishnu (or)
Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North Brahma Ardhamandapam north Mahissuramardini
In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu temple in its vertical order in comparison
with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the temple is equal to that of
the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the temple site
is divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu
temple is Vastupurusa.

THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the
temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the
resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is
mirrored by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is
associated in Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is
associated with humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most
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profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways
to temples’ ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal

form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the
square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

4.MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-
mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport: Temples
venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a
seated bull), facing the main shrine. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi)
display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides
of the external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern
entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal
mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red
highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal
mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later,
even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an
even larger one.

5. SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical
sides that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal
outline (rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable
feature of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of
the storeys contrast with the Northern style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was
originally inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents — specifically, the parapets
(discussed below) represent the cells around a squareshaped room in which Buddhist monks
were allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is merely superimposed in
ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

6. HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving
phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the
Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a
macro during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are
the early temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan
includes the garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a
lot of development took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu
temple building. A number of gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so
on were added. The micro gopura that peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a
pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai .

Gopuras were set in all cardinal directions and at the entry of each prakara, the total number
reaching its peak in the Srirangam and Madurai temples. Mandapas of intricate workmanship
were in various locations. These catered to the needs of the increasing utsavas;
Kalyanamandapa for holding the marriage festival s and Vasantamandapa for holding the
spring festival. Subsidiary chapel were added for Devis,Nandi,Garuda, Acaryas and so on. A
number of uhanas for processional purpose were added. In short, the Hindu temple reached
the optimum level of its evolution under the Nayakas in the Tamil country. Against this
background the temple chosen or the present study are examined.

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The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the
garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the
building complex are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or
ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the
passage next to the previous one, leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the
main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the
prkaras (surrounding walls) are the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the
neck, the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of
hair (sikha) and so on.

Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually
entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the
pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a
man’s journey towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and
sculptural details vary from phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which
awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the
following way. On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the
threshold before crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world
of God. Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls;
representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. As he proceeds, the familiar
mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The immediate pavilion
and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations; these
simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions
and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any
ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility,
to fulfilment and to the presence of God. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a
circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu
and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. Positions and
orientations of the temples. The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses
in an 81 celled temple-site. This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

CENTRAL PART: Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must
be divided into four equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-
western side thereof. The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and
the shrine should have three stories. The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may
be represented in the shrine in one of his many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana)
or many ( aneka-murti-vidana). The aneka forms might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan
murti); or 9 ( nava murti). The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred ,
specially in a shrine dedicated to Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the
intermediate direction (Vidik)- Atri Samhita (2.3233) And, generally, the doorway to the East
is the best , most auspicious (utta-mottamam) ;to the West is next best (uttama); to the South
is middling (madhyama); and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama) – Vimanarchana kalpa
(patala 3)

Building layout design is regarded as one of the major tasks in architecture design. It
determines the shapes, dimensions, and positions of internal building spaces to satisfy
architectural criteria. This task becomes complicated for human designers when the topology
relationships of rooms are complex.

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The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The
mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the
mandala and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden
serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or
navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine
jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond,
emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid
with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following
which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers
clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of
the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat,
barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. Temple Layout Ancient
Scripts on Temple Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its
chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: 1.
Square (Chandura); 2. Rectangle (Agatra); 3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart –
shakata); 4. Circle (Vritta); 5. Elliptical (kritta vritta); 6. triangular (dwaja); 7. diamond or
rhombus (vajra) ; 8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; 9. fish (meena); 10. back of a tortoise
(kurma); 11. conch (shanka); 12. crescent (ardha-chandra); 13. pot (kumbha); 14. sword
(khadga); 15. and lotus (kamala).

South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of India” by
Ferguson, James and James Burgess

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the
back of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are
recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura),
Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are
recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. But all
texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most
auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension.
It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

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STONE STRUCTURES
Though there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the
5th century CE, there probably were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-
cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal
sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture. The earliest preserved
Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at
Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone
superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara
inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and
these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.
No pre-7th century CE South Indian free-standing stone temples have survived. Examples of
early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse
styles at Mahabalipuram, from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the
Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which
already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a
tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and
Pallava era when these were built. In the Deccan, Cave 3 of the Badami cave temples was cut
out in 578 CE, and Cave 1 is probably slightly earlier. Other examples are found
in Aihole and Pattadakal.
Medieval Period (7th to 16th century
about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with
theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods. From between about the 7th
and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer
than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions,
as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. The Vesara style originated in the
region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka.
According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of
Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture built temples
in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles, for example using
both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over the sanctum in
different temples of similar date, as at Pattadakal.

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Nataraja temple plan. 1: East gopura; 2: South gopura; 3: West gopura; 4: North gopura; 5:
1000 pillar hall (choultry); 6: Shivaganga pool; 7: Devi temple; 8: Shiva Sanctum + Chit Sabha +
Kanaka Sabha; 9: Vishnu shrine.

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Earliest examples of Pallava architecture are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and
structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava
architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram.
Western Chalukya architecture linked between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th
century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of Western
Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they
built in the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in
Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century,
with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day
Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni)
which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their
stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in
the coming centuries.
In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of
temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones. The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim
conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north. In
late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of
South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse, (actually a late
development, from the 12th century or later), was typically added to older large temples.

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The Meenakshi temple complex of Madurai, mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large
complex in the Dravidian architecture of South India, dominated by gopuram gatehouse
towers. 2 main shrines are much smaller, with gold tops .

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TIRUPATI TEMPLE

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