Pressure Theoretical guide

Table of contents
2. Calculation of earth-pressures in the GEO4 programs .........................................................2
2.1 Stress in a soil, water uplift.................................................................................................2
2.2 Types of earth-pressures, used notation ............................................................................3
2.3 Active pressure.....................................................................................................................4
2.4 Passive pressure ...................................................................................................................6
2.5 Pressure at rest.....................................................................................................................6
2.6 Coefficients of computation of earth pressures “SETTINGS” .......................................7
2.7 Influence of terrain -“TERRAIN” .....................................................................................9
2.8 Influence of water – “WATER” .......................................................................................12
2.8.1 Without ground water................................................................................................12
2.8.2 Hydrostatic pressure, GWT behind structure.........................................................13
2.8.3 Hydrostatic pressure, GWT behind and in front of structure ...............................13
2.8.4 Hydrostatic pressure ..................................................................................................13
2.8.5 Special variation of water pressure...........................................................................15
2.9 Analysis of influence of surcharge “SURCHARGE”.....................................................17
2.9.1 Surcharge – active pressure.......................................................................................17
2.9.2 Surcharge – pressure at rest ......................................................................................20
2.9.3 Surcharge – passive pressure ....................................................................................21

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2. Calculation of earth-pressures in the GEO4 programs

Earth-pressure analysis is the stepping-stone of the GEO4 system. Stresses in soil and lateral
earth pressures are analyzed in every program. This chapter explains basic compuational
processes including many useful hints. Every user of GEO4 should read this chapter, regardless
of which program he has bought. Following chapters related to individual programs require the
basic theoretical knowledge contained in this chapter.
2.1 Stress in a soil, water uplift
Stress analysis in soil is based on existence of soil layers specified by the user during input. The
program further inserts fictitious layers at the locations where the stress and lateral pressure
(GWT, points of construction, etc.) change. The normal stress in the ith layer is computed
according to:
σi = ∑ hi γi
where:
hi - thickness of the ith layer [m],
γi - bulk weight of soil [kN/m3]

If the layer is found below the ground water table, the bulk weight of a soil under the water must
be defined with respect to given parameters of soil (see Fig. 2.1) as follows:

- option “Uplift pressure 10 kN/m3”:

γ su = γ sat − 10
- option “Compute from porosity“:
1− n
γ su =
γ s − 10

Fig. 2.1 Input of parameters of soil for computing γsu

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2.2 Types of earth-pressures, used notation

This part describes earth-pressures and notation used further in the guide.

Active pressure
The smallest lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear failure when the structure moves in
the direction of acting earth pressure (Min. rotation of a structure to develop active earth pressure
is about 2 mrad, i.e. 2 mm/m of structure height.)
The magnitude of active earth pressure depends on soil-structure frictional angle δ; the active
pressure decreases when in increasing δ.
If structure with treated back face (foil and coatings against ground water) is analyzed one
should consider a lower value of δ ≤ 1/3 ϕ, for rough surfaces δ should not overcome the value
δ = 2/3 ϕ.
When determining the magnitude of δ it is necessary to comply with other conditions such as
equilibrium in the vertical direction. One should check, whether a structure is capable of
transmitting a surcharge due to soil friction on its back without significant vertical deformations.
If not one should lower δ as only a partial development of friction on back of a structure may
take place. Typical structure from this point of view is an anchored wall, when there is also a
surcharge in the vertical direction due components of inclined anchor forces and in most cases
the value δ = 0 should be used for evaluation of active earth pressure. It is always safer to
consider a lower value of δ.

Pressure at rest
Pressure at rest is the smallest lateral pressure acting on an undeformable structure. It is usually
considered in cases when one needs to restrict the lateral and subsequently the vertical
deformation of sheeted soil (e.g., lateral strengthening of constructions during trenching ditch
beneath existing foundations or during sheeting of soil with constructions sensible to nonuniform
settlement in general) or if the structure loaded by earth pressure is too stiff and does not allow
deformation in the loading direction required to develop an active earth pressure. In such cases it
is also advisable to consider a possible implementation of so called “increased active pressure”,
which is a pressure between active pressure and pressure at rest. Such a pressure enters the
analysis as weighted average of both pressures or as active pressure with partially mobilized
angle of friction ϕred (between ϕ for active pressure and 2/3 ϕ for pressure at rest-Jáky).
Cohesive soils also require a reduction of cohesion as cred = c tgϕred / tgϕ.

Passive pressure
The ultimate lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear failure of soil when the structure
moves in the opposite direction than the direction of acting earth pressure. (Min. rotation
required to develop passive pressure is about 2 mrad, i.e. 2 mm/m of structure height.) The
magnitude of passive earth pressure depends on soil-structure frictional angle δ; the passive
pressure increases when in increasing δ.
If structure with treated back face (foil and coatings against ground water) is analyzed one
should consider a lower value of δ ≤ 1/3 ϕ, for rough surfaces δ should not overcome the value
δ = 2/3 ϕ. It is always safer to consider a lower value of δ.
(Most expressions follow the sign convention, according to which the values of δ, when the
resultant of friction acts downwards, are negative. In the program, however, these magnitudes
are put in as positive – a variant when friction acts upwards not considered in the program)

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The following notation is used:

γ - bulk weight of a soil [kN/m3],

ϕ - angle of internal friction [° ],
c - cohesion of a soil [kPa],
α - inclination angle of back of structure from vert.d., positive - counterclockwise [° ],
β - inclination angle of terrain surface from vert.d., positive - counterclockwise [° ],
δ - angle of friction between structure and soil [° ],
ν - Poisson’s number [-],
σ - normal stress [kPa].

Fig. 2.2 Orientation of angles α a β

2.3 Active pressure

Active earth pressure is given by
σ a = σ z K a − 2cef K ac ,
where the coefficient of active pressure

cos 2 (ϕ − α )
Ka = ,
sin (ϕ + δ ) ⋅ sin (ϕ − β ) 
2

cos 2 α ⋅ cos(α + δ ).1 + 
 cos(α + δ ) ⋅ cos(α − β ) 

is an analytical expression of the Coulomb wedge method for cohesionless soils (considered for
plane slip surfaces). Therefore, the angle of terrain inclination β must not overcome the design
value of the angle of internal friction ϕ in any layer behind the back of a structure! For a
homogeneous cohesionless soil this requirement is evident as it corresponds to stability condition
of slope above the wall.
Horizontal and vertical components of active earth pressure are provided by

σ ax = σ a ⋅ cos(α + δ )
.
σ az = σ a ⋅ sin (α + δ )

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The coefficient of active pressure assumes the form:

cos ϕ . cos β cos(δ − α )(1 + tg (−α )tgβ )

K ahc =
1 + sin(ϕ + δ − α − β )
,
K ahc
K ac =
cos(δ + α )

Note that tension is excluded when analyzing cohesive soils. Thus, if due to cohesion the value
of active pressure becomes negative, or according to severer requirements, becomes less than the
“minimum dimensioning pressure”, it is set to zero or replaced by the “minimum dimensioning
pressure”.

When computing the active earth pressure, the option „Consider develop. of earth-pressure
wedge“ can be input in some programs (gravity wall, earth pressure), providing there is an
cantilever offset on the back of sheeting (foundation plate, modification to reduce earth
pressure…). Then, if selected the real back of sheeting structure above this offset is replaced by
the “design back of earth wedge” in form of slip surface in soil with fully mobilized angle of
friction δ = ϕ. The weight of earth wedge under the “design back” will be added to the loading
of a structure. Otherwise, the lateral pressure will be computed for the real back with the
frictional angle δ ≤ 2/3 ϕ.

Fig. 2.3 Calculation with and without earth-pressure wedge

Another option, the “Minimum dimensioning pressure”, is also applicable in certain programs
(Earth pressure, Sheeting, etc.). This is in support of safety of a structure in cohesive soils in
regions below terrain surface, where tensile stresses are developed when computing the active
pressure. In reality, however, they cannot be transmitted on a sheeting structure (consequence of
separation soil due to technology of construction, isolating and drainage layer).

If selected the value of computed active pressure will not drop below 20% of vertical pressure
(Ka ≥ 0,2). Otherwise the analysis is carried out with excluded tension (Ka ≥ 0,0). The first
variant (Ka ≥ 0,2) assumes, e.g., the possibility of increasing the lateral pressure as a
consequence of filling the joint behind sheeting by rainwater. (The presented increase of lateral
pressure does not correspond to full pore pressure. Should the full effect of pore pressure in a
creak be considered, it would be necessary to use the possibility of a general pore pressure input
– see Section 2.6 Water).

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2.4 Passive pressure

Passive pressure is given by the following expression

σ p = σ z ⋅ K p ⋅ψ + 2 ⋅ c ⋅ K p ⋅ψ .

Coefficients Kp and ψ are determined by interpolating values obtained from tabulated values
stored in the program. Based on the selected method the values of Kp (maximum) are computed
using the soil-structure frictional δ = -ϕ. For smaller (in absolute value) angles δ, the maximum
values of Kp are reduced by coefficient ψ.

Horizontal and vertical components of passive pressure follow the expressions

σ px = σ p ⋅ cos(α + δ )
.
σ pz = σ p ⋅ sin(α + δ )
2.5 Pressure at rest
Pressure at rest is given by
σ r = σ z ⋅ Kr ,

ν
where K r = (theory of elasticity) or K r = 1 − sin ϕ (Jáky), respectively.
1− ν

The first formula for computing Kr is used when analyzing cohesive soils, the second one is
used for non-cohesive soils. The choice of type of soil (cohesive, non-cohesive) during the input
of its parameters can influence the way of computing the pressure at rest. Even a typically non-
cohesive soil (sand, gravel) must be put in as a cohesive one, if we want to compute the pressure
at rest the Poisson number and vice versa.

For inclined ground behind a structure (0°< β ≤ ϕ), the pressure at rest reads

σ z ⋅ K r ⋅ sin ϕ ⋅ cos β
σr = .
sin ϕ − sin 2 β

Assuming inclined back of a structure the pressure at rest is provided

σ r = σ z sin 2 α + K r2 cos2 α .

Normal and tangent components are

σ = σ z ⋅ ( sin 2 α + K r ⋅ cos2 α ) ,
τ = σ z ⋅ (1 − K r ) ⋅ sin α ⋅ cosα .

Angle between the wall and its normal δ is computed as

(1 − Kr ) ⋅ tgα
tgδ = .
K r + tg 2α

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2.6 Coefficients of computation of earth pressures “SETTINGS”

The “Settings” dialog window (Fig.2.4) serves for basic setup of the analysis. The window is
slightly different in each program. However, the base where we choose the required magnitudes
of coefficients of reliability of foundation soil, are common for all programs.

Fig. 2.4 Dialog window for setting parameters of analysis

Coefficients of reliability reduce the standard values of parameters of foundation soil to the
design values:

γmϕ - reduces the angle of internal friction (ČSN 73 0037), or its tangent (EC7)
according to the choice in the last line of the block of coefficients (at the bottom
on the right hand side of subform),
γmc - reduces cohesion of soil
γmν - reduces Poisson’s number (theory of elasticity is used for computation of lateral
pressure at rest),
γmγ - reduces the bulk weight of soil in front and behind the structure. When the
analysis is carried out according to limit states, the magnitude of bulk weight of
embankments and fillings either increases or decreases depending on
unfavorable or favorable effects. For soils in natural state γmγ=1,00. In case of
variable bulk weight it use reasonable to use a weighted average or a qualified
estimate with respect to its influence.

Two alternatives are available for the reduction of soil parameters:

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Classical theory (without reduction) – all coefficients of reliability are set to 1,00. The soil
parameters are not reduced. Magnitudes are indicated with gray color – they cannot be changed.
This alternative is useful when computing standard (probable) magnitudes of earth pressures.
These magnitudes can be used, e.g., for analysis of the 2nd group of limit states (state of
deformation) of a construction or when using “classical” methods (e.g., factor of safety, limit
strength, case of „B“ EC7) in which the resulting values of characteristic stresses are reduced .

Limit states – the possibility to select coefficients according to the user requirements or
standards. This option allows inserting the required magnitudes of coefficients of reliability of
foundation soil.
E.g., when computing an active pressure of a non-cohesive soil with the angle of friction reduced
to about 2/3, the resulting magnitude will be equal to the Jáky pressure at rest (Kr = 1 - sinϕ). In
analogy, the passive pressure computed with the angle of friction reduced to 2/3 will be equal to
upper bound of the pressure at rest (preconsolidated soils – London clay) and when using it, the
deformation needed for activation of resistance laterally pressed soil will be mobilized (in front
of sheeting wall, retaining wall, horizontally loaded spread footing…).

Selecting the coefficient of reduction γϕ from an interval 0,67 to 1 makes possible to compute
magnitudes of “increased active” and “decreased passive” pressures, and thus increase reliability
of a structure or limit its deformation. This coefficient must be yet multiplied by the coefficient
of reliability of angle of friction γmϕ (providing the standard / characteristic values of pressures
are not computed). The resulting coefficient of reduction γmϕ will be come in such a case a
coefficient of two values γϕ. γmϕ. Analysis of the “increased active” and “decreased passive”
pressures further requires reduction of cohesion as cred = c .tgϕred / tgϕ.

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2.7 Influence of terrain -“TERRAIN”

The program offers four types of a terrain behind a construction to put in – see Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.5 Dialog window for inputting terrain

For a terrain creating an embankment or a cut, the resulting pressure is obtained as a maximum
or minimum from pressures according to Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 Determination of resulting pressure for broken terrain

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Angle of terrain inclination (β) is reduced, for computational purposes, as β < φ or β < φd,
respectively. This restriction applies to all layers. When exceeding the value β, analysis prompts
the following information

Fig. 2.7 Error message when exceeding the value β

Nevertheless, the analysis is carried out. The results, however, are not correct. Larger terrain
inclinations are, therefore, necessary to model with the help of surcharge.

Example:
The terrain behind a construction was put in with inclination 45°. The smallest angle of internal
friction of a soil is 17.5°. The bulk weight of a soil in the embankment is 19 kN/m3. The
program showed and error message during the analysis. In this case, the terrain shape will be
modified according to Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.8 Change of input for large terrain inclination – original input

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Fig. 2.9 Change of input for large terrain inclination – modified input

The surcharge is computed using the formula:

f = d .γ .(tgα 1 − tgα 2 ) = 3.20.(tg 45 − tg17,5) = 41,08 kN / m

The surcharge is a combination of trapezoidal loading (q1=0,00 kPa, q2=41,08 kPa, Ordinate
x=0,00 m, Length=8,00 m) and strip loading (q=41,00 kPa, Ordinate x = 8,00 m, Length = at
least h+d+embankment height).

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2.8 Influence of water – “WATER”

The influence of groundwater (mainly the groundwater table - GWT) on a construction
can be expressed using one of the variants shown in Fig. 2.10. Depth h1 represents the
depth of GWT behind a structure and h2 is the depth in front of a structure.

Fig. 2.10 Input of influence of water on a construction

2.8.1 Without ground water

No action of ground water on a structure is considered. The ground water table is below
the lowest of a structure. Subgrade soils have negligible capillary height. Therefore,
neither the negative pore pressures nor an increase of bulk weight due to capillary
action have to be taken into account.

Capillary action – if there are fine soils at and below the level of GWT, one should consider
carefully an influence full saturation in the region of capillary action. Analysis reflects capillary
action only by increased degree of saturation, and therefore γsat is inserted into parameters of
soils.

To distinguish regions with different degree of saturation, one may insert several layers of the
same soil with different bulk weights. Negative pore pressures are not considered. However, for
layers with different degree of saturation it is possible to use different values shear resistance
influenced by suction (water and gas pore pressure difference) ua - uw.

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2.8.2 Hydrostatic pressure, GWT behind structure

Heel of a structure is sunk into impermeable subsoil, and therefore the water flow
below the structure is prevented. Water is found behind the back of structure only.
There is no water on front face. Such a case may occur when water in front of structure
flow freely due to gravity or deep drainage is used. The back of structure is loaded by hydrostatic
pressure.

2.8.3 Hydrostatic pressure, GWT behind and in front of structure

Similar case as above, only loading due water in front of structure is added. This is the
case when water in front of structure flows due to gravity effects or is shallowly
lowered by pumping. Both the and back of structure is loaded by hydrostatic pressure
(different GWTs h1 and h2). Dimension hw represents difference of water tables at the back and in
front structure (h2-h1).

Fig. 2.11 Action of hydrostatic pressure

2.8.4 Hydrostatic pressure

Heel of a structure is sunk into permeable subsoil. This thus allows free water flow
below the structure. Bulk weight of soil, lifted by uplift pressure (γsu), is modified to
account for flow pressure. These modifications then depend on the direction water flow.

In the analysis, the bulk weight of soil behind structure is increased by ∆γsu and in front of
structure is decreased by ∆γsu .

∆γsu = γw . i

where:
i – is an average hydraulic slope [ - ]

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hw
i=
d d + 2d u
hw - water tables difference [m]
dd - seepage path downwards [m]
du - seepage path upwards [ m ]

Fig. 2.12 Action of hydrostatic pressure

If ∆γ >γ su then there is leaching in front of structure – as a consequence water flow the soil
behaves weightless and cannot transmit any loading. In such case, the program prompts a
message, Fig. 2.13, and the analysis continues γ=0. The result therefore does not correspond
to former input – results are safer.

Fig. 2.13 Error message when ∆γ >γ su

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2.8.5 Special variation of water pressure

This option allows an independent input of distribution of loading due to water at the
back and in front of structure using ordinates of pore pressure at different depths.
Variation of pressure between individual values is linear. At the same time it is
necessary to put in levels of tables of full saturation of a soil at the back (h1) and in front (h2) of
structure including possible decrease of bulk weight in front of structure due to water flow.

Example:
Two separated horizon lines of ground water. There are two permeable layers (sand) with one
impermeable layer of clay in between, which causes separation of two hydraulic horizon lines –
Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14 Pore pressure distribution

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Pore pressure variation above the clay layer is driven by free ground water table (GWT1).
Distribution of pore pressure below the clay layer results from ratio in the lower separated
ground water table (GWT2), where the ground water is stressed. Pore pressure distribution in
clay is approximately linear.

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2.9 Analysis of influence of surcharge “SURCHARGE”

An arbitrary number of surcharges behind a structure can be put in (surface, strip, trapezoidal
and concentrated load). Individual surcharges can be combined as needed (e.g., to reflect
complicated terrain, its larger inclination β>ϕd,min - see example in Section 2.7). The used units
are kN for concentrated and kN/m2 for other load types.
Surcharge is defined as a surcharge of soil behind a structure – it cannot be used to surcharge on
the wall crest. In such case one may use the dialog window “Inserted forces” – see Section 3.3.

.
Fig. 2.15 Dialog window for input of surcharge

2.9.1 Surcharge – active pressure

Surface surcharge is computed using to the following formula:

∆σ a = f .K a
where:
f - magnitude of surface load
Ka - coefficient of active pressure (Section 2.3)

Computation of strip is shown in Fig. 2.16:

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Fig. 2.16 Strip loading due to active pressure

The resultant force of active pressure Sa is given by the following formula

S a = f .b.K af

sin(υ a − ϕ )
K af =
cos(υ a − ϕ − δ )

Upper and lower pressure magnitudes are provided by

Sa a
∆σ a ´= (1 ± )
hf a+b

For nonhomogeneous soil we proceed as follows:

- compute the angle υa for a given soil layer

- determine the corresponding magnitude of force Sa and size of the corresponding
pressure diagram
- determine the magnitude of earth pressure acting below the bottom edge of a given
layer, and its ratio with respect to the overall pressure magnitude
- the surcharge is reduced using the above ratio, then the location of this surcharge on
the upper edge of the subsequent layer is determined
- compute again the angle υa for the next layer and repeat the previous steps until the
bottom of a structure is reached or the surcharge is completely exhausted

Angle υa is computed using:

υa = ϕ + ε

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where:

cos(ϕ − α ) sin(ϕ − β ) cos(α + δ ) + B cos(ϕ − β − α − δ )

tan ε =
sin(ϕ − α ) sin(ϕ − β ) cos(α + δ ) + B sin(ϕ − β − α − δ ) + M

M = (sin(ϕ − β ) cos( β − α ) + B).(sin(ϕ + δ ) cos(α + δ ) + B)

2c cos α cos( β − α ) cos ϕ

B=
2σ cos α cos β
γh cos( β − α ) + z
γh
The concentrated load is transformed into a line load (if a<b) or into a strip
load (if a>b) using the following expression

F
f =
l + 2(a + b)

F
fa =
(l + 2(a + b))(a + b)

The line load provided by

S a = f .K af

sin(υ a − ϕ )
K af =
cos(υ a − ϕ − δ )

Since the pressure diagram has triangular shape of height hf, it is easy compute the magnitudes of
pressure at individual points.

The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in 10 segments.

Individual segments are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure
is a sum of partial surcharges from individual segments.

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2.9.2 Surcharge – pressure at rest

When computing the pressure at rest the structure is first subdivided along its height into about
30 segments, in which the program computes the magnitudes of pressure at rest due to individual
surcharges. The computation itself is evident from the formulae and figures below.

The surface surcharge is given by

∆σ r = f . K r
where:
f - magnitude of surface load
Kr - coefficient of pressure at rest (Section 2.5)

Fig. 2.17 Computation of concentrated surcharge

Concentrated surcharge (Fig.2.17):

where:
3F x 2 z 1 − 2v 1 ( 2r + z ) x 2 z
∆σ r = ( 5 + ( − − 3 ))
π r 3 r (r + z ) (r + z ) x
2 3
r

r = x2 + y2 + z2

Strip surcharge (Fig.2.18):

fa
∆σ r = (2α − sin 2α 2 + sin 2α1 )
π

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Fig. 2.18 Computation of strip loading

The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in 10 segments.

Individual segments are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure
is a sum of partial surcharges from individual segments.

2.9.3 Surcharge – passive pressure

The surface surcharge is provided by
∆σ p = f .K p
where:
f - magnitude of surface surcharge
Kp - coefficient of passive pressure (Section 2.4)

These types of surcharges are not

considered for computation of the
passive pressure.

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