See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/314196869

Signals and Systems

Chapter · March 2017

CITATIONS READS

0 10,235

1 author:

Shree Krishna Khadka

Nepal Telecom
45 PUBLICATIONS 250 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Shree Krishna Khadka on 03 March 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Signals & Systems
Introduction to Communication System

Contents:
o Signal, its types and properties
o Systems, its types and properties
o Review of Fourier series & Fourier transform
o Energy & power signal, Parseval’s theorem
o General communication system & its characteristics
o Assignment 1
6
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
1.1) SIGNALS

The variation of dependent parameter with respect to X(t)

independent parameter constitutes a signal. Signal can be
also defined as a singled value function of time that X(t)=f(t)
conveys information. It may be of real value or complex
t
value. Signals may be of different types, e. g. audio signal,
video signal or data signal etc. Fig: Illustration of Sigal

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

Signals may describe a wide variety of physical phenomena. Although signals can be
represented in many ways, in all cases, the information in a signal is contained in a pattern of
variations of some form. Signals are classified into following categories:

1. Continuous Time & Discrete Time Signal

In continuous time signal, the independent variable is a continuous function. Therefore,
the amplitude of the signal exists continuously over the range of time.

X(t) X(nT) X(t)

X(t)=f(t)
t nT t

CT Signal DT Signal CT Digital Signal

In discrete time signal, the independent variable is a discrete in type. Therefore they
are just defined only at discrete interval of time. A discrete time signal is a sampled
form of continuous time signal. When each sample is quantized into a finite series of
value, we get a digital signal.

DT Signal

Analog Signal
Sampling Quantization Digital Signal
(CT Signal)

Fig: Process of Analog to Digital Converstion

The process of representing a continuous or analog signal by a finite number of

discrete states is called quantization.
7
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
2. Deterministic & Random Signal
Deterministic signals are those which can be determined by a simple algebraic
equation or tabular form or by graphical representation. That is the solution of which
are consistent, e.g. x t = sin⁡
(t)
Random signals are those which cannot be determined by a simple algebraic equation
or tabular form or graphical representation. They are non deterministic and
inconsistent. For example: noise signals.

3. Causal & Non Causal Signal

Causal signal is the one in X(t) X(t)

which there is no signal part
for: t<0 1

i.e. x t = 0; t < 0 t t

Fig: Causal Signals

X(t)
So, in other words, signals having
0
t no future values are also called
Future Present Past
causal signal.
Values State Values

Non causal signal is the signal X(t) X(t)

in which there is some signal 1
part for: t<0 t t
0
-1
i.e. x t ≠ 0; t < 0 Fig: Non Causal Signals

X(t)
A signal is said to be anti-causal if it has no
signal part for: t>0.
t
0
Fig: Anti Causal Signal For example: devices having storage value.

4. Periodic & Non Periodic Signal

Periodic signal is that which repeats

X(t) X(t)
itself over a certain interval of time
regularly. A signal x(t) is said to be t t
periodic with T: If x(t + T) = x(t) -1 1 -1 1

If the signal violates the above condition,

8

Fig: Periodic Signal Fig:Non Periodic Signal

then it is called non periodic signal.
Page

i.e. x(t + T)  x(t)

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
5. Even & Odd Signal
Any signal x(t) is said to be even if it satisfies the condition: x(t) = x(-t) otherwise
considered to be odd. For odd signal: x(t) = - x(-t).

X(t)=cos(t) X(t) X(t)=sin(t) X(t)=t3

t t t t
-1 1 -1 1

Fig: Even Signals

Fig: Odd Signals

Every signal x(t) can be represented as sum of odd and even part of x(t).

i. e. x t = Ev x t + Od x t

1 1
Where: Ev x(t) = x t + x(−t) & Od x(t) = x t − x(−t)
2 2

Example:
Find even and odd part of the signal x(t).

X(t)+X(-t)
2
X(t) X(-t) ½{X(t)+X(-t)}
1 1 1 1 1

+ = = 0.5 0.5
t t t t
-2 0 2 -2 0 2 0 0

Fig: Even Part of the Signal x(t)

X(t)-X(-t)
1 ½{X(t)-X(-t)}
X(t) X(-t) 0.5
1 1
= t
0 t 0
- =
-0.5
t t -1
-2 0 2 -2 0 2

Fig: Odd Part of the Signal x(t)

6. Real & Complex Signal

Any signal x(t) is said to be real signal xR(t) if it takes the real number system.

x(t)  xR(t) R (Real Number)

Complex signals take the value in complex number system.

x(t)  xC(t) C (Complex Number)

9
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
TYPES OF SIGNALS USED IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

In communication system, we need to use some standard signals and express them graphically
and mathematically.

1. DC Signal

In DC signal, the amplitude A remains constant X(t)=d(t)

independent of time. It can be represented A
mathematically as:
t
x t = A; For − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞ Fig: DC Signal

2. Rectangular Pulse

A rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and duration is X(t)=rect(t)

shown below with following mathematical representation. 1
1 1
1; for − ≤ t ≤ t
rect t = 2 2 -T/2 0 T/2
0; Otherwise
Fig: Rectangular Pulse

3. Triangular Pulse

A triangular pulse or signal with unit magnitude is X(t)= D(t)

defined by the equation:

1 − t; 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
∆ t = t
1 + t; −1 ≤ t ≤ 0 -1 0 1
Fig: Triangular Pulse

4. Sinusoidal Signal

A sinusoidal signals include sine or cosine signals, X(t)=sin(t)

mathematically, they can be represented as:

A sine signal: x t = Asin ωt = Asin(2πft)

A cosine singl: x t = Acos ωt = Acos(2πft) Fig: Sinusoidal Signal

5. Delta/Unit Impulse Function

A delta function is defined only at t = 0 with width tends X(t)= d(t)

to zero. So that the area under the pulse is unit so called
1
unit impulse function. Mathematically:
t
1; t = 0
10

0
δ t =
0; Otherwise Fig: Delta Function
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
6. Unit Step Signal

It has constant amplitude of unity for the zero or positive X(t)=u(t)

values of time whereas zero value for negative value of
1
time. Mathematically
t
1; t ≥ 0 Fig: Unit Step Signal
u t =
0; t < 0

7. Unit Ramp Signal

X(t)=r(t)
The value of unit ramp signal increases linearly with
increase in time. Mathematically,
t
t; t ≥ 0 0
r t =
0; t < 0 Fig: Unit Ramp Function

8. Signum Function
X(t)=sgn(t)
A Signum function is an odd or asymmetrical function
1
guided by the following mathematical equation:
t
0
1; t > 0 -1
sgn t =
−1; t < 0 Fig: Signum Function

9. Exponential Function

The exponential functions are also extensively used in X(t)=e ±at

signal analysis and has two types described by:

Decaying Exponential Function, x t = Ceαt t

Rising Exponential Function, x t = Ce−αt 0
Fig: Exponential Function

Where C & α both are real

10. Sinc Function

The Sinc function has the shape of sine wave but its X(t)=sinc(t)
amplitude goes on decreasing as the value of ‘t’ increases. 1
Mathematically:
t
1 ; for t = 0 0
Sinc t = sin (πt)
πt
; for t ≠ 0
Fig: Sinc Function
11
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
SOME USEFUL SIGNAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Some of the signals can be transformed from one form to another just with some standard
mathematical relationship, which is considered as a transformation tool or simply a system
with defined protocols.

∞
u t = 0
δ t dt d(t)
X(t) Y(t)
U(t)
y(t) X(t)
d(t)

òx(t)dt 1 d/dt(y(t))
t t t
d 0 Inverse System 0
δ t = dt
u(t) System

∞
r t = 0
u t dt U(t)
X(t) Y(t)
r(t)
y(t)
U(t)
X(t)
1 òx(t)dt d/dt(y(t)) 1

d t t t
u t = dt
r(t) System 0 Inverse System

sgn t = {2u t − 1} U(t)

Sgn(t) U(t)

X(t) Y(t) 1 y(t) X(t) 1

1
X(t)-1 {Y(t)+1}/2
1
u t = sgn t + 1 t
0
-1
t
2 Inverse System
System

TRANSFORMATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

The transformation of a signal is a central concept in signal and system analysis. It is necessary
to transform a signal in order to enhance desirable characteristics, to remove unnecessary
noises or to balance the several components of the signal. Thus, an elementary signal
transformation involves simple modification of the independent variable i.e. the time axis in
order to achieve such attempts.

X(t) X(t-T) X(t+T)

1
1 1
0
t t t
0 T 0 t-T 2T t+T/2 T/2
Original Signal Time Delayed Signal Time Advanced Signal

Fig: Time Shifting

X(-t) X(2t)
X(t/2)
1 1 1

0 T/2 0 T/2 0 2T
12

Reflection Compressed Signal Expanded Signal

Page

Fig: Time Scaling

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
1.2) SYSTEMS
A mathematical model of a physical or logical entity or processes that relates its input or
excitation signals to the output or response signals is a system. A system maps input
signals into output.

Input/Excitation System Output/Response

CLASSIFICATION/PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

1. Continuous Time & Discrete Time System

Continuous time system takes continuous time signal as an input and maps it into
continuous time signal as output.

X(t) CT System Y(t)

Discrete time system takes discrete time signal as an input and manipulates it to give
discrete time signal as output.

X[n] DT System Y[n]

2. Linear and Non Linear System

A system is said to be linear, if it holds the principle of superposition, i.e. the response
of a linear system to a weighted sum of inputs is equal to the same weighted summer
output signals.

Mathematically,
Linear System = Homogeneity Property + Additivity Property
For the following system with x(t) as an input and y(t) as an output.

X(t) Y(t)
f

System

If x1(t) and x2(t) are two different inputs then

Homogeneity Property states: y1(t) = ax1(t) and y2(t) = ax2(t).

13

Additivity Property states: ay1(t) + by2(t) = ax1(t) + bx2(t)

Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
3. Time Invariant and Time Variant System
If the property of the system is not altered with the time, it is said to be time invariant
or shift invariant system. In other words, if output and input characteristics does not
change with time, the system is called time invariant system.
Mathematically,

The system: y t = f x(t) is time invariant system, If: y t − t 0 = f x(t − t 0 )

Rect(t)
sin(t)

X(t) Y(t)
F{X(t)}
-1 1 -1

Rect(t-1)
sin(t-1)

X(t) Y(t)
F{X(t-1)}
2

Any other systems violating the above condition are regarded as time variant systems.

4. Static and Dynamic System

A system is memory less (static), if its current output at any time depends only on the
input at the same time but does not depend on past or future inputs.

Mathematically, y t = f x(t)

In any other case, the system is said to be dynamic or memory system.

Mathematically, y t = f x t , x t − t0 …

5. Causal and Non Causal System

A causal system is one for which the output of the system at any time depends only on
present and past inputs but does not depend on future inputs.

Mathematically,
y t = f x t ,x t − 1 ,x t − 2 ….
Or, y t = f x t , x t − t 0 for t 0 ≥ 0

Any system violating the above condition falls under non causal system. These systems
are not physically realizable since in real time signal application, we cannot get future
14

values of the signal.

Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
6. Stable and Unstable System
There are various definitions of stability of the system. One of them is BIBI (Bounded
Input Bounded Output) stability criteria. So, if a system gives bounded output for
bounded input, it is called BIBO stable system. That is: for input: |x(t)| ≤ Mx if the
system produces the output: |y(t)| ≤ My the system is BIBO stable, where Mx and My
are any finite values.

7. Invertible and Non Invertible System

Any system is said to be invertible, if an inverse system exists such that when
connected in series with the original system produces and output equal to the input of
the first system otherwise said to be non invertible system.

f1* f2 = d(t)
X(t) Y(t) X(t)
f1 f2

System Inverse System

Fig: Invertible System

Note:
What is linear time invariant system?
A system exhibiting both linearity property and the time invariant property is considered
as linear time invariant system. That is: it investigates the response of a linear and time
invariant system to and arbitrary input signal.

Any LTI system can be

characterised entirely by a single
function called the system’s impulse
response. The output of the system
is simply the convolution of the
input to the system with system’s
impulse response.

Equivalently, any LTI can be characterized in the frequency domain by the system’s
transfer function, which is the Laplace Transform of the system’s impulse response (or Z
Transform in the case of discrete time system). As a result of the properties of these
transforms, the output of the system in the frequency domain is the product of the
transfer function and the transform of the input.
15
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
1.3) REVIEW OF FOURIER SERIES & FOURIER TRANSFORMATION

1. Why frequency analysis is needed?

- It is easier to analyse the signal components in the easily perceivable domain i.e.
nothing but frequency domain.
- In time domain, we cannot see what frequency signals are dominating. Alternatively
what sine waves should be added to create a duplicate of a given signal but this can
only be possible in frequency domain through signal analysis.
- For filtering and enhancement of particular or set of frequency components.

2. Fourier Series Concept

Sinusoidal ultimately complex exponential signals play a major role in the analysis of
the signal and system. The harmonically related complex exponentials are the sets of
periodic complex exponential with frequency that are multiple of single positive
frequency called fundamental frequency.

… Note:
… Existence of Fourier Series (Dirichlet’s Condition)
S-1(t) = e−j.1.ω 0 t The continuous time Fourier Series exists only when the
S0 (t) = e−j.0.ω 0 t = 1 function x(t) satisfies the following conditions.
S-1(t) = e−j.1.ω 0 t
- x(t) is well defined and a singled valued function.
S-2(t) = e−j.1.ω 0 t - x(t) must possess only a finite number of
… discontinuities in the period T.
… - x(t) must have a finite number of positive and
SK (t) = e−j.K.ω 0 t negative maxima in the period T.

Fourier found that, the weighted sum of these infinite complex exponentials can
represent a general periodic signal having fundamental frequency ‘ω0 ′ i.e. Xp(t) is
2π
periodic with T0 = , then it can be represented as:
ω0

∞ jK ω o t
xp t = K=−∞ CK e … (i)

Where, CK is the weighting factor called exponential Fourier Series Coefficients;

physically it represents the amplitude of Kth harmonics present in the signal. Equation
(i) is known as synthesis equation. Also:

1 −jK ω 0 t
CK = T x (t)e
<T 0 > p
dt …. (ii)
0

This is known as analysis equation.

Equation (i) can be transformed into:

16

∞
xp t = C0 + K=1(a K cosKω0 t + bK sinKω0 t) …. (iii)
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
Equation (iii) is known as Trigonometric Fourier Series, where:

1
C0 = T x (t) dt
<𝑇> p
… (iv)

2
aK = T x (t)cosKω0 t dt
<𝑇> p
… (v)

2
bK = T x (t)sinKω0 t dt
<𝑇> p
… (vi)

Example 1)
A signal has fundamental frequency of ‘wo’ with following Fourier
Coefficients. Synthesize the signal.
C0 = 5, C1 = ejπ/2 , C2 = 2ejπ/3 , C−1 = e−jπ/2 , C−2 = e−jπ/3
S𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
∞ jK ω o t 2 jK ω o t
xp t = K=−∞ CK e = K=−2 CK e

= C−2 e−j2ω o t + C−1 e−j1ω o t + C0 + C1 ej1ω o t + C2 ej2ω o t

= e−jπ/3 e−j2ω o t + e−jπ/2 e−j1ω o t + 5 + ejπ/2 ej1ω o t + ejπ/3 ej2ω o t
π π π π
= 2e−j( 3 +2ω o t) + e−j( 2 +ω o t) + 5 + ej( 2 +ω o t) +2ej( 3 +2ω o t)
π π
xp t = 5 + 4 cos + 2ωo t + 2 cos + ωo t
3 2

Example 2)
Find the Fourier series coefficients of the signal: Asinω0 t and plot the
magnitude and phase graph.
S𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
|Ck|
A/2 A/2
xp t = Asinω0 t
A
= 2j ejω o t − e−jω o t
K
-1 0 -1

A A Magnitude Plot
= 2j ejω o t − 2j e−jω o t
ÐCK
p/2

A A A π
i.e. C1 = 2j = −j = , − 2 and K
2 2 -1 0 -1

A A A π p/2
C -1 = --2j = j = ,
2 2 2
17

Phase Plot
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
3. Fourier Transformation
- We can use this approach to develop the frequency domain representation of a non
periodic signal over an entire interval.
- Since, the aperiodic signals are infinitesimally close in frequency, they are
represented in terms of an integral rather than sum. The resulting spectrum of
coefficient in this representation is called the Fourier Transform.
If x(t) be any aperiodic signal then its Fourier Transformation is given by:

FT{x(t)} = x(j)

∞
i.e. X jω = −∞
x(t)e−jωt dt … (i) and

IFT{X(j)} = x(t)

1 ∞
i.e x(t) = 2π −∞
X jω ejωt dω … (ii)

Where, equation (i) is called analysis equation while equation (ii) is known as
synthesis equation. Both equations in combine, recognized as Fourier Transform Pair.

Fourier Transform of Special Functions

Table of Fourier Transforms

Time Domain {x(t)} Frequency Domain {X(f)}
d(t) 1
1 d(f)
d(t-t0) e−j2πft 0
j2πft 0 d(f-f0)
e
cos(2πf0 t) 1
2
δ f − f0 + δ f + f0
sin(2πf0 t) 1
2j
δ f − f0 − δ f + f0

Some Important Properties of Fourier Transformation

Time Domain {x(t)} Frequency Domain {X(f)} Property

ax(t)+by(t) aX(j) + bY(j) Linearity
x(at) 1 jω Time Scaling
a
X a
x(t±t0) X(j).e±jt 0 Time Shifting
x(t)e−jω 0 t X[j(-0)] Frequency Shifting
d jX(j) Differentiation
dt
x(t)
t X jω
x t dt Integration
0 jω
x1(t)*x2(t) X1(jω).X2(jω) Convolution
x1(t).x2(t) X1(jω)*X2(jω) Multiplication
X(t) 2πx −jω Duality
18

1 Modulation
x(t)cos(0t) X jω + jω0 + X jω − jω0
2
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
1.4) ENERGY & POWER SIGNAL
The signals we considered can be directly related to physical quantities capturing power
and energy in a physical system.

For example: if v(t) and i(t) are respectively the voltage and current across a resistor ‘R’
then the instantaneous power is: P(t) = v(t).i(t) = (1/R)v2(t) = v2(t) (for R = 1 ohm).

a) The energy of the signal can be given by integrating the instantaneous power over
∞
infinite time. i.e. E∞ = −∞ v 2 (t)dt

∞
So, for any signal x(t), the energy can be given by: E∞ = −∞
|x t |2 dt
∞ 2
Similarly, for discrete time signal x[n]: E∞ = −∞ |x[n]|

t2
The total energy over: t1 ≤ t ≤ t 2 is: ET = t1
|x t |2 dt
N−1
Similarly, for discrete time signal: EN = 0 |x[n]|2

- Energy signal has non zero and non infinite energy value: 0 < E < 
- Aperiodic signals are energy signal.
- Power of energy signal is zero.
- Energy Signals are time limited.
- Example: rect(t) defined at [-T/2, T/2]

b) The average power of the signal is given by:

E∞
Pavg = limT→∞ T
1 T/2
Pavg = lim |x(t)|2 dt
T→∞ T −T/2

Similarly, for discrete time signal:

1 N−1 2
Pavg = lim n=0 |x[n]|
N→∞ N

- Power signal has non zero and non infinite power value: 0 < P < 
- Periodic signals are power signal.
- Energy of power signal is infinite.
- Power signals can exist over infinite time.
- Example: Periodic pulse train.
19
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
Example 1)
Plot the signal: x (t) = e-t .u (t) and find whether the signal is energy or power type.

Solution:

e-t u(t) e-tu(t)

1
X = X
1 1
t t t

We have: x (t) = e-t. u (t) i.e. |x (t)| = e-t

Since, the given signal is aperiodic; it must be an energy signal.
Now,

t2 T −2t e −2t T
E = limT→∞ |x t |2 dt = lim e dt = lim |
t1 T→∞ 0 T→∞ −2 0
e −2T e −2x 0 T 1 1
= lim − | = 0 + 2 = 2 < ∞(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
T→∞ −2 −2 0

E 1
The power of x(t) is given by: P = limT→∞ T = 2T = 0
And also from above mathematical manipulation, it is observed that the
energy of given signal is finite so x(t) is not a power type but definitely a
energy type signal.

Example 2)
Given the signal: x (t) = A.sin (t). Find whether the signal is energy or power
type.

Solution:
Obviously, the given signal is periodic at 2p, so it must be a power type signal. For
further verification we have the mathematical manipulation as:

T T
1 2 1
Pavg = limT→∞ T 2
T x t dt = lim 2
T A2 sin2 ωtdt
−
2
T→∞ T −
2

A2
T/2 A2 1 sin 2ωt T/2
= lim (1 − cos2ωt)dt = lim t− |
T→∞ 2T −T/2 2 T→∞ T −2ω −T/2
A2 1 A2
= lim T . T = < ∞ (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
2 T→∞ 2

E A2
As: P = limT→∞ T ≫ limT→∞ E = Pavg . T = ×∞=∞
20

2
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
a) Parseval’s Power Theorem/Parseval’s Theorem for Power Signal(Infinite
Energy Signal)
Parseval’s theorem for power signals states that the power of a signal may be
defined in terms of its Fourier series coefficients.

1 T ∞
Mathematically, P=T 0
|xp (t)|2 dt = k=−∞ |Ck |
2

Where, Ck is Fourier series coefficient.

Proof:

1 T 1 T
As, P = T 0
|xp (t)|2 dt =T 0 p
x t . xp ∗ (t)dt

We have:

∞ jK ω o t
xp t = K=−∞ CK e

∞ jK ω o t ∗ ∞ ∗ −jK ω o t
xp ∗ t = K=−∞ CK e = K=−∞ CK e

Therefore:

T ∗ −jKωo t ∗1 T −jKωo t
∞ ∞
P= 0 p
x t . K=−∞ CK e dt = K=−∞ CK T 0 xp t .e dt

∞ ∗ ∞ 2
= K=−∞ CK CK = k=−∞ |Ck |

Example
π π
Since the signal: xp t = 5 + 4 cos + 2ωo t + 2 cos + ωo t have Fourier
3 2
coefficients, C0 = 5, C1 = ejπ/2 , C2 = 2ejπ/3 , C−1 = e −jπ/2
, C−2 = e−jπ/3 . Find
the average power of this signal.

Solution: Applying Parseval’s theorem for power signal, we have:

1 T ∞
P=T 0
|xp (t)|2 dt = k=−∞ |Ck |
2

= |C−2 |2 + |C−1 |2 + |C0 |2 + |C1 |2 + |C2 |2

= 22 + 12 + 52 + 12 + 22
21

= 35 units.
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
b) Parseval’s Energy Theorem/Parseval’s Theorem for Energy Signal (Zero
Energy Signal)
It states that the energy of a signal may be obtained with the help of its Fourier
Transform. If x(t) be a signal with its Fourier Transform X(j) then the energy E of
the signal x(t) is expressed as:

∞ 1 ∞
E= −∞
|x(t)|2 dt = 2π −∞
|X(jω)|2 dω

Proof:

As we have:

∞ ∞
E= −∞
|x(t)|2 dt = −∞
x t . x ∗ (t)dt

1 ∞ 1 ∞
But: x(t) = 2π −∞
X jω ejωt dω, Then: x ∗ (t) = 2π −∞
X∗ jω e−jωt dω

∞ ∞
Therefore: E = −∞
|x(t)|2 dt = −∞
x t . x ∗ (t)dt

∞ ∞ 1 ∞
= −∞
x t . x ∗ (t)dt = −∞
x t X∗ jω e−jωt dω dt
2π −∞

Now, changing the order of integration, we get:

1 ∞ ∞
E= X∗ jω x t e−jωt dt dω
2π −∞ −∞

1 ∞ 1 ∞
= 2π −∞
X∗ jω . X(jω)dω = 2π −∞
|X(jω)|2 dω

Example
Find the energy of following signal.
|X(f)|2
4

f
-4 -2 0 2 4

1 ∞ 1 4 1 −2 1 2 1 4
E = 2π −∞
|X(jω)|2 dω = 2π −4
|X(jω)|2 dω = 2π −4
4dω + 2π −2 2dω + 2π 2 4dω

1 1 12
= 4 −2 + 4 + 2 2 + 2 + 4 4 − 2 = 2π 8 + 8 + 8 =
22

2π π
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
1.5) ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communication is a system in which message signal or information is transferred from

one point to another point i.e. the purpose of a communication system is to transmit an
information bearing signal from source located at one point to destination located at
another point some distance away. The following block diagram shows the components
for communication.

Information Information
Source Destination
Noise &
Disturbances

Input Communication Output

Transmitter Receiver
Transducer Channel Transducer

Fig: Communication System

Description:

 Information Source: A communication system serves to communicate a message or

information; originates for the information source as in the form of words, groups of
words, codes, symbols, sound, signals etc. We can say that the function of information
source is to produce required message which has to be transmitted.
 Input Transducer: The message from the information source may or may not be
electrical in nature. In the case when message produce by the information source is
not electrical in nature and input transducer is used to convert it into an electrical
signal.
 Transmitter: The transmitter modifies the message signal for efficient transmission.
Transmitter is required to make the signal suitable for signal conduction over the
channel. Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation the
message signal is superimposed upon the high frequency carrier signal.
 The Channel & Noise: Channel means the medium through which the modulated
signal travels from the transmitter to receiver. The function of the channel is to
provide a physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver. During the
process or transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduce
in the system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required
signal. Noise signal is always random in nature. Noise may interfere with signal at any
point in a communication system; however the noise has its greatest effect on the
signal on the channel.
 Receiver: The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in
electrical form the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is
accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is
the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter.
 Destination: It is the final stage which is use to convert an electrical message signal
into its original form.
23
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
a) Noise & its effect in communication system
Noise is an unwanted signal which is always random in nature and cannot be predictable.
That’s why in the process of transmission and reception, the signal get distorted or
attenuated. Signal strength attenuates with distance, so need repeaters to amplify the
signals at stages, though the received signal is corrupted by noise.
Mathematically, R(t) = A.S(t) + n(t)
Where, R(t) is received signal quality that depends on channel noise and noise between
repeaters, S(t) is the modulated signal and n(t) is noise.
Noise and attenuation go hand on hand. Signal and its quality degrade or attenuate
because of noise introduced in the channel through which the transfers of intelligence or
message occur. Attenuation (a), thus, defined mathematically as the reciprocal of gain, it
is a total loss.
Attenuation (a) = 20 log (Vin/Vout) dB
i.e. a = -20 log (Vout/Vin) dB
b) Types of Noise
1. Thermal Noise
It is produced due to movements of free electrons within the conducting portion of
electrical circuitry of the system.
Average thermal noise (Pn) = KTB watt, where, K is Boltzmann Constant, T is absolute
temperature, B is bandwidth of noise.
2. Shot Noise
This term is used to describe anode current noise in vacuum tubes resulting from
random fluctuation in electron emission from the cathode. In semiconductor devices
shot noise is used to describe the variation in number of electrons crossing potential
barrier.
3. Partition Noise
It is a result of random fluctuation in division when current is divided into two or
more paths.
4. Flicker/Low Frequency Noise
At frequency below few KHz, a noise appears in the devices whose spectral density
increases as frequency decreases, called flicker or (1/f) noise.
5. Transit Time/High Frequency Noise
In semiconductor, if the signal period is very low (i.e. frequency is very high), some
of the carriers may diffuse back to the source before crossing the junction barrier and
produce noise known as high frequency noise. The power spectral of this kind
increases with frequency.
6. Generation-Recombination Noise
24

Random process of generation and recombination of free electrons in semiconductor

devices due to random ionization of impurities produces this kind of noise.
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
c) Concept of bandwidth and Shannon’s Channel Capacity Theorem
Bandwidth measures the capacity of channel. Normally channel is power limited or
bandwidth limited for example, telephone communication is band limited while satellite
communication is power limited.
For a channel with additive Gaussian white noise, the relation between channel capacity
(C), channel bandwidth (B) and the received signal to noise ratio (SNR) is given by:

C = B.log2 (1+SNR) bits/sec

 Implication of the theorem

- This theorem provides the upper limit of data transmission for a reliable
communication i.e. signal to noise ration and channel bandwidth can be adjusted to
have required capacity.
- The theorem provides the trade-off between B and SNR.

 Theoretical limitation
a) For noise less channel
As: C = B.log2 (1+SNR)
Where: SNR = (Ps/Pn) = (Signal Power/Noise Power)

If noise less channel, Pn = 0, i.e. SNR  , i.e. C  

Therefore, a noiseless channel has infinite capacity; such channel is called an ideal
channel which is practically not realizable.

b) For infinite bandwidth channel

As: C = B.log2 (1+SNR)

i.e. limB→∞ C = lim B. log 2 (1 + SNR)

B→∞

As, SNR = Ps/Pn. If No be the Psd (Power Spectral Density) of Gaussian White Noise,
then: Pn = No.B. Then: SNR = Ps/No.B
Now:
i.e. limB→∞ C = lim B. log 2 (1 + SNR)
B→∞
PS PS B
= lim B. log 2 (1 + N ) = lim log 2 (1 + N )
B→∞ O .B B→∞ O .B

N O .B N O .B
PS PS P PS
= lim log 2 (1 + N ) PS
= N S lim log 2 (1 + N ) PS
B→∞ N O O .B O B→∞ O .B

P P
= N S . log 2 e = 1.44(N S )
25

O O
Page

That is for infinite bandwidth channel, capacity does not tend to infinite.

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
Assignment 1
Introduction to Communication System/Signals & Systems FM: 100/PM: 50

1.1 Definition, types, representation & properties of signals used in communication system

Briefly explain: the process of analog to digital conversion of a signal. [3]

b) Define periodic & non-periodic signal. Show whether the following signals are
periodic or not by basic principle. [6]
(i) A sin(ωt),
(ii) (ii)e−at (a > 0) &
cos t ; t < 0
(iii) x t =
sin t ; t ≥ 0

c) Find the fundamental period of following signals: [6]

(i) 2 cos 10t + 1 − sin⁡
(4t − 1)
nπ nπ
(ii) cos 2 . cos 4

{Hint: If, T1:T2 (or f) = Ratio of two integers, signal is periodic & the fundamental
period will be the lowest common factor of all time periods}

d) What is even & odd signal. Find and sketch even and odd parts of the everlasting [3]
sinusoid: x t = A sin(ωt).

e) What is the relation between: δ t , u t & 𝑟(𝑡), where the symbols have their [4]
usual meanings. Verify graphically: sgn t = 2u t − 1 .

1.2 Types & properties of systems.

a) How homogeneity & additive property define linear system. Check whether the [6]
following systems are linear or not.
(i) y t = x 2 (t)
(ii) y t = x t . cos⁡
(ωt)

b) Define causality. Is a non causal system, physically realizable? Check whether the [6]
following systems are causal or not.

(i) y t = x(−t)
(ii) y t = x(t)cos⁡
(ωt)

c) Demonstrate the time invariance property of a system graphically. Check whether [4]
the system: y t = sin⁡
{x t } is shift invariant or not.

d) Consider the system: y t = y 2 t − 1 + x t , y −1 = 0. Is it stable? [3]

(Hint: Check for BIBO stability with bounded input, like: x t = C. δ(t). The system
must produce bounded output if it is stable)
26
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka
 1.3 Review Fourier Series & Fourier Transform

a) Why frequency analysis is needed? Show that for a periodic signal with even
symmetry, all the sine terms in the Trigonometric Fourier Series vanishes. [6]

b) Synthesize the signal with Fourier Series Coefficients: C±1 = e±jπ , C0 = 1, C±2 =
e±jπ/2 & C±3 = e±jπ/3 & with fundamental frequency, ω0 . [3]
c) Analyse the signal x(t) with magnitude and phase plot, where x t is given as: [6]
π
2 sin ω0 t + 4 sin 2ω0 t + 3sin⁡
(3ω0 t + )
3
d) What are Fourier Transform Pair? Find Fourier Transform of following signals [10]
and plot the graph.
(i) Sgn(t)
(ii) Rect(t)
(iii) e− a t . u t ; a > 0

1.4 Energy & Power Signal: Parseval’s Theorem

a) Differentiate between power signal and energy signal [3]

b) Check whether the following signals are energy or power type and evaluate the
corresponding power/energy value for the same. [12]

(i) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) ; 𝑎 > 0

(ii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ; 𝑎 > 0
1; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2
(iii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑇
−1; ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2
2
(iv)
X(t)

t
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

1.5 General communication system and concept of bandwidth and noise

a) What are the fundamental resources and limitation of communication system? [3]
b) Show that the channel capacity does not tend to infinity when the channel
bandwidth is increased infinitely. [4]
c) Explain shortly the effect of noise in communication system. [2]
d) Calculate the capacity of standard telephone channel with signal to noise ratio 32
dB (Given: Standard BW of telephone channel: 300 to 3400 Hz). [5]
e) A system has a bandwidth of 4KHz and signal to noise ratio of 28 dB at i/p to the
receiver. Calculate: [5]
o Its information carrying capacity
27

o The capacity of channel if its B.W is double while the transmitted signal
power remains constant.
Page

Prepared By
Er. SriKisna Khadka

View publication stats