Received: 29 March 2021 Revised: 20 June 2021 Accepted: 2 August 2021

DOI: 10.1002/ldr.4055

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Biochar-assisted eco-restoration of coal mine degraded land

to meet United Nation Sustainable Development Goals

Dipita Ghosh | Subodh Kumar Maiti

Ecological Restoration Laboratory, Department

of Environmental Science & Engineering, Abstract
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, The United Nations (UN) launched 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in 2015
Jharkhand, India
to be achieved by 2030 for a sustainable future for all. These SDG provide a blueprint
Correspondence for a global plan of action, global peace and social-economic and environmental jus-
Subodh Kumar Maiti, Ecological Restoration
Laboratory, Department of Environmental tice. Coal mining activities disturb the basic ecosystem and biodiversity of the land.
Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of The mining industry, being a temporary user of land, provides ample opportunities to
Technology (ISM), Dhanbad 826 004,
Jharkhand, India. reclaim mine degraded areas to help achieve the 17 SDG of the UN. Our current
Email: [email protected], skmism1960@ study aims to broaden understanding, explore and establish links between biochar-
gmail.com
based coal mine restoration and the SDG, and, whenever possible, identify knowl-
Funding information edge gaps and research needs. The SDG linked biochar-based mine restoration can
Government of India; Ministry of human
resource development; Indian Institute of be broadly divided into mitigation and enhancement roles, which can be further clas-
Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, sified into direct, moderate and indirect activities. It has been observed that climate
Grant/Award Number: 17DR000426
action (SDG 13), life on land (SDG 15) and affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) were
benefited by biochar-based restoration. Biochar application improves the physico-
chemical, biological and nutritional properties of the impoverished mine spoil and
promotes plant growth. Biochar application reduces the bulk density by 3%–31%,
increases the porosity by 14%–64%, pH 1.4–2.5 times and aggregates stability by
3%–226% along with improvements of plant nutrient (NPK). The study showed tre-
mendous opportunities for using biochar-based coal mine restoration to help achieve
each of the SDG.

KEYWORDS
amendments, biochar, coal mining, plant growth, restoration, SDG

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N (Figure 1). Post-mining, these degraded lands require amelioration

measures for restoration (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2016). Plantation
Coal mining activities form the basis of capital that contributes to the activities for restoration of these wastelands are necessary for dump
Country's output. In the contemporary world, in the absence of a suit- stabilisation, to combat erosion and contamination and also to
able alternative source of energy, the role of coal becomes crucial to improve the visual aesthetics of the land (Šebelíková et al., 2019;
fulfil energy requirements for heavy industries and other developmen- Shukla & Lal, 2005). Biochar is a black charcoal-like material produced
tal projects; hence, its extraction becomes inevitable (Maiti, 2013). by the pyrolysis of biomass, which possesses properties that can help
According to the World Coal Association, coal is projected to remain enrich a degraded soil (Anawar et al., 2015; Fellet et al., 2011). Biochar
the largest single source of fuel for electricity in India until 2040. Cur- is an environmentally and economically viable biological means of
2
rently, coal mining area covers approximately 2550 km , and many mine spoil restoration, which ameliorates soil properties and which
more such projects will be started soon. Mining activities lead to com- further promotes plant growth on degraded mine spoil (Al-Wabel
plete destruction of soil structure, vegetation cover and biodiversity et al., 2018; Ghosh et al., 2020; Ippolito et al., 2017). Application of

Land Degrad Dev. 2021;1–15. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 GHOSH AND MAITI

F I G U R E 1 (a) A pristine sal forest (Shorea robusta Roth) before mining. (b) A view of the degraded landscape due to coal mining activity.
(c) Coal mine overburden dumps with acid mine drainage. (d) Eco-restored coal mine spoil [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

biochar has gained in popularity in recent years as it is effective in of our study are: (1) identify which SDG are affected directly, moder-
amending acidic, impoverished soil by improving nutrient content and ately and indirectly; and (2) understand the mechanism by which
sequestering carbon (Moreno-Barriga et al., 2017; O'Laughlin & biochar can be a suitable amendment for mine reclamation to meet
McElligott, 2009; Paz-Ferreiro et al., 2017). the 17 SDG.
A set of 17 SDG were signed by the 193 United Nations
(UN) member states, which provides the green global development
framework for a sustainable future. The 17 SDG set by the UN are: 2 | B I O C H A R - B A S E D CO A L M I N E
(1) no poverty, (2) zero hunger, (3) good health and well-being, (4) qual- R E ST O R A T I ON FO R M I T I G A T I O N G OALS
ity education, (5) gender equality, (6) clean water and sanitation, O F SDG
(7) affordable and clean energy, (8) decent work and economic
growth, (9) industry, innovation and infrastructure, (10) reduction of 2.1 | Direct mitigation roles of SDG
inequality, (11) sustainable cities and communities, (12) responsible
consumption and production, (13) climate action, (14) life below SDG 13 stands for climate action, whereas SDG 15 focuses on the
water, (15) life on land, (16) peace, justice and strong institutions, and well-being of life of land; these goals are one of the burning issues,
(17) partnerships for the goals (www.un.org; Dubey et al., 2021). which need to be addressed to ensure sustainability.
These SDG are directly related to the land restoration, and mining
industries have the potential to become prime influencers in achieving
the SDG. Biochar-assisted mine restoration for achieving SDG can be 2.1.1 | Climate action
in the form of mitigation and enhancement and can affect the SDG
directly, moderately and indirectly (Figure 2). Our current study Mining activities disrupt the soil organic carbon, causing loss of carbon
focuses on understanding how these 17 SDG can be achieved by due to unfavourable physico-chemical characteristics, leading to a car-
biochar application. Especially, how biochar-based reclamation can bon deficit and poor soil conditions that offer less support plant and
improve physio-chemical biological properties of mine spoil, increase microbial growth. Coal mine restoration has been reported to help
carbon sequestration and promote biodiversity. Thus, the objectives regain the lost carbon, ameliorate the soil quality and restore the
GHOSH AND MAITI 3

F I G U R E 2 Classification for sustainable development goals (SDG) (Agenda 2030) with the help of biochar-based coal mine restoration (Logo
of each SDG adapted from https://sdgs.un.org/goals) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

T A B L E 1 Carbon fixation parameters 1 a

Feedstock sBC+100 (kg ) CLASSb MRT (yr)c Aromaticity (%)d
of biochars made from invasive weeds,
namely, Calotroips procera, Mesosphaerum C. procera 467.5 ± 6.17 3 794.07 ± 2.21 0.82 ± 0.02
suaveolens, Chromolaena odorata, and M. suaveolens 651.18 ± 5.03 5 3052.64 ± 3.53 1.15 ± 0.005
Lantana camera produced by pyrolysis at C. odorata 605.53 ± 2.71 5 2877.88 ± 5.477 1.14 ± 0.005
450 C (n = 5; mean ± SD)
L. camera 603.42 ± 1.25 5 3304.48 ± 0.87 1.15 ± 0.005
a
sBC+100: This carbon storage value is referred to as stock BC+100 (sBC+100) and can be used when
estimating the long-term soil carbon sequestration potential of a specific biochar.
b
The carbon storage value of biochars is divided into five classes. Class 5 (sBC+100 ≥ 600 kg 1), class 4
(500 g kg 1 ≤ sBC+100 < 600 kg 1), class 3 (400 g kg 1 ≤ sBC+100 < 500 kg 1), class 2
(300 g kg 1 ≤ sBC+100 < 400 kg 1), and class 1 (sBC+100 < 300 kg 1).
c
Stability of biochar in soil can be established quantitatively by mean residence time (MRT).
d
Percentage of aromatic carbon present in the biochar.

organic carbon by plantation activities, which fixes the carbon from 1000 years (Camps-Arbestain et al., 2015; Singh & Cowie, 2014;
the atmosphere (Ahirwal & Maiti, 2018a; Das & Maiti, 2016; Ussiri Uchimiya et al., 2011). Carbon fixation parameters of biochars made
et al., 2014). When biochar is applied to soil, the carbon can be fixed from four dominant invasive weeds growing in coal mining disturbed
in the soil for extended periods of time, which can be more than lands, namely: (1) Calotroips procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton (family:
4 GHOSH AND MAITI

F I G U R E 3 (a) The basic carbon cycle. (b) The biochar cycle that reduces atmospheric CO2 by almost 50% [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Apocynaceae); (2) Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze (syn = Hyptis 13 targets, scientific basis of land restoration can help improve the cli-
suaveolens L.) Poit, (family: Lamiaceae); (3) Chromolaena odorata (L.) mate action policies.
R.M. King & H. Rob. (syn = Eupatorium odoratum L.) (family:
Asteraceae); and (4) Lantana camera L. (family: Verbinaceae) are
shown in Table 1. Thus, carbon that would normally be released as 2.1.2 | Life on land
CO2 through biomass decomposition is converted to biochar, which is
highly stable and aromatic in nature. The major objectives of SDG 15 are to safeguard, restore and encour-
Biochar-C has the potential to sequester 12% of the C- age the sustainable use of forests to address the problems of desertifi-
equivalent released by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (El- cation and ensure biodiversity protection. Although UN declared
Naggar et al., 2018). It is reported to be 100-times more stable than 2011–2020 the ‘Decade of Biodiversity’, negligible goals have been
any other form of organic carbon (Chen et al., 2016; Ghosh achieved despite the initiative. The Intergovernmental Platform on
et al., 2020; Jeffery et al., 2011). The aromatic nature of the biochar Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the UN body for biodi-
provides high resilience to chemical and biological degradation, which versity warned that the rate at which the environment is declining will
help in fixing this recalcitrant carbon in the soil for a long period of outgrow all rates of species extinction in history. Also, the environ-
time and add to the soil carbon stock. It has been reported that 20% ment, which is the basis of human and all other species existence, is
of the total carbon biomass can be captured by conversion into being degraded at unprecedented pace beyond recovery. The basic
biochar (Qambrani et al., 2017). Soil contains 80% of terrestrial sink foundations of livelihoods, economies, food security, health and qual-
of carbon; however, the mean residence time of carbon accumulation ity of life worldwide are at risk.
in soil is very less compared with the sink of plant biomass (Figure 3). Coal mine restoration has the potential to protect many of the
Thus, the application of biochar is a potent approach in fixing carbon flora and fauna by restoring habitats and providing healthier sub-
in the terrestrial ecosystem for an extended period of time. Although strate for their growth (Figure 4). Application of biochar has
soil is a finite C sink, the application of biochar provides an opportu- reported to improve soil fauna and increase soil microbial carbon
nity for reducing carbon emissions and sequestering carbon for soil (Kamau et al., 2019; Lehmann et al., 2011). The presence of micro-
remediation (Woolf et al., 2010; Zimmerman et al., 2011). bial activity improves the paedology of the soil, which, in turn, pro-
Biochar-based coal mine restoration can help in climate change motes plant growth (Sekaran et al., 2019). Scientific and designed
mitigation. According to a study conducted by Ghosh and Maiti (2021), plantation such as that of biochar-based Miyawaki method would
L. camera biochar amendment reduced mine spoil CO2 flux at 2% ensure plant growth 10-times faster, and the resulting plantation is
(2.85 μmol CO2 m 2
s ) and 3% (2.60 μmol CO2 m
1 2
s 1
) compared 30-times denser than normal plantation technique. A five-tired for-
with control (4.92 μmol CO2 m 2
s 1
). Thus, biochar can provide tech- est would automatically attract macro-faunal population, leading to
nology know-how for effectively sequestering the atmospheric carbon the formation of a complete ecosystem and, thus, promoting SDG
dioxide. Improvement in plant growth and forest carbon stock by 15 (life on land). Table 2 shows a list of Indian tree species, which
biochar application can mitigate carbon emission and help protect the are often grown post-mining for the restoration of activities of a
society from the climate-based hazards. Therefore, to meet the SDG degraded land.
GHOSH AND MAITI 5

F I G U R E 4 Plant diversity in (a) Damoda ecological restoration site, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, and (b) Nigahi Project, Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

2.2 | Moderate mitigation roles of SDG section of the society, providing opportunity and giving voice in inter-
national decision-making and ensuring responsible mitigation and
The moderate mitigation roles of SDG include Goals 3, 10, 12, and 16. share in financial markets globally. According to IMARC (2020), the
Goal 3 implies good health and well-being, Goal 10 for reducing global biochar market reached a value of US$ 484 million in 2019.
inequality, Goal 12 advocates responsible consumption and produc- Biochar-based entrepreneurship can play an instrumental role in gen-
tion, and Goal 16 on peace, justice and strong institutions. erating employment, especially in the developing countries of the
world (Figure 5). Biochar-based land restoration can help reduce
inequality, as they can be more productive, can generate incomes and
2.2.1 | Good health and well-being reduce the need to migrate to cities for better opportunities. To
ensure the targets of SDG 10, legislative laws and policies would pro-
Coal dust, wastes and particles produced during the mining process mote equal rights to land and ensure incentives for restoration and
can cause severe and potentially lethal respiratory and lung prob- inclusive decision-making.
lems, and cardiovascular diseases (Dutta & Agrawal, 2003; Ensuring a fair share of the benefits arising from coal mine resto-
Mukhopadhyay & Maiti, 2018). Apart from occupational health haz- ration and providing appropriate access to ecosystem goods require
ards of the coal miners, the indirect effects through environmental urgent action so as to end the misuse of land resources in a mining
contamination are quite devastating. The most adverse effect is on degraded land. A biochar-assisted coal mine restoration can help
the health among the local communities, living in the proximity of ensure SDG 16 in several ways. As an unsustainable land management
opencast coal mining area. Restoration ensures the health and well- causes most of the land disputes, a restored piece of land provides
being of the natural environment, which, in turn, affects the health better ecosystem goods and services, which might solve the problems
of people living around the region. Biochar-based restoration can of conflicts and political instability. Degraded land disrupts food secu-
help remediate the ill-effects of land degradation, which, in turn, rity, and this then causes panic and conflict over the limited resources.
will help improve quality and sustainable food resources, which Such a conflict can lead to further land degradation and war for lim-
would improve human health (O'Laughlin & McElligott, 2009). It can ited resources. A fair judicial process can help provide a fair verdict
also be instrumental in reducing the transmission of diseases. Thus, and help prevent conflicts. Biochar has the ability to improve the
land restoration can play a critical role in achieving SDG 3 to ensure physio-chemical, biological and nutritional profiles of the soil, which
the healthy well-being of human at all levels (Table 3). helps to enhance the fundamental resource of nourishment (Karim
et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2013).

2.2.2 | Reducing inequality and peace, justice and

strong institutions 2.2.3 | Responsible consumption and production

SDG 10 targets to bridge the gap between and within the signatory SDG 12 forms a necessary link between production and consumption
countries. This goal focuses on improving income growth of the lower and ensures a balanced and sustainable use of resources. Biochar-
6 GHOSH AND MAITI

T A B L E 2 Tree species commonly used for reclaiming post-mining T A B L E 3 Role of biochar remediation for human health and well-
lands in India (Maiti & Ghosh, 2020) being (quantitative data based on Ghosh & Maiti, 2020a and 2020b)

Species Common name Family Biochar role in

mine restoration Impact on human health
Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd. Khair Fabaceae
Aegle marmelos. L Wood apple Rutaceae Physico-chemical Coal mine spoil has a high bulk density, low
properties aggregate stability, water retention and
Alstonia scholaris L. Chatim Apocynaceae water holding capacity. Biochar application
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Jackfruit Moraceae reduces the bulk density by 3%–31%,
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Silk flower (Siris) Fabaceae increases the porosity by 14%–64%, pH
1.4–2.5-times and aggregates stability by
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Neem Meliaceae 3%–226%.
Bauhinia variegate Linn. Bahunia Cesalpineae Biological 1. Soil enzyme activities such as
Butea monosperma(Lam.) Palash Fabaceae properties dehydrogenase activity, urease,
Bambusa arundanacea (L.) Spiny bamboo Poaceae β-glucosidase, phenol oxidase, peroxidase,
Voss. N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, acid
phosphatase, catalases, cellulose, invertase
Bambusa tulda Roxb. Indian timber Poaceae and proteases are improved by biochar
bamboo application. These enzyme activities
Bombix ceiba. L Cotton tree Malvaceae improve the soil quality for efficient growth
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Sheesham Fabaceae of agricultural, fruit bearing and medicinal
plants, which will affect human health and
Dendrocalamus spp. Bamboo Poaceae well-being.
Delonix regia Raffin. Gulmohar Fabaceae 2. Soil microbial activity is essential for
Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus Myrtaceae decomposition of soil organic matter in the
soil; they decompose plant litter, which
Ficus infectoria (Miq.) Domin. White Fig (Pakur) Moraceae initiates the biogeochemical cycles. They
Leucaena leucocephala(Lam.) Subabool Fabaceae improve the soil respiration and promote
de Wit health plant growth.
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Indian ash tree Anacardiaceae Nutrient supply Biochar affects the nutrient supply and cycling
Merr. (Doka) and cycling by nitrification and ammonification process
Litchi chinensis Sooner. Lichi Sapindaceae in the soil, and it also acts as a source of
soluble phosphorous salts and
Mangifera indica L. Aam Anacardeaceae exchangeable-P. Biochar application
Phyllanthus emblica L. Indian gooseberry Phyllanthaceae increases the soil N by 87%, P by 13%, K by
Psidium guajava L. Guava Myrtaceae 65% and C by 91%. An enriched soil
promotes sustainable food resources, which
Pongamia pinnata Pierre. Indian beech Fabaceae would improve human health.
(Karanja)
Carbon According to WHO, climate change is
Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Ashok Fabaceae sequestration expected to cause approximately 250,000
Hook. additional deaths per year, from
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Java plum Myrtaceae malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat
Millettia pinnata (L.) Panigrahi Karanj Fabaceae stress between 2030 and 2050. Biochar has
half-life ranging from 102 to 107 years. Re-
Tamarindus indica L. Imli Fabaceae vegetation of mine spoils with biochar
Tectona grandisL. f. Teak Lamiaceae amelioration can act as an effective climate
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Arjun Combretaceae change mitigation technique.
Wight &Arn Contaminant 1. Heavy metal poisoning can cause
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Indian jujube Rhamnaceae remediation diarrhoea, anaemia, multiple organ failure,
behavioural changes, weak or malformed
bones and miscarriages or premature
labour. Application of biochar at 2%–5%
based coal mine restoration can address the problems of resource (w/w) can immobilise heavy metals and
availability and demand to ensure balanced land-use change. Biochar- preventing uptake by plants, which makes
them safer for human consumption.
based land restoration and mitigation can address the SDG 12 targets.
2. Organic contaminants are known to be
Eco-restoration of coal mine spoils with biochar can improve the soil
carcinogenic in nature and cause serious
moisture content and water holding capacity and increase carbon human ailments. Biochar had the potential
storage (Cai et al., 2017; Ghosh et al., 2020). Biochar has the innate to remediate oxygenated volatiles, such as
role of improving soil and nutrient management practices and increas- phenols and ketones.

ing productivity in addition to sequestering carbon. Land restoration

GHOSH AND MAITI 7

F I G U R E 5 Biochar participants by
sectors showing the role of biochar-based
restoration for SDG 10 (US Biochar
Initiative, https://biochar-us.org/) [Colour
figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

can also indirectly benefit other aspects of consumption and produc- been reported to improve the soil physio-chemical, biological proper-
tion, including ecosystem good and services, increased resilience to ties, nutrient availability and uptake by the plant (Biederman &
climate changes and improved nutrition security (Yang et al., 2019). Harpole, 2013; Ghosh et al., 2020; Major et al., 2010) According to
Ghosh and Maiti (2020a, 2020b), fruit orchards can be developed on a
mine spoil by a pit plantation method by applying biochar in the pits
2.3 | Indirect mitigation goals of SDG at 2 kg pit 1
(pit size: 45 cm  45 cm  40 cm). Apart from fruit bear-
ing trees, restored mine spoil can be used to grow agricultural crops,
SDGs 2, 5, 6, and 14 are goals that are indirectly affected by biochar- which helps in providing nourishment to the people living near these
based mine restoration. These goals include zero hunger, gender degraded lands. A biochar based pot experiment conducted by Ghosh
equality, clean water and sanitation and life below water. et al. (2020) in a coal mine spoil reported that seedling vigour index
1
increased significantly at 30 g kg biochar treatment compared with
control (Table 4). A restored piece of land can support the production
2.3.1 | Zero hunger of both agricultural crops and fruit bearing trees, which can address
SDG 1.
The main aim of SDG 2 is the eradication of hunger and ensure food
security, nutrition and sustainable agriculture. Biochar-based coal
mine restoration can increase food security by soil amendment and 2.3.2 | Gender equality
restoration, which improves the nutrient profile, hydrological proper-
ties and crop productivity and might remediate heavy metal contami- A disrupted ecosystem with limited ecosystem services often poses
nation; it also promotes services, such as erosion control, promotes socio-economic and environmental strain. With improved ecological
pollination and pest control (Ahirwal & Maiti, 2018a; Liu et al., 2017). services by coal mine restoration, the improved food security and nutri-
Ahirwal and Maiti (2018b) studied a 16-year-old site, which was re- tional availability can help empower women and promote gender equity
vegetation by multi-purpose tree species, comprising of fruit bearing (Mollier et al., 2017). A restored mine spoil can provide space for grow-
trees, such as Psidium guajava L., Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Man- ing fruit bearing and medicinal plants, which can help in SDG
gifera indica L., Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Citrus spp., Syzygium cumini 5. Lehmann et al. (2003) reported that biochar has the ability to improve
(L.) Skeels., Aegle marmelos L. and so forth. Similarly, Maiti et al. (2016) nutrient content and decrease leaching of soil. According to Liu
reported the growth of fruit trees, such as Anacardium occidentale L., et al. (2018) when biochar was applied to a newly reclaimed coal mine
A. heterophyllus, M. indica, P. guajava and S. cumini in coal mine spoil, a significantly increase in the level of N, K and P by 97%, 66% and
restored spoil in Mahanadi coal fields of India (Figure 6). Biochar has 90%, respectively, was observed. Biochar-based industries operating
8 GHOSH AND MAITI

F I G U R E 6 Fruit-bearing tree
in eco-restored coal mine spoil:
(a) Artocarpus heterophyllus
(jackfruit). (b) Mangifera indica
(mango). (c) Syzygium cumini
(jamun). (d) Psidium guajava
(guava) [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

T A B L E 4 Effect of Lantana biochar application in the growth parameters of Zea mays L. growing in a coal mine spoil (n = 15) (mean ± SD)
(based on Ghosh et al., 2020)

Root Seed vigour

Treatments Shoot length Root length Shoot weight weight index
(g kg 1) (cm) (cm) (g) (g) (SVI)
0 30.666 ± 2.53 8.73 ± 1.27 1.13 ± 0.30 0.58 ± 0.16 0.979 ± 0.014
5 32.666 ± 2.51 11.66 ± 0.57 1.27 ± 0.207 0.51 ± 0.14 1.162 ± 0.192
10 33.66 ± 3.21 11.46 ± 0.55 1.3 ± 0.015 0.55 ± 0.33 1.185 ± 0.132
20 35.66 ± 3.21 11.33 ± 0.57 1.47 ± 0.034 0.5 ± 0.15 1.298 ± 0.05
30 37 ± 3.1 10.33 ± 0.57 1.300 ± 0.131 0.59 ± 0.25 1.323 ± 0.08

near the reclamation area would open opportunities for women 2.3.3 | Clean water and sanitation and life
who cannot move to the cities for working. SDG 5 targets that can be below water
achieved by biochar-based coal mine reclamation include equal
footing in decision-making and resource utilisation. Gender equality is SDGs 6 and 14 focus on the availability and sustainable manage-
one of the primal themes of UN Agenda 2030 and influences all ment of water and sanitation for all and to conserve and sustainably
other SDGs. use water resources. Coal contains many types of potentially toxic
GHOSH AND MAITI 9

TABLE 5 Application of biochar in water to remediate heavy metal and organic contaminants

Biochar type Contaminant Biochar role Reference

Heavy metal contamination
Lemon grass (450 C) Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe and Al decreased by 60%, Cr by 65%, Cu by 42%, Fe by Jain et al. (2017)
Pb 50% and Pb by 93% by biochar application.
Macroalgae (750 C) Al, As, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Zn, Ni and Cr concentration decreased by 55%, 2% and Roberts et al. (2015)
Cu, Fe, Hg, Mo, Ni, 49%, respectively.
Pb and Zn
Lemongrass (450 C) Cu, Pb, Cr, Fe and Al Biochar amendment reduced the bioavailability of toxic Jain et al. (2020)
metals present in the mine spoil and increased heavy
metal immobilization.
Chicken manure biochar Cu Biochars application decreased easily exchangeable Meier et al. (2017)
and oat hull biochar fraction of Cu.
(500 C and 300 C)
Miscanthus (700 C) Al, Cu and Zn Biochar with lime significantly affected Al, Cu and Zn Novak et al. (2018)
concentration in the mine spoil.
Pruning residues from Al, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Bioavailability of Cd, Pb, Tl and Zn of the mine tailings Fellet et al. (2014)
orchards, fir tree Ni, Pb, Tl and Zn decreased at 10% (w/w).
pellets (500 C)
Organic contamination
Rice straw (500 C) Cd and As Remediation by complexation. Wang et al. (2021)

Dairy manure (200 C) Atrazine Water partitioning into organic C/sorption Cao and Harris (2010)
Green waste (450 C) Atrazine and simazine Adsorption and partition soil Zheng et al. (2010)
Cotton straw (450 C Chlorpyrifos and Adsorption due to high surface area and microporosity Yang et al. (2010)
and 850 C) fipronil
Hardwood (600 C) Antibiotics Adsorption due to p–p electron donor–acceptor  et al. (2011)
Teixido
sulfamethazine interaction; negative charge-assisted H-bonding
Rice husk Tetracycline Formation of p–p interactions between ring structure Lin et al. (2012)
(400 C–500 C) of tetracycline molecule and graphite-like sheets of
biochars

elements and metalloids, which are discharged into the environment 3 | B I O C H A R - B A S E D CO A L M I N E

in large amounts during the production, washing processes RE S T O R A T I O N FO R E N H A N C E M E N T G O A L S
(Maiti, 2013; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014). Coal mine drainage is O F SDG
strongly acidic in nature along with contaminated toxic heavy metal
ions. As these acid mine drainage flows over the surrounding rocks, 3.1 | Direct enhancement roles
metals are leached into the water and mix with the surface water
bodies. These chemicals can be highly toxic to humans and wildlife Direct enhancement role includes affordable and clean energy (SDG
(Anawar et al., 2015). 7), decent work and economic growth (SDG 8) and industry, innova-
As biochar remediation is environmentally sound and economi- tion and infrastructure (SDG 9).
cal, its application for amendment of heavy metal contaminated soil
has gained popularity (Table 5). According to Ahmad et al. (2014),
there are four different mechanisms by which biochar remediates 3.1.1 | Affordable and clean energy
potentially toxic elements from water: (1) electrostatic interaction,
(2) co-precipitation, (3) surface complexation and (4) precipitation. SDG 7 aims to ensure access to sustainable, reliable, and affordable
All terrestrial activities such as surface runoffs, sediment flow and modern energy for all. Biochar-based mine restoration can be used for
atmospheric emission from mining activities near a waterbody can the production of modern bioenergy in the form of biofuels and syn-
influence ocean and life under sea. Thus, biochar-based land restora- gas to generate energy. Pyrolysis of biomass leads to the formation of
tion can help reduce pressure on ocean ecosystem and indirectly biochar along with other by-products such as bioenergy in the form of
influence socio-economic and also help prevent hazards to the syn-gas and oil. This energy can be recoverable and used as a renew-
coastal communities. able fuel. As shown in Figure 7, biomass in the form of invasive weeds,
10 GHOSH AND MAITI

F I G U R E 7 A layout of
biochar and syn-gas
production unit [Colour figure can
be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

agricultural wastes, forest sweeps and animal manure will produce is in a juvenile stage and has scope for expansion; hence, biochar-
about 50% biochar, which is returned to the soil, and 50% bioenergy based restoration can effectively help economic growth and industry,
in the form of syn-gas and bio-oil. In a study conducted by Chaturvedi innovation and infrastructure, which will help SDG 8 and 9 goals.
et al. (2021), they reported that the heating values of raw biomasses
1
vary in the range of 13–18 MJ kg with the highest observed for
1 1
Eucalyptus (18.0 MJ kg ) followed by L. camera (16.63 MJ kg ) and 3.2 | Moderate enhancement roles
1
minimum for rice straw (13.00 MJ kg ), which can be used for as bio-
fuel after pyrolysis. Sixty-six power plants in California have been 3.2.1 | Partnership and goals
reported to generate 800 MW of energy across the State
(CEC, 2021). The main role of SDG 16 is to develop a peaceful society, which
would be based on sustainable development, justice and inclusive
institutions at all stages (Monteiro et al., 2019). Equal distribution of
3.1.2 | Decent work and economic growth and benefits derived from biochar-based land restoration would promote
industry, innovation and infrastructure the appropriate access to land and prevent misuse of resources, which
causes conflicts, which, in turn, affects the environment. Coal mining
SDG 8 focuses promotion of economic growth and decent work for activities result in the degradation of resources, which conflict among
all productive employment, whereas SDG 9 promotes resilient infra- the local community and political stability in the long run. A sustain-
structure and promotes inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and able biochar-based land restoration will address SDG 16 by reducing
foster innovation. Economic growth depends on ecosystem goods risks, minimising costs, reducing conflicts and promoting sustainable
and services, such as food, clean water, fuel and fibre (Frouz development in both disturbed and post-disturbance areas. Some indi-
et al., 2008; Maiti, 2007). Restoration practices open employment rect benefits include addressing problem of child labour, violence, ille-
opportunities and improve the economic status of people involved in gal land use, inclusive participation, protection of fundamental rights
these activities. Biochar-assisted mine restoration can have implica- and stronger institutions over land-based activities.
tions in SDG 8 and 9 by promoting the biochar-based industries
(Robb et al., 2020).
According to IMARC (2020), the global biochar market for the 3.3 | Indirect enhancement roles
year 2020 was approximately US$ 1.67 billion and is estimated to be
US$ 3.24 billion by 2025 (Figure 8). Currently, biochar is a fragmented The indirect enhancement roles of SDG include no poverty (SDG 1),
industry, which is mostly privately owned and focuses small-scale pro- sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11) and quality education (4).
duction to meet the local needs. However, Cool Planet, NextChar,
Biochar Supreme, Genesis Industries, Terra Char and Interra Energy
are some of the biochar producing companies, through which biochar 3.3.1 | No poverty and quality education
is gaining momentum and is projected to take a global standing in pro-
duction and application. The global biochar market is predicted to SDGs 1 and 4 focus on the eradication of extreme poverty by 2030,
increase at a notable rate between 2020 and 2025. Biochar industry also to ensure that poor and vulnerable have equal access to
GHOSH AND MAITI 11

F I G U R E 8 Global biochar market size

and forecast (US$ thousands), 2016–2025
(Source: https://www.
accurizemarketresearch.com/report/
biochar-market), CAGR: Compound
annual growth rate [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

economic sources, services, natural resources, education, technology 3.3.2 | Sustainable cities and communities
and financial services. Mining activities causes environmental degra-
dation and also affects the socio-economic condition of people who According to Monteiro et al. (2019), the main issues that need to be
depend upon these disrupted lands for livelihood. Societal disloca- addressed for SDG 11 include environmental laws, development,
tion and disruption, resettlement and relocation are one of the worst growth and social/environmental sustainability of local communities.
collateral damages of mining activity (Maiti, 2013). Coal mine resto- According to the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules,
ration can address these goals in two ways, namely, employment 2017, mining should be undertaken on a scientific basis while con-
generation during the restoration process, which, in turn, improves serving the environment. The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) has
the socio-economic condition of the people. Second, a restored land made the process of mine closure necessary, which encompasses
provides ecosystem goods and services, which, in turn, helps in steps of decommissioning, reclamation and rehabilitation of a
improving the deplorable living conditions of people living in these degraded mine spoil (Maiti, 2013). Mine spoil lacks basic pedagogical
areas. properties and often requires external remediation to support plant
According to Ghosh and Maiti (2020a), biochar applied (2– growth. Biochar application has been reported to improve the
1
60 t ha ) on the surface during the plantation phase of mine physio-chemical and biological properties of the mine spoil and,
restoration promotes the growth of grasses and legumes, whereas thus, promote plant growth (Blanco-Canqui, 2017; Ghosh
plantation of fruit bearing frees is assisted by pit plantation. On-site et al., 2020; Ghosh & Maiti, 2020a; Omondi et al., 2016). SDG
preparation of biochar by a subSaharan Africa (SSA) technique is 11 focuses on the reduction of the adverse per capita environmental
labour intensive and suited for developing countries. Labour is impact of cities, improving air quality and municipal and other waste
required for feedstock collection, processing and application management. Using biochar for achieving these goals will ensure
(Dickinson et al., 2015; Ghosh & Maiti, 2020a). The restoration pro- sustainable cities and communities.
cess of mining often includes labour from adjacent communities,
which promotes livelihood and improves the socio-economic condi-
tion of mining affected households. 4 | CONC LU SIONS
Post-mining, restoration activities convert the degraded land
into a fruit orchard, timber hotspots, eco-parks or agricultural lands Although the UN has provided a set of goals to help achieve sustain-
(Figure 9). The inclusion of indigenous people who are skilled along able development, the initiative is largely dependent on industries to
with technical expertise to the stakeholders optimises the well- ensure that all the targets are met. Initiation of sustainable coal mine
being on the restored land (Figure 9b–d). Technical training and restoration at a global scale will be instrumental in accomplishing
educating the masses about modern agricultural equipment, the 17 SDG and also fulfilling the targets of UN Decade on Ecosys-
organic farming, seed sowing and drip irrigation can also help in tem Restoration. Various studies have reported the effectiveness of
better use of land and promote restoration (Hota & Behera, 2016). biochar for mine reclamation in terms of amelioration of mine prop-
Thus, apart from the basic ecosystem goods and services, a biochar erties, promotion of vegetation growth and immobilisation of poten-
restored mine spoil generates employment opportunities for tially toxic elements. It is evident that biochar-based restoration can
socially and economically backward people affected by mining help accelerate the restoration process of a mine degraded land to
activities. achieve the global plan of action, global peace and social-economic
12 GHOSH AND MAITI

F I G U R E 9 (a) A restored coal mine spoil converted to an eco-park. (b) A 4-year-old restored overburden dump. (c) Local labours working in
the eco-restored site. (d) Local labours working in the mine dumps. (e) Agricultural activities being done in the restored site. (f) A nursery built to
promote the plantation of fruit and timber bearing trees [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

and environmental justice. It could be concluded that biochar appli- AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S
cation in mine spoils can significantly help achieve SDG 7 (affordable The authors would like to acknowledge the Indian Institute of Tech-
and clean energy), SDG 13 (climate action) and SDG 15 (life on land). nology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad and MHRD, Government of
Other goals can be indirectly influenced by a successful India, for providing a Research Fellowship to the first author
restoration due to biochar application. Therefore, it is high time that (17DR000426).
coal mining industry adapts green and economical methods of resto-
ration, which would play an important role in generating employ- DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
ment and improving the socio-economic condition of people The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
affected by coal mining. corresponding author upon reasonable request.
GHOSH AND MAITI 13

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