Prepared by;

Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, M.Sc.

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Soil Composition
3.0 Index Properties and Soil
Table of Contents Classification
4.0 Soil Compaction
5.0 Permeability
Geotechnical 6.0 Seepage
Engineering
Engr. Gabriel I. Gamana, M.Sc.

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3.1 Index Properties

3.0 Index
3.1 Index Properties
Properties and 3.2 Plasticity of Soil
Soil 3.3 Soil Classification

Classification

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

• Index properties help to assess the engineering behavior of a 3.1.1 Soil Color
soil and which assist in determining its classification Color depends on the mineral matter, quantity and nature of
accurately. organic matter and the amount of coloring oxides of iron and
• Index properties include indices that can be determined manganese, besides the degree of oxidation.
relatively quickly and easily, and which will have a bearing on • Red, Brown or Yellow – Iron compounds
important aspects of engineering behavior such as strength
or load-bearing capacity, swelling and shrinkage, and • Black – Manganese compounds
settlement. • Gray and white – absence of compounds
• Light gray – small amount of organic matter

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

3.1.2 Soil Particle Shape
The shape of particles present in a soil mass is important
because it has significant influence on the physical properties of
a given soil. However, not much attention is paid to particle
shape because it is more difficult to measure. The particle shape
generally can be divided into three major categories:
1. Bulky
2. Flaky
3. Needle shaped

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

• The shape of granular particles in a soil mass has a great 3.1.3 Specific Gravity
influence on the physical properties of the soil, such as • Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of a
maximum and minimum void ratios, shear strength given material to the unit weight of water. The specific gravity
parameters, compressibility, etc. of soil solids is often needed for various calculations in soil
• Bulky particles are formed mostly by mechanical weathering mechanics. It can be determined accurately in the laboratory.
of rock and minerals. Geologists use such terms as angular, • The table next slide shows the specific gravity of some
subangular, subrounded, and rounded to describe the common minerals found in soils. Most of the values fall within
shapes of bulky particles. a range of 2.6 to 2.9. The specific gravity of solids of light-
colored sand, which is mostly made of quartz, may be
estimated to be about 2.65; for clayey and silty soils, it may
vary from 2.6 to 2.9.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

3.1.4 Density Index (Relative Density)
• Indicates the relative compactness of the soil mass. This is
used in relation to coarse-grained soils or sands.
• In a dense condition, the void ratio is low whereas in a loose
condition, the void ratio is high. Thus, the in-place void ratio
may be determined and compared, with the void ratio in the
loosest state and that in the densest state.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

Where;
𝑒 = maximum void ratio or void ratio in the loosest state.
𝑒 = void ratio of the soil mass in the natural state or the
condition under question.
𝑒 = minimum void ratio or void ratio in the densest state.
𝛾 = dry unit weight.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

Problem 3-1 Problem 3-2
A soil sample with a grain specific gravity of 2.65 was filled in a The dry unit weight of a sand sample in the loosest state is
1000 mL container in the loosest possible state and the dry 13.24 kN/m3 and in the densest state, it is 21.09 kN/m3.
weight of the sample was found to be 14.75 N. It was then filled Determine the density index of this sand when it has a porosity
at the densest state obtainable and the weight was found to be of 33%. Assume the grain specific gravity as 2.68.
17.70 N. The void ratio of the soil in the natural state was 0.64.
Determine the density index in the natural state.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

3.1.5 In-Situ Unit Weight • Two important methods for the determination of the in-situ unit
• The in-situ unit weight refers to the unit weight of a soil in the weight are being given:
undisturbed condition or of a compacted soil in-place. (i) Sand-replacement method (Sand-Cone Method).
• Determination of in-situ unit weight is made on borrow-pit soils (ii) Core-cutter method.
so as to estimate the quantity of soil required for placing and
compacting a certain fill or embankment.
• During the construction of compacted fills, it is standard
practice to make in-situ determination of a unit weight of the
soil after it is placed to ensure that the compaction effort has
been adequate.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

3.1.6 Particle Size Distribution 3.1.6.1 Sieve analysis
• This classification test determines the range of sizes of • The most direct method for determining particle sizes, but
particles in the soil and the percentage of particles in each of there are practical lower limits to sieve openings that can be
these size ranges. This is also called ‘grain-size distribution’; used for soils. This lower limit is approximately at the smallest
‘mechanical analysis’ means the separation of a soil into its size attributed to sand particles (75μ or 0.075 mm).
different size fractions. • Sieving is a screening process in which coarser fractions of
• The particle-size distribution is found in two stages: soil are separated by means of a series of graded mesh.
(i) Sieve analysis, for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in Mechanical analysis is one of the oldest test methods for soil.
diameter.
(ii) Hydrometer analysis, for particle sizes smaller than 0.075
mm in diameter.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

Sieve analysis Procedure Particle Size Distribution Curve
1. Percentage retained on any sieve, r • The percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay-size particles
𝑀 present in a soil can be obtained from the particle-size
𝑟= ∗ 100%
𝑀 distribution curve.
2. Cumulative percentage retained on each sieve, R • The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the range
𝑅= 𝑟 of particle sizes present in a soil, but also the type of
distribution of various-size particles.
3. Percentage finer, F
𝐹 = 100 − 𝑅

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

• A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the 4. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as
following four parameters for a given soil.
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the
particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil. 5. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure
2. Average size (D50): This parameter is the diameter in the of uniformity and is generally encountered in geologic works
particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 50% finer and expressed as
3. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as

where: D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

3.1.6.2 Hydrometer analysis
• Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of
sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a soil specimen is
dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities,
depending on their shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of
the water.
• For simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles are
spheres and that the velocity of soil particles can be
expressed by Stokes’ law.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.1 Index Properties

Problem 3-3 Problem 3-3
Following are the results of a sieve analysis. Make the a. Determine the effective size.
necessary calculations and draw a particle-size distribution b. Determine the average size.
curve.
c. Uniformity coefficient.
d. Coefficient of gradation.
e. Sorting coefficient.

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3.1 Index Properties 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Problem 3-4
A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams
was shaken through a nest of sieves and the following results
were obtained.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

• When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil
can be remolded in the presence of some moisture without
crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed
water surrounding the clay particles. In the early 1900s, a
Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to
describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying
moisture contents.
• At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a
solid. When the moisture content is very high, the soil and
water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis,
depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can
be divided into four basic states, such as solid, semisolid,
plastic, and liquid.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.1 Liquid Limit (LL)
• is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content at which the
soil is just about to pass from the plastic state into the liquid
state. At this limit, the soil possesses a small value of shear
strength, losing its ability to flow as a liquid. In other words,
the liquid limit is the minimum moisture content at which the
soil tends to flow as a liquid.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.1.1 Casagrande Apparatus 3.2.1.1 Casagrande Apparatus
Using Cup Device or the Casagrande Apparatus (ASTM D
4318), the moisture content corresponding to 25 blows from the
flow curve is taken as the liquid limit of the soil.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.1.1 Casagrande Apparatus 3.2.1.1 Casagrande Apparatus
One-Point Method
𝑁
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤
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Where 𝐿𝐿 = Liquid Limit
𝑤 = Corresponding moisture content
𝑁 = Number of blows in the liquid limit
𝑥 = 0.092 for 𝐿𝐿 ≤ 50%
𝑥 = 0.120 for 𝐿𝐿 > 50%

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.1.1 Casagrande Apparatus Problem 3-5
One-Point Method The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test on a
𝑤 −𝑤 clay using the Casagrande Cup Device. Assume Gs = 2.67.
𝐹𝐼 =
𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁

Where 𝐹𝐼 = Flow Index

𝑤 = moisture content corresponding to 𝑁
𝑁 = Number of blows a. Determine the liquid limit of the sample.
b. Determine the flow index.
c. Determine the void ratio at liquid limit.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Problem 3-5 3.2.1.2 Fall Cone Penetration
Liquid limit corresponds to the 20 mm depth of penetration of 80
g cone.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Fall Cone Penetration 3.2.2 Plastic Limit (PL)
• Is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to
pass from the plastic state to the semi-solid state of
consistency. Thus, this is the minimum water content at
which the change in shape of the soil is accompanied by
visible cracks, i.e., when worked upon, the soil crumbles.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.2.1 By rolling on glass 3.2.2.1 By rolling on glass
𝑤
• By rolling on glass through bare hands, the moisture content 𝑃𝐿 = × 100%
𝑤
at which the soil crumbles when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm
(1/8 in) in diameter is taken as the plastic limit of the soil. ∑ 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐿 =
𝑛
Where P𝐿 = Plastic Limit
𝑤 = Weight of water
𝑤 = Weight of solid

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.2.2 Cone Penetration 3.2.2.2 Cone Penetration
2∆𝑤
• Using cone penetrometer (fall cone method) with two masses 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 −
𝑀
of cone (80 g and 240 g), log 𝑀
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − 4.2∆𝑤
Where P𝐿 = Plastic Limit
∆𝑤 = Separation in terms of moisture content
between liquid state lines of two cones
𝑀 = 80g cone
𝑀 = 240g cone

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.2.2 Cone Penetration Problem 3-6
The following results were obtained from the Cone Penetrometer
Laboratory Experiment.

a. Determine the Liquid Limit.

b. Determine the Plastic Limit.
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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.3 Shrinkage Limit (SL) • Shrinkage limit (SL) can be calculated from this equation.
• is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to
𝑀 −𝑀 𝑉 −𝑉
pass from the semi-solid to the solid state. It is that water 𝑆𝐿 = − 𝜌 100%
content at which a soil, regardless, of further drying, remains 𝑀 𝑀
constant in volume. 𝜌 1
𝑆𝐿 = −
𝜌 𝐺
Where; 𝑀 = mass of wet soil
𝑀 = mass of oven-dried soil
𝑉 = volume of wet soil
𝑉 = volume of oven-dried soil

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

• Shrinkage Ratio (SR) can be calculated from this equation. Problem 3-7
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
𝑆𝑅 = Initial volume of the soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀 Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9cc
𝑆𝑅 =
𝑉𝜌 Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0g
Where; 𝑀 = mass of oven-dried soil Final mass in a dry state = 30.1g
𝑉 = volume of oven-dried soil a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.
b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Problem 3-8 3.2.4 Plasticity Index (PI)
A laboratory test was conducted to determine the liquid limit of a • Plasticity Index is the range of water content within which the
soil sample. The following data were obtained: soil exhibits plastic properties. It is the difference between
Mass of shrinkage dish= 17.50g liquid and plastic limit.

Mass of shrinkage dish and wet soil = 78.1g 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿

Mass of shrinkage dish and oven-dried soil = 64.4g Where; 𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit
Mass of shrinkage dish and mercury = 422g 𝑃𝐿 = plastic limit
Mass of dish = 130g
Mass of dish and displaced mercury = 462g
a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.
b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.
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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.5 Shrinkage Index (SI) 3.2.6 Liquidity Index (LI)
• Shrinkage Index is defined as the difference between the • Liquidity Index is the ratio of the difference between the
plastic and the shrinkage limit of the soil. It is the range of natural water content and plastic limit to the plasticity index.
water content within which the soil is in a semi-solid state.
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿 𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
Where; 𝑆𝐿 = shrinkage limit Where; 𝑃𝐼 = plasticity limit
𝑃𝐿 = plastic limit 𝑃𝐿 = plastic limit
𝑤 = moisture content

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

3.2.7 Consistency Index (CI) 3.2.8 Toughness Index (LI)
• Consistency Index is the ratio of the difference between the • Toughness Index is the ratio of the plasticity index to the flow
liquid limit and natural water content to the plasticity index. index.
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 𝑃𝐼
𝐶𝐼 = 𝑇𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼 𝐹𝐼
Where; 𝑃𝐼 = plasticity limit Where; 𝑃𝐼 = plasticity index
𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit 𝐹𝐼 = flow index
𝑤 = moisture content

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Problem 3-9 Problem 3-9
The following data shows the results of the laboratory
experiments to determine the soil indices. Determine the
following:
a. Natural water content
b. Liquid Limit
c. Flow Index
d. Plastic Limit
e. Shrinkage limit
f. Plasticity Index (Description of Soil)
g. Shrinkage Index
h. Liquidity Index (Description of Soil)
i. Toughness Index
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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.2 Plasticity of Soil

Problem 3-9 Problem 3-9

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3.2 Plasticity of Soil 3.3 Soil Classification

Problem 3-9 • Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil type that is
best suited for a given application. Also it can be used to
establish a soil profile along a desired cross section of soil
mass.

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3.3 Soil Classification 3.3 Soil Classification

3.3.1 USDA Classification System
• A number of textural classification systems were developed
in the past by different organizations to serve their needs,
and several of those are in use today.
• Figure in the next slide shows the textural classification
systems developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA).
• This classification method is based on the particle-size limits
as described under the USDA system.
 SAND = 0.05 mm to 2.0 mm diameter
 SILT = 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm diameter
 CLAY = smaller than 0.002 mm diameter

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3.3 Soil Classification 3.3 Soil Classification

USDA Modifications Problem 3-10
% 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 Data shown is to be classified according to the USDA textural
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 = classification system.
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
a. Classification of Soil A.
% 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡 b. Classification of Soil B.
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡 =
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 c. Classification of Soil C.
% 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙

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3.3.2 AASHTO Classification System This classification system is based on the following criteria:
• The AASHTO system of soil classification was developed in 1. Grain size
1929 as the Public Road Administration classification system.  a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm (3-in.) sieve and retained on the
No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve
• The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table.
 b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained
According to this system, soil is classified into seven major on the No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
groups: A-1 through A-7.  c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
• Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular 2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of
materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass through the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or less. The term clayey
the No. 200 sieve. is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11
• Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 or more.
sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. 3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are
These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. encountered, they are excluded from the portion of the soil
sample from which classification is made. However, the
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AASHTO classification by grain size AASHTO classification table

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AASHTO classification table AASHTO classification table

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3.3 Soil Classification 3.3 Soil Classification

Group Index (GI) Problem 3-11
𝐺𝐼 = 𝐹 − 35 0.20 + 0.005 𝐿𝐿 − 40 + 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) Test results of particle size distribution of three samples are
shown: Using AASHTO.
• GI is always expressed to the nearest whole number.
a. Classification of Soil A.
• Use GI = 0 if the calculated GI is a negative value.
b. Classification of Soil B.
• Use GI = 0 for group classifications, A-1-a, A-1-b, A-3, A-2-4,
and A-2-5 c. Classification of Soil C.

• Use partial GI for group classifications, A-2-6 and A-2-7

• Use full GI for group classification under silty-clay materials.
• AASHTO classification of a soil is expressed as ‘group
classification’, followed by group index I n parenthesis, e.g. A-
5 (18)

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3.3 Soil Classification 3.3 Soil Classification

3.3.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
Classification System 1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature
• The original form of this system was proposed by with less than 50% passing through the No. 200 sieve. The
Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield construction works group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for
undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
War II. 2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the
• In cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with prefixes of M,
system was revised in 1952. At present, it is used widely by which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O for
engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck,
and other highly organic soils.

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3.3 Soil Classification 3.3 Soil Classification

USCS classification by grain size Other symbols used for the classification are:
• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50).

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USCS classification table USCS classification table

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USCS classification table USCS classification table

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3.3 Soil Classification

Problem 3-12
The table shows the laboratory results of the sieve analysis of a
sample. Classify the soil according to USCS.

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