Chapter 2

2- Actual sources
voltage and current source
For the voltage source, if Rs = 0 Ω or is so small compared to any series resistor that it can be ignored, then we
have an “ideal” voltage source. For the current source, if Rs = ∞ or is large enough compared to other parallel
elements that it can be ignored, and then we have an “ideal” current source. See fig (2-4).
If the internal resistance is included with either source, then we have an “actual” voltage source or “actual”
current source fig (2-5); then that source can be converted to the other type. Fig (2-6).

Fig (2-6)
Source conversion.
Voltage source to current source and vice versa

3- Network simplification

3-1 SERIES CIRCUITS

A circuit consists of any number of elements joined at terminal points, providing at least one closed path
through which charge can flow. The circuit of Fig. 3-1 has three elements joined at three terminal points (a, b,
and c) to provide a closed path for the current I.

Fig(3-1)

(a) Series circuit R1and R2 and E 1

(b) R1 and R2 and R3 are not in series.

 Chapter 2
In Fig.( 3-1) the resistors R1 and R2 are in series , the battery E and resistor R1 are in series, and the
resistor R2 and the battery E are in series .Since all the elements are in series, the network is called a
(series circuit.)
Note
1- The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of the resistance levels.
RT= R1+R2 (ohm Ω )
2- The current is the same through each element and the current drawn from the source (Total
current IT) of Fig. (3-1a) equal:
I=IR1=IR2 =IT (Amp)
IT can be determined using Ohm’s law.
I= IT = (Amp)

3- V1=IR1 V2=IR2 VT= V1+V2 (Volt)

4- The power delivered to each resistor can then be determined using any one of three equations:

The total power delivered to a resistive circuit is equal to the total power dissipated by the resistive
elements.

EXAMPLE 1
a. Find the total resistance for the series circuit of Fig. 3-2
b. Calculate the source current Is.
c. Determine the voltages V1, V2, and V3.
d. Calculate the power dissipated by R1, R2, and R3.
e. Determine the power delivered by the source, and compare it to the
sum of the power levels of part (d).

Fig (3-2)

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 Chapter 2

EXAMPLE 2 Determine RT, I, and V2 for the circuit of Fig. 3-3

Fig 3-3

sol. Note the current direction as established by the battery and the polarity of the voltage drops across R2 as
determined by the current direction
RT=R1+R2+R3+R4
RT=7+4+7+7 =25 Ω

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 Chapter 2
EXAMPLE 3 Given RT and I, calculate R1 and E for the circuit of Fig.3-4 .

Fig(3-4)

3-2 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 = 10 V + 6 V +2 V = 18 V

and the polarity shown in the figure

ET= E2 +E3 -E1 = 9 V + 3 V - 4 V = 8 V

and the polarity shown in the figure

Fig3.5
( a ,b ) Reducing series dc voltage sources to a single source.

3-3 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around
a closed loop (or path) is zero.

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 Chapter 2
A closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a point in one direction and returns to that same point from
another direction without leaving the circuit.
the clockwise (CW) direction will be used throughout the text for all applications of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Be aware, however, that the same result will be obtained if the counterclockwise (CCW) direction is chosen
and the law applied correctly. A plus sign is assigned to a potential rise (- to +), and a minus sign to a potential
drop (+ to -). If we follow the current in Fig. (3-6 )rom point a, we first encounter a potential drop V1 (+ to -)
across R1 and then another potential drop V2 across R2. Continuing through the voltage source, we have a
potential rise E (- to + ) before returning to point a. In symbolic form, where Σ represents (summation), the
closed loop, and V the potential drops and rises, we have :

Which for the circuit of Fig. (3-6 ) yields (clockwise direction, following the current I and starting at point d):

Fig (3-6) Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a series dc circuit.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law can also be stated in the following form:

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 Chapter 2
EXAMPLE 4 Determine the unknown voltages for the networks of Fig. (3-7)

Fig3-7

Sol:

a-

b-

or

EXAMPLE 5 For the circuit of Fig. 3-8

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Chapter 2

Fig 3-8

EXAMPLE 6 For the circuit of Fig. 3-9

Fig 3-9

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 Chapter 2

3-4 INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance, current, or power to
each element. For instance, the network of Fig. (3-10) can be redrawn as shown in Fig.(3-11)

Fig. (3-11)
Fig. (3-10)
Circuit of
Series dc circuit with
with R2and R3 interchanged.
. elements to be interchanged
EXAMPLE 7 Determine I and the voltage across the 7Ω resistor for the network of Fig. 3-12

Fig 3-12

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 Chapter 2
Solution:
The network is redrawn in Fig. 3-13

Fig 3-13

3-5 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE (V.D.R.)

the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times the
total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.

EXAMPLE 8 Determine the voltage V1 for the network of Fig. 3-14

Fig (3-14) Fig (3-15)

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Chapter 2
Sol.

The circuit is simplified to fig (3-15)

EXAMPLE 9 Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages V1 and V3 for the series circuit
of Fig. 3-16

Fig 3-16

Note The rule can be extended to the voltage across two or more series elements.

EXAMPLE 10 Determine the voltage V' in Fig.( 3-16 ) across resistors R1 and R2.

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