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Title: New Latin Grammar

Author: Charles E. Bennett

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Most recently updated: December 14, 2020

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW LATIN

GRAMMAR ***
 NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
BY

CHARLES E. BENNETT

Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University

Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta

Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:
Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat.
—HORACE, Ars Poetica.

COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT

PREFACE.

The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical

alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will
be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the
Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to
the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to
the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.
C.E.B.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
May 4, 1918

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in
1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible,
I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been
changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans
themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -īs, -īmus, -ītis
are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus,
-gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have
recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have
abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive.
Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have
been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
October 16, 1907.

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in
a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with
scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it
has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such
grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.
The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict
the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation
of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages.
Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared
abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands.
The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope
seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic
texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style
peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the
enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand
consideration in a student's grammar.
In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of
the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the
comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough
consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems
superfluous.
ITHACA, NEW YORK,
December 15, 1894.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction—The Latin language
 PART I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The Alphabet
Classification of Sounds
Sounds of the Letters
Syllables
Quantity
Accent
Vowel Changes
Consonant Changes
Peculiarities of Orthography
 PART II.
INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER I.—Declension.

A. NOUNS.

Gender of Nouns
Number
Cases
The Five Declensions
First Declension
Second Declension
Third Declension
Fourth Declension
Fifth Declension
Defective Nouns

B. ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions

Adjectives of the Third Declension
Comparison of Adjectives
Formation and Comparison of Adverbs
Numerals

C. PRONOUNS.

Personal Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
The Intensive Pronoun
The Relative Pronoun
Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

Verb Stems
The Four Conjugations
Conjugation of Sum
First Conjugation
Second Conjugation
Third Conjugation
Fourth Conjugation
Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation
Deponent Verbs
Semi-Deponents
Periphrastic Conjugation
Peculiarities of Conjugation
Formation of the Verb Stems
List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts
Irregular Verbs
Defective Verbs
Impersonal Verbs
 PART III.
PARTICLES.

Adverbs
Prepositions
Interjections
 PART IV.
WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs

II. COMPOUNDS.

Examples of Compounds
 PART V.
SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

Classification of Sentences
Form of Interrogative Sentences
Subject and Predicate
Simple and Compound Sentences

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

Subject
Predicate Nouns
Appositives
The Nominative
The Accusative
The Dative
The Genitive
The Ablative
The Locative

CHAPTER III.—Syntax of Adjectives.

Agreement of Adjectives
Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs
Comparatives and Superlatives
Other Peculiarities

CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.

Agreement of Verbs
Voices
Tenses
— Of the Indicative
— Of the Subjunctive
— Of the Infinitive
Moods
— In Independent Sentences
— — Volitive Subjunctive
— — Optative Subjunctive
— — Potential Subjunctive
— — Imperative
— In Dependent Clauses
— — Clauses of Purpose
— — Clauses of Characteristic
— — Clauses of Result
— — Causal Clauses
— — Temporal Clauses
— — — Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc.
— — — Cum-Clauses
— — — Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam
— — — Introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad
— — Substantive Clauses
— — — Developed from the Volitive
— — — Developed from the Optative
— — — Of Result
— — — After nōn dubito, etc.
— — — Introduced by Quod
— — — Indirect Questions
— — Conditional Sentences
— — Use of Sī, Nisi, Sīn
— — Conditional Clauses of Comparison
— — Concessive Clauses
— — Adversative Clauses with Quamvīs,
Quamquam, etc.
— — Clauses of Wish and Proviso
— — Relative Clauses
— — Indirect Discourse
— — — Moods in Indirect Discourse
— — — Tenses in Indirect Discourse
— — — Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse
— — Implied Indirect Discourse
— — Subjunctive by Attraction
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb
— Infinitive
— Participles
— Gerund
— Supine

CHAPTER VI.—Particles.

Coördinate Conjunctions
Adverbs

CHAPTER VII.—Word-Order and Sentence-

Structure.

Word-Order
Sentence-Structure

CHAPTER VIII.—Hints on Latin Style.

Nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Verbs
The Cases
 PART VI.
PROSODY.

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables

Verse-Structure
The Dactylic Hexameter
The Dactylic Pentameter
Iambic Measures

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. Roman Calendar
II. Roman Names
III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric

Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the

Syntax
Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs
General Index
Footnotes
 INTRODUCTION.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.—Latin belongs to one

group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-European.[1] This
Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages,
the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These
Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the
branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them
as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a
thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.
The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India,
and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the
ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.
b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit.
There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and
the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and
appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of
which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch
of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books
of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-
worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as
early as 1000 B.C.
Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has
naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction
of many words from the Arabic.
c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and
Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was
formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to
independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian
language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To
this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian
Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely
separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians
are found to-day.
d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as
Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern
Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic
branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows
close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of
the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of
translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh
century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and
Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts
much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey
of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the
sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when
we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the
classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.
f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the
northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken
in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in
Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of
minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the
Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin
literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging
to a much earlier period.
g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record,
the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain
areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found
only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to
the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still
spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still
extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and
the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.
h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest
representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the
scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages
belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and
from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish,
Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the
modern English.
i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe.
The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken
to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The
earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth
century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the
most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the
Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the
earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of
the Bible dating from the ninth century.
j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily.
This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized
by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek,
and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.
2. Home of the Indo-European Family.—Despite the many outward
differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful
examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate
relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common
parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a
homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all
the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the
home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was
assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but
this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated
importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the
earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that
the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the
Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau
to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much
more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech,
though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can
hardly be expected.
As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European
languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large,
and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries,
possibly for thousands of years.
The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual
languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity.
When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate
2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European
parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly
earlier.
3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.—The earliest
remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions.
The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman
literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the
middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly
marked periods of the language and literature:
a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when
Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge
of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have
survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.
b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81
B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed
as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even
become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it
naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To
this period belong:

Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's

Odyssey; Tragedies).
Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).
Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies).
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies).
Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).
Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires).
Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).
Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14
A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches
a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet
attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic
Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their
effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its
culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan
Age. The following writers belong here:

Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy).

Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).
Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical
Works; Letters).
Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),
Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).
Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian).
Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics").
Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles).
Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).
Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet).
 Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems).
Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of
Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction
against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the
practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and
to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction
against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself.
We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along
with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve
mention:

Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse) Velleius

Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian).
Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War).
Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works).
Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History").
Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters").
Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams).
Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and
Education).
Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian).
Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist).
Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve
Caesars").
Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian
Apologist).
Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden
Ass").

e. The Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious

imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it
overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather
than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing
tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand
we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius
and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both
of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.
f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the
sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical
alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the
lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces,
such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of
local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are:

Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer).

Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer).
Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity).
Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet).
Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures).
Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father).
Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father—"City of God").
Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet).
Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet).
Boëthius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.—After the sixth century

A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the
literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars.
This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on,
became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom
of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the
modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern
France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in
Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and
adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to
the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages
bear to the parent speech.
 PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

THE ALPHABET.
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.
1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and z were introduced
from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words—chiefly Greek.
2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel
and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the
vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the
latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as
well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The
Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.
2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.
3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,—

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded without voice or vibration

of the vocal cords.
b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal cords.
c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to
words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c
 + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following
breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house.
4. The Mutes admit of classification also as
Labials, p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.
5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.
6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when
followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,—that of ng in sing,—the so-
called n adulterīnum; as,—
anceps, double, pronounced angceps.
7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.
8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.
9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the
equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3.
10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:—
VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES.
p, b, ph, (Labials).
Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals).
c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals)
Liquids, l, r,
Nasals, m, n,
f, (Labial).
Spirants, s, (Dental).
h, (Guttural).
Semivowels, j, v.
a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not
admit of classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that
employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50
B.C. to 50 A.D.
1. Vowels.
ā as in father; ă as in the first syllable ahá;
ē as in they; ĕ as in met;
ī as in machine; ĭ as in pin;
ō as in note; ŏ as in obey, melody;
ū as in rude; ŭ as in put;
y like French u, German ü.
2. Diphthongs.
eu with its two elements, ĕ and ŭ,
ae like ai in aisle;
pronounced in rapid succession;
oe like oi in oil;
ui occurs almost exclusively in cui and
ei as in rein;
huic. These words may be pronounced as
au like ow in how;
though written kwee and wheek.
3. Consonants.
b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs,
bt are pronounced ps, pt.
c is always pronounced as k.
t is always a plain t, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.
g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
gw, as in anguis, languidus.
j has the sound of y as in yet.
r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.
s always voiceless as in sin; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in
compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.
v like w.
x always like ks; never like Eng. gz or z.
z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter
sound is recommended.
The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
Eng. p, c, t—so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
sounds suffice.
 Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both
members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.
4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and
diphthongs.
In the division of words into syllables,—
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-
dest.
2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.
3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the
first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-
trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re.
4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute
followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are
regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet
if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are
separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus.
5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tēx-ī.

QUANTITY.
5. A. Quantity of Vowels.
A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its
pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin
vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the
following principles are of aid:—
1. A vowel is long,[6]—
a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum.
b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum.
2. A vowel is short,—
 a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in
compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn
dum).
b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur,
chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās.
B. Quantity of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time
required for their pronunciation.
1. A syllable is long,[7]—
a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus.
b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants
(except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō.
2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a
single consonant; as, mea, amat.
3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is
followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.
[8] Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in

verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.

NOTE.—These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are
purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two
consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its
pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one
consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the
common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a
combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating
the two elements (as ag-rī) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.
6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, mō´rem.
2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last)
if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as,
amā´vī, amántis, míserum.
3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the
syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the
enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que, hominísque. But if the syllable still
remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word
originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque.
4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the
accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c.
5. In utră´que, each, and plēră´que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet
these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,—
utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]
7.. 1. In Compounds,
a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,—
for con-
colligō
legō.
b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,—
for ad-
adigō
agō.
c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,—
for ex-
expers
pars.
d) ae becomes ī; as,—
for con-
conquīrō
quaerō.
e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,—
for
conclūdō con-
claudō;
for ex-
explōdō
plaudō.
2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long
vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,—
 trēs for tre-es; cōpia for co-
opia;
for
mālō cōgō for co-agō;
ma(v)elō;
for for co-
amāstī cōmō
amā(v)istī; emō;
for for
dēbeō jūnior
dē(h)abeō; ju(v)enior.
nīl for nihil;
3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel
sometimes develops; as,—

vinculum for earlier vinclum.

So perīculum, saeculum.
4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,—

ārdor for āridor (compare āridus);

valdē for validē (compare validus).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,—

arbōs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis);

genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);
dirimō (for dis-emō).

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,—

pēnsum for pend-tum;

versum for vert-tum;
mīles for mīlet-s;
sessus for sedtus;
passus for pattus.

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,—

cor for cord;

 lac for lact.

4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following

sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-); allātus (adl-);
apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō (adf-); occurrō (obc-);
suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-); collātus (coml-); etc.
5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:—
a) b before s or t becomes p; as,—
scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum).
b) g before s or t becomes c; as,—
āctus (āg-tus).
c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,—
eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9. Many words have variable orthography.
1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language.
Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to
the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus,
maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus,
maximus, libet, libīdō, etc.
2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the
language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula, epistola;
adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and, particularly,
prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the
spelling; as,—
ad-gerō or aggerō; ad-serō or asserō;
ad-liciō or alliciō; in-lātus or illātus;
ad-rogāns or sub-moveō or
arrogāns; summoveō;
and many others.
3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō, etc., but
were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc.
4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the
earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the
Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos.
Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont,
-quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont,
loquontur; vīvont, metuont.
The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence,
has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.
 PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the

same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs,

Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has

no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the

first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing

change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns,

Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in

case of verbs, Conjugation.

CHAPTER I.—Declension.

A. NOUNS.

12. A Noun is the name of a person,

place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar,

Caesar; Rōma, Rome; penna,

feather; virtūs, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names

of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns

are Common: as, penna, virtūs.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects;

as, mōns, mountain; pēs, foot;

diēs, day; mēns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective

nouns; as, legiō, legion; comitātus,

retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as,

cōnstantia, steadfastness; paupertās,

poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.
13. There are three

Genders,—Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either

natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.
14. The gender of nouns is natural when it
is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of

persons; and these are—

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,—

nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,—

māter, mother; rēgīna, queen.

Grammatical Gender.
15. Grammatical gender is determined not

by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of

its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or

qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their

signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are

the general principles for determining grammatical gender:—

A. Gender determined by Signification.

1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are

Masculine; as,—

Sēquana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprīlis, April.

2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and

Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,—

quercus, oak; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings
(see B, below); as,—

Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter;

as,—

nihil, nothing; nefās, wrong; amāre, to love.

NOTE.—Exceptions to the above principles

sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the

Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.—Common Gender. Certain

nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus,

sacerdōs may mean either priest or priestess,

and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis,

citizen; parēns, parent; etc. The gender of

such nouns is said to be common.

NOTE 2.—Names of animals usually have

grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular,

but the one form may designate either the male or female; as,

ānser, m., goose or gander. So

vulpēs, f., fox; aquīla, f.,

eagle.

NUMBER.
16. The Latin has two Numbers,—the

Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more

than one.

CASES.
17. There are six Cases in

Latin:—

Nominative, Case of Subject;

Objective with of, or

Genitive,
Possessive;

Dative, Objective with to or for;

Accusative, Case of Direct Object;

Vocative, Case of Address;

Objective with by, from, in,

Ablative,
with.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting

place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are

called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending

certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the

Stem.[12] Thus,

portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending

-m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of

the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the

latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-ending thus
resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin,

distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also

by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:—

FINAL
GEN.
DECLENSION. LETTER OF
TERMINATION.
STEM.

First ā -ae
Second ŏ -ī
ĭ / Some
Third -īs
consonant
Fourth ŭ -ūs
Fifth ē -ēī / -ĕī

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the

Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second

Declension.
2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in

the Plural end in -ă.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural

is regularly like the Nominative.

FIRST DECLENSION.

ā-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First

Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă,

weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are

declined as follows:—

Porta, gate; stem, portā-.

SINGULAR.

CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS.

a gate (as
Nom. porta subject) -ă

Gen. portae of a gate -ae

to or for a
Dat. portae -ae
gate
a gate (as
Acc. portam object) -am
 Voc. porta O gate! -ă
with, by,
Abl. portā from, in a -ā
gate

PLURAL.

gates (as
Nom. portae subject) -ae

Gen. portārum of gates -ārum

to or for
Dat. portīs -īs
gates
gates (as
Acc. portās object) -ās

Voc. portae O gates! -ae

with, by,
Abl. portīs from, in -īs
gates

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a

gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the

gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns

denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor;

agricola, farmer; also, Hadria, Adriatic

Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,—
a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is

preserved in the combination pater familiās, father of a

family; also in māter familiās, fīlius

familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form

of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions;

as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs;

as, aulāī.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as,

Rōmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as,

Dardanidum instead of

Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a

contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different

case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually

find -ābus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea,

goddess, and fīlia, daughter, especially when

it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms

of deus, god, and fīlius, son. A few

other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as,

lībertābus (from līberta,

 freedwoman), equābus (mares), to avoid

confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus,

freedman) and equīs (from equus,

horse).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the

Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First

Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:—

Archiās, Epitomē, Comētēs,

Archias. epitome. comet.

Nom. Archiās epitomē comētēs

Gen. Archiae epitomēs comētae
Dat. Archiae epitomae comētae
Archiam
Acc. (or -ān) epitomēn comētēn

comētē (or
Voc. Archiā epitomē -ă)

comētē (or
Abl. Archiā epitomē -ā)

1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns

in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica,

grammar; mūsica, music; rhētorica,

rhetoric.
2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

SECOND DECLENSION.

ŏ-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second

Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine;

-um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the

Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So

also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:—

Hortus, garden; stem,

Bellum, war; stem, bellŏ-.
hortŏ-.

SINGULAR.

TERMINATION. TERMINATION.

Nom. hortus -us bellum -um

Gen. hortī -ī bellī -ī
Dat. hortō -ō bellō -ō
Acc. hortum -um bellum -um
Voc. horte -e bellum -um
Abl. hortō -ō bellō -ō

PLURAL.
 Nom. hortī -ī bella -a
Gen. hortōrum -ōrum bellōrum -ōrum
Dat. hortīs -īs bellīs -īs
Acc. hortōs -ōs bella -a
Voc. hortī -ī bella -a
Abl. hortīs -īs bellīs -īs

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:—

Ager, Vir,
Puer,
field; man;
boy; stem,
stem, stem,
puerŏ-
agrŏ- virŏ-
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.

puer ager vir Wanting

Nom.
Gen. puerī agrī virī -ī
Dat. puerō agrō virō -ō
Acc. puerum agrum virum -um
Voc. puer ager vir Wanting

Abl. puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL.

Nom. puerī agrī virī -ī

Gen. puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum
Dat. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
Acc. puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs
Voc. puerī agrī virī -ī
Abl. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the

final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative
Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is

further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer:

adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law;

Līber, Bacchus; socer, father-in-law;

vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and

-ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quus.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative

Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types

of inflection in the classical Latin,—an earlier and a

later,—as follows:—

Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and

Cicero).
Servos, Equos,
Aevom,
m., m.,
n., age.
slave. horse.

SINGULAR.

Nom. servos aevom equos

Gen. servī aevī equī

Dat. servō aevō equō

Acc. servom aevom equom

 Voc. serve aevom eque

servō aevō equō

Abl.

Later inflection (after Cicero).

SINGULAR.

servus aevum equus

Nom.
servī aevī equī
Gen.

Dat. servō aevō equō

Act. servum aevum equum

serve aevum eque

Voc.
servō aevō equō
Abl.

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of

-iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for

-ie); as Vergílī, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words

the

accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in

-ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī,

-eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of

the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular

in -i (instead of -iī); as,—

Nom. ingenium fīlius

Gen. ingénī fīlī

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); viz. fīlī, O son!
4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is

inflected as follows:—

Nom. dī (deī)
Gen. deōrum (deum)
Dat. dīs (deīs)
Acc. deōs
Voc. dī (deī)
Abl. dīs (deīs)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as,

Corinthī, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of

-ōrum,—

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum,

of talents; modium, of pecks;

sēstertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as,

duumvirum.
 c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, of the

children; socium, of the allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:—

a) Names of towns, islands,

trees—according to the general rule laid down in § 15, 2; also some

names of countries; as

Aegyptus, Egypt.

b) Five special words,—

alvus, belly;
carbasus, flax;
colus, distaff;
humus, ground;
vannus, winnowing-fan.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,—

atomus, atom;
diphthongus, diphthong.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:—

pelagus, sea;
vīrus, poison;
vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os,

-ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are

mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:—

Barbitos, Androgeōs, Īlion,

m. and f., m., n.,
lyre. Androgeos. Troy.
Nom. barbitos Androgeōs Īlion
Androgeō,
Gen. barbitī Īliī
-ī
Dat. barbitō Androgeō Īliō
Androgeō,
Acc. barbiton Īlion
-ōn
Voc. barbite Androgeōs Īlion
Abl. barbitō Androgeō Īliō

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in

-um instead of -on; as, Dēlum,

Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be

consulted.

THIRD DECLENSION.
28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in

-a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y,

-c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t,

-x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of

Stems,—
 I. Pure Consonant-Stems.

II. ĭ-Stems.

Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the

III.
inflection of ĭ-Stems.

IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.

V. Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its

unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings

may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according

as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or

Spirant.

A. Mute-Stems.
30. Mute-Stems may end,—
1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.
2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).
3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. Prīnceps, m., chief.
 SINGULAR. TERMINATION.

Nom. prīnceps -s
Gen. prīncipis -is
Dat. prīncipī -ī
Acc. prīncipem -em
Voc. prīnceps -s
Abl. prīncipe -e

PLURAL.

Nom. prīncipēs -ēs

Gen. prīncipum -um
Dat. prīncipibus -ibus
Acc. prīncipēs -ēs
Voc. prīncipēs -ēs
Abl. prīncipibus -ibus

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of

the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing

-x.

Rēmex, m., rower. Dux, c., leader.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs

Gen. rēmigis rēmigum ducis ducum
Dat. rēmigī rēmigibus ducī ducibus
Acc. rēmigem rēmigēs ducem ducēs
Voc. rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs
Abl. rēmige rēmigibus duce ducibus
 3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).
33. In these the final d or

t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the

ending -s.

Lapis, m., stone. Mīles, m., soldier.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs

Gen. lapidis lapidum mīlitis mīlitum
Dat. lapidī lapidibus mīlitī mīlitibus
Acc. lapidem lapidēs mīlitem mīlitēs
Voc. lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs
Abl. lapide lapidibus mīlite mīlitibus

B. Liquid Stems.
34. These end in -l or

-r.

Victor,
Vigil, m., Aequor,
m.,
watchman. n., sea.
conqueror.

SINGULAR.

vigil victor aequor

Nom.
Gen. vigilis victōris aequoris
Dat. vigilī victōrī aequorī
aequor
Acc. vigilem victōrem
 Voc. vigil victor aequor

Abl. vigile victōre aequore

PLURAL.

Nom. vigilēs victōrēs aequora

Gen. vigilum victōrum aequorum
Dat. vigilibus victōribus aequoribus
Acc. vigilēs victōrēs aequora
Voc. vigilēs victōrēs aequora
Abl. vigilibus victōribus aequoribus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative

and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and

Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

C. Nasal Stems.
35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in

the Nom. Sing.

Leō, m., lion.

Nōmen, n., name
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina

Gen. leōnis leōnum nōminis nōminum
Dat. leōnī leōnibus nōminī nōminibus
Acc. leōnem leōnēs nōmen nōmina
 Voc. leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina

Abl. leōne leōnibus nōmine nōminibus

D. s-Stems.
36. Honor,
Mōs, m. Genus,
m.,
custom. n., race.
honor.

SINGULAR.

Nom. mōs genus honor

Gen. mōris generis honōris

Dat. mōrī generī honōrī
Acc. mōrem genus honōrem
mōs genus honor
Voc.
Abl. mōre genere honōre

PLURAL.

Nom. mōrēs genera honōrēs

Gen. mōrum generum honōrum
Dat. mōribus generibus honōribus
Acc. mōrēs genera honōrēs
Voc. mōrēs genera honōrēs
Abl. mōribus generibus honōribus

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between

vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color,

and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept

into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms

honōs, colōs, etc., also occur,

particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. ĭ-Stems.

A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

37. These regularly end in -is in

the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive

Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the

Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in

-īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by

-em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of

Consonant-Stems.

38. Tussis, Īgnis, Hostis,

f., m., c.,
cough; fire; enemy;
stem, stem, stem,
tussi-. īgni-. hosti-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.

Nom. tussis īgnis hostis -is

Gen. tussis īgnis hostis -is
Dat. tussī īgnī hostī -ī
 Acc. tussim īgnem hostem -im, -em
Voc. tussis īgnis hostis -is
īgnī or
Abl. tussī hoste -ī, -e
e

PLURAL.

Nom. tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs

Gen. tussium īgnium hostium -ium
Dat. tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus
tussīs or īgnīs or hostīs or
Acc. -īs, -ēs
-ēs -ēs -ēs
Voc. tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs
Abl. tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus

1. To the same class belong—

apis, bee. crātis, hurdle. †*secūris, axe.

auris, ear. *febris, fever. sēmentis, sowing.

avis, bird. orbis, circle. †*sitis, thirst.

axis, axle. ovis, sheep. torris, brand.

*būris, plough-beam. pelvis, basin. †*turris, tower.

clāvis, key. puppis, stern. trudis, pole.

collis, hill. restis, rope. vectis, lever.

and many others.

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked

with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many

at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in

-is regularly have -im, -ī.

2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are

genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations

throughout, notably, canis, dog; juvenis,

youth.[14]

3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the

Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s;

anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors,

death; dōs, dowry; nox, night;

sors, lot; mēns, mind; ars,

art; gēns, tribe; and some others.

B. Neuter ĭ-Stems.
39. These end in the Nominative Singular

in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the
Nominative, Accusative, and

Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding

more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine

ĭ-Stems.

Sedile, Animal, Calcar,

seat; animal; spur;
stem, stem, stem,
 sedīli-. animāli-. calcāri-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION

animal calcar -e or wanting

Nom. sedīle
Gen. sedīlis animālis calcāris -is
Dat. sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī
animal calcar -e or wanting
Acc. sedīle

Voc. sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting

Abl. sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī

PLURAL.

Nom. sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia

Gen. sedīlium animālium calcārium -ium
Dat. sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus
Acc. sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
Voc. sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
Abl. sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost

in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e;

as, Sōracte, Mt. Soracte; so also sometimes

mare, sea.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves

 to the Inflection of ĭ-Stems.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far

adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take

-ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative

Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the

fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or

-ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples

of this class:—

Caedēs, Arx, f., Linter,

f., citadel; f., skiff;
slaughter; stem, stem,
stem,
arc-. lintr-.
caed-.

SINGULAR.

linter
Nom. caedēs arx
Gen. caedis arcis lintris
Dat. caedī arcī lintrī
Acc. caedem arcem lintrem
linter
Voc. caedēs arx
Abl. caede arce lintre

PLURAL.
 Nom. caedēs arcēs lintrēs
Gen. caedium arcium lintrium
Dat. caedibus arcibus lintribus
caedēs, arcēs, lintrēs,
Acc.
-īs -īs -īs
Voc. caedēs arcēs lintrēs
Abl. caedibus arcibus lintribus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:—

a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as,

nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs,

etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one

or more consonants; as, urbs, mōns, stirps,

lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as,

cliēns, cohors.

d) Ūter, venter; fūr,

līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the

Plurals faucēs, penātēs,

Optimātēs, Samnitēs,

Quirītēs.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive

-tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās.

Cīvitās usually has

 cīvitātium.

IV. Stems in -ī, -ū, and Diphthongs.

41. Vis, f., Sūs, c., Bōs, c., ox, Juppiter,

force; swine; cow; m., Jupiter;
stem, stem, stem, stem,

vī-. sū-. bou-. Jou-.

SINGULAR.

Juppiter
Nom. vīs sūs bōs
——
Gen. suis bovis Jovis
——
Dat. suī bovī Jovī
Acc. vim suem bovem Jovem
Juppiter
Voc. vīs sūs bōs
Abl. vī sue bove Jove

PLURAL.

Nom. vīrēs suēs bovēs

bovum,
Gen. vīrium suum
boum
suibus, bōbus,
Dat. vīribus
subus būbus
Acc. vīrēs suēs bovēs
Voc. vīrēs suēs bovēs
suibus, bōbus,
Abl. vīribus
subus būbus
1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.
2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the

Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the

same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.

Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in

au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42. Senex, Carō, f., Os, n.,

m., flesh. bone.
old

man.

SINGULAR.

Nom. senex carō os

Gen. senis carnis ossis

Dat. senī carnī ossī
Acc. senem carnem os

carō os
Voc. senex
Abl. sene carne osse

PLURAL.
 Nom. senēs carnēs ossa
Gen. senum carnium ossium
Dat. senibus carnibus ossibus
Acc. senēs carnēs ossa
Voc. senēs carnēs ossa
Abl. senibus carnibus ossibus

1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected

regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is

confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem

supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and

-e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two

stems,—jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases

from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-.

Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1. Nouns in -ō,

-or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are

Masculine.

2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys,

-x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō,

-gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and

collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or

-ūdis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y,

-o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur,

-ŭs are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for

Masculines.

1. Nouns in -ō.

a. Feminine: carō, flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor, sea; cor, heart;

marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -ōs.

a. Feminine: dōs, dowry.

b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), mouth.
4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, skiff.

b. Neuter: cadāver, corpse; iter,

way; tūber, tumor; ūber,

 udder. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer,

maple.

5. Nouns in -ĕs.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for

Feminines.

1. Nouns in -ās.

a. Masculine: vās, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vās, vessel.
2. Nouns in -ēs.

a. Masculine: ariēs, ram;

pariēs, wall; pēs, foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as,

amnis, river; īgnis, fire;

pānis, bread; sanguis, blood;

unguis, nail.

Also—
axis, axle. piscis, fish.
collis, hill. postis, post.
fascis, bundle. pulvis, dust.
lapis, stone. orbis, circle.
mēnsis, month. sentis, brier.

4. Nouns in -x.
 a. Masculine: apex, peak; cōdex,

tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex, tile;

pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix,

cup.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dēns, tooth; fōns,

fountain; mōns, mountain; pōns,

bridge.

6. Nouns in -dō.

a. Masculine: cardō, hinge;

ōrdō, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for

Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sōl, sun; sāl,

salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -ŭs.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

 Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47. The following are the chief

peculiarities of these:—

1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as,

aetheră, aether; Salamīnă,

Salamis.

2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as,

Phrygĕs, Phrygians.

3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as,

Phrygăs, Phrygians.

4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have

-ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās

(Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, Atlas.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and
Ablative Plural; as,

poēmatīs, poems.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form

the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose

the other cases usually follow the second declension; as,

Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.

7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form

the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in

-ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.

8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the

Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,—

Didō Didō
Nom. Acc.
Didūs Didō
Gen. Voc.
Didō Didō
Dat. Abl.

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

ŭ-Stems.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in

-us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as

follows:—

Frūctus, m., fruit. Cornū, n., horn.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua

Gen. frūctūs frūctuum cornūs cornuum
Dat. frūctuī frūctibus cornū cornibus
Acc. frūctum frūctūs cornū cornua
Voc. frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua
Abl. frūctū frūctibus cornū cornibus
 Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly

in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī,

following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension;

as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is

usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative

Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for

frūctuī).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the

Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), limbs;

tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as,

artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with

the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in

-ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth

Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:—

 domī (locative), at home;
domō, from home;
domum, homewards, to one's home; domōs, homewards, to their (etc.) homes

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are:

cornū, horn; genū, knee; and verū, spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus,
colonnade; tribus, tribe; Īdūs (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).

FIFTH DECLENSION.

ē-Stems.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:—

Diēs, m., day. Rēs, f., thing.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. diēs diēs rēs rēs

Gen. diēī diērum rĕī rērum
Dat. diēī diēbus rĕī rēbus
Acc. diem diēs rem rēs
Voc. diēs diēs rēs rēs
Abl. diē diēbus rē rēbus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī,

when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī,

rĕī, fidĕī.

2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is

found in plēbī (from plēbēs =

plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus

plēbī, tribune of the people, and plēbī

scītum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other

words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as,

aciē.

4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural.
But

aciēs, seriēs, speciēs,

spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and

Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, day, and

merīdiēs, mid-day. But diēs is

sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an

appointed day.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
54. Here belong—

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.
3. Nouns used only in certain cases.
4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:— 1.
Proper names; as, Cicerō, Cicero; Italia, Italy.
2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.
3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia,

ignorance; bonitās, goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural.

Thus:—

a) Proper names,—to denote different members of a family,

 or specimens of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, the

Ciceros; Catōnēs, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,—to denote objects made of the

material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera,

bronzes (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, woods.

c) Abstract nouns,—to denote instances of the quality;

as, ignōrantiae, cases of ignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56. Here belong— 1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompejī,
Pompeii.
2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, the Megalesian festival.
3. Many special words, of which the following are the most

important:—

angustiae, narrow pass. mānēs, spirits of the dead.

arma, weapons. moenia, city walls.
dēliciae, delight. minae, threats.
dīvitiae, riches. nūptiae, marriage.
Īdūs, Ides. posterī, descendants.
indūtiae, truce. reliquiae, remainder.
īnsidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkness.
majōrēs, ancestors. verbera, blows.

Also in classical prose regularly—

cervīcēs, neck. nārēs, nose.

fidēs, lyre. vīscerā, viscera.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative
Singular

as, jussū, by the order; injussū, without the order; nātū, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (chance), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl.

Sing.
 b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.
3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc.

nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding

cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and

Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.

5. a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.
6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,—all lack the Nom. Sing.
7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.:

as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong—

fās, n., right. nefās, n., impiety.

īnstar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing.
māne, n., secus, n.,

morning. sex.

1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as

Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply

Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:— 1. Several
nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the

Plural is of another; as,—

Plu., vāsa, vāsorōum,

vās, vāsis (vessel);
vāsīs, etc.

jūgerum, jūgerī (acre); Plu., jūgera, jūgerum, jūgeribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have

certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:—

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as,
māteriēs,

māteriem, material, as well as māteria, māteriam.

b) Famēs, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē of the Fifth.
c) Requiēs, requiētis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth,

requiem, in addition to requiētem.

d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plēbēs,

plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender.

Thus:—

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,—one

Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural;

as,—

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

balneum, n., bath; balneae, f., bath-house.

epulum, n., feast; epulae, f., feast.

frēnī, m.(rarely frēna, n.),

frēnum, n., bridle;
bridle.

jocus, m., jest; joca, n. (also jocī, m.), jests.

locus, m., place; loca, n., places; locī, m., passages or topics in an author.

rāstrum, n., rake; rāstrī, m.; rāstra, n., rakes.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as

in case of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:—

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

aedēs, temple; aedēs, house.

auxilium, help; auxilia, auxiliary troops.

carcer, prison; carcerēs, stalls for racing-chariot.

castrum, fort; castra, camp.

cōpia, abundance; cōpiae, troops, resources.

fīnis, end; fīnēs, borders, territory.

fortūna, fortune; fortūnae, possessions, wealth.

grātia, favor, gratitude; grātiae, thanks.

impedīmentum, hindrance; impedīmenta, baggage.

littera, letter (of the alphabet); litterae, epistle; literature.

mōs, habit, custom; mōrēs, character.

opera, help, service; operae, laborers.

(ops) opis, help; opēs, resources.

pars, part; partēs, party; rôle.

sāl, salt; sălēs, wit.

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,— 1. Adjectives of
the First and Second Declensions.
2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter
like bellum. Thus, Masculine like
hortus:—

Bonus, good.

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. bonus bona bonum

Gen. bonī bonae bonī
Dat. bonō bonae bonō
Acc. bonum bonam bonum
Voc. bone bona bonum
Abl. bonō bonā bonō

PLURAL.

Nom. bonī bonae bona

Gen. bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
Dat. bonīs bonīs bonīs
Acc. bonōs bonās bona
Voc. bonī bonae bona
Abl. bonīs bonīs bonīs

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in

-iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not
in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen.

eximiī; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of

-ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum.

64. Masculine like puer:—

Tener, tender.

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER.

tener
Nom. tenera tenerum
Gen. tenerī tenerae tenerī
Dat. tenerō tenerae tenerō
Acc. tenerum teneram tenerum
tener
Voc. tenera tenerum
 Abl. tenerō tenerā tenerō

PLURAL.

Nom. tenerī tenerae tenera

Gen. tenerōrum tenerārum tenerōrum
Dat. tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs
Acc. tenerōs tenerās tenera
Voc. tenerī tenerae tenera
Abl. tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs

65. Masculine like ager:—

Sacer, sacred.

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. sacer sacra sacrum

Gen. sacrī sacrae sacrī
Dat. sacrō sacrae sacrō
Acc. sacrum sacram sacrum
Voc. sacer sacra sacrum
Abl. sacrō sacrā sacrō

PLURAL.

Nom. sacrī sacrae sacra

Gen. sacrōrum sacrārum sacrōrum
Dat. sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs
Acc. sacrōs sacrās sacra
Voc. sacrī sacrae sacra
Abl. sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper,

rough; lacer, torn; līber, free; miser, wretched; prōsper, prosperous; compounds in -fer and -ger;
sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur, full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong—

 alius, another; alter, the other;

ūllus, any; nūllus, none;

uter, which? (of two); neuter, neither;

sōlus, alone; tōtus, whole;

ūnus, one, alone.

They are declined as follows:—

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

alter
Nom. alius alia aliud altera alterum
Gen. alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus[15] alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus
Dat. aliī aliī aliī alterī alterī[16] alterī
Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum
—— —— —— —— —— ——
Voc.
Abl. aliō aliā aliō alterō alterā alterō

Nom. uter utra utrum tōtus tōta tōtum

Gen. utrīus utrīus utrīus tōtīus tōtīus tōtīus
Dat. utrī utrī utrī tōtī tōtī tōtī
Acc. utrum utram utrum tōtum tōtam tōtum
Voc. —— —— —— —— —— ——

Abl. utrō utrā utrō tōtō tōtā tōtō

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,— 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative

Singular,—one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words

 mentioned below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of ĭ-
stems;

i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the

Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in the Masculine and
Feminine, and the

Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:—

Ācer, sharp.

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

ācer
Nom. ācris ācre
Gen. ācris ācris ācris
Dat. ācrī ācrī ācrī
Acc. ācrem ācrem ācre
ācer
Voc. ācris ācre
Abl. ācrī ācrī ācrī

PLURAL.

Nom. ācrēs ācrēs ācria

Gen. ācrium ācrium ācrium
Dat,
ācribus ācribus ācribus
Acc. ācrēs, -īs ācrēs, -īs ācria
Voc. ācrēs ācrēs ācria
Abl. ācribus ācribus ācribus

1. Like ācer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; equester, equestrian;
palūster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; salūber, wholesome; silvester, woody; terrester,
terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.
2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.
3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine

form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of

salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the
Masculine
is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:—

Fortis, strong. Fortior, stronger.

SINGULAR.

M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.

Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius

Gen. fortis fortis fortiōris fortiōris

Dat. fortī fortī fortiōrī fortiōrī
fortius
Acc. fortem forte fortiōrem

Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius

Abl. fortī fortī fortiōre fortiōre

PLURAL.

Nom. fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra

Gen. fortium fortium fortiōrum fortiōrum
Dat. fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus
Acc. fortēs, -īs fortia fortiōrēs, -īs fortiōra
Voc. fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra
Abl. fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The
Acc. Plu. in

-īs is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70. Fēlīx, happy.. Prūdēns, prudent.

SINGULAR.

M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.

Nom. fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns

Gen. fēlīcīs fēlīcis prūdentis prūdentis
Dat. fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī
 Acc. fēlīcem fēlīx prūdentem prūdēns
Voc. fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns
Abl. fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī

PLURAL.

Nom. fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia

Gen. fēlīcium fēlīcium prūdentium prūdentium
Dat. fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus
Acc. fēlīcēs, -īs fēlīcia prūdentēs, -īs prūdentia
Voc. fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia
Abl. fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus

Vetus, old. Plūs, more.

SINGULAR.

M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.

vetus vetus —— plūs

Nom.

Gen. veteris veteris —— plūris

—— ——
Dat. veterī veterī
vetus —— plūs
Acc. veterem

Voc. vetus vetus —— ——

——
Abl. vetere vetere plūre

PLURAL.

Nom. veterēs vetera plūrēs plūra

Gen. veterum veterum plūrium plūrium
Dat. veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus
Acc. veterēs vetera plūrēs, -īs plūra
Voc. veterēs vetera —— ——

Abl. veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure

Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive

Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and

Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the

same way are declined compos, controlling;

dīves, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; prīnceps, chief; sōspes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet
dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive

Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative,
except when employed as adjectives; when used as

participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,—

ā sapientī virō, by a wise man; but

ā sapiente, by a philosopher.
Tarquiniō rēgnante, under the reign of Tarquin.

4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as

substantives,—

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,—

aequālis, contemporary, Abl. aequālī.

cōnsulāris, ex-consul, Abl. cōnsulārī

So names of Months; as, Aprīlī,

April; Decembrī, December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer;
Juvenāle,

Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places regularly

have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, on the

estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab

Arpīnāte, by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are

frūgī, frugal; nēquam,

worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form

the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,—the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut.

-ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final
vowel;

as,—

altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest, very high.

fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus.

fēlīx, fortunate, fēlīcior, fēlīcissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,—

doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus.

egēns, needy, egentior, egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending

-rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is

regular. Thus:—

asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus.

pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.

ācer, sharp, ācrior, ācerrimus.

celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus.

a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding

-limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel.

The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus.

difficilis, diffcult, difficilior, difficillimus.

similis, like, similior, simillimus.

dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus.

humilis, low, humilior, humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in

-dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns.

Thus:—

maledicus, slanderous, maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus.

magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.

benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dīcēns and

-volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns,

benevolēns.

6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or

dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or

dītissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.—

bonus, good, melior, optimus.

malus, bad, pejor, pessimus.

parvus, small, minor, minimus.

magnus, large, major, maximus.

multus, much, plūs, plūrimus,

frūgī, thrifty, frūgālior, frūgālissimus,

 nēquam, worthless, nēquior, nēquissimus.

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,—

(Cf. prae, in front of.) prior, former,

prīmus, first
(Cf. citrā, this side of.) citerior, on this side, citimus, near.

(Cf. ultrā, beyond.) ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest.

(Cf. intrā, within.) interior, inner, intimus, inmost

(Cf. prope, near.) propior, nearer, proximus, nearest.

(Cf. dē, down.) dēterior, inferior, dēterrimus, worst.

(Cf. archaic potis, possible.) potior, preferable, potissimus, chiefest

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,—

posterō diē, annō, etc. the

following
postrēmus, latest, last.
day, etc., posterior, later, postumus, late-born,
posterī, posthumous.

descendants,

exteri, foreigners,
nātiōnēs exterae, extrēmus, extimus,
exterior, outer outermost.
foreign nations,

inferī, gods of the lower

world,
Mare Inferum, īnferior, lower, īnfimus, īmus, lowest.

Mediterranean Sea,

superī, gods above, suprēmus, last.

superior, higher,
Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea, summus, highest.

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, old, veterrimus.

——[17]
fīdus, faithful, —— fīdissimus.
 novus, new, ——[18] novissimus,[19] last.

sacer, sacred, —— sacerrimus.

falsus, false, —— falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, lively, alacrior, ——

ingēns, great, ingentior, ——

salūtāris, wholesome, salūtārior, ——

juvenis, young, jūnior,

——[20]
senex, old, senior.
——[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in

-ālis, -īlis, -ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by Magis and Maximē.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative

degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maximē (most). Here belong—

1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus.
2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as,

idōneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessārius, necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a
vowel, but a

consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong— 1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do

not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, of to-day;

annuus, annual; mortālis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.
 FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions

form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to

-ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by

changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter;

as,—

cārus, cārē, dearly;

pulcher, pulchrē, beautifully;

ācer, ācriter, fiercely;

levis, leviter, lightly.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,—
sapiēns, sapienter, wisely;

sollers, sollerter, skillfully.

Note audāx, audācter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative

Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the

Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the

Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē.

Thus—

(cārus) cārē, dearly, cārius, cārissimē.

(pulcher) pulchrē, beautifully, pulchrius, pulcherrimē.

(ācer) ācriter, fiercely, ācrius, ācerrimē.

(levis) leviter, lightly, levius, levissimē.

(sapiēns) sapienter, wisely, sapientius, sapientissimē.

(audāx) audācter, boldly, audācius, audācissimē.

 Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1. benĕ, well, melius, optimē.

malĕ, ill, pejus, pessimē.

magnopere, greatly, magis, maximē.

multum, much, plūs, plūrimum.

nōn multum, little,

minus, minimē.
parum,

diū, long, diūtius, diūtissimē.

nēquiter, worthlessly, nēquius, nēquissimē.

saepe, often, saepius, saepissimē.

mātūrrimē.
mātūrē, betimes, mātūrius,
mātūrissimē.

prope, near, propius, proximē.

nūper, recently, —— nūperrimē.

—— potius, rather, potissimum, especially.

—— prius, previously, before, prīmum, first.

secus, otherwise, sētius, less.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an

Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,—

crēbrō, frequently; falsō, falsely;

continuō,
subitō, suddenly;
immediately;

rārō, rarely, and a few others.

a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the

Positive of the Adverb; as,—

multum, much; paulum, little; facile, easily.

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the

Positive in -iter; as,—

fīrmus, fīrmiter, firmly; hūmānus, hūmāniter, humanly;

largus, largiter, copiously; alius, aliter, otherwise.

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which

are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, anciently; paulātim, gradually.

NUMERALS.
78. Numerals may be divided into— I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising—

a. Cardinals; as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

b. Ordinals; as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.
c. Distributives; as, singulī, one by one; bīnī, two by two; etc.
II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, once; bis, twice; etc.
79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND

ADVERBS.

CARDINALS. ORDINALS. DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS.

ūnus, ūna,
1. prīmus, first singulī, one by one semel, once
ūnum

2. duo, duae, duo secundus, second bīnī, two by two bis

3. trēs, tria tertius, third ternī (trīnī) ter

4. quattuor quārtus, fourth quaternī quater

5. quīnque quīnī quīnquiēs

quīntus, fifth
6. sex sextus sēnī sexiēs

7. septem septimus septēnī septiēs

8. octō octāvus octōnī octiēs

9. novem nōnus novēnī noviēs

10. decem decimus dēnī deciēs

 11. ūndecim ūndecimus ūndēnī ūndeciēs

12. duodecim duodecimus duodēnī duodeciēs

13. tredecim tertius decimus ternī denī terdeciēs

14. quattuordecim quārtus decimus quaternī denī quaterdeciēs

quīnquiēs
15. quīndecim quīntus decimus quīnī dēnī
deciēs

sēdecim,
16. sextus decimus sēnī dēnī sexiēs deciēs
sexdecim

17. septendecim septimus decimus septēnī dēnī septiēs deciēs

18. duodēvīgintī duodēvīcēsimus duodēvīcēnī octiēs deciēs

19. ūndēvīgintī ūndēvīcēsimus ūndēvīcēnī noviēs deciēs

20. vīgintī vīcēsimus vīcēnī vīciēs

vīgintī ūnus, vīcēsimus prīmus, vīcēnī singulī,

21. ūnus et ūnus et singulī et vīciēs semel
vīgintī vīcēsimus vīcēni

vīgintī duo, vīcēsimus secundus, vīcēnī bīnī,

22. duo et alter et bīnī et vīciēs bis
vīgintī vīcēsimus vīcēnī

30. trīgintā trīcēsimus trīcēnī triciēs

40. quadrāgintā quadrāgēsimus quadrāgēnī quadrāgiēs

50. quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēsimus quinquāgēnī quīnquāgiēs

60. sexāgintā sexāgēsimus sexāgēnī sexāgiēs

70. septuāgintā septuāgēsimus septuāgēnī septuāgiēs

80. octōgintā octōgēsimus octōgēnī octōgiēs

90. nōnāgintā nōnāgēsimus nōnāgēnī nōnāgiēs

100. centum centēsimus centēnī centiēs

centum ūnus, centēsimus prīmus, centēnī singulī,

101. centum et centēsimus et centēnī et centiēs semel
ūnus prīmus singulī
 200. ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēsimus ducēnī ducentiēs

300. trecentī trecentēsimus trecēnī trecentiēs

400. quadringentī quadringentēsimus quadringēnī quadringentiē

500. quīngentī quīngentēsimus quīngēnī quīngentiēs

600. sescentī sescentēsimus sescēnī sescentiēs

700. septingentī septingentēsimus septingēnī septingentiēs

800. octingentī octingentēsimus octingēnī octingentiēs

900. nōngentī nōngentēsimus nōngēnī nōngentiēs

1,000. mīlle mīllēsimus singula mīlia mīliēs

2,000. duo mīlia bis mīllēsimus bīna mīlia bis mīliēs

100,000. centum mīlia centiēs mīllēsimus centēna mīlia centiēs mīliēs

deciēs centēna deciēs centiēs deciēs centēna deciēs centiē

1,000,000.
mīlia mīllēsimus mīlia mīliēs

NOTE.— -ēnsimus and

-iēns are often written in the numerals instead of

-ēsimus and -iēs.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.
2. Duo is declined as follows:—

Nom. duo duae duo

duōrum duārum duōrum

Gen.
duōbus duābus duōbus
Dat.

Acc. duōs, duo duās duo

Abl. duōbus duābus duōbus

a. So ambō, both, except that its final o is long.

3. Trēs is declined,—

Nom. trēs tria

 Gen. trium trium

Dat. tribus tribus

Acc. trēs (trīs) tria

Abl. tribus tribus

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of

bonus.

5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and

indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive

of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,—

Nom. mīlia Acc. mīlia

mīlium mīlia
Gen. Voc.

Dat. mīlibus Abl. mīlibus

Thus mīlle hominēs, a thousand men; but duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men, literally two

thousands of men.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction;

as, mīlle hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are

declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first.
In the

latter case, et is used. Thus:—

trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā,

thirty-six.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by

subtraction; as,—
 duodēvīgintī, eighteen (but also

octōdecim);

ūndēquadrāgintā, thirty-nine (but

also trīgintā novem or novem et

trīgintā).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the

others follow without et; as,—

centum vīgintī septem, one hundred and

twenty-seven.

annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō

secundō, in the year 882.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a

digit or one of the tens; as,—

centum et septem, one hundred and seven;

centum et quadrāgintā, one hundred and

forty.

4. The Distributives are used—

a) To denote so much each, so many apiece; as,—

bīna talenta eīs dedit, he gave them two talents each.
b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but

Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,—

bīnae litterae, two epistles.

But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is

regularly employed for one, and trīnī (not

ternī) for three; as,—

ūnae litterae, one epistle; trīnae litterae, three epistles.

c) In multiplication; as,—
bis bīna sunt quattuor, twice two are four.
d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,—
bīna hastīlia, two spears.
 C. PRONOUNS.

82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:—

I. Personal. V. Intensive.

II. Reflexive. VI. Relative.

III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative.

IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
84. These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:—

First Person. Second Person. Third Person.

SINGULAR.

Nom. ego, I tū, thou is, he; ea, she; id, it

meī tuī (For declension see § 87.)
Gen.
Dat. mihi[22] tibi[22]
mē tē
Acc.

Voc. —— tū

Abl. mē tē

PLURAL.

Nom. nōs, we vōs, you

Gen. nostrum, nostrī vestrum, vestrī

nōbīs vōbīs
Dat.

Acc. nōs vōs

Voc. —— vōs

Abl. nōbīs vōbīs

1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.
2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as,

egomet, I myself; tibimet, to you yourself; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).

3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as

Accusative and Ablative forms.

II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself,

yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:—

First Person. Second Person. Third Person.

Supplied by oblique cases Supplied by oblique cases
of ego. of tū.

suī
Gen. meī, of myself tuī, of thyself
Dat. mihi, to myself tibi, to thyself sibi[22]
sē or sēsē
Acc. mē, myself tē, thyself
—— —— ——
Voc.

Abl. mē, with myself, etc. tē, with thyself, etc. sē or sēsē

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and

for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other
forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—

inter sē pugnant, they fight with each other.

3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and

Ablative.

III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They
are—

First Person. Second Person.

meus, -a, -um, my; tuus, -a, -um, thy;
noster, nostra, nostrum, our; vester, vestra, vestrum, your;

Third Person.
suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,—

pater līberōs suōs amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the
Genitive Plural, eōrum,

eārum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is

mī.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of

the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly

common in case of suō, suā; as,

suōpte, suāpte.

IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are—

hīc, this (where I am);

iste, that (where you are);
ille, that (something distinct from the speaker); is, that (weaker than ille); īdem, the same.

Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Hīc, this.

SINGULAR PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. hīc haec hōc hī hae haec

 hūjus hūjus hōrum hārum hōrum
Gen. hūjus[23]
huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs
Dat.

Acc. hunc hanc hōc hōs hās haec

hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs

Abl.

Iste, that, that of yours.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

iste ista istī istae

Nom. istud[24] ista[24]
istīus istīus istīus istōrum istārum istōrum
Gen.
istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs
Dat.
istum istam istud istōs istās
Acc. ista[24]

Abl. istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.[25]

Is, he, this, that.

SINGULAR PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. is ea id eī, iī, (ī) eae ea

ejus ejus ejus eōrum eārum eōrum

Gen.

Dat. eī eī eī eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs

eum eam id eōs eās ea

Acc.
eō eā eō eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs
Abl.

Īdem, the same.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. īdem eadem idem eīdem, eaedem eadem

 iīdem

ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem

Gen.
eīdem eīdem eīdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
Dat.

Acc. eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eadem

eōdem eādem eōdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem

Abl.

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu.

īsdem or iīsdem

V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, he
himself.'

SINGULAR PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa

ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum

Gen.
ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
Dat.

Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa

ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

Abl.

VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:—

SINGULAR PLURAL.

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

quī quae quod quī quae quae

Nom.

Gen. cūjus cūjus cūjus quōrum quārum quōrum

 Dat. cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus

quem quam quod quōs quās quae

Acc.
quō quibus quibus
Abl. quō[27] quā[27] quibus[26]

VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (substantive) and quī, what? what kind of? (adjective).
1. Quis, who?

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

MASC. AND FEM.

NEUTER

Nom. quis quid The rare Plural

cūjus cūjus follows the declension

Gen.

Dat. cui cui of the Relative Pronoun.

quem quid
Acc.
quō quō
Abl.

2. Quī, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of how? why?

b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.
c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases
quis homō = what

man? whereas quī homō = what sort of man?

d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:—

Substantive:
quisnam, who, pray? quidnam, what, pray?
Adjective: quīnam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind, pray?

VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of some one, any one.
 SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES.

M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.

quis, quid, quī, quae, qua, quod,

any one, anything. any.

aliquis, aliquid, aliquī, aliqua, aliquod,

some one, something. any.

quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam,

any one, anything. any (rare)

quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam,

any one, anything. any.

quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque,

each. each.

quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs, quīvis, quaevīs, quodvis,

quīlibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet,

any one (anything) you wish any you wish

quīdam, quaedam, quiddam, quīdam, quaedam, quoddam,

a certain person, or thing.

a certain

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined.

Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet,

etc.

2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and
Accusative Plural Neuter.

Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam,

quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally)

aliquī substantively.
5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī
quī.
6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive
and adjective

forms,—substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective,

ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,—quīcumque and

quisquis, whoever. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis,
quidquid, quōquō, in common use.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
92. The alius,
following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:—
another; 1. other;
alter, the
uter, which of two? (interr.); neuter, neither;
whichever of two (rel.);

ūnus, one; nūllus, no one (in oblique cases)

2. The compounds,—
 uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two; utercumque, utracumque,
utrumcumque, whoever of two; uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet,
either one you please; utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, either one you
please; alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains

unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both

parts; as,—

altera alterum
Nom. alteruter
utra utrum
Gen. alterius utrīus, etc.

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves.

The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—

1. Two Voices,—Active and Passive.

2. Three Moods,—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
3. Six Tenses,—

Present, Perfect,

Imperfect, Pluperfect,

Future
Future,
Perfect.

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect;

while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4. Two Numbers,—Singular and Plural.

 5. Three Persons,—First, Second, and Third.
95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun
and Adjective

Forms:—

1. Noun Forms,—Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2. Adjective Forms,—Participles (including the Gerundive).
96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,—

Active. Passive.

Sing. 1. -ō; -m; -ī (Perf. Ind.); -r.

-s; -stī (Perf Ind.);

-tō or -rīs, -re;
2.
-re, -tor (Impv.).
wanting (Impv.);

3. -t; -tō (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.).

Plu. 1. -mur.
-mus;
-tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.);
2. -te, -minī.
-tōte (Impv.);

-nt; -ērunt (Perf Ind.);

3. -ntur; -ntor (Impv.).
-ntō (Impv.);

VERB STEMS.
97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish
three different stems in a

fully inflected verb,—

I. Present Stem, from which are formed—

1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,
2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,
 3. The Imperative,
4. The Present Infinitive,
- (Active and Passive.)
5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive.
II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed—
1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
3. Perfect Infinitive,
- (Active.)
III. Participial Stem, from which are formed—
1. Perfect Participle,
2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
4. Perfect Infinitive,
- (Passive.)

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are

the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active

and Passive.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the
vowel of the

termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:—

CONJUGATION. INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING

TERMINATION. VOWEL.

I. -āre ā
II. -ēre ē
III. -ĕre ĕ
IV. -īre ī
99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present

Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal
Parts of a Latin verb,—so called because they

contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb

may be derived.

CONJUGATION OF SUM.
100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that
its inflection is

given at the outset.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

FUT. PARTIC.[29]
sum esse fuī futūrus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

sum, I am, sumus, we are,

es, thou art, estis, you are,

est, he is; sunt, they are.

IMPERFECT.
eram, I was, erāmus, we were,

erās, thou wast, erātis, you were,

erat, he was; erant, they were.

FUTURE.

erō, I shall be, erimus, we shall be,

eris, thou wilt be, eritis, you will be,

erit, he will be; erunt, they will be.

PERFECT.

fuī, I have been, I was, fuimus, we have been, we were,

fuistī, thou hast been, thou wast, fuistis, you have been, you were,

fuērunt, fuēre,
fuit, he has been, he was;
they have been, they were.

PLUPERFECT.

fueram, I had been, fuerāmus, we had been,

fuerās, thou hadst been, fuerātis, you had been,

fuerat, he had been; fuerant, they had been.

FUTURE PERFECT.
fuerō, I shall have been, fuerimus, we shall have been,

fueris, thou wilt have been, fueritis, you will have been,

fuerit, he will have been; fuerint, they will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]

PRESENT.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

sim, may I be, sīmus, let us be,

sīs, mayst thou be, sītis, be ye, may you be,

sit, let him be, may he be; sint, let them be.

IMPERFECT.

essem,[31] I should be, essēmus, we should be,

essēs,[31] thou wouldst be, essētis, you would be,

esset,[31] he would be; essent,[31] they would be.

PERFECT.

fuerim, I may have been, fuerīmus, we may have been,

fuerīs, thou mayst have been, fuerītis, you may have been,

fuerit, he may have been; fuerint, they may have been.

 PLUPERFECT.

fuissem, I should have been, fuissēmus, we should have been.

fuissēs, thou wouldst have been, fuissētis, you would have been,

fuisset, he would have been; fuissent, they would have been.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. es, be thou; este, be ye,

estō, thou shalt be, estōte, ye shall be,

Fut.
estō, he shall be; suntō, they shall be.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
esse, to be.
Pres.
fuisse, to have been.
Perf.
futūrus esse,[32] to be
Fut. Fut. futūrus,[33] about to be.
about to be.

FIRST (OR Ā-) CONJUGATION.

101. Active Voice.—Amō, I love.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.

amō amāre amāvī amātus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
 PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

amō, I love, amāmus, we love,

amās, you love, amātis, you love,

amat, he loves; amant, they love.

IMPERFECT.

amābāmus, we were loving,

amābam, I was loving,[34]
amābās, you were loving, amābātis, you were loving,

amābat, he was loving; amābant, they were loving

FUTURE.

amābō, I shall love, amābimus, we shall love,

amābis, you will love, amābitis, you will love,

amābit, he will love; amābunt, they will love.

PERFECT.

amāvī, I have loved, I loved, amāvimus, we have loved, we loved,

amāvistis, you have loved, you loved,

amāvistī, you have loved, you loved
amāvit, he has loved, he loved; amāvērunt, -ēre, they have loved,

they loved.

PLUPERFECT.

amāveram, I had loved, amāverāmus, we had loved,

amāverās, you had loved, amāverātis, you had loved,

amāverat, he had loved; amāverant, they had loved.

FUTURE PERFECT.

amāverō, I shall have loved, amāverimus, we shall have loved,

amāveris, you will have loved, amāveritis, you will have loved,

amāverit, he will have loved; amāverint, they will have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.

amem, may I love, amēmus, let us love,

amēs, may you love, amētis, may you love,

amet, let him love; ament, let them love.

IMPERFECT.
amārem, I should love, amārēmus, we should love,

amārēs, you would love, amārētis, you would love,

amāret, he would love; amārent, they would love.

PERFECT.

amāverim, I may have loved, amāverīmus, we may have loved,

amāverīs, you may have loved, amāverītis, you may have loved,

amāverit, he may have loved; amāverint, they may have loved.

PLUPERFECT.

amāvissem, I should have loved, amāvīssēmus, we should have loved,

amāvissēs, you would have loved, amāvissētis, you would have loved,

amāvisset, he would have loved; amāvissent, they would have loved.

IMPERATIVE.
amā, love thou; amāte, love ye.
Pres.
amātō, thou shalt love, amātōte, ye shall love,
Fut.
amātō, he shall love; amantō, they shall love.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amāre, to love. Pres. amāns,[35] loving.

Perf. amāvisse, to have loved. (Gen. amantis.)

Fut. amātūrus esse, to be about Fut. amātūrus, about to love.

 to love

GERUND. SUPINE.
amandī, of loving,
Gen.

Dat. amandō, for loving,

Acc. amandum, loving, Acc. amātum, to love,

Abl. amandō, by loving. Abl. amātū, to love, be loved.

102. Passive Voice.—Amor, I am loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

amōr amārī amātus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am loved.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

amor amāmur
amāris amāminī
amātur amantur

IMPERFECT
I was loved.
amābar amābāmur
amābāris, or -re amābāmini
amābātur amābantur

FUTURE.
I shall be loved.
amābor amābimur
amāberis, or -re amābiminī
amābitur amābuntur
 PERFECT
I have been loved, or I was loved.
amātus (-a, -um) sum[36] amātī (-ae, -a) sumus
amātus es amātī estis
amātus est amātī sunt

PLUPERFECT.
I had been loved.
amātus eram[36] amātī erāmus
amātus erās amātī erātis
amātus erat amātī erant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been loved.
amātus erō[36] amātī erimus
amātus eris amātī eritis
amātus erit amātī erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be loved, let him be loved.
amer amēmur
amēris, or -re amēmini
amētur amentur

IMPERFECT.

I should be loved, he would be loved.

amārer amārēmur
amārēris, or -re amārēminī
amārētur amārentur

PERFECT.

I may have been loved.

amātus sim[37] amātī sīmus

 amātus sīs amāti sītis
amātus sit amāti sint

PLUPERFECT.

I should have been loved, he would have been loved.

amātus essem[37] amātī essēmus

amātus essēs amātī essētis
amātus esset amāti essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amāre,[38] be thou loved; amāminī, be ye loved.
amātor, thou shalt be
Fut. loved,

amātor, he shall be loved; amantor, they shall be loved.

PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE.

Pres. amārī, to be loved.

amātus esse, to have been amātus, loved, having

Perf. loved. Perfect. been loved.

amātum īrī, to be about to

amandus, to be loved,
Fut. be loved. Gerundive.
deserving to be loved.

SECOND (OR Ē-) CONJUGATION.

103. Active voice.—Moneō, I advise.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.

moneō monēre monuī monitus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I advise.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

moneō monēmus
monēs monētis
monet monent

IMPERFECT.
I was advising, or I advised.
monēbam monēbāmus
monēbās monēbātis
monēbat monēbant

FUTURE.
I shall advise.
monēbō monēbimus
monēbis monēbitis
monēbit monēbunt

PERFECT.
I have advised, or I advised.
monuī monuimus
monuistī monuistis
monuit monuērunt, or -ēre

PLUPERFECT.
I had advised.
monueram monuerāmus
monuerās monuerātis
monuerat monuerant
 FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have advised.
monuerō monuerimus
monueris monueritis
monuerit monuerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I advise, let him advise.
moneam moneāmus
moneās moneātis
moneat moneant

IMPERFECT.
I should advise, he would advise.
monērem monērēmus
monērēs monērētis
monēret monērent

PERFECT.
I may have advised.
monuerim monuerīmus
monuerīs monuerītis
monuerit monuerint

PLUPERFECT.
I should have advised, he would have advised.
monuissem monuissēmus
monuissēs monuissētis
monuisset monuissent

IMPERATIVE.
monē, advise thou; monēte, advise ye.
Pres.
monētō, thou shall advise, monētōte, ye shall advise,
Fut.
monētō, he shall advise;
monentō, they shall advise.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
 Pres. monēre, to advise. Pres. monēns, advising.

Perf. monuisse, to have advised. (Gen. monentis.)

monitūrus esse, to be about monitūrus, about to

Fut. to advise. Fut. advise.

GERUND. SUPINE.
monendī, of advising,
Gen.
monendō, for advising,
Dat.
monendum, advising, monitum, to advise,
Acc. Acc.
monitū, to advise, be
Abl. monendō, by advising. Abl. advised.

104. Passive voice.—Moneor, I am advised.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

moneor monērī monitus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am advised.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

moneor monēmur
monēris monēminī
monētur monentur

IMPERFECT.
I was advised.
monēbar monēbāmur
monēbāris, or -re monēbāminī
monēbātur monēbantur

FUTURE.
I shall be advised.
monēbor monēbimur
monēberis, or -re monēbiminī
monēbitur monēbuntur

PERFECT.
I have been advised, I was advised.
monitus sum monitī sumus
monitus es monitī estis
monitus est monitī sunt

PLUPERFECT.
I had been advised.
monitus eram monitī erāmus
monitus erās monitī erātis
monitus erat monitī erant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been advised.
monitus erō monitī erimus
monitus eris monitī eritis
monitus erit monitī erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be advised, let him be advised.
monear moneāmur
moneāris, or -re moneāminī
moneātur moneantur

IMPERFECT.
I should be advised, he would be advised.
monērer monērēmur
monērēris, or -re monērēminī
monērētur monērentur
 PERFECT.
I may have been advised.
monitus sim monitī sīmus
monitus sīs monitī sītis
monitus sit monitī sint

PLUPERFECT.
I should have been advised, he would have been advised.
monitus essem monitī essēmus
monitus essēs monitī essētis
monitus esset monitī essent

IMPERATIVE.
monēre, be thou advised; monēminī, be ye advised.
Pres.
monētor, thou shalt be
Fut. advised,

monētor, he shall be
monentor, they shall be advised.
advised.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
monitus, advised,
monērī, to be advised.
Pres. Perfect. having been advised.

monitus esse, to have been

Perf.
advised
monendus, to be
advised, deserving to
monitum īrī, to be about be
Fut. Gerundive.
to be advised.
advised.

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105. Active Voice.—Regō, I rule.
 PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.

regō regere rēxī rēctus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I rule

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

regō regimus
regis regitis
regit regunt

IMPERFECT.
I was ruling, or I ruled.

regēbam regēbāmus
regēbās regēbātis
regēbat regēbant

FUTURE.
I shall rule.

regam regēmus
regēs regētis
reget regent

PERFECT.
I have ruled, or I ruled
rēxī rēximus
rēxistī rēxistis
rēxit rēxērunt, or -ēre
 PLUPERFECT.
I had ruled.

rēxeram rēxerāmus
rēxerās rēxerātis
rēxerat rēxerant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have ruled.

rēxerō rēxerimus
rēxeris rēxeritis
rēxerit rēxerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I rule, let him rule.
regam regāmus
regās regātis
regat regant

IMPERFECT.
I should rule, he would rule.
regerem regerēmus
regerēs regerētis
regeret regerent

PERFECT.
I may have ruled.
rēxerim rēxerīmus
rēxerīs rēxerītis
rēxerit rēxerint

PLUPERFECT.
I should have ruled, he would have ruled.
 rēxissem rēxissēmus
rēxissēs rēxissētis
rēxisset rēxissent

IMPERATIVE.
rege, rule thou; regite, rule ye.

regitō, thou shall rule, regitōte, ye shall rule,

regitō, he shall rule; reguntō, they shall rule.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
regere, to rule. regēns, ruling.
Pres.
rēxisse, to have ruled. (Gen. regentis.)

rēctūrus esse, to be about to rule Fut. rēctūrus, about to rule.

GERUND. SUPINE.
regendī, of ruling,

regendō, for ruling,

regendum, ruling, rēctum, to rule,

Acc.
regendō, by ruling. rēctū, to rule, be ruled.
Abl.

106. Passive Voice.—Regor, I am ruled.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

regor regī rēctus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am ruled.
 SINGULAR. PLURAL.

regor regimur
regeris regiminī
regitur reguntur

IMPERFECT.
I was ruled.
regēbar regēbāmur
regēbāris, or -re regēbāminī
regēbātur regēbantur

FUTURE.
I shall be ruled.
regar regēmur
regēris, or -re regēminī
regētur regentur

PERFECT.
I have been ruled, or I was ruled.

rēctus sum rēctī sumus

rēctus es rēctī estis
rēctus est rēctī sunt

PLUPERFECT.
I had been ruled.
rēctus eram rēctī erāmus
rēctus erās rēctī erātis
rēctus erat rēctī erant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been ruled
rēctus erō rēctī erimus
rēctus eris rēctī eritis
rēctus erit rēctī erunt
 SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
regar regāmur
regāris, or -re regāminī
regātur regantur

IMPERFECT.
I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerer regerēmur
regerēris, or -re regerēminī
regerētur regerentur

PERFECT.
I may have been ruled.
rēctus sim rēctī sīmus
rēctus sīs rēctī sītis
rēctus sit rēctī sint

PLUPERFECT.
I should have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
rēctus essem rēctī essēmus
rēctus essēs rectī essētis
rēctus esset rectī essent

IMPERATIVE.
regere, be thou ruled; regiminī, be ye ruled.
Pres.
regitor, thou shalt be
Fut. ruled,

regitor, he shall be ruled; reguntor, they shall be ruled.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
rēctus, ruled, having
regī, to be ruled.
Pres. Perfect. been ruled.

Perf. rēctus esse, to have been Gerundive. regendus, to be ruled,

 ruled. deserving to be ruled.

rēctum īrī, to be about to

Fut. be ruled.

FOURTH (OR Ī-) CONJUGATION.

107. Active voice.—Audiō, I hear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.

audiō audīre audīvī audītus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I hear.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

audiō audīmus
audīs audītis
audit audiunt

IMPERFECT.
I was hearing, or I heard.
audiēbam audiēbāmus
audiēbās audiēbātis
audiēbat audiēbant

FUTURE.
I shall hear.
audiam audiēmus
audiēs audiētis
audiet audient

PERFECT.
I have heard, or I heard.
audīvī audīvimus
audīvistī audīvistis
audīvit audīvērunt, or -ēre

PLUPERFECT.
I had heard.
audīveram audīverāmus
audīverās audīverātis
audīverat audīverant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have heard.
audīverō audīverimus
audīveris audīveritis
audīverit audīverint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I hear, let him hear.
audiam audiāmus
audiās audiātis
audiat audiant

IMPERFECT.
I should hear, he would hear.
audīrem audīrēmus
audīrēs audīrētis
audīret audīrent

PERFECT.
I may have heard.
audīverim audīverīmus
audīverīs audīverītis
audīverit audīverint
 PLUPERFECT.
I should have heard, he would have heard.
audīvissem audīvissēmus
audīvissēs audīvissētis
audīvisset audīvissent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audī, hear thou; audīte, hear ye.

audītō, thou shalt hear, audītōte, ye shall hear,

Fut.
audītō, he shall hear; audiuntō, they shall hear.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audīre, to hear. Pres. audiēns, hearing.

Perf. audīvisse, to have heard. (Gen. audientis.)

audītūrus esse, to be audītūrus, about to

Fut. about to hear. Fut. hear.

GERUND. SUPINE
Gen. audiendī, of hearing,

audiendō, for hearing,

Dat.

Acc. audiendum, hearing, Acc. audītum, to hear,

audītū, to hear, be
Abl. audiendō, by hearing. Abl. heard.

108. Passive Voice.—Audior, I am heard.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

audior audīrī audītus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
 PRESENT TENSE.
I am heard.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

audior audīmur
audīris audīminī
audītur audiuntur

IMPERFECT.
I was heard.

audiēbar audiēbāmur
audiēbāris, or -re audiēbāminī
audiēbātur audiēbantur

FUTURE.
I shall be heard.

audiar audiēmur
audiēris, or -re audiēminī
audiētur audientur

PERFECT.
I have been heard, or I was heard.

audītus sum audītī sumus

audītus es audītī estis
audītus est audītī sunt
 PLUPERFECT.
I had been heard.

audītus eram audītī erāmus

audītus erās audītī erātis
audītus erat audītī erant

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been heard.

audītus erō audītī erimus

audītus eris audītī eritis
audītus erit audītī erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be heard, let him be heard.

audiar audiāmur
audiāris, or -re audiāminī
audiātur audiantur

IMPERFECT.
I should be heard, he would be heard.

audīrer audīrēmur
audīrēris, or -re audirēminī
audīrētur audīrentur

PERFECT.
I may have been heard.

audītus sim audītī sīmus

 audītus sīs audītī sītis
audītus sit audītī sint

PLUPERFECT.
I should have been heard, he would have been heard.

audītus essem audītī essēmus

audītus essēs audītī essētis
audītus esset audītī essent

IMPERATIVE.
audīre, be thou heard; audīminī, be ye heard.
Pres.
audītor, thou shalt be
Fut. heard,

audītor, he shall be heard; audiuntor, they shall be heard.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
audīrī, to be heard. audītus, heard, having
Pres. Perfect.
been heard
audītus esse, to have been
audiendus, to be heard
Perf. heard. Gerundive.
deserving to be heard
audītum īrī, to be about to
Fut. be heard.

VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

109. 1. Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth
Conjugation wherever the

latter endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in the

Present System.

2. Here belong—
 a) capiō, to take; cupiō, to desire; faciō, to make; fodiō, to dig; fugiō, to
flee; jaciō, to throw; pariō, to bear; quatiō, to shake; rapiō, to seize;
sapiō, to taste.
b) Compounds of laciō and speciō (both ante-classical); as, alliciō, entice;

cōnspiciō, behold.

c) The deponents gradior, to go; morior, to die, patior, to suffer.

110. Active voice.—Capiō, I take.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC.

capiō, capere, cēpī, captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

capiō, capis, capit; capimus, capitis, capiunt.

IMPERFECT.

capiēbam, -iēbās, -iēbat; capiēbāmus, -iēbātis, -iēbant.

FUTURE.
capiam, -iēs, -iet; capiēmus, -iētis, -ient.

PERFECT.
cēpī, -istī, -it; cēpimus, -istis, -ērunt or -ēre.
 PLUPERFECT.
cēperam, -erās, -erat; cēperāmus, -erātis, -erant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
cēperō, -eris, -erit; cēperimus, -eritis, -erint.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
capiam, -iās, -iat; capiāmus, -iātis, -iant.

IMPERFECT.
caperem, -erēs, -eret; caperēmus, -erētis, -erent.

PERFECT.
cēperim, -eris, -erit; cēperīmus, -erītis, -erint.

PLUPERFECT.
cēpissem, -issēs, -isset; cēpissēmus, -issētis, -issent.

IMPERATIVE.
cape; capite.
Pres.

Fut. capitō, capitōte,

capitō; capiuntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capere Pres. capiēns.

Perf. cēpisse.

captūrus esse. captūrus.

Fut. Fut.
 GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. capiendī,

capiendō,
Dat.

Acc. capiendum, Acc. captum,

Abl. capiendō. Abl. captū.

111. Passive Voice.—Capior, I am taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND.

capior, capī, captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

capior, caperis, capitur; capimur, capiminī, capiuntur.

IMPERFECT.
capiēbar, -iēbāris, -iēbātur; capiēbāmur, -iēbāminī, -iēbantur.

FUTURE.
capiar, -iēris, -iētur; capiēmur, -iēminī, -ientur.

PERFECT.
captus sum, es, est; captī sumus, estis, sunt.
 PLUPERFECT.
captus eram, erās, erat; captī erāmus, erātis, erant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
captus erō, eris, erit; captī erimus, eritis, erunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
capiar, -iāris, -iātur; capiāmur, -iāminī, -iantur.

IMPERFECT.
caperer, -erēris, -erētur; caperēmur, -erēminī, -erentur.

PERFECT.
captus sim, sīs, sit; captī sīmus, sītis, sint.

PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, essēs, esset; captī essēmus, essētis, essent.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. capere; capiminī.

capitor,
Fut.
capitor; capiuntor.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
capī.
Pres.

Perf. captus esse. Perfect. captus.

Fut. captum īrī. Gerundive. capiendus.

 DEPONENT VERBS.
112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active or Neuter meaning.
But—

a. They have the following Active forms: Future Infinitive,

Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.

b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the

Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as—

sequendus, to be followed; adeptus, attained.

113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are—

mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus

I. Conj.
sum, admire.

II. Conj. vereor, vererī, veritus sum, fear.

sequor, sequī, secūtus sum,

III. Conj.
follow.

largior, largīrī, largītus sum,

IV. Conj.
give.

III. (in -ior) patior, patī, passus sum, suffer.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
III (in -
I. II. III. IV.
ior)

Pres. mīror vereor sequor largior patior

mīrāris verēris sequeris largiris pateris

 mīrātur verētur sequitur largītur patitur

mīramur verēmur sequimur largīmur patimur

mīrāminī verēminī sequiminī largīminī patiminī

mīrantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur patiuntur

mīrābar verēbar sequēbar largiēbar patiēbar

Impf.

Fut. mīrābor verēbor sequar largiar patiar

mirātus veritus secūtus largītus passus

Perf. sum sum sum sum sum

mīrātus veritus secūtus largītus passus

Plup. eram eram eram eram eram

mīrātus veritus secūtus passus

F.P. largītus erō
erō erō erō erō

SUBJUNCTIVE.
mīrer verear sequar largiar patiar
Pres.

Impf. mīrārer verērer sequerer largīrer paterer

mīrātus veritus secūtus passus

Perf. largītus sim
sim sim sim sim

mīrātus veritus sectūtus largītus passus

Plup. essem essem essem essem essem

IMPERATIVE.
mīrāre, verēre, sequere, patere,
Pres. largīre, etc.
etc. etc. etc. etc.
mīrātor, verētor, sequitor, largītor, patitor,
Fut.
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. mīrāri verērī sequī largīrī patī
 Perf. mīrātus veritus secūtus largītus passus
esse esse esse esse esse

mīrātūrus veritūrus secūtūrus largītūrus passūrus

Fut. esse esse esse esse esse

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. mīrāns verēns sequēns largiēns patiēns

Fut. mīrātūrus veritūrus secūtūrus largitūrus passūrus

mīrātus veritus secūtus largitus passus

Perf.

Ger. mīrandus verendus sequendus largiendus patiendus

GERUND.
mīrandī verendī sequendī largiendī patiendī

mirandō, verendō, sequendō, largiendō, patiendō,

etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.

SUPINE.
mīrātum, veritum, - secūtum, - largītum, - passum, -
-tū tū tū tū sū

SEMI-DEPONENTS.
114. 1. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice,
but the Perfect System in

the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong—

ausus sum, to
audeō, audēre,
dare.

gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum, to

rejoice.
 solitus sum, to be
soleō, solēre,
wont.

fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum, to trust.

2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active

meaning:—

adolēscō, grow up; adultus, having grown up,

cēnāre, dine; cēnātus, having dined.

placēre, please; placitus, having pleased, agreeable.

prandēre, lunch; prānsus, having lunched.

pōtāre, drink; pōtus, having drunk.

jūrāre, swear; jūrātus, having sworn.

a. Jūrātus is used in a passive sense

also.

3. Revertor and dēvertor both regularly form their

Perfect in the Active Voice; viz.—

revertī
revertor, revertī (Perf.), to return.
(Inf.),

dēvertī
dēvertor, dēvertī (Perf.), to turn aside.
(Inf.),

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,—the Active and the Passive. The Active
is formed by

combining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the

Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.

Active Periphrastic Conjugation.

INDICATIVE

MOOD.

amātūrus (-a, -um) sum, I am about to love.

Pres.

Inf. amātūrus eram, I was about to love.

Fut. amātūrus erō, I shall be about to love.

amātūrus fuī, I have been (was) about to

Perf.
love.

amātūrus fueram, I had been about to love.

Plup.
amātūrus fuerō, I shall have been about to
Fut. P.
love.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
amātūrus sim, may I be about to love.
Pres.

Imp. amātūrus essem, I should be about to love.

amātūrus fuerim, I may have been about to

Perf.
love.

amātūrus fuissem, I should have been about to

Plup.
love.
 INFINITIVE.
amātūrus esse, to be about to love.
Pres.

Perf. amātūrus fuisse, to have been about to love.

Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.

INDICATIVE.
amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, must be loved.
Pres.

Imp. amandus eram, I was to be loved.

Fut. amandus erō, I shall deserve to be loved.

amandus fuī, I was to be loved.

Perf.

Plup. amandus fueram, I had deserved to be loved.

Fut. P. amandus fuerō, I shall have deserved to be loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amandus sim, may I deserve to be loved.

Imp. amandus essem, I should deserve to be loved.

amandus fuerim, I may have deserved to be loved.

Perf.

Plup. amendus fuissem, I should have deserved to be loved.

INFINITIVE.
amandus esse, to deserve to be loved.
Pres.

Perf. amantus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
116. 1. Perfects in

-āvī, -ēvī, and -īvī,

with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning
with r or s. So also

nōvī (from nōscō) and the compounds of

mōvī (from moveō). Thus:—

amāvistī amāstī dēlēvistī dēlēstī

amāvisse amāsse dēlēvisse dēlēsse

amāvērunt amārunt dēlēvērunt dēlērunt

amāverim amārim dēlēverim dēlērim

amāveram amāram dēlēveram dēlēram

amāverō amārō dēlēverō dēlērō

nōvistī nōstī nōverim nōrim

nōvisse nōsse nōveram nōram

audīvistī audīstī audīvisse audīsse

2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations,

the endings -undus, -undī, often occur instead of

-endus and -endī, as faciundus,

faciundī.

3. Dīcō, dūcō, faciō,

form the Imperatives, dīc, dūc, fac. But

compounds of faciō form the Imperative in -fice, as

cōnfice. Compounds of dīcō,

dūcō, accent the ultima; as, ēdū´c,

ēdī´c.

4. Archaic and Poetic forms:—

a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive;

as, amārier, monērier, dīcier, for

amārī, monērī,

dīcī.

b. The ending -ībam for -iēbam in

Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -ībō for

-iam in Futures; as, scībam, scībō,

for sciēbam, sciam.

c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as

dīxistī, scrīpsistis,

surrēxisse, we sometimes find dīxtī,

scrīpstis, surrēxe, etc.

d. The endings -im, -īs, etc. (for -am, -ās, etc.) occur in a few Subjunctive

forms; as, edim (eat), duint, perduint.

5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary

esse is often omitted; as, āctūrum for

ācturum esse; ējectus for ējectus

esse.
 FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.

Formation of the Present Stem.

117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;[39] as, dīcere,
amāre, monēre, audīre. Others modify

the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows:—

1. By appending the vowels, ā, ē,

ī; as,—

Present Verb
Stem Stem

juvāre, juv-.
juvā-
augēre, aug-.
augē-
vincīre, vincī- vinc-.

2. By adding i, as capiō, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).

3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before

the final consonant of the Verb Stem; as, fundō (Stem

fud-), rumpō (Stem rup-).

4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,—

pell-ō (for pel-nō).

cern-ō

5. By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,—

flect-ō.

6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,—

crēsc-ō. scīsc-ō.
7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of

the Verb Stem with i; as,—

gi-gn-ō (root gen-), si-st-ō (root sta-).

Formation of the Perfect Stem.

118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem— 1. By adding v (in case of
Vowel Stems); as,—

amāv-ī, dēlēv-ī, audīv-ī.

2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems);

as,—

strepu-ī, genu-ī, alu-ī.

3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems);

as,—

carp-
Perfect carps-ī.
ō,

scrīb- scrīps-ī (for

"
ō, scrīb-sī).

rīd- rīs-ī (for rīd-

"
eō, sī).

sent- sēns-ī (for sent-

"
iō, sī).

dīx-ī (i.e. dīc-

dīc-ō, "
sī).

a. Note that before the ending -sī a Dental Mute

 (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial
b is changed to

p.

4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three

types:—

a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial

consonant with the following vowel or e; as,—

currō, Perfect cu-currī.

poscō, " po-poscī.

pellō, " pe-pulī.

NOTE 1.—Compounds, with the exception of

dō, stō, sistō, discō,

poscō, omit the reduplication. Thus: com-pulī,

but re-poposcī.

NOTE 2.—Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication,

but drop

s from the stem; as, spondeō, spo-pondī;

stō, stetī.

b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as,

legō, lēgī; agō,

ēgī. Note that ă by this process becomes

ē.

c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as,

 vertō, vertī; minuō,

minuī.

Formation of the Participial Stem.

119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by
dropping -us, is

formed:—

1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to

the Verb Stem); as,—

amā-
Participle amā-tus.
re,

dēlē-
" dēlē-tus,
re,

audī-
" audī-tus,
re,

leg-
" lēc-tus,
ere,

scrīb-
" scrīp-tus,
ere,

sentī- sēn-sus (for sent-

"
re, tus).

caed- cae-sus (for caed-

"
ere, tus).

a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see § 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt or tt

becomes ss, which is then often simplified to

s (§ 8, 2).

2. After the analogy of Participles like sēnsus and

caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb
Stems; as,—

lāb-ī, Participle lāp-sus.

fīg-
" fī-xus.
ere,

a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending

-sus to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § 118, 3, a).

3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -ĭtus;

as,—

domā-re, dom-ĭtus.

monē-re, mon-ĭtus.

4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with

the Perfect Passive Participle; as, amā-tus,

amātūrus; moni-tus, monitūrus.

But—

juvā- Perf. has Fut. Act.

jūtus,
re, Partic. Partic. juvātūrus.[40]

lavā-
" lautus, " lavātūrus.
re,

par-
" partus, " paritūrus.
ere,

ru-ere, " rutus, " ruitūrus.

secă-
" sectus, " secātūrus.
re,
 fru-ĭ, " frūctus, " fruitūrus.

mor-ī, " mortuus, " moritūrus.

orī-rī, " ortus, " oritūrus.

LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.

First (Ā-) Conjugation.

120. I. PERFECT

IN -VĪ.

amō amāre amāvī amātus

love

All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

pōtus (§ 114,
pōtō pōtāre pōtāvī
2) drink

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

crepō crepāre crepuī crepitūrus

rattle
cubō cubāre cubuī cubitūrus lie down
domō domāre domuī domitus tame
frictus and
fricō fricāre fricuī
fricātus rub

micō micāre micuī ——

glitter
dīmicō dīmicāre dīmicāvī dīmicātum
fight
(est)[41]
ex- explicāre explicāvī explicātus (- unfold
plicō (-uī) itus)
 im- implicāvī implicātus (-
implicāre entwine
plicō (-uī) itus)

secō secāre secuī sectus cut

sonō sonāre sonuī sonātūrus sound
tonō tonāre tonuī ——
thunder
vetō vetāre vetuī vetitus forbid

III. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.

juvō juvāre jūvī jūtus

help
lavō lavāre lāvī lautus wash

IV. PERFECT REDUPLICATED.

stō stāre stetī stātūrus

V. DEPONENTS.

These are all regular, and follow mīror,

mīrārī, mīrātus sum.

Second (Ē-) Conjugation.

121. I. PERFECT

IN -VĪ.

dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī dēlētus

destroy
fleō flēre flēvī flētus
weep, lament
com- complēre complēvī complētus
fill up
pleō[42]
aboleō abolēre abolēvī abolitus destroy
 cieō[43] ciēre cīvī citus set in motion

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

a. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -itus.

arceō arcēre arcuī keep off

coerceō coercēre coercuī coercitus hold in check
exerceō exercēre exercuī exercitus
practise
caleō calēre caluī calitūrus be warm
careō carēre caruī caritūrus be without
doleō dolēre doluī dolitūrus grieve
habeō habēre habuī habitus
have
dēbeō dēbēre dēbuī dēbitus owe
praebeō praebēre praebuī praebitus offer
jaceō jacēre jacuī jacitūrus
lie
mereō merēre meruī meritus earn, deserve
moneō monēre monuī monitus advise
noceō nocēre nocuī nocitum (est) injure
pāreō pārēre pāruī pāritūrus
obey
placeō placēre placuī placitūrus please
taceō tacēre tacuī tacitūrus be silent
terreō terrēre terruī territus
frighten
valeō valēre valuī valitūrus be strong
 NOTE 1.—The following lack the Participial Stem:—

egeō egēre eguī —— want

ēmineō ēminēre ēminuī —— stand forth
flōreō flōrēre flōruī ——
bloom
horreō horrēre horruī ——
bristle
lateō latēre latuī —— lurk
niteō nitēre nituī —— gleam
oleō olēre oluī ——
smell
palleō pallēre palluī —— be pale
pateō patēre patuī —— lie open
rubeō rubēre rubuī ——
be red
sileō silēre siluī ——
be silent
splendeō splendēre splenduī —— gleam
studeō studēre studuī —— study
stupeō stupēre stupuī ——
be amazed
timeō timēre timuī —— fear
torpeō torpēre torpuī —— be dull
vigeō vigēre viguī ——
flourish
vireō virēre viruī ——
be green
and others.
 NOTE 2.—The following are used only in the Present System:—

aveō avēre —— ——
wish
frīgeō frīgēre —— —— be cold
immineō imminēre —— —— overhang
maereō maerēre —— ——
mourn
polleō pollēre —— ——
be strong
and others.

b. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -tus (-sus).

cēnseō cēnsēre cēnsuī cēnsus estimate

doceō docēre docuī doctus teach
misceō miscēre miscuī mixtus
mix
teneō tenēre tenuī ——
hold
So contineō and sustineō; but—

retineō retinēre retinuī retentus

retain
obtineō obtinēre obtinuī obtentus
maintain
torreō torrēre torruī tostus
bake

III. PERFECT IN -SĪ.

augeō augēre auxī auctus

increase
torqueō torquēre torsī tortus
twist
indulgeō indulgēre indulsī —— indulge
 lūceō lūcēre lūxī —— be light

lūgeō lūgēre lūxī —— mourn

jubeō jubēre jussī jussus order
per-
permulcēre permulsī permulsus soothe
mulceō

rīdeō rīdēre rīsī rīsum (est)

laugh
suādeō suādēre suāsī suāsum (est)
advise
abs-
abstergēre abstersī abstersus
tergeō wipe off

ārdeō ārdēre ārsī ārsūrus burn

haereō haerēre haesī haesūrus stick
maneō manēre mānsī mānsūrus
stay
algeō algēre alsī ——
be cold
fulgeō fulgēre fulsī ——
gleam
urgeō urgēre ursī ——
press

IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH REDUPLICATION.

mordeō mordēre momordī morsus

bite
spondeō spondēre spopondī spōnsus
promise
tondeō tondēre totondī tōnsus
shear
pendeō pendēre pependī —— hang

V. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

caveō cavēre cāvī cautūrus take care

 faveō favēre fāvī fautūrus favor

foveō fovēre fōvī fōtus

cherish
moveō movēre mōvī mōtus
move
paveō pavēre pāvī ——
fear
sedeō sedēre sēdī sessūrus
sit
videō vidēre vīdī vīsus see
voveō vovēre vōvī vōtus vow

VI. PERFECT IN -Ī WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

(fervī,
ferveō fervēre ——
ferbuī) boil

prānsus (§ 114,
prandeō prandēre prandī
2) lunch

strīdeō strīdēre strīdī ——

creak

VII. DEPONENTS.

liceor licērī licitus sum

bid
pollicitus
polliceor pollicērī promise
sum

mereor merērī meritus sum

earn
miseritus
misereor miserērī
sum pity

vereor verērī veritus sum fear

fateor fatērī fassus sum confess
cōnfiteor cōnfitērī cōnfessus confess
sum
 reor rērī ratus sum
think
medeor medērī ——
heal
tueor tuērī ——
protect

Third (Consonant) Conjugation.

122. I. VERBS

WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING

IN A CONSONANT.

1. Perfect in -sī.
a. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -tus.

carpō carpere carpsī carptus

pluck
sculpō sculpere sculpsī sculptus
chisel
rēpō rēpere rēpsī ——
creep
serpō serpere serpsī —— crawl
scribō scribere scrīpsī scrīptus write
nūpta (woman
nūbō nūbere nūpsī
only) marry

regō regere rēxī rēctus

govern
tegō tegere tēxī tēctus
cover
af-flīgō afflīgere afflīxī afflīctus
shatter
dīcō dīcere dīxī dictus
say
dūcō dūcere dūxī ductus lead
coquō coquere coxī coctus cook
 trahō trahere trāxī trāctus draw

vehō vehere vexī vectus

carry
cingō cingere cīnxī cīnctus
gird
tingō tingere tīnxī tīnctus
dip
jungō jungere jūnxī jūnctus
join
fingō fingere fīnxī fīctus
would
pingō pingere pīnxī pīctus paint
stringō stringere strīnxī strictus bind

- -
-stīnxī -stīnctus
stinguere blot out
stinguō[44]
unguō unguere ūnxī ūnctus
anoint
vīvō vīvere vīxī vīctum (est)
live
gerō gerere gessī gestus
carry
urō ūrere ussī ūstus
burn
con-
temnō temnere con-temptus
tempsī despise

b. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -sus.

fīgō fīgere fīxī fīxus

fasten
mergō mergere mersī mersus sink
spargō spargere sparsī sparsus scatter
flectō flectere flexī flexus
bend
nexuī
nectō nectere nexus twine
(nexī)
 mittō mittere mīsī missus send

rādō rādere rāsī rāsus

shave
rōdō rōdere rōsī rōsus
gnaw
vādō vādere -vāsum (est)
-vāsī[45] [45] march, walk
lūdō lūdere lūsī lūsum (est)
play
trūdō trūdere trūsī trūsus
push
laedō laedere laesī laesus
injure, hurt
claudō claudere clausī clausus
close
plaudō plaudere plausī plausum (est) clap
explōdō explōdere explōsī explōsus hoot off
cēdō cēdere cessī cessum (est)
withdraw
dīvidō dīvidere dīvīsī dīvīsus
divide
premō premere pressī pressus
press

2. Perfect in -ī with Reduplication.

ab-dō abdere abdidī abditus

conceal
red-dō red-dere reddidī redditus
return
So addō, condō, dēdō,

perdō, prōdō, trādō,

etc.

cōn-sistō cōnsistere cōnstitī —— take one's

stand
resistō resistere restitī ——
resist
circumsistō circumsistere circumstetī —— surround

cadō cadere cecidī cāsūrus fall

caedō caedere cecīdī caesus kill
pendō pendere pependī pēnsus
weigh, pay
tendō tendere tetendī tentus
stretch
tūsus,
tundō tundere tutudī beat
tūnsus

(falsus, as
fallō fallere fefellī
Adj.) deceive

pellō pellere pepulī pulsus

drive out
cursum
currō currere cucurrī
(est) run

parcō parcere pepercī parsūrus spare

canō canere cecinī ——
sing
tangō tangere tetigī tāctus
touch
pungō pungere pupugī pūnctus
prick

NOTE.—In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated,

but have lost the reduplicating syllable:—

per-cellō percellere perculī perculsus

strike down
findō findere fidī fissus
split
scindō scindere scidī scissus tear apart
tollō tollere sus-tulī sublātus remove
3. Perfect in -ī with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

agō agere ēgī āctus

drive, do
peragō peragere perēgī perāctus
finish
subigō subigere subēgī subāctus
subdue
cōgō cōgere coēgī coāctus force, gather
frangō frangere frēgī frāctus break
perfringō perfringere perfrēgī perfrāctus
break down
legō legere lēgī lēctus
gather, read
perlegō perlegere perlēgī perlēctus
read through
colligō colligere collēgī collēctus
collect
dēligō dēligere dēlēgī dēlēctus
choose
dīligō dīligere dīlēxī dīlēctus love
intellegō intellegere intellēxī intellēctus understand
neglegō neglegere neglēxī neglēctus
neglect
emō emere ēmī ēmptus
buy
coëmō coëmere coēmī coēmptus
buy up
redimō redimere redēmī redēmptus
buy back
dirimō dirimere dirēmī dirēmptus
destroy
dēmō dēmere dēmpsī dēmptus take away
sūmō sūmere sūmpsī sūmptus take
(prōmptus, as
prōmō prōmere prōmpsī
Adj.) take out
 vincō vincere vīcī victus conquer

re-linquō relinquere relīquī relīctus

leave
rumpō rumpere rūpī ruptus break
ēsse (§
edō ēdī ēsus
128) eat

fundō fundere fūdī fūsus

four

4. Perfect in -ī without either Reduplication or

Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

excūdō excūdere excūdī excūsus

hammer
cōnsīdō cōnsīdere cōnsēdī ——
take one's seat
possīdō possīdere possēdī possessus
take possession
accendō accendere accendī accēnsus kindle
a- ascēnsum
ascendere ascendī
scendō (est) climb

dē-
dēfendere dēfendī dēfēnsus
fendō defend

pre-
prehendere prehendī prehēnsus seize
hendō

īcō īcere īcī ictus

strike
vellō vellere vellī vulsus
pluck
vertō vertere vertī versus
turn
pandō pandere pandī passus spread
solvō solvere solvī solūtus loose
vīsō vīsere vīsī vīsus visit
 volvō volvere volvī volūtus
roll
verrō verrere verrī versus sweep

5. Perfect in -uī.

in-
incumbere incubuī incubitūrus
cumbō lean on

gignō gignere genuī genitus bring forth

molō molere moluī molitus grind
vomō vomere vomuī vomitus
vomit
fremō fremere fremuī ——
snort
gemō gemere gemuī ——
sigh
metō metere messuī messus
reap
tremō tremere tremuī ——
tremble
strepō strepere strepuī —— rattle
alō alete aluī altus (alitus) nourish
colō colere coluī cultus
cultivate
incolō incolere incoluī ——
inhabit
excolō excolere excoluī excultus
perfect
cōnsulō cōnsulere cōnsuluī cōnsultus
consult
cōnserō cōnserere cōnseruī cōnsertus
join
dēserō dēserere dēseruī dēsertus desert
disserō disserere disseruī —— discourse
texō texere texuī textus
weave
6. Perfect in -vī.

sinō sinere sīvī situs

allow
desinō dēsinere dēsiī dēsitus
cease
ponō pōnere posuī positus place
ob-linō oblinere oblēvī oblitus smear
serō serere sēvī satus
sow
cōnserō cōnserere cōnsēvī cōnsitus
plant
cernō cernere —— ——
separate
discernō discernere discrēvī discrētus
distinguish
dēcernō dēcernere dēcrēvī dēcrētus
decide
spernō spernere sprēvī sprētus scorn
sternō sternere strāvī strātus spread
prō-
prōsternere prōstrāvī prōstrātus
sternō overthrow

petīvī
petō petere petītus seek
(petiī)

appetō appetere appetīvī appetītus

long for
terō terere trīvī trītus
rub
quaerō quaerere quaesīvī quaesītus
seek
acquīrō acquīrere acquīsīvī acquīsītus acquire
arcessō arcessere arcessīvī arcessītus summon
capessō capessere capessīvī capessītus
seize
lacessō lacessere lacessīvī lacessītus provoke
7. Used only in Present System.

angō angere —— ——
choke
lambō lambere —— ——
lick
claudō claudere —— ——
be lame
furō furere —— ——
rave
vergō vergere —— ——
bend
and a few others.

II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.

induō induere induī indūtus

put on
imbuō imbuere imbuī imbūtus
moisten
luō luere luī —— wash
polluō polluere polluī pollūtus
defile
minuō minuere minuī minūtus
lessen
statuō statuere statuī statūtus
set up
cōnstituō cōnstituere cōnstituī cōnstitūtus
determine
suō suere suī sūtus sew
tribuō tribuere tribuī tribūtus
allot
ruō ruere ruī ruitūrus fall
dīruō dīruere dīruī dīrutus destroy
obruō obruere obruī obrutus overwhelm
acuō acuere acuī —— sharpen
 arguō arguere arguī —— accuse
congruō congruere congruī —— agree
metuō metuere metuī —— fear
ab-nuō abnuere abnuī —— decline
re-spuō respuere respuī ——
reject
struō struere strūxī strūctus
build
(flūxus, as
fluō fluere flūxi
Adj.) flow

III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.

capiō cupere cupīvī cupītus wish

sapiō sapere sapīvī —— taste
rapiō rapere rapuī raptus snatch
dīripiō dīripere dīripuī dīreptus plunder
cōnspiciō cōnspicere cōnspexī cōnspectus gaze at
aspiciō aspicere aspexī aspectus behold
illiciō illicere illexī illectus allure
pelliciō pellicere pellexī pellectus allure
ēliciō ēlicere ēlicuī ēlicitus
elicit
quatiō quatere —— quassus
shake
concutiō concutere concussī concussus
shake
pariō parere peperī partus
bring forth
capiō capere cēpī captus take
 accipiō accipere accēpī acceptus accept
incipiō incipere incēpī inceptus begin
faciō facere fēcī factus make
afficiō afficere affēcī affectus
affect
Passive, afficior, afficī, affectus sum.

So other prepositional compounds, perficiō,

perficior; interficiō, interficior; etc. But—

assuēfaciō assuēfacere assuēfēcī assuēfactus

accustom
Passive, assuēfiō, assuēfieri, assuēfactus

sum.

So also patefaciō, patefīō;

calefaciō, calefīō; and all

non-prepositional compounds.

jaciō jacere jēcī jactus hurl

abiciō abicere abjēcī abjectus throw away
fodiō fodere fōdī fossus dig
fugiō fugere fūgī fugitūrus flee
effugiō effugere effūgī —— escape

IV. VERBS IN -SCŌ.

1. Verbs in -scō from Simple Roots.

poscō poscere poposcī —— demand

 discō discere didicī —— learn

pāscō pāscere pāvī pāstus

feed
pāscor pāscī pāstus sum
graze
crēscō crēscere crēvī crētus grow
cōnsuēscō cōnsuēscere cōnsuēvī cōnsuētus accustom one's
self
quiēscō quiēscere quiēvī quiētūrus be still
adolēscō adolēscere adolēvi adultus grow up
obsolēscō obsolēscerē obsolēvī —— grow old
nōscō nōscere nōvī —— become
acquainted with
ignōscō ignōscere ignōvī ignōtūrus pardon
agnōscō agnōscere agnōvī agnitus recognize
cognōscō cognōscere cognōvī cognitus get acquainted
with

2. Verbs in -scō formed from other Verbs.

These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155, 1). When they have
the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived.

flōrēscō flōrēscere flōruī begin to (flōreō)

bloom
scīscō scīscere scīvī enact (scīo)

ārēscō ārēscere āruī become (āreō)

dry
calēscō calēscere caluī become hot (caleō)

cōnsenēscō cōnsenēscere cōnsenuī grow old (seneō)

extimēscō extimēscere extimuī fear (timeō)

greatly
 ingemīscō ingemīscere ingemuī sigh (gemō)

adhaerēscō adhaerēscere adhaesī stick (haereō)

3. Verbs in -scō derived from Adjectives, usually with

Inchoative meaning.

obdūrēscō obdūrēscere obdūruī (dūrus)

grow hard
ēvanēscō ēvanēscere ēvinuī (vānus)
disappear
percrēbrēsco percrēbrēscere percrēbruī (crēber)
grow fresh
mātūrescō mātūrēscere mātūruī (mātūrus)
grow ripe
obmūtēscō obmūtēscere obmūtuī grow (mūtus)
dumb

V. DEPONENTS.

fungor fungi fūnctus sum perform

queror querī questus sum complain
loquor loquī locūtus sum speak
sequor sequī secūtus sum follow
fruor fruī fruitūrus enjoy
perfrūctus
perfruor perfruī thoroughly enjoy
sum

lābor lābi lāpsus sum

glide
amplexus
amplector amplectī embrace
sum

nītor nītī nīsus sum, strive

nīxus
 sum

gradior gradī gressus sum walk

patior patī passus sum suffer
perpessus
perpetior perpetī endure
sum

ūtor ūtī ūsus sum use

mortuus
morior morī
sum die

adeptus
adipīscor adipīscī acquire
sum

commentus
comminīscor comminīscī invent
sum

reminīscor reminīscī —— remember

nanctus
nancīscor nancīscī (nactus) acquire
sum

nāscor nāscī nātus sum be born

oblīvīscor oblīvīscī oblītus sum forget
pacīscor pacīscī pactus sum covenant
profectus
proficīscor proficīscī set out
sum

ulcīscor ulcīscī ultus sum avenge

(īrātus, as
īrāscor īrāscī be angry
Adj.)

vescor vescī —— eat

 Fourth Conjugation.

123. I. PERFECT ENDS

IN -VĪ.

audiō audīre audīvī audītus hear

So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.

sepeliō sepelīre sepelīvī sepultus bury

II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UĪ.

aperiō aperīre aperuī apertus open

operiō operīre operuī opertus
cover
saliō salīre saluī —— leap

III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SĪ.

saepiō saepīre saepsī saeptus hedge in

sanciō sancīre sānxī sānctus
ratify
vinciō vincīre vinxī vinctus bind
amiciō amicīre —— amictus
envelop
fulciō fulcīre fulsī fultus prop up
referciō refercīre refersī refertus
fill
sarciō sarcīre sarsī sartus patch
hauriō haurīre hausī haustus
draw
sentiō sentīre sēnsī sēnsus feel
IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

veniō venīre vēnī ventum (est) come

adventum
adveniō advenīre advēnī
(est) arrive

inveniō invenīre invēnī inventus find

V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.

reperiō reperīre repperī repertus find

comperiō comperīre comperī compertus
learn

VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.

feriō ferīre —— ——
strike
ēsuriō ēsurīre —— —— be hungry

VII. DEPONENTS.

largior largīrī largītus sum

bestow
So many others.

expertus
experior experīrī try
sum

oppertus
opperior opperīrī
sum await

ōrdior ōrdīrī ōrsus sum begin

orior orīrī ortus sum
arise
Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection;

as oreris, orĭtur, orĭmur;

 orerer (Imp. Subj.); orere (Imper.).

mētior mētīrī mēnsus sum

measure
assēnsus
assentior assentīrī assent
sum

IRREGULAR VERBS.
124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, dō,

edō, ferō, volō,

nōlō, mālō, eō,

fīō. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append

the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of

employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of

fer-ō), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of

what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.

125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are
inflected in the same way.

They are—

absum abesse āfuī

am absent
Pres. Partic. absēns (absentis), absent.

adsum adesse adfuī

am present
dēsum deesse dēfuī am lacking
insum inesse īnfuī am in
 intersum interesse interfuī
am among
praesum praeesse praefuī am in
charge of
Pres. Partic. praesēns (praesentis), present
obsum obesse obfuī hinder
prōsum prōdesse prōfuī am of
advantage
subsum subesse subfuī am
underneath
supersum superesse superfuī
am left

NOTE.—Prōsum is compounded

of prōd (earlier form of prō) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as
prōsumus; but

prōdestis.

126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able)
and sum; potuī is from an obsolete potēre.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

to be
possum, posse, potuī,
able.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

possum, potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt.

Pres.
poteram; poterāmus.
Imp.
poterō; poterimus.
Fut.

Perf. potuī; potuimus.

Plup. potueram; potuerāmus.

 Fut. potuerō; potuerimus.
P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

possim, possīs, possit; possīmus, possītis, possint.

Pres.
possem; possēmus.
Imp.
potuerim; potuerīmus.
Perf.
potuissem; potuissēmus.
Plup.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
posse. potēns (as an adjective).
Pres. Pres.
potuisse.
Perf.

127. Dō, I give.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

dō, dăre, dedī, dătus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Pres. dō, dās, dat; dămus, dătis, dant.

dăbam, etc.; dăbāmus.

Imp.

Fut. dăbō, etc.; dăbimus.

dedī; dedimus.
Perf.
Plup. dederam; dederāmus.
 Fut. dederō; dederimus.
P.

SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. dem; dēmus.

dărem; dărēmus.
Imp.

Perf. dederim; dederīmus.

dedissem; dedissēmus.
Plup.

IMPERATIVE.
dā; dăte.
Pres.

Fut. dătō; dătōte.

dătō. dantō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
dăre. dāns.
Pres.

Perf. dedisse.

dătūrus esse. dătūrus.

Fut.

GERUND. SUPINE.
dătum, dătū.
dandī, etc.

1. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus:

dărī, dătur, dărētur,

etc.

2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim,

duint, perduit, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral
root of similar

meaning.

128. Edō, I eat.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. edō, edimus,

ēs, ēstis,

ēst; edunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. ēssem, ēssēmus,

ēssēs, ēssētis,

ēsset; ēssent.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. ēs; ēste.

Fut. ēstō; ēstōte.

ēstō; eduntō.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. ēsse.
 Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. 3d Sing. ēstur.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. 3d Sing. ēssētur.

1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in ēs-, which alone

distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to

be.

2. Note comedō, comēsse,

comēdī, comēsus or comēstus,

consume.

3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -īs,

-it, etc., less often edam, -ās, etc.

129. Ferō, I bear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

ferō, fers, fert;

Pres. ferimus, fertis, ferunt.[46]
Imp. ferēbam; ferēbāmus.
Fut. feram; ferēmus.

tulī; tulimus.
Perf.

Plup. tuleram; tulerāmus.

Fut. tulerō; tulerimus.

P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
feram; ferāmus.
Pres.

Imp. ferrem; ferrēmus.

Perf. tulerim; tulerīmus.

Plup. tulissem; tulissēmus.

IMPERATIVE
Pres. fer; ferte.

Fut. fertō; fertōte.

fertō; feruntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. ferre. Pres. ferēns.

Perf. tulisse.

Fut. lātūrus esse. Fut. lātūrus.

GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. ferendī.

Dat. ferendō.

Acc. ferendum. Acc. lātum.

Abl. ferendō. Abl. lātū.

Passive Voice.
lātus to be
feror, ferrī,
sum, borne.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.
PLURAL.

Pres. feror, ferris, fertur; ferimur, feriminī, feruntur.

Imp. ferēbar; ferēbāmur.

Fut. ferar; ferēmur.

lātus sum; lātī sumus.

Perf.

Plup. lātus eram; lātī erāmus.

Fut. lātus erō; lātī erimus.

P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
ferar; ferāmur.
Pres.

Imp. ferrer; ferrēmur.

Perf. lātus sim; lātī sīmus.

Plup. lātus essem; lātī essēmus.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. ferre; ferimimī.

Fut. fertor; ——

fertor; feruntor.
 INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. ferrī.

Perf. lātus esse. Perf. lātus.

lātum īrī. ferendus.

Fut. Fut.

So also the Compounds—

afferō afferre attulī allātus bring

toward
auferō auferre abstulī ablātus take
away
cōnferō cōnferre contulī collātus
compare
differō differre distulī dīlātus put off
efferō efferre extulī ēlātus carry
out
īnferō īnferre intulī illātus bring
against
offerō offerre obtulī oblātus
present
referō referre rettulī relātus bring
back

NOTE.—The forms sustulī and

sublātus belong to tollō.

130. volō, nōlō, mālō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

volō, velle, voluī, to wish.

nōlō, nōlle, nōluī,
to be unwilling.
mālō, mālle, māluī, to prefer.
 INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. volō, nōlō, mālō,

vīs, nōn vīs, māvīs,

vult; nōn vult; māvult;

volumus, nōlumus, mālumus,

vultis, nōn vultis, māvultis,

volunt. nōlunt. mālunt.

Imp. volēbam. nōlēbam. mālēbam.

volam. nōlam. mālam.

Fut.

Perf. voluī. nōluī. māluī.

Plup. volueram. nōlueram. mālueram.

Fut. P. voluerō. nōluerō. māluerō.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. velim, -īs, -it, etc. nōlim. mālīm.

vellem, -ēs, -et, nōllem. māllem.

Inf.
etc.
Perf. voluerim. nōluerim. māluerim.

voluissem. nōluissem. māluissem.

Pluf.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. nōlī; nōlīte.

Fut. nōlītō; nōlītōte.

nōlītō; nōluntō.
 INFINITIVE.
Pres. velle. nōlle. mālle.

Perf. voluisse. nōluisse. māluisse

PARTICIPLE.
Pres. volēns nōlēns. ——

131. Fīō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

factus to become, be
fīō, fīerī,
sum, made.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR, PLURAL.

Pres. fīō, fīs, fit; fīmus, fītis, fīunt.

Inf. fīēbam; fīēbāmus.

fīam; fīēmus.
Fut.

Perf. factus sum; factī sumus.

Pluf. factus eram; factī erāmus.

Fut. factus erō; factī erimus.

P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. fīam; fīāmus.

Imp. fierem; fierēmus.

 Perf. factus sim; factī sīmus.

factus essem; factī essēmus.

Plup.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. fī; fīte.

PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE.
fierī.
Pres.

Perf. factus esse. Perf. factus.

Fut. factum īrī. Ger. faciendus.

NOTE.—A few isolated forms of compounds

of fīō occur; as, dēfit lacks;

īnfit, begins.

132. Eō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

itum to
eō, īre, īvī,
(est), go.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Pres. eō, īs, it; īmus, ītis, eunt.

Imp. ībam; ībāmus.

ībō; ībimus.
Fut.
Perf. īvī (iī); īvimus (iimus).

Plup. īveram (ieram); īverāmus (ierāmus)

Fut. īverō (ierō); īverimus (ierimus).

P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

eam; eāmus.
Pres.
īrem; īrēmus.
Inf.

Perf. īverim (ierim); īverīmus (ierīmus).

Pluf. īvissem (iissem, īssem); īvissēmus (iissēmus, īssēmus).

IMPERATIVE.
ī; īte.
Pres.

Fut. ītō; ītōte,

ītō; euntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
īre. iēns.
Pres. Pres.

Perf. īvisse (īsse). (Gen. euntis.)

Fut. itūrus esse. Fut. itūrus. Gerundive, eundum.

GERUND. SUPINE.
 eundī, etc. itum, itū.

1. Transitive compounds of eō admit the full Passive

inflection; as adeor, adīris, adītur, etc.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most

important:—

133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.

Coepī, Meminī, Ōdī,

I have I I

begun. remember. hate.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Perf. coepī. meminī. ōdī.

Plup. coeperam. memineram. ōderam.

Fut. coeperō. meminerō. ōderō.

P.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Perf. coeperim. meminerim. ōderim.

Pluf. coepissem. meminissem. ōdissem.

IMPERATIVE.
Sing. mementō; Plur. mementōte.
 INFINITIVE.
Perf. coepisse. meminisse. ōdisse.

ōsūrus
coeptūrus esse.
Fut. esse.

PARTICIPLE.
Perf. coeptus, begun. ōsus.

Fut. coeptūrus. ōsūrus.

1. When coepī governs a Passive Infinitive it usually

takes the form coeptus est; as, amārī coeptus

est, he began to be loved.

2. Note that meminī and ōdī, though

Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and

Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as,

memineram, I remembered; ōderō, I shall hate.

134. Inquam, I say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Pres. inquam, ——

inquis, ——

inquit; inquiunt.

Fut. —— ——

inquiēs, ——
 inquiet. ——

Perf. 3d Sing. inquit.

135. Ajō, I say.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL

ajō, ——
Pres.
aīs, ——

ait; ajunt.

Imp. ajēbam, ajēbāmus,

ajēbās, ajēbātis,

ajēbat; ajēbant.

Perf 3d Sing. aït.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres 3d Sing. ajat.

NOTE.—For aīsne, do you mean? aīn is common.

136. Fārī, to speak.
This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present

System it has—

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
 Pres. —— ——

—— ——

fātur. ——

Fut. fābor, ——

—— ——

fābitur. ——

fāre.
Impv.

Inf. fārī.

Pres.
fantis, fantī, etc.
Partic.
Gerund,
fandī; D. and Abl., fandō.
G.,

Gerundive, fandus.

NOTE.—Forms of fārī are

rare. More frequent are its compounds; as,— affātur,

he addresses; praefāmur, we say in advance.

137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.

1. Queō, quīre, quīvī, to be able, and nequeō, nequīre,

nequīvī, to be unable, are inflected like

eō, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in

special forms.

2. Quaesō, I entreat; quaesumus, we entreat.

3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.); give me, tell me.
4. Salvē, salvēte, hail. Also Infinitive, salvēre.
5. Havē (avē), havēte, hail. Also Infinitive, havēre.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.
138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have
no personal subject,

but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, mē

pudet hōc fēcisse, lit. it shames me to have done

this; hōc decet, this is fitting. Here

belong—

I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,—

fulget fulsit
it lightens
tonat tonuit it thunders
grandinat ——
it hails
ningit ninxit
it snows
pluit pluit it rains

II. Special Verbs.

paenitet paenitēre paenituit

it repents
piget pigēre piguit it grieves
pudet pudēre puduit
it causes shame
taedet taedēre taeduit it disgusts
 miseret miserēre miseruit it causes pity

libet libēre libuit it pleases

licet licēre licuit
it is lawful
oportet oportēre oportuit
it is fitting
decet decēre decuit it is becoming
dēdecet dēdecēre dēdecuit
it is unbecoming
rēfert rēferre rētulit it concerns

III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.

cōnstat cōnstāre cōnstitit

it is evident
praestat praestāre praestitit it is better
juvat juvāre jūvit
it delights
appāret appārēre appāruit
it appears
placuit
placet placēre (placitum
it pleases
est)

accēdit accēdere accessit

it is added
accidit accidere accidit
it happens
contingit contingere contigit it happens
ēvenit ēvenīre ēvēnit
it turns out
interest interesse interfuit
it concerns

IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,—

ītur lit. it is gone i.e. some one goes

curritur
lit. it is run i.e. some one runs
ventum est
lit. it has been come i.e. some one has come
veniendum est lit. it must be come i.e. somebody must come
pugnārī potest
lit. it can be fought i.e. somebody can fight
 PART III.

PARTICLES.

139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz.
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

ADVERBS.

140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in origin
case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial
terminations have already been given above (§ 76). The following TABLE OF
CORRELATIVES is important:—
RELATIVE AND
DEMONSTRATIVE. INDEFINITE.
INTERROGATIVE.
ubi, where; where? hīc, here. alicubī, ūsquam,
ibi, illīc, istīc, there. ūspiam, somewhere.
quō, whither; hūc, hither. aliquō, to some
whither? eō, istūc, illūc, place.
thither.
unde, whence; hinc, hence. alicunde, from
whence? inde, istinc, illinc, somewhere.
thence.
quā, where; where? hāc, by this way. aliquā, by some way
eā, istāc, illāc, by
that way.
cum, when. nunc, now. aliquandō,
quandō, when? tum, tunc, then. umquam, sometime,
ever.
 quotiēns, as often totiēns, so often. aliquotiēns, some
as; how often? number of times.
quam, as much as; tam, so much. aliquantum,
how much? somewhat.

PREPOSITIONS.

141. Prepositions show relations of words. The following Prepositions govern

the Accusative:—
ad, to. contrā, against. post, after.
adversus, against. ergā, toward. praeter, past.
adversum, toward, extrā, outside. prope, near.
against. īnfrā, below. propter, on account
ante, before. inter, between. of.
apud, with, near. intrā, within. secundum, after.
circā, around. jūxtā, near. subter, beneath.
circiter, about. ob, on account of. super, over.
circum, around. penes, in the hands suprā, above.
cis, this side of. of. trāns, across.
citrā, this side of. per, through. ultrā, beyond.
pōne, behind. versus, toward.
1. Ūsque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as,—

ūsque ad urbem, even to the city.

2. Versus always follows its case; as,—

Rōmam versus, toward Rome.

It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,—

ad urbem versus, toward the city.

3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives

proximus, proximē, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,—

Ubiī proximē Rhēnum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine;
propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.
142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:—
ā, ab, abs, from, by. cum, with. prō, in front of, for.
absque, without. dē, from, sine, without.
cōram, in the concerning. tenus, up to.
presence of. ē, ex, from out of.
prae, before.
1. Ā, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we find
sometimes ā, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials b, p, f, v,
m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before tē, and ā is admissible even
there.
2. Ē, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find
sometimes ē, sometimes ex.
3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, up to the breast. It
sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrōrum tenus, as far as the lips.
4. Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to
the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus:—
mēcum nōbīscum quōcum or cum
tēcum vōbīscum quō
sēcum quācum or cum
quā
quibuscum or
cum quibus
On quīcum, see § 89, Footnote 27.
143. Two Prepositions, in, in, into, and sub, under, govern both the Accusative
and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative,
rest; as,—

in urbem, into the city;

in urbe, in the city.

1. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.
144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their
adverbial meaning; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously; contrā, on the other
hand, etc.
2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as
prepositions; as,—

clam, prīdiē, with the Accusative.

procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.

3. Anástrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called

Anástrophe; as,—

eī, quōs inter erat, those among whom he was.

Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For Coördinate Conjunctions,

see §§ 341 ff. Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in connection with
Subordinate Clauses.
2. Interjections express emotion. Thus:—

1. Surprise; as, ēn, ecce, ō.

2. Joy; as, iō, euoe.
3. Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, ēheu, vae, prō.
4. Calling; as, heus, eho.
 PART IV.

WORD-FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called Suffixes

to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.

A. NOUNS.

1. Nouns derived from Verbs.

147. 1. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trīx, denotes the agent; as,—
victor, victrīx, victor; dēfēnsor, defender.
NOTE.—The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,—

gladiātor, gladiator (from gladius).

2. The suffix -or (originally -ōs) denotes an activity or a condition; as,—

amor, love; timor, fear; dolor, pain.
3. The suffixes -tiō (-siō), Gen. -ōnis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -ūs, denote an
action as in process; as,—
vēnātiō, hunting; obsessiō, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus,
running.
NOTE.—Rarer endings with the same force are:—
a) -tūra, -sūra; as,—
sepultūra, burial; mēnsūra, measuring.
b) -ium; as,—
gaudium, rejoicing.
c) -īdō; as,—
cupīdō, desire.
4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the
means or place of an action; as,—
lūmen (lūc-s-men), light; vocābulum, word;
ōrnāmentum, ornament; documentum, proof;
sepulcrum, grave; arātrum, plough;
vehiculum, carriage.

2. Nouns derived from Nouns.

148. 1. Diminutives end in—

(-
-ulus, -ulum)
ula,
(- -olum), after
-olus,
ola, a vowel
- (-
-culum)
culus, cula,
- (-
-ellum)
ellus, ella,
(-
-illus, -illum)
illa,
as,—
little
nīdulus, (nīdus);
nest
virgula, wand (virga);
oppidulum, little (oppidum);
 town
little
fīliolus, (fīlius);
son
little
opusculum, (opus);
work
tabella, tablet (tabula);
lapillus, pebble (lapis).
NOTE 1.—It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender
of the words from which they are derived.
NOTE 2.—The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the
diminutive suffix, viz., -lo-. Thus:—
for
agellus, field, ager-
lus;
for
lapillus, pebble, lapid-
lus.
2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a
collection of such persons or their function; as,—

collēgium, a corporation, body of colleagues (collēga); sacerdōtium,

priestly function (sacerdōs).

3. The suffixes -ārium, -ētum, -īle designate a place where objects are kept or
are found in abundance; as,—
dove-
columbārium, (columba);
cote
olive-
olīvētum, (olīva);
orchard
sheep-
ovīle, (ovis).
fold
4. The suffix -ātus denotes official position or honor; as,—

cōnsulātus, consulship (cōnsul).

5. The suffix -īna appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation
or the place where it is carried on; as,—

doctrīna, teaching (doctor, teacher); medicīna, the art of healing

(medicus, physician); sūtrīna, cobbler's shop (sūtor, cobbler).

6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of ..., daughter of ....
They have the following suffixes:—
a) Masculines: -idēs, -adēs, -īdēs; as, Priamidēs, son of Priam;
Aeneadēs, son of Aeneas; Pēlīdēs, son of Peleus.
b) Feminines: -ēis, -is, -ias; as, Nērēis, daughter of Nereus;
Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of
Thaumas.

3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.

149. The suffixes -tās (-itās), -tūdō (-itūdō), -ia, -itia are used for the
formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities; as,—
bonitās, goodness; celeritās, swiftness; magnitūdō, greatness;
audācia, boldness; amīcitia, friendship.

B. ADJECTIVES.

1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.

150. 1. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present
participle; as,—
tremebundus, trembling; jūcundus (juvō), pleasing.
2. The suffixes -āx and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency, mostly a
faulty one; as,—
loquāx, loquacious; crēdulus, credulous.
3. The suffix -idus denotes a state; as,—
calidus, hot; timidus, timid; cupidus, eager.
4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive
sense; as,—

fragilis, fragile (i.e. capable of being broken); docilis, docile.

2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.

a) From Common Nouns.

151. 1. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or
materials; as,—
aureus, of gold; ferreus, of iron; fāginus, of beech.
2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -īlis, -ālis, -āris, -ārius, -nus, -ānus, -īnus, -īvus,
-ēnsis signify belonging to, connected with; as,—
ōrātōrius, oratorical; legiōnārius, legionary;
bellicus, pertaining to
paternus, paternal;
war;
cīvīlis, civil; urbānus, of the city;
rēgālis, regal; marīnus, marine;
aestīvus, pertaining to
cōnsulāris, consular;
summer;
circēnsis, belonging to the circus.
3. The suffixes -ōsus and -lentus denote fullness; as,—
perīculōsus, full of danger, glōriōsus, glorious;
dangerous; opulentus, wealthy.
4. The suffix -tus has the force of provided with; as,—
barbātus, bearded; stellātus, set with stars.

b) From Proper Names.

152. 1. Names of persons take the suffixes: -ānus, -iānus, -īnus; as,—
Catōniānus, belonging to Cato; Plautīnus, belonging to Plautus.
2. Names of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,—
Germānicus, German; Thrācius, Thracian.
3. Names of places take the suffixes -ānus, -īnus, -ēnsis, -aeus, -ius; as,—
Rōmānus, Roman; Athēniēnsis, Athenian;
Smyrnaeus, of
Amerīnus, of Ameria;
Smyrna;
Corinthius, Corinthian.
NOTE.— -ānus and -ēnsis, appended to names of countries, designate
something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous; as,
—

bellum Āfricānum, a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa.

bellum Hispāniēnse, a war carried on in Spain.
legiōnes Gallicānae, (Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.

3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,—

parvolus, little;
misellus (passer), poor little (sparrow); pauperculus, needy.

4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tīnus, -tĭnus; as,—

hodiernus, of to-day (hodiē);
of
hesternus, (herī);
yesterday
intestīnus, internal (intus);
long-
diūtinus, (diū).
lasting
 C. VERBS.

1. Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -scō, and are formed from
Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action; as,—
begin to
labāscō, (from labō);
totter
grow (from
horrēscō,
rough horreō);
begin to (from
tremēscō,
tremble tremō);
(from
obdormīscō, fall asleep
dormiō).
2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote a repeated or energetic
action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -tō or -sō. Those
derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō, as we should
expect). Examples of Frequentatives are—
toss about, (from jaciō,
jactō,
brandish hurl);
run hither and (from currō,
cursō,
thither run);
(from volō,
volitō, flit about
fly).
a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,—
sing
over
cantitō, (cantō);
and
over
cursitō, keep (cursō);
running
 about
keep
ventitō,
coming.
b. agitō, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.
3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed
from the Participial Stem, and end in -uriō; as,—
ēsuriō, desire to eat, am hungry (edō);
parturiō, want to bring forth, am in labor (pariō).

2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of the
Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations
are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are—
a) From Nouns:—
fraudō, defraud (fraus);
vestiō, clothe (vestis);
flōreō, bloom (flōs).
b) From Adjectives:—
līberō, free (līber);
be
saeviō, (saevus).
fierce

D. ADVERBS.
157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by
means of the suffix -im; as,—
certātim, emulously (certō);
cursim, in haste (currō);
statim, immediately (stō).
2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:—
a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -ātim; as,—
gradātim, step by step;
paulātim, gradually;
virītim, man by man.
b) With the suffix -tus; as,—
antīquitus, of old;
rādīcitus, from the roots.
c) With the suffix -ter; as,—
breviter, briefly.

II. COMPOUNDS.

158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second
member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound; the first
member expresses some modification of this.
2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:—
a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7, 1.)
b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound
often appears as ĭ where we should expect ŏ or ă; sometimes it is
dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems ĭ is often
inserted; as,—
signifer, standard-bearer; tubicen, trumpeter;
magnanimus, high-minded;
mātricīda, matricide.
159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.
1. Nouns:—
a) Preposition + Noun; as,—
dē-decus, disgrace;
 pro-avus, great-grandfather.
b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—
agri-cola, farmer;
frātri-cīda, fratricide.
2. Adjectives:—
a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,—
per-magnus, very great;
sub-obscūrus, rather obscure; ā-mēns, frantic.
b) Adjective + Noun; as,—
magn-animus, great-hearted; celeri-pēs, swift-footed.
c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—
parti-ceps, sharing;
morti-fer, death-dealing.
3. Verbs:—
The second member is always a verb. The first may be—
a) A Noun; as,—
aedi-ficō, build.
b) An Adjective; as,—
ampli-ficō, enlarge.
c) An Adverb; as,—
male-dīcō, rail at.
d) Another Verb; as,—
cale-faciō, make warm.
e) A Preposition; as,—
ab-jungō, detach;
re-ferō, bring back;
dis-cernō, distinguish;
ex-spectō, await.
NOTE.—Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:
 ambi- (amb-), around; dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder;
por-, forward;
red- (re-), back; sēd- (sē-), apart from; vē-, without.
4. Adverbs:—
These are of various types; as,—
anteā, before;
īlīcō (in locō), on the spot;
imprīmīs, especially;
obviam, in the way.
 PART V.

SYNTAX.

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:—

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,—
puer scrībit, the boy is writing.
2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,—
quid puer scrībit, what is the boy writing?
3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,—
quot librōs scrībit, how many books he writes!
4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,—
scrībe, write!

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative
pronouns and adverbs, such as—quis, quī, quālis, quantus, quot,
quotiēns, quō, quā, etc. Thus:—
quis venit, who comes? quam dīū manēbit, how long
will he stay?
2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced—
a) By nōnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,—
nōnne vidētis, do you not see?
b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,—
num exspectās, do you expect? (i.e. you don't expect, do
you?)
c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which
usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,—
vidēsne, do you see?
A question introduced by -ne may receive a special
implication from the context; as,—
sēnsistīne, did you not perceive?
d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
surprise or indignation; as,—
tū in jūdicum cōnspectum venīre audēs, do you dare to
come into the presence of the judges?
3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being
employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts?
(= no one doubts).
4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following
particles:—
utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
—— ... an.
If the second member is negative, annōn (less often necne) is used.
Examples:—
utrum honestum est an turpe, }
honestumne est an turpe, } is it honorable or base?
honestum est an turpe, }
suntne dī annōn, are there gods or not?
a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but
introduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nōnne,
or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,—
Ā rēbus gerendīs abstrahit senectūs. Quibus? An eīs
quae juventūte geruntur et vīrībus? Old age (it is
alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From
what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are
carried on by the strength of youth?
5. Answers.
a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vērō, sānē, or by
repetition of the verb; as,—
'vīsne locum mūtēmus?' 'sānē'. 'Shall we change the
place?' 'Certainly.'
'estīsne vōs lēgatī?' 'sumus.' 'Are you envoys?' 'Yes.'
b. The answer NO is expressed by nōn, minimē, minimē vērō,
or by repeating the verb with a negative; as,—
'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nōn.' 'Has it passed?' 'No.'
'estne frāter intus?' 'nōn est.' 'Is your brother within?'
'No.'

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.
The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The
PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT.
 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called
SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND
SENTENCES. Thus puer librōs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple
Sentence; but puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit, the boy reads books
and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a
Compound Sentence are called Clauses.
165. COÖRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an
equality are called COÖRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called
SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit the two clauses
are Coördinate; but in puer librōs legit quōs pater scrībit, the boy reads
the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the
first.

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative,
Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.
1. The Subject may be—
a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—
puer scrībit, the boy writes;
hīc scrībit, this man writes.
b) An Infinitive; as,—
decōrum est prō patriā morī, to die for one's county is
a noble thing.
c) A Clause; as,—
opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, it happened
opportunely that you saw.
2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not
separately expressed; as,—
scrībō, I write; videt, he sees.
a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is
expressed; as,—
ego scrībō et tū legis, I write, and you read.
3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the
context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,—
rēctē ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; consul profectus
(sc. est), the consul set out.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of
the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,—

Cicerō ōrātor fuit, Cicero was an orator;
Numa creātus est rēx, Numa was elected king.
1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in
Gender also; as,—
philosophia est vītae magistra, philosophy is the guide
of life.
2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate
Noun are—
a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,—
Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, Croesus did not
always remain king.
b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor,
appellor, habeor; as,—
 Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, Romulus was called king;
habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun

denoting the same person or thing; as,—
Cicerō cōnsul, Cicero, the Consul;
urbs Rōma, the city Rome.
2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,—
opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, the works of Cicero, the
orator;
apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of
Herodotus, the father of history.
3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,
—
assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, flattery, the promoter of
evils.
4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum,
with or without a preposition; as,—
Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, at
Corinth, a city of Greece.
5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed
by an Appositive denoting a part; as,—
mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, the
soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.

THE CASES.
 THE NOMINATIVE.
170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or
Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.

THE VOCATIVE.
171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,—
crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, believe me, judges.
1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the
Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus
Albānus, hear ye, Alban people!
2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the
Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, O son, alone the source
of my great power.

THE ACCUSATIVE.
172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.
173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:—
A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,—
cōnsulem interfēcit, he slew the consul;
legō librum, I read the book.
B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,—
librum scrīpsī, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);
templum struit, he constructs a temple.
174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are
TRANSITIVE VERBS.
a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used
without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely; as,
—
rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, it is rumored that my
son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in—

parentēs amāmus, we love our parents;
mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.
2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are
worthy of note:—
a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a
Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:—
1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,—
hostēs circumstāre, to surround the enemy;
urbem praeterīre, to pass by the city;
mūrōs trānscendere, to climb over the walls.
2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,—
adīre urbem, to visit the city;
peragrāre Italiam, to travel through Italy;
inīre magistrātum, to take office;
subīre perīculum, to undergo danger.
b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have
also a Transitive use; as,—
queror fātum, I lament my fate;
doleō ejus mortem, I grieve at his death;
rīdeō tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.
 So also lūgeō, maereō, mourn; gemō, bemoan; horreō,
shudder, and others.
c) The impersonals decet, it becomes; dēdecet, it is unbecoming;
juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected;
as,—
mē decet haec dīcere, it becomes me to say this.
d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage,
are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the
Accusative as Object; as,—
galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet;
cīnctus tempora hederā, having bound his temples with
ivy;
nōdō sinus collēcta, having gathered her dress in a knot.

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as

—
librum scrībō, I write a book;
domum aedificō, I build a house.
2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as
an Accusative of Result. Thus:—
a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,—
haec gemēbat, he made these moans;
idem glōriārī, to make the same boast;
eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.
b) A Neuter Adjective,—particularly Adjectives of number or
amount,—multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,—
multa egeō, I have many needs;
pauca studet, he has few interests;
multum valet, he has great strength;
nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.
NOTE.—In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as—
minitantem vāna, making vain threats;
acerba tuēns, giving a fierce look;
dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.
3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out
of this Accusative; as,—
multum sunt in vēnātiōne, they are much engaged in
hunting.
a. So also plūrimum, very greatly; plērumque, generally;
aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.
4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of
kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE,
and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,—
sempiternam servitūtem serviat, let him serve an
everlasting slavery;
vītam dūram vīxī, I have lived a hard life.
a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred
etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,—
stadium currit, he runs a race;
Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.
5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling;
as,—
piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea;
ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, the speeches smack of
the past.

Two Accusatives—Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take
two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate
Accusative; as,—
mē hērēdem fēcit, he made me heir.
Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also—
eum jūdicem cēpēre, they took him as judge;
urbem Rōmam vocāvit, he called the city Rome;
sē virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.
2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,—
hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, covetousness renders
men blind;
Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, Apollo
adjudged Socrates the wisest man.
a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the
Predicate Accusative.
3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,—
urbs Rōma vocāta est, the city was called Rome.
a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and
efficiō, for example, never take it.

Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the
other of the Result Produced. Thus:—
a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as,—
ōtium dīvōs rogat, he asks the gods for rest;
mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, you demand two speeches
of me.
So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some
of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the
Person; as,—
 opem ā tē poscō, I demand aid of you.
b) Verbs of teaching (doceō and its compounds); as,—
tē litterās doceō, I teach you your letters.
c) Verbs of inquiring; as,—
tē haec rogō, I ask you this;
tē sententiam rogō, I ask you your opinion.
d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneō, admoneō, commoneō,
cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a
Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,
—
hōc tē moneō, I give you this advice;
mē id accūsās, you bring this accusation against me;
id cōgit nōs nātūra, nature compels us (to) this.
e) One Verb of concealing, cēlō; as,—
nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, I have not concealed the
conversation from you.
2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the
Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,—
omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, he was taught all
accomplishments;
rogātus sum sententiam, I was asked my opinion;
multa ādmonēmur, we are given many admonitions.
a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trāns may take two Accusatives, one

dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,—
mīlitēs flūmen trānsportat, he leads his soldiers across
the river.
2. With other compounds this construction is rare.
3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained;
as,—
mīlitēs flūmen trādūcēbantur, the soldiers were led
across the river.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which
an action or quality refers; as,—
tremit artūs, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his
limbs tremble;
nūda genū, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare;
manūs revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands
tied.
2. Note that this construction—
 a) Is borrowed from the Greek.
b) Is chiefly confined to poetry.
c) Usually refers to a part of the body.
d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative;
as,—
quadrāgintā annōs vīxit, he lived forty years;
hīc locus passūs sescentōs aberat, this place was six
hundred paces away;
arborēs quīnquāgintā pedēs altae, trees fifty feet high;
abhinc septem annōs, seven years ago.
2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,
per biennium labōrāvī, I toiled throughout two years.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used—

a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas; as,—
Rōmam vēnī, I came to Rome;
Athēnās proficīscitur, he sets out for Athens;
Dēlum pervēnī, I arrived at Delos.
b) With domum, domōs, rūs; as,—
domum revertitur, he returns home;
rūs ībō, I shall go to the country.
NOTE.—When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,—
in domum veterem remigrāre, to move back to an old
house.
2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a
Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,—
ad Italiam vēnit, he came to Italy.
a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem
or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a
town; as,—
Thalam, in oppidum magnum, to Thala, a large town;
Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva.
b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined
with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a
preposition; as,—
Thūriōs in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thurii in Italy;
cum Acēn ad exercitum vēnisset, when he had come to the
army at Ace.
3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is used; as,—
ad Tarentum vēnī, I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;
ad Cannās pugna facta est, a battle was fought near
Cannae.
4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without
a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,—
Italiam vēnit, he came to Italy.
5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative
Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase īnfitiās īre,
to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in

Exclamations; as,—
mē miserum, ah, wretched me!
Ō fallācem spem, oh, deceptive hope!
 Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,—

videō hominem abīre, I see that the man is going away.

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185. Here belong—

1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; viz.—
id genus, of that kind; as, hominēs id genus, men of that
kind (originally hominēs, id genus hominum, men, that
kind of men);
virīle secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female
sex;
meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc.;
bonam partem, magnam partem, in large part;
maximam partem, for the most part.
2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,—
id temporis, at that time; quod si, but if;
id aetātis, at that time; cētera, in other respects.

THE DATIVE.
186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in
English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person to whom
something is given, said, or done. Thus:—
I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,—
hanc pecūniam mihi dat, he gives me this money;
haec nōbīs dīxit, he said this to us.
a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dōnō and
circumdō) admit also the Accusative of the person along with
the Ablative of the thing. Thus:—
Either Themistoclī mūnera dōnāvit, he presented gifts to
Themistocles, or
Themistoclem mūneribus dōnāvit, he presented
Themistocles with gifts;
urbī mūrōs circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or
urbem mūrīs circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls
II. With many intransitive verbs; as,—
nūllī labōrī cēdit, he yields to no labor.
a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor,[48] help, injure, please,
displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge,
spare, pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, and
the like; as,—
Caesar populāribus favet, Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable
to) the popular party;
amīcīs cōnfīdō, I trust (to) my friends;
Orgetorīx Helvētiīs persuāsit, Orgetorix persuaded (made
it acceptable to) the Helvetians;
bonīs nocet quī malīs parcit, he injures (does harm to) the
good, who spares the bad.
NOTE.—It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by
virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are
intransitive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same
apparent English equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as,
juvō, laedō, dēlectō. Thus: audentēs deus juvat, God helps the bold;
nēminem laesit he injured no one.
b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,
—
 tibi parcitur, you are spared;
mihi persuādētur, I am being persuaded;
eī invidētur, he is envied.
c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in
connection with the Dative; as,—
mihi mortem minitātur, he threatens me with death
(threatens death to me).
III. With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, circum,
com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super.
These verbs fall into two main classes,—
1. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object
become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,—
afflīctīs succurrit, he helps the aflicted;
exercituī praefuit, he was in command of the army;
intersum cōnsiliīs, I share in the deliberations.
2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when
compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,—
pecūniae pudōrem antepōnit, he puts honor before money;
inicere spem amīcīs, to inspire hope in one's friends;
mūnītiōni Labiēnum praefēcit, he put Labienus in charge
of the fortifications.

Dative of Reference.

188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person to whom a statement

refers, of whom it is true, or to whom it is of interest; as,—
mihi ante oculōs versāris, you hover before my eyes (lit.
hover before the eyes to me);
illī sevēritās amōrem nōn dēminuit, in his case severity
did not diminish love (lit. to him severity did not
diminish);
 interclūdere inimīcīs commeātum, to cut of the supplies of
the enemy.
a. Note the phrase alicui interdīcere aquā et īgnī, to interdict one
from fire and water.
NOTE.—The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does
not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where,
according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and
third of the above examples.
2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are—
a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle;
as,—
oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō, the
first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to
those coming from Epirus).
b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative constructions
of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative
with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,—
tū mihi istīus audāciam dēfendis? tell me, do you defend
that man's audacity?
quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing?
c) Dative of Person Judging; as,—
erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me
(i.e. in my opinion);
quae ista servitūs tam clāro hominī, how can that be
slavery to so illustrious a man (i.e. to his mind)!
d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of taking away, especially
compounds of ab, dē, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less
often of the thing; as,—
honōrem dētrāxērunt hominī, they took away the honor
from the man;
Caesar rēgī tetrarchiam ēripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy
away from the king;
silicī scintillam excūdit, he struck a spark from the flint.
 Dative of Agency.

189. The Dative is used to denote agency—

1. Regularly with the Gerundive; as,—
haec nōbīs agenda sunt, these things must be done by us;
mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. it must be gone by me).
a. To avoid ambiguity, ā with the Ablative is sometimes used with
the Gerundive; as,—
hostibus ā nōbīs parcendum est, the enemy must be spared
by us.
2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the
perfect passive participle; as,—
disputātiō quae mihi nūper habita est, the discussion
which was recently conducted by me.
3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,—
honesta bonīs virīs quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by
good men.

Dative of Possession.

190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions
as:—
mihi est liber, I have a book;
mihi nōmen est Mārcus, I have the name Marcus.
1. But with nōmen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative;
as, mihi Mārcō nōmen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates the end toward which an
action is directed or the direction in which it tends. It is used—
1. Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,—
castrīs locum dēligere, to choose a place for a camp;
legiōnēs praesidiō relinquere, to leave the legions as a
guard (lit. for a guard);
receptuī canere, to sound the signal for a retreat.
2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:—
a) Especially with some form of esse; as,—
fortūnae tuae mihi cūrae sunt, your fortunes are a care to
me (lit. for a care);
quibus sunt odiō, to whom they are an object of hatred;
cui bonō? to whom is it of advantage?
b) With other verbs; as,—
hōs tibi mūnerī mīsit, he has sent these to you for a
present;
Pausaniās Atticīs vēnit auxiliō, Pausanias came to the aid
of the Athenians (lit. to the Athenians for aid).
3. In connection with the Gerundive; as,—
decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, decemvirs for codifying the
laws;
mē gerendō bellō ducem creāvēre, me they have made
leader for carrying on the war.
NOTE.—This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use
with verbs. Thus:—
1. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives
signifying: friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to,
etc.; as,—
mihi inimīcus, hostile to me;
 sunt proximī Germānis, they are next to the Germans;
noxiae poena pār estō, let the penalty be equal to the
damage.
a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see § 141, 3.
2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with adjectives
signifying: suitable, adapted, fit; as,—
castrīs idōneus locus, a place fit for a camp;
apta diēs sacrificiō, a day suitable for a sacrifice.
NOTE.—Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of
motion; as,—
it clāmor caelō, the shout goes heavenward;
cinerēs rīvō fluentī jace, cast the ashes toward a flowing
stream.
1. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to
denote the limit of motion; as,—
dum Latiō deōs īnferret, till he should bring his gods to
Latium.

THE GENITIVE.
194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195. With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the
limited noun more closely. This relation is generally indicated in English by
the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with
Nouns:—
Objective
Genitive of Origin,
Genitive,
Genitive of Genitive of the
Material, Whole,
Genitive of Appositional
Possession, Genitive,
Subjective Genitive of
Genitive, Quality.
196. Genitive of Origin; as,—
Mārcī fīlius, the son of Marcus.
197. Genitive of Material; as,—
talentum aurī, a talent of gold;
acervus frūmentī, a pile of grain.
198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,—
domus Cicerōnis, Cicero's house.
1. Here belongs the Genitive with causā and grātiā. The Genitive always
precedes; as,—
hominum causā, for the sake of men;
meōrum amīcōrum grātiā, for the sake of my friends.
2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and
fierī; as,—
domus est rēgis, the house is the king's;
stultī est in errōre manēre, it is (the part) of a fool to
remain in error;
dē bellō jūdicium imperātōris est, nōn mīlitum, the
decision concerning war belongs to the general, not to
the soldiers.
 a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and
the Dative of Possession, see § 359, 1.
199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes or produces
something or who has a feeling; as,—
dicta Platōnis, the utterances of Plato;
timōrēs līberōrum, the fears of the children.
200. Objective Genitive. This denotes the object of an action or feeling; as,—
metus deōrum, the fear of the gods;
amor lībertātis, love of liberty;
cōnsuētūdō bonōrum hominum, intercourse with good
men.
1. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,—
amor ergā parentēs, love toward one's parents.
201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole of which a part is
taken. It is used—
1. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals;
as,—
magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind;
duo mīlia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers;
quis mortālium, who of mortals?
major frātrum, the elder of the brothers;
gēns maxima Germānōrum, the largest tribe of the
Germans;
prīmus omnium, the first of all.
a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or dē
with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and
quīdam; as,—
fidēlissimus dē servīs, the most trusty of the slaves;
quīdam ex amīcīs, certain of his friends;
ūnus ex mīlitibus, one of the soldiers.
 b. In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to
part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the
Genitive; as,—
quot vōs estis, how many of you are there?
trecentī conjūrāvimus, three hundred of us have conspired
(i.e. we, three hundred in number).
2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative
Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the
Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,—
quid cōnsilī, what purpose?
tantum cibī, so much food;
plūs auctōritātis, more authority;
minus labōris, less labor;
satis pecūniae, enough money;
parum industriae, too little industry.
a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may
be employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil bonī, nothing
good.
b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the
noun they limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.
3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of
place; as,—
ubi terrārum? ubi gentium? where in the world?
a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in
dependence upon prīdiē and postrīdiē, but only in the phrases
prīdiē ejus diēī, on the day before that; postrīdiē ejus diēī, on
the day after that.
202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an
appositive; as,—
nōmen rēgis, the name of king;
poena mortis, the penalty of death;
ars scrībendī, the art of writing.
203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjective is used to
denote quality. This construction presents several varieties. Thus it is used—
1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing; as,
—
vir magnae virtūtis, a man of great virtue;
ratiōnēs ejus modī, considerations of that sort.
a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction,
chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.
2. To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.); as,—
fossa quīndecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or
deep);
exsilium decem annōrum, an exile of ten years.
3. Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different origin)
are the Genitives tantī, quantī, parvī, magnī, minōris, plūris, minimī,
plūrimī, maximī. These are used predicatively to denote indefinite value; as,
—
nūlla studia tantī sunt, no studies are of so much value;
magnī opera ejus exīstimāta est, his assistance was highly
esteemed.
4. By an extension of the notion of value, quantī, tantī, plūris, and minōris
are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price; as,—
quantī aedēs ēmistī, at how high a price did you purchase
the house?
5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used
predicatively; as,—
tantae mōlis erat Rōmānam condere gentem, of so great
difficulty was it to found the Roman race.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their
application. Thus:—
1. With adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory,
participation, power, fullness, and their opposites; as,—
studiōsus discendī, desirous of learning;
perītus bellī, skilled in war;
īnsuētus labōris, unused to toil;
immemor mandātī tuī, unmindful of your commission;
plēna perīculōrum est vīta, life is full of dangers.
a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,—
diligēns vēritātis, fond of truth;
amāns patriae, devoted to one's country.
2. Sometimes with proprius and commūnis; as,—
virī propria est fortitūdō, bravery is characteristic of a
man.
memoria est commūnis omnium artium, memory is
common to all professions.
a. proprius and commūnis are also construed with the Dative.
3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the
reference is to living objects; as,—
fīlius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his
father;
meī similis, like me; vestrī similis, like you.
When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,—
mors somnō (or somnī) similis est, death is like sleep.
4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is
extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrōx animī, fierce of temper; incertus
cōnsilī, undecided in purpose.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs:—

Memini, Reminīscor, Oblīvīscor.

206. 1. WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS—

a. meminī always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive
pronouns; as,—
meī meminerīs, remember me!
nostrī meminit, he remembers us.
With other words denoting persons meminī takes the Accusative, rarely the
Genitive; as,—
Sullam meminī, I recall Sulla;
vīvōrum meminī, I remember the living.
b. oblīvīscor regularly takes the Genitive; as,—
Epicūrī nōn licet oblīvīscī, we mustn't forget Epicurus.
2. WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, meminī, reminīscor, oblīvīscor take
sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without difference of
meaning; as,—
animus praeteritōrum meminit, the mind remembers the
past;
meministīne nōmina, do you remember the names?
reminīscere veteris incommodī, remember the former
disaster;
reminīscēns acerbitātem, remembering the bitterness.
a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly
stand in the Accusative; as,—
haec meminī, I remember this;
multa reminīscor, I remember many things.
3. The phrase mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of
meminī, takes the Genitive; as,—
 mihi patriae veniēbat in mentem, I remembered my
country.

Admoneō, Commoneō, Commonefaciō.

207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take

a Genitive of the thing; as,—
tē veteris amīcitiae commonefaciō, I remind you of our old
friendship.
a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs
take dē with the Ablative; as,—
mē admonēs dē sorōre, you remind me of your sister.
b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly
stands in the Accusative (§ 178, 1, d); as,—
tē hōc admoneō, I give you this warning.

Verbs of Judicial Action.

208. 1. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take the Genitive of the

charge; as,—
mē fūrtī accūsat, he accuses me of theft;
Verrem avāritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice;
impietātis absolūtus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.
2. Verbs of Condemning take—
a. The Genitive of the charge; as,—
pecūniae pūblicae condemnātus, condemned (on the
charge) of embezzlement (lit. public money);
capitis damnātus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on a
charge involving his head).
b. The Ablative of the penalty; as,—
capite damnātus est, he was condemned to death;
mīlle nummīs damnātus est, he was condemned (to pay) a
thousand sesterces (lit. by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of
 Means).
3. Note the phrases:—
vōtī damnātus, vōtī reus, having attained one's prayer (lit.
condemned on the score of one's vow);
dē vī, (accused, convicted, etc.) of assault;
inter sīcāriōs, (accused, convicted, etc.) of murder.

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209. 1. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the
Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive of the person or
thing toward whom the feeling is directed; as,—
pudet mē tuī, I am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me of
you);
paenitet mē hūjus factī, I repent of this act;
eum taedet vītae, he is weary of life;
pauperum tē miseret, you pity the poor.
a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or
Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus;—
mē paenitet hōc fēcisse, I repent of having done this;
mē hōc pudet, I am ashamed of this.
2. Misereor and miserēscō also govern the Genitive; as,—
miserēminī sociōrum, pity the allies.

Interest, Rēfert.

210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration; viz.—

a) the person concerned;

b) the thing about which he is concerned;
c) the extent of his concern.

211. 1. The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive; as,—

 patris interest, it concerns the father.
a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, meī, tuī,
nostrī, vestrī, the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of
the Possessive, viz.: meā, tuā, etc.; as,—
meā interest, it concerns me.
2. The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted—
a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject; as,—
hōc reī pūblicae interest, this concerns the state.
b) by an Infinitive; as,—
omnium interest valēre, it concerns all to keep well.
c) by an Indirect Question; as,—
meā interest quandō veniās, I am concerned as to when
you are coming.
3. The degree of concern is denoted—
a) by the Genitive (cf. § 203, 3): magnī, parvī, etc.; as,—
meā magnī interest, it concerns me greatly.
b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maximē, etc.; as,—
cīvium minimē interest, it concerns the citizens very little.
c) by the Neuters, multum, plūs, minus, etc.; as,—
multum vestrā interest, it concerns you much.
4. Rēfert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the
Genitive of the person. Thus:—
meā rēfert, it concerns me;
but rarely illīus rēfert, it concerns him.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212. 1. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive; as,—
pecūniae indigēs, you need money.
 a. These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, 1);
indigeō is the only verb which has a preference for the Genitive.
2. Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the
Genitive, almost always so in Sallust; and regularly in the phrase potīrī
rērum, to get control of affairs.
3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,—
dēsine querellārum, cease your complaints;
operum solūtī, freed from their tasks.

THE ABLATIVE.
213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally
distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.—

The Ablative or from-case.

The Instrumental or with-case.
The Locative or where-case.

The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses,
Instrumental uses, and Locative uses.

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.

214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes

without, a preposition.
1. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition:—
a) The Verbs of freeing: līberō, solvō, levō;
b) The Verbs of depriving: prīvō, spoliō, exuō, fraudō, nūdō;
c) The Verbs of lacking: egeō, careō, vacō;
 d) The corresponding Adjectives, līber, inānis, vacuus, nūdus,
and some others of similar meaning.
Thus:—
cūrīs līberātus, freed from cares;
Caesar hostēs armīs exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of
their arms;
caret sēnsū commūnī, he lacks common sense;
auxiliō eget, he needs help;
bonōrum vīta vacua est metū, the life of the good is free
from fear.
NOTE 1.—Yet Adjectives and līberō may take the preposition ab,—regularly
so with the Ablative of persons; as,—
urbem ā tyrannō līberārunt, they freed the city from the
tyrant.
NOTE 2.—Indigeō usually takes the Genitive. See § 212, 1, a.
2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove, to withdraw, some take the
preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions.
Examples:—
abstinēre cibō, to abstain from food;
hostēs fīnibus prohibuērunt, they kept the enemy from
their borders;
praedōnēs ab īnsulā prohibuit, he kept the pirates from
the island.
3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prepositon,
particularly compounds of dis- and sē-; as,—
dissentiō ā tē, I dissent from you;
sēcernantur ā nōbīs, let them be separated from us.
4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.

Ablative of Source.
215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles nātus and ortus (in
poetry also with ēditus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or
station; as,—
Jove nātus, son of Jupiter;
summō locō nātus, high-born (lit. born from a very high
place);
nōbilī genere ortus, born of a noble family.
1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,
ex mē nātus, sprung from me.
2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is
used; as,—
ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.

Ablative of Agent.

216. The Ablative accompanied by ā (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote
the personal agent; as,—
ā Caesare accūsātus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.
1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified,
may be construed as the personal agent. Thus:—
hostēs ā fortūnā dēserēbantur, the enemy were deserted
by Fortune;
ā multitūdine hostium mōntēs tenēbantur, the mountains
were held by a multitude of the enemy.
2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus:—
ā canibus laniātus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.

Ablative of Comparison.

217. 1. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of than; as,
—
 melle dulcior, sweeter than honey;
patria mihi vītā cārior est, my country is dearer to me than
life.
2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (than) with
the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must be used; as,—
tuī studiōsior sum quam illīus, I am fonder of you than of
him.
—Studiōsior illō would have meant, I am fonder of you
than he is.
Plūs, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equivalents of plūs
quam, minus quam, etc. Thus:—
amplius vīgintī urbēs incenduntur, more than twenty
cities are fired;
minus quīnque mīlia prōcessit, he advanced less than five
miles.
3. Note the use of opīniōne with Comparatives; as,—
opīniōne celerius venit, he comes more quickly than
expected (lit. than opinion).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.

218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instrument; as,—

Alexander sagittā vulnerātus est, Alexander was wounded
by an arrow.
There are the following special varieties of this Ablative:—
1. Ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take the
Ablative; as,—
 dīvitiīs ūtitur, he uses his wealth (lit. he benefits himself by
his wealth);
vītā fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life);
mūnere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with
duty);
carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. feed themselves by
means of);
castrīs potītus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. made
himself powerful by the camp).
a.. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See § 212, 2.
2. With opus est (rarely ūsus est), there is need; as,—
duce nōbīs opus est, we need a leader.
a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus
as predicate. Thus:—
hōc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me.
b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nōbīs
opus est is a rare form of expression.
c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus
est; as,—
opus est properātō, there is need of haste.
3. With nītor, innīxus, and frētus; as,—
nītitur hastā, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a
spear);
frētus virtūte, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue).
4. With continērī, cōnsistere, cōnstāre, consist of; as,—
nervīs et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and
bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones);
mortālī cōnsistit corpore mundus, the world consists of
mortal substance (lit. holds together by means of, etc.).
6. In expressions of the following type:—
quid hōc homine faciās, what can you do with this man?
 quid meā Tulliolā fīet, what will become of my dear
Tullia? (lit. what will be done with my dear Tullia?)
7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom:
—
proeliō contendere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle;
proeliō lacessere, to provoke to battle;
currū vehī, to ride in a chariot;
pedibus īre, to go on foot;
castrīs sē tenēre, to keep in camp.
8. With Verbs of filling and Adjectives of plenty; as,—
fossās virgultīs complērunt, they filled the trenches with
brush.
a. But plēnus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, 1.
9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as,—
vīnum Tiberī dēvectum, wine brought down (by) the Tiber.
10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus:—
mīlitibus ā lacū Lemannō ad montem Jūram mūrum
perdūcit, with (i.e. by means of) his troops he runs a
wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura.

Ablative of Cause.

219. The Ablative is used to denote cause; as,—

multa glōriae cupiditāte fēcit, he did many things on
account of his love of glory.
1. So especially with verbs denoting mental states; as, dēlector, gāudeō,
laetor, glōrior, fīdō, cōnfīdō. Also with contentus; as,—
fortūnā amīcī gaudeō, I rejoice at the fortune of my friend
(i.e. on account of it);
victōriā suā glōriantur, they exult over their victory;
 nātūrā locī cōnfīdēbant, they trusted in the character of
their country (lit. were confident on account of the
character).
a. fīdō and cōnfīdō always take the Dative of the person (§ 187, II,
a); sometimes the Dative of the thing.
2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussū, by
order of, injussū, without the order, rogātū, etc.

Ablative of Manner.

220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner; as,—

cum gravitāte loquitur, he speaks with dignity.
1. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an
adjective; as,—
magnā gravitāte loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.
2. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jūre, injūriā, jocō, vī,
fraude, voluntāte, fūrtō, silentiō.
3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in accordance with
which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done. It is generally used
without a preposition. Thus:—
meā sententiā, according to my opinion;
suīs mōribus, in accordance with their custom;
suā sponte, voluntarily, of his (their) own accord;
eā condiciōne, on these terms.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an

action or an event; as,—
bonīs auspiciīs, under good auspices;
 nūlla est altercātiō clāmōribus umquam habita
majōribus, no debate was ever held under circumstances
of greater applause;
exstinguitur ingentī lūctū prōvinciae, he dies under
circumstances of great grief on the part of the province;
longō intervāllō sequitur, he follows at a great distance.

Ablative of Accompaniment.

222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote
accompaniment; as,—
cum comitibus profectus est, he set out with his
attendants;
cum febrī domum rediit, he returned home with a fever.
1. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified
by any adjective except a numeral; as,—
omnibus cōpiīs, ingentī exercitū, magnā manū; but
usually cum exercitū, cum duābus legiōnibus.

Ablative of Association.

222A. The Ablative is often used with verbs of joining, mixing, clinging,
exchanging; also with assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, assuēfaciō, and some others to
denote association; as,—
improbitās scelere jūncta, badness joined with crime;
āēr calōre admixtus, air mixed with heat;
assuētus labōre, accustomed to (lit. familiarized with) toil;
pācem bellō permūtant, they change peace for (lit. with)
war.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison
(as post, ante, īnfrā, suprā) to denote the degree of difference; as,—
 dimidiō minor, smaller by a half;
tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher;
paulō post, a little afterwards;
quō plurā habēmus, eō cupimus ampliōra, the more we
have, the more we want.

Ablative of Quality.

224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote quality; as,—

puella eximiā fōrmā, a girl of exceptional beauty;
vir singulārī industriā, a man of singular industry.
1. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively; as,—
est magnā prūdentiā, he is (a man) of great wisdom;
bonō animā sunt, they are of good courage.
2. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive; as,—
sunt speciē et colōre taurī, they are of the appearance and
color of a bull,
3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes material; as,—
scopulīs pendentībus antrum, a cave of arching rocks.

Ablative of Price.

225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is designated by the Ablative; as
—
servum quīnque minīs ēmit, he bought the slave for five
minae.
1. The Ablatives magnō, plūrimō, parvō, minimō (by omission of pretiō) are
used to denote indefinite price; as,—
aedēs magnō vēndidīt, he sold the house for a high price.
2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203, 4.
 Ablative of Specification.

226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that in respect to which

something is or is done; as,—
Helvētiī omnibus Gallīs virtūte praestābant, the
Helvetians surpassed all the Gauls in valor;
pede claudus, lame in his foot.
1. Note the phrases:—
major nātū, older (lit. greater as to age);
minor nātū, younger.
2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worthy, indignus,
unworthy, and dignor, deem worthy of; as,—
dignī honōre, worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor);
fidē indignī, unworthy of confidence;
mē dignor honōre, I deem myself worthy of honor.

Ablative Absolute.

227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the

sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a
participle; as,—
urbe captā, Aenēās fūgit, when the city had been captured,
Aeneas fled (lit. the city having been captured).
1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,—
vīvō Caesare rēs pūblica salva erat, while Caesar was
alive the state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive);
Tarquiniō rēge, Pythagorās in Italiam vēnit, in the reign
of Tarquin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. Tarquin being
king);
Cn. Pompejō, M. Crassō cōnsulibus, in the consulship of
Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus (lit. P. and C. being
 consuls).
2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we
employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a
clause denoting—
a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.
b) Condition; as,—
omnēs virtūtēs jacent, voluptāte dominante, all virtues
lie prostrate, if pleasure is master.
c) Opposition; as,—
perditīs omnibus rēbus, virtūs sē sustentāre potest,
though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain
herself.
d) Cause; as,—
nūllō adversante rēgnum obtinuit, since no one opposed
him, he secured the throne.
e) Attendant circumstance; as,—
passīs palmīs pācem petīvērunt, with hands outstretched,
they sued for peace.
3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute
construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,—
audītō eum fūgisse, when it was heard that he had fled.
4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when
it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands.
Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.

A. Place where.
228. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition;
as,—
in urbe habitat, he dwells in the city.
1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.—
a) Names of towns,—except Singulars of the First and Second
Declensions (see § 232, 1); as,—
Carthāginī, at Carthage;
Athēnis, at Athens;
Vejīs, at Veii.
b) The general words locō, locīs, parte; also many words modified
by tōtus or even by other Adjectives; as,—
hōc locō, at this place;
tōtīs castrīs, in the whole camp.
c) The special words: forīs, out of doors; rūrī, in the country, terrā
marīque, on land and sea.
d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denoting
place; as,—
stant lītore puppēs, the sterns rest on the beach.

B. Place from which.[50]

229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition;
as,—
ab Italiā profectus est, he set out from Italy;
ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city.
1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.—
a) Names of towns and small islands; as,—
Rōma profectus est, he set out from Rome;
Rhodō revertit, he returned from Rhodes.
b) domō, from home; rūre, from the country.
c) Freely in poetry; as,—
 Italiā dēcessit, he withdrew from Italy.
2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean from the vicinity of, or to denote
the point whence distance is measured; as,—
ā Gergoviā discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia;
ā Rōmā X mīlia aberat, he was ten miles distant from Rome.
Urbe and oppidō, when standing in apposition with a town name, are
accompanied by a preposition; as,—
Curibus ex oppidō Sabīnōrum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines

Ablative of Time.

A. Time at which.
230. The Ablative is used to denote the time at which; as,—
quārtā hōrā mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour;
annō septuāgēsimō cōnsul creātus, elected consul in his
seventieth year.
1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction,
particularly annus, vēr, aestās, hiems, diēs, nox, hōra, comitia (Election
Day), lūdī (the Games), etc.
2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by
a modifier. Thus:—
in pāce, in peace; in bellō, in war;
but secundō bellō Pūnicō, in the second Punic War.
3. Expressions like in eō tempore, in summa senectūte, take the preposition
because they denote situation rather than time.

B. Time within which.

231. Time within which is denoted by the Ablative either with or without a
preposition; as,—
 stella Sāturnī trīgintā annīs cursum cōnficit, the planet
Saturn completes its orbit within thirty years;
ter in annō, thrice in the course of the year.
1. Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time; as,—
bienniō prōsperās rēs habuit, for two years he had a
prosperous administration.

THE LOCATIVE.
232. The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following words:—
1. Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first
and second declensions, to denote the place in which; as,—
Rōmae, at Rome; Corinthī, at Corinth;
Rhodī, at Rhodes.
2. In the following special forms:—
domī, at home; humī, on the ground;
bellī, in war; mīlitiae, in war;
vesperī, at evening; herī, yesterday.
3. Note the phrase pendēre animī, lit. to be in suspense in one's mind.
4. For urbs and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see § 169, 4.

CHAPTER III.—Syntax of Adjectives.

233. 1. The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject.
2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attributive Adjective is one that
limits its subject directly; as,—
 vir sapiēns, a wise man.
A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a
verb (usually esse); as,—
vir est sapiēns, the man is wise;
vir vidēbātur sapiēns, the man seemed wise;
vir jūdicātus est sapiēns, the man was judged wise;
hunc virum sapientem jūdicāvimus, we adjudged this
man wise.
3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective limits one noun it
agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Case.
1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural, as; prīma et
vīcēsima legiōnēs, the first and twentieth legions.
2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is
Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing; as,—
omnium rērum mors est extrēmum, death is the end of all
things.
235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.

A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with the
nearest noun; as,—
pater tuus et māter, your father and mother;
eadem alacritās et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly Plural; as,—
 pāx et concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are
glorious.

B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in gender with the
nearest noun; as,—
rēs operae multae ac labōris, a matter of much effort and
labor.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative—
a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with
them in gender; as,—
pater et fīlius captī sunt, father and son were captured.
Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more
frequently Neuter; as,—
stultitia et timiditās fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice
must be shunned.
b) If the nouns are of different gender; then,—
α) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Masculine;
as,—
pater et māter mortuī sunt, the father and mother have
died.
β) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neuter; as,—
honōrēs et victōriae fortuīta sunt, honors and victories
are accidental.
γ) In case they include both persons and things, the
Adjective is,—
αα) Sometimes Masculine; as,—
domus, uxor, līberī inventī sunt, home, wife, and children
are secured.
ββ) Sometimes Neuter; as,—
parentēs, līberōs, domōs vīlia habēre, to hold parents,
children, houses cheap.
 γγ) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun; as,—
populī prōvinciaeque līberātae sunt, nations and
provinces were liberated.
c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Adjective
does not agree with a noun according to strict grammatical form,
but according to sense; as,—
pars bēstiīs objectī sunt, part (of the men) were thrown to
beasts.

ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.

236. 1. PLURAL ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are quite freely

used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter
denotes things; as,—
doctī, scholars; parva, small things;
magna, great
malī, the wicked;
things;
Graecī, the
ūtilia, useful things;
Greeks;
nostrī, our men.
2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative
and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnōrum, omnium; magnīs,
omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet where there is no ambiguity,
they sometimes occur; as,—
parvīs compōnere magna, to compare great things with
small
Otherwise the Latin says: magnārum rērum, magnīs rēbus, etc.
237. SINGULAR ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are less freely
used as Substantives in the Singular than in the Plural.
1. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use; as,—
probus invidet nēminī, the honest man envies nobody.
a. Usually vir, homō, or some similar word is employed; as,—
 homō doctus, a scholar;
vir Rōmānus, a Roman.
b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used; as,
—
hīc doctus, this scholar;
doctus quīdam, a certain scholar.
2. Neuters are likewise infrequent; as,—
vērum, truth;
jūstum, justice;
honestum, virtue.
a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the
construction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions;
as,—
aliquid vērī, something true;
nihil novī, nothing new;
in mediō, in the midst.
238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the
substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have
become nouns; as,—
adversārius, hīberna, winter
opponent; quarters;
aequālis, propinquus,
contemporary; relative;
amīcus, friend; socius, partner;
cognātus,
sodālis, comrade;
kinsman;
vīcīnus, neighbor; etc.

ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.

239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the English idiom employs an
Adverb or an adverbial phrase; as,—
 senātus frequēns convēnit, the senate assembled in great
numbers;
fuit assiduus mēcum, he was constantly with me.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

240. 1. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive with

'rather,' 'somewhat,' 'too'; as,—
senectūs est loquācior, old age is rather talkative.
2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with 'very'; as,—
vir fortissimus, a very brave man.
3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used with the Superlative as
strengthening particles, vel with the force of 'very,' and quam with the force of
'as possible'; as,—
vel maximus, the very greatest;
quam maximae cōpiae, as great forces as possible.
4. Phrases of the type 'more rich than brave' regularly take the Comparative in
both members; as,—
exercitus erat dītior quam fortior, the army was more rich
than brave.

OTHER PECULIARITIES.

241. 1. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object, chiefly

prīmus, extrēmus, summus, medius, īnfimus, īmus; as,—
summus mōns, the top of the mountain;
extrēmā hieme, in the last part of the winter.
2. Prior, prīmus, ultimus, and postrēmus are frequently equivalent to a
relative clause; as,—
prīmus eam vīdī, I was the first who saw her;
 ultimus dēcessit, he was the last who withdrew.
3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun et is generally
used; as,—
multae et magnae cōgitātiōnēs, many (and) great
thoughts.

CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

242. 1. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed
except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily:—
videō, I see; amat, he loves.
But ego tē videō, et tū mē vidēs, I see you, and you see me.
2. The Genitives meī, tuī, nostrī, vestrī are used only as Objective Genitives;
nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus:—
memor tuī, mindful of you;
dēsīderium vestrī, longing for you;
nēmō vestrum, no one of you.
a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the
Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.
3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs.
Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'
4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun
with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus:—
virtūs amīcitiās conciliat et cōnservat, virtue establishes
friendships and maintains them (not eās cōnservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
243. 1. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the
purpose of clearness. Thus:—
patrem amō, I love my father;
dē fīliī morte flēbās, you wept for the death of your son.
But—
dē morte fīliī meī flēbās, you wept for the death of my son.
a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive
usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or
contrast, it precedes; as,—
suā manū līberōs occīdit, with his own hand he slew his
children;
meā quidem sententiā, in my opinion at least.
2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective
Genitive; as,—
metus vester, fear of you;
dēsīderium tuum, longing for you.
3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsīus or ipsōrum, in apposition
with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,—
meā ipsīus operā, by my own help;
nostrā ipsōrum operā, by our own help.
a. So sometimes other Genitives; as,—
meā ūnīus operā, by the assistance of me alone.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

244. 1. The Reflexive Pronoun sē and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a
double use:—
I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate)
in which they stand,—'Direct Reflexives'; as,—
sē amant, they love themselves;
suōs amīcōs adjuvāt, he helps his own friends;
 eum ōrāvī, ut sē servāret, I besought him to save himself.
II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the
principal clause,—'Indirect Reflexives'; as,—
mē ōrāvit ut sē dēfenderem, he besought me to defend him
(lit. that I defend himself);
mē ōrāvērunt, ut fortūnārum suārum dēfēnsiōnem
susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense
of their fortunes.
a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses
which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of
the principal clause.
2. The Genitive suī is regularly employed, like meī and tuī, as an Objective
Genitive, e.g. oblītus suī, forgetful of himself; but it occasionally occurs—
particularly in post-Augustan writers—in place of the Possessive suus; as,
fruitur fāmā suī, he enjoys his own fame.
3. Sē and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one's self, one's own, where
the reference is not to any particular person; as,—
sē amāre, to love one's self;
suum genium propitiāre, to propitiate one's own genius.
4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc., referring
not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,—
Hannibalem suī cīvēs ē cīvitāte ējēcērunt, his own fellow-
citizens drove out Hannibal.
a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with
quisque; as,—
suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.
5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique
cases of ego and tū (§ 85); as,—
vōs dēfenditis, you defend yourselves.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
245. 1. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun ('each other'), but
expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases: inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē;
as,—
Belgae obsidēs inter sē dedērunt, the Belgae gave each
other hostages (lit. among themselves);
amāmus inter nōs, we love each other;
Gallī inter sē cohortātī sunt, the Gauls exhorted each
other.
a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Hīc, Ille, Iste.

246. 1. Where hīc and ille are used in contrast, hīc usually refers to the latter
of two objects, and ille to the former.
2. Hīc and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'; as,—
Themistoclēs hīs verbīs epistulam mīsit, Themistocles
sent a letter (couched) in the following words;
illud intellegō, omnium ōra in mē conversa esse, I
understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward
me.
3. Ille often means the famous; as, Solōn ille, the famous Solon.
4. Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homō, that fellow!
5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a
predicate noun; as, hīc est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an honor,
to be mindful of one's duty.

Is.

247. 1. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative quī. Thus:—

 Maximum, eum quī Tarentum recēpit, dīlēxī, I loved
Maximus, the man who retook Tarentum.
a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such (= tālis); as,
—
nōn sum is quī terrear, I am not such a person as to be
frightened.
b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an
entire clause; as,—
nōn suspicābātur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multōs
testēs nōbīs reliquōs esse, he did not suspect (a thing
which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses
enough left.
Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this
use.
2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, 'he,'
'she,' 'it,' 'they,' 'them.'
3. When the English uses 'that of,' 'those of,' to avoid repetition of the noun,
the Latin omits the pronoun: as,—
in exercitū Sullae et posteā in Crassī fuerat, he had been
in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus;
nūllae mē fābulae dēlectant nisi Plautī, no plays delight
me except those of Plautus.
4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense: and that too; as,—
vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too
permanently.

Īdem.

248. 1. Īdem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of
also, likewise; as,—
quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me
(lit. which, the same thing);
 bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellāmus, a good
man, whom we call also wise.
For īdem atque (ac), the same as, see § 341, 1. c.

Ipse.

249. 1. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the context; as,—
eō ipsō diē, on that very day;
ad ipsam rīpam, close to the bank;
ipsō terrōre, by mere fright;
valvae sē ipsae aperuērunt, the doors opened of their own
accord;
ipse aderat, he was present in person.
2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but
ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more
commonly agrees with the subject; as,—
sēcum ipsī loquuntur, they talk with themselves;
sē ipse continēre nōn potest, he cannot contain himself
3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of marking a
contrast or avoiding an ambiguity; as,—
Persae pertimuērunt nē Alcibiadēs ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et
cum suīs in grātiam redīret, the Persians feared that
Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled
with his countrymen;
ea molestissimē ferre dēbent hominēs quae ipsōrum
culpā contrācta sunt, men ought to chafe most over
those things which have been brought about by their own
fault (as opposed to the fault of others).

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

250. Agreement. 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in

Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction in
the clause in which it stands; as,—
mulier quam vidēbāmus, the woman whom we saw;
bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.
2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and
gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see §
235, B, 2). Thus:—
pater et fīlius, qui captī sunt, the father and son who were
captured;
stultitia et timiditās quae fugienda sunt, folly and
cowardice which must be shunned;
honōrēs et victōriae quae sunt fortuīta, honors and
victories, which are accidental.
3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or
Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,—
carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prison, which is
called Lautumiae;
Belgae, quae est tertia pars, the Belgians, who are the
third part.
4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its
antecedent; as,—
pars quī bēstiīs objectī sunt, a part (of the men) who were
thrown to beasts.
5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent; as,—
nātus eō patre quō dīxī, born of the father that I said.
251. Antecedent. 1. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted; as,
—
quī nātūram sequitur sapiēns est, he who follows Nature
is wise.
2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an
adjective); as,—
 nostra quī remānsimus caedēs, the slaughter of us who
remained;
servīlī tumultū, quōs ūsus ac disciplīna sublevārunt, at
the uprising of the slaves, whom experience and
discipline assisted (servīlī = servōrum).
3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,—
erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two
routes, by which (routes).
4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often
incorporated in the relative clause. Thus:—
a) When the relative clause stands first; as,—
quam quisque nōvit artem, in hāc sē exerceat, let each
one practice the branch which he knows.
b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,—
nōn longē ā Tolōsātium fīnibus absunt, quae cīvitās est
in prōvinciā, they are not far from the borders of the
Tolosates, a state which is in our province.
c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,—
Themistoclēs dē servīs suīs, quem habuit fidēlissimum,
mīsit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.
d) In expressions of the following type—
quā es prūdentiā; quae tua est prūdentia, such is your
prudence (lit. of which prudence you are; which is your
prudence).
5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus the boy I saw
must be puer quem vīdī.
6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a
sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,—
quō factum est, by this it happened;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so;
quibus rēbus cognitīs, when these things became known.
7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to
a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,—
numquam dignē satis laudārī philosophia poterit, cui
quī pāreat, omne tempus aetātis sine molestiā possit
dēgere, philosophy can never be praised enough, since
he who obeys her can pass every period of life without
annoyance (lit. he who obeys which, etc.).
Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with
philosophia; but cui is governed by pāreat, which is subordinate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

252. 1. Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in
combination with sī, nisi, nē, num; as,—
sī quis putat, if any one thinks.
2. Aliquis (adj. aliquī) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usually to
the English some one, somebody, some; as,—
nunc aliquis dīcat mihī, now let somebody tell me;
utinam modo agātur aliquid, oh that something may be
done.
3. Quīdam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis; as,—
homō quīdam, a certain man (i.e., one whom I have in
mind).
a. Quīdam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the
sense: a sort of, kind of; as,—
cognātiō quaedam, a sort of relationship;
mors est quasi quaedam migrātiō, death is a kind of
transfer as it were.
4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis), and its
corresponding adjective ūllus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional
sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and in clauses of
comparison; as,—
 jūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam, justice never harms
anybody;
sī quisquam, Catō sapiēns fuit, if anybody was ever wise,
Cato was;
potestne quisquam sine perturbātiōne animī īrāscī, can
anybody be angry without excitement?
sī ūllō modō poterit, if it can be done in any way;
taetrior hīc tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiōrum,
he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.
5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circumstances:—
a) In connection with suus. See § 244, 4, a.
b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,—
quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let
him hold.
c) In connection with superlatives; as,—
optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one).
d) With ordinal numerals; as,—
quīntō quōque annō, every four years (lit. each fifth year).
6. Nēmō, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives
used substantively; as,—
nēmō mortālis, no mortal;
nēmō Rōmānus, no Roman.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

253. 1. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correlatively; as,—
aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks
another;
aliī resistunt, aliī fugiunt, some resist, others flee;
alter exercitum perdidit, alter vēndidit, one ruined the
army, the other sold it;
 alterī sē in montem recēpērunt, alterī ad impedīmenta sē
contulērunt, the one party retreated to the mountain, the
others betook themselves to the baggage.
2. Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the Latin uses
a more condensed form of statement; as,—
alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another;
aliud aliīs placet, one thing pleases some, another others.
a. So sometimes with adverbs; as,—
aliī aliō fugiunt, some flee in one direction, others in
another.
3. The Latin also expresses the notion 'each other' by means of alius repeated;
as,—
Gallī alius alium cohortātī sunt, the Gauls encouraged
each other.
4. Cēterī means the rest, all the others; as,—
cēterīs praestāre, to be superior to all the others.
5. Reliquī means the others in the sense of the rest, those remaining,—hence
is the regular word with numerals; as,—
reliquī sex, the six others.
6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some
one or other; as,—
causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other;
mīsit nescio quem, he sent some one or other;
nescio quō pactō, somehow or other.

CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.

AGREEMENT.
 With One Subject.

254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its
subject in Number and Person; as,—
vōs vidētis, you see;
pater fīliōs īnstituit, the father trains his sons.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle
regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,—
sēditiō repressa est, the mutiny was checked.
3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject,
the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,—
Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native
country on his mother's side;
nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, not every error is to
be called folly.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,—
Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, Corioli, a town
of the Volsci, was captured.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its
subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:—
a) In Number; as,—
multitūdō hominum convēnerant, a crowd of men had
gathered.
b) In Gender; as,—
duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, two thousand (men) were
crucified.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is

regularly plural; as,—
 pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, the father and son died.
2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,—
a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them;
as,—
mortuus est pater et fīlius;
pater mortuus est et fīlius.
b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel;
neque ... neque; as,—
neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, neither father nor
son died.
3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the
singular is used; as,—
temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, rashness and
ignorance are bad.
a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.
4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the
verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather
than the third; as,—
sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, if you and
Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in
the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate
adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or
reflexive meaning; as,—
ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, I shall not allow him to
defend himself.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the
poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself,
but as doing something in his own interest; as,—
vēlātus tempora, having veiled his temples.
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,—
tunicā indūcitur artūs, he covers his limbs with a tunic.
3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,—
curritur, people run (lit. it is run);
ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:—
a) The period of time to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or
Future.
b) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action
for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does
this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the
following table:—
KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME.
ACTION.
PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE.
UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future:
scrībō, I Perfect: scrībam, I
write. scrīpsī, I shall write.
wrote.
GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future:
scrībō, I am scrībēbam, I scrībam, I
writing. was writing. shall be
writing.
 COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future
Perfect: scrīpseram, I Perfect:
scrīpsī, I had written. scrīpserō, I
have written. shall have
written.
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action
Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according
as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined
action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or
Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or
Secondary).
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect,
Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents
the following peculiarities:—
1. It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the
present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,—
virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, virtue establishes
ties of friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does
so).
2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,—
dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, while they try to
avoid (vītant) vices, they rush into opposite ones.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical
Present'); as,—
 Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar
demanded a large number of hostages (lit. demands).
4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the
Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in
the present; as,—
jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, I have long been desiring to
visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time; as,—
librum legēbam, I was reading a book.
a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the
tense of description (as opposed to mere narration).
2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of
repeated or customary action; as,—
lēgātōs interrogābat, he kept asking the envoys;
C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, as a boy I often used to see
Gaius Duilius.
3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an
action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,—
hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant,
the enemy tried to prevent (prohibēbant) our men from
advancing within the fortifications ('Conative');
ad proelium sē expediēbant, they were beginning to get
ready for battle ('Inceptive').
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of
an action which had been continuing some time; as,—
domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, he had
had his residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it
at this time and had long had it).
 Future Indicative.

261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the
English. We say: 'If he comes, I shall be glad,' where we really mean: 'If he
shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally
employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, say!

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting
from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,—
nōvī, cognōvī, I know (lit. I have become acquainted with);
cōnsuēvī, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed).
B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as
opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description); as,—
Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī
captivōs negāvit esse ūtile, Regulus came into the
Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for
captives to be returned.
1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic
Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act
completed in the past; as,—
Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant,
Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the
Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,—
nōveram, I knew.
 Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus:—
scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter
when you have returned (lit. when you shall have
returned).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect
than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect
instead of the Future Perfect.
b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the
Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as,—
nōverō, I shall know.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time
of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus
employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for
the Present Perfect; as,—
nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī
quidquam audieram et ad tuās omnēs epistulās jam
rescrīpseram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard
no news and have already answered all your letters.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the
subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the
Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal,
Historical by Historical. Thus:—
PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,—
videō quid faciās, I see what you are doing.
vidēbō quid faciās, I shall see what you are doing.
vīderō quid faciās, I shall have seen what you are doing.
videō quid fēcerīs, I see what you have done.
vidēbō quid fēcerīs, I shall see what you have done.
vīderō quid fēcerīs, I shall have seen what you have done.
HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,—
vidēbam quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.
vīdī quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.
vīderam quid facerēs, I had seen what you were doing.
vidēbam quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.
vīdī quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.
vīderam quid fēcissēs, I had seen what you had done.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the
Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when

translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,—
dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, I have shown
why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if
resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,—
videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, I seem to have shown
of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds
to an Indicative, ostendī, I showed).
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense,
sometimes as historical. Thus:—
Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, Sulla exhorts his
soldiers to be stout-hearted;
Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls
to take arms.
4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the
principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,—
honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā
tamen pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, virtue is such a
thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be
worthy of praise for its own loveliness.
5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect
Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,—
sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset,
nēminem tū quidem eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, if
you called only those wretched who must die, you would
except no one of those who live.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes
used as an historical tense. Thus:—
rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem
jūdicārit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged
Tissaphernes an enemy.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent
historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a
fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds
to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jūdicārit in the
above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, he adjudged. To denote a result as
something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical
tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be
abandoned altogether. Thus:
 a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an
historical tense; as,—
Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit,
Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct
statement: nōn potest restitui);
ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō
flagrantius studium vīderim, Hortensius burned so with
eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater
desire (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī, I have seen in no
one).
NOTE.—This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of
Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was
used as an historical tense.
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect
Subjunctive used historically; as,—
nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs,
I do not know what reason there was why you did not
send me a letter.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect
Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin
Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:—
1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by
the Imperfect after historical tenses.
b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal
tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the
presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is
to future time. Thus:—
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, the
Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order;
 Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret,
the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should
order;
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit,
the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have
ordered;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar
imperāvisset, the Gauls promised they would do what
Caesar should have ordered.
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause,
Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and
Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:—
timeō nē veniat, I am afraid he will come;
Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, Caesar
was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus sim
and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect
Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as,—
nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, I do not doubt that my
father will come;
nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, I did not doubt
that my father would come.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the
passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles
mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect
Subjunctive; as,—
nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, I do not
doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;
nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, I did
not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished.

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with
reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus:—
a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with
the time of the verb on which it depends; as,—
vidētur honōrēs adsequī, he seems to be gaining honors;
vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, he seemed to be gaining
honors.
b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the
verb on which it depends; as,—
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seems to have gained
honors;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seemed to have
gained honors.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of
the verb on which it depends; as,—
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seems to be about to
gain honors;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seemed to be about
to gain honors.
2. Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the
Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram), with the
Present Infinitive; as,—
dēbuit dīcere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say);
opōrtuit venīre, he ought to have come;
potuit vidēre, he might have seen.
a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take
a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,—
hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago
to have been done.
3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem,
express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse
ut, with the Subjunctive; as,—
 spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, I hope you will repent
of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you
repent);
spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, I hope that the
enemy will be kept off.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem;
as,—
spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, I hope the enemy will be
conquered.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with
fore; as,—
spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, I hope the letter will have
been written;
dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained
enough.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts,
or inquiry after facts.
1. Note the following idiomatic uses:—
a) With possum; as,—
possum multa dīcere, I might say much;
poteram multa dīcere, I might have said much (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est,
difficile est, ūtilius est, and some others; as,—
longum est ea dīcere, it would be tedious to tell that;
 difficile est omnia persequī, it would be difficult to
enumerate everything.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something

—
 1. As willed—Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired—Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible—Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies
authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:—

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation. This use is confined
to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē. Thus:—
eāmus, let us go;
amēmus patriam, let us love our country;
nē dēspērēmus, let us not despair.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands
regularly in the Present Tense, and is used—
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,—
dīcat, let him tell;
dīcant, let them tell;
quārē sēcēdant improbī, wherefore let the wicked depart!
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,—
istō bonō ūtāre, use that advantage;
modestē vīvās, live temperately.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and
plural, with nē, to express a prohibition. Both Present and Perfect occur, and
without appreciable difference of meaning; as,—
nē repugnētis, do not resist!
tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, don't leave her!
impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, let not the impious dare to
appease the gods!
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second
person is by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive,
or by cavē or cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as,—
nōlī hōc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do)!
nōlīte mentīrī, do not lie!
cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, do not forgive, do not
pity!
cavē nē haec faciās, do not do this (lit. take care lest you
do)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations
implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or
propriety. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring
to past. The negative is nōn. Thus:—
quid faciam, what shall I do?
ego redeam, I go back!
huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! are we to
bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!
quid facerem, what was I to do?
hunc ego nōn dīligam, should I not cherish this man?
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in
character, and do not expect an answer.
 E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for
the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect
regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus:—
sit hōc vērum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true);
nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, I grant there is not strength in
old age;
fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, I grant
that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to
be so toward you?

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative
is regularly nē.
1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is
conceived of as possible.
dī istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!
falsus utinam vātēs sim, oh that I may be a false prophet!
nē veniant, may they not come!
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is
not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The
Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,—
utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, would that you were
saying that in earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying
it in earnest);
Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, would that
Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo;
utinam nē nātus essem, would that I had not been born.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is nōn.
The following uses are to be noted:—
1. The 'May' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere
possibility (English auxiliary may). Both Present and Perfect occur, and
without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—
dīcat aliquis, some one may say;
dīxerit aliquis, some one may say.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined
mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may represent
something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English
auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without
appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—
fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, one would more
quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make
the trial);
crēdiderim, I should believe.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms
of statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus:—
velim mihi ignōscās, I wish you would forgive me;
nōlim putēs mē jocārī, I don't want you to think I'm joking.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types
of Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as,—
diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, time would fail if
I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.
3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.—In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs
in the second person singular (with indefinite force; § 356, 3) of a few verbs of
perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as,—
videās, cernās, one can see, one can perceive;
crēderēs, one could believe;
vidērēs, cernerēs, one could see, perceive;
putārēs, one could imagine.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of
the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By
omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone,
particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as,—
vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold
enough).

The Imperative.

281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties

(negative nē), as,—
ēgredere ex urbe, depart from the city;
mihi ignōsce, pardon me;
valē, farewell.
1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the
Future is employed—
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in
the apodosis of conditional sentences; as,—
rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, I will lay the
matter before you; do you (then) consider it;
sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, if he shall
speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,—
cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, the consuls shall have
supreme power;
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, no one shall bury
a dead body in the city;
amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus
et condiciōnibus estō, let there be friendship between
Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms
and conditions;
quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, let Marcus be heir to a
fourth (of the property);
 ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, forgive your
neighbor often, yourself never.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose.
Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (why not?) are often
equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,—
quīn abīs, go away! (lit. why don't you go away?);
quīn vōcem continētis, keep still! (lit. why don't you stop
your voices?);
quīn equōs cōnscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit.
why do we not mount our horses?)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō

(that, in order that), nē (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive,
as,—
edimus ut vīvāmus, we eat that we may live;
adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, help me, in order that this
may be done more easily;
portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, he
closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any
injury.
a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause
contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional
exceptions occur; as,—
haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, they are doing
this in order to frighten Chremes.
b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus:—
ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, in order that we may not
do anything carelessly.
 c. Ut nōn (not nē) is used where the negation belongs to some
single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:—
ut nōn ējectus ad aliēnōs, sed invītātus ad tuōs videāre,
that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but
invited to your own friends.
d. To say 'and that not' or 'or that not,' the Latin regularly uses nēve
(neu); as,—
ut eārum rērum vīs minuerētur, neu pontī nocērent, that
the violence of these things might be lessened, and that
they might not harm the bridge;
profūgit, nē caperētur nēve interficerētur, he fled, that he
might not be captured or killed.
e. But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose
Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era,
even when the first clause is introduced by nē.
f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding
noun or pronoun: as,—
hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, on this account, that they
might have peace.
2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used to
introduce a Purpose Clause; as,—
Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, the Helvetii sent
envoys to say (lit. who should say);
haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem, I had these things
to say about old age;
nōn habēbant quō sē reciperent, they had no place to
which to flee (lit. whither they might flee).
a. Quī in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut
ibi; unde to ut inde; quō to ut eō.
3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idōneus; as,—
idōneus fuit nēmō quem imitārēre, there was no one
suitable for you to imitate (cf. nēmō fuit quem
imitārēre, there was no one for you to imitate);
 dignus est quī aliquandō imperet, he is worthy to rule
sometime.
4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the
context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,—
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, (I
will say that) we departed.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1. A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a

general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and
usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,—
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things
which sharpen the wits.
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used
merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take
the Indicative; as,—
Catō, senex jūcundus, quī Sapiēns appellātus est, Cato, a
delightful old man, who was called 'The Wise.'
The Clause of Characteristic implies 'a person of the sort that does something';
the Indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something.'
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est
quī; sunt quī; nēmō est quī; nūllus est quī; ūnus est quī; sōlus est quī; quis
est quī; is quī; etc. Thus:—
sunt quī dīcant, there are (some) who say;
nēmō est quī nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant;
sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is
the only thing that drives away sorrow;
quae cīvitās est quae nōn ēvertī possit, what state is there
that cannot be overthrown?
nōn is sum quī improbōs laudem, I am not the sort of man
that praises the wicked.
 a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of
characteristic is used after comparatives; as,—
nōn longius hostēs aberant quam quō tēlum adigī posset,
the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them
(lit. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be
cast).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause
(since) or opposition (although). Thus:—
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut,
quīppe, utpote; as,—
ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum
praecōnem invēnerīs, O fortunate man, since you have
found a Homer as the herald of your valor;
ut quī optimō jūre eam prōvinciam obtinuerit, since he
held that province by excellent right.
b) Opposition:—
egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen
complūrēs diēs Athēnīs commorātus sum, I, although I
had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless
tarried several days at Athens.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quīn = quī (quae,
quod) nōn; as,—
nēmō est quīn saepe audierit, there is no one who has not
often heard;
nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, there was no one of
the soldiers who was not wounded.
5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:
quod sciam, so far as I know; quem (quam, quod),
audierim, so far as I have heard.

Clauses of Result.
284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative
ut nōn (so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains
tantus, tālis, tot, is (= tālis), tam, ita, sīc, adeō, or some similar word. Thus:
—
quis tam dēmēns est ut suā voluntāte maereat, who is so
senseless as to mourn of his own volition?
Siciliam ita vāstāvit ut restituī in antīquum statum nōn
possit, he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to
its former condition;
mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī
prohibēre possent, a very high mountain overhung, so
that a very few could easily stop them;
nōn is es ut tē pudor umquam ā turpitūdine āvocārit,
you are not so constituted that shame ever called you
back from baseness.
2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quī
(= ut is), quō (= ut eō), etc.; as,—
nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere,
nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year;
habētis eum cōnsulem quī pārēre vestrīs dēcrētīs nōn
dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to
obey your decrees.
a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to
the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult
to distinguish the two constructions. It is best to class the
relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result
idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quīn = ut nōn; as,—
nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit,
nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by
searching;
nēmō est tam fortis quīn reī novitāte perturbētur, no one
is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a
strange occurrence.
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after
comparatives; as,—
urbs erat mūnītior quam ut prīmō impetū capī posset,
the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first
attack (lit. more strongly fortified than [so] that it could
be taken, etc.).

Causal Clauses.

285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:—

1. Quod, quia, quoniam.

2. Cum.
3. Quandō.

286. The use of moods is as follows:—

1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the
writer or speaker; they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that
of another. Thus:—
Parthōs timeō quod diffīdō cōpiīs nostrīs, I fear the
Parthians, because I distrust our troops.
Themistoclēs, quia nōn tūtus erat, Corcyram
dēmigrāvit, Themistocles, since he was not safe, moved
to Corcyra.
neque mē vīxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vīxī, I do not
regret having lived, since I have lived well.
Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet juventūtem,
Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was
corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the
writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.)
Haeduī Caesarī grātiās ēgērunt quod sē perīculō
līberāvisset, the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had
delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)
quoniam Miltiadēs dīcere nōn posset, verba prō eō fēcit
Tīsagorās, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras
 spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)
noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere
nōn posset, Themistocles used to walk at night because
(as he said) he couldn't sleep.
a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in
causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not
the contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason.
Thus:—
Bellovacī suum numerum nōn complēvērunt quod sē suō
nōmine cum Rōmānīs bellum gestūrōs dīcerent, the
Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they
said they were going to wage war with the Romans on
their own account.
b. Nōn quod, nōn quō (by attraction for nōn eō quod), nōn quia,
not that, not because; and nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, nōn
quīn, not that ... not; not because ... not; not but that, are usually
employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence
take the Subjunctive; as,—
id fēcī, nōn quod vōs hanc dēfēnsiōnem dēsīderāre
arbitrārer, sed ut omnēs intellegerent, this I did, not
because I thought you needed this defense, but that all
might perceive;
Crassō commendātiōnem nōn sum pollicitus, nōn quīn
eam valitūram apud tē arbitrārer, sed egēre mihi
commendātiōne nōn vidēbātur, I did not promise a
recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it
would have weight with you, but because he did not seem
to me to need recommendation.
c. But clauses introduced by nōn quod, nōn quīa take the
Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to
be the reason for something; as,—
hōc ita sentiō, nōn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sīc
exīstimāre nōs est necesse, this I think, not because I am
myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is
necessary for us to think so.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,—
 quae cum īta sint, since this is so;
cum sīs mortālis, quae mortālia sunt, cūrā, since you are
mortal, care for what is mortal.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially
since; as,—
Haeduōs accūsat, praesertim cum eōrum precibus
adductus bellum suscēperit, he blamed the Haedui,
especially since he had undertaken the war at their
entreaties.
3. Quandō (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the
Indicative; as,—
id omittō, quandō vōbīs ita placet, I pass over that, since
you so wish.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc.

287. 1. Postquam (posteāquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum prīmum, simul,
simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act
regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,—
Epamīnōndās postquam audīvit vīcisse Boeōtiōs, 'Satis'
inquit 'vīxī,' Epaminondas, after he heard that the
Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I have lived enough;'
id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, when he heard this,
he moved to Corcyra;
Caesar cum prīmum potuit, ad exercitum contendit,
Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army;
ubi dē Caesaris adventū certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad
eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesar's
arrival, they sent envoys to him.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this
construction.
2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often
as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare
§§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as,—
 ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiās
statim coniciēbātur, whenever anybody had offended
Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-
quarry;
hostēs, ubi aliquōs ēgredientēs cōnspexerant,
adoriēbantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men
disembarking, they attacked them.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
('Indefinite Frequency'); as,—
id ubi dīxisset hastam mittēbat, whenever he had said
that, he hurled a spear.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect
Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in
expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.),
such as post tertium annum quam, trienniō postquam. Thus:—
quīnque post diēbus quam Lūcā discesserat, ad
Sardiniam vēnit five days after he had departed from
Luca he came to Sardinia;
postquam occupātae Syrācūsae erant, profectus est
Carthāginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out
for Carthage.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued
state; as,—
postquam Rōmam adventābant, senātus cōnsultus est,
after they were on the march toward Rome, the Senate
was consulted;
postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, after they had been
drawn up on both sides and were in position.
5. Rarely postquam, posteāquam, following the analogy of cum, take the
Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,—
posteāquam sūmptuōsa fieri fūnera coepissent, lēge
sublāta sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate,
 they were done away with by law.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,—
A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the
point of time at which something occurs.
B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or
circumstances under which something occurs.
Examples:—
INDICATIVE.
an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdēbat,
or were you consul at the time when my house burned up
on the Palatine?
crēdō tum cum Sicilia flōrēbat opibus et cōpiīs magna
artificia fuisse in eā īnsulā, I believe that at the time
when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there
were great crafts in that island;
eō tempore pāruit cum pārēre necesse erat, he obeyed at
the time when it was necessary to obey;
illō diē, cum est lāta lēx dē mē, on that day when the law
concerning me was passed.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Lysander cum vellet Lycūrgī lēgēs commūtāre,
prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the
laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented;
Pythagorās cum in geōmetriā quiddam novī invēnisset,
Mūsīs bovem immolāsse dīcitur, when Pythagoras had
discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have
sacrificed an ox to the Muses.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses
than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases
 where the main clause has tum, eō diē, eō annō, eō tempore or
some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends
entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall
employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find
cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when,
when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegrē,
nōndum; as,—
jam Gallī ex oppidō fugere apparābant, cum mātrēs
familiae repente prōcurrērunt, the Gauls were already
preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed
forth (logically, the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls
were preparing to flee);
Trēvirī Labiēnum adorīrī parābant, cum duās legiōnēs
vēnisse cognōscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack,
when (suddenly) they learned that two legions had
arrived.
3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative,
particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2; 302, 3); as,—
cum ād aliquod oppidum vēnerat, eādem lectīcā ad
cubiculum dēferēbātur, whenever he had arrived at
some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to
his room;
cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs ex
silvīs ēmittēbat, whenever our cavalry had advanced
into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the
woods.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used;
as,—
saepe cum aliquem vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum
amiculum dedit, often, wherever he saw some one more
poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle;
cum prōcucurrissent, Numidae effugiēbant, as often as
they had advanced, the Numidians ran away.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
 B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative;
as,—
tum tua rēs agitur, pariēs cum proximus ārdet, your own
interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is
burning;
cum vidēbis, tum sciēs, when you see, then you will know.
a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a
recurring action; as,—
stabilitās amīcitiae cōnfirmārī potest, cum hominēs
cupīdinibus imperābunt, firm friendship can be
established whenever men shall control their desires.

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to
indicate the identity of one act with another; as,—
cum tacent clāmant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they
are silent, they shout).
2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean both ... and, the cum-clause is in the
Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the
Subjunctive; as,—
cum tē semper dīlēxerim, tum tuīs factīs incēnsus sum,
while I have always loved you, at the same time I am
stirred by your conduct.

Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam)
take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.
1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,—
 prius respondēs quam rogō, you answer before I ask;
nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, I will say
nothing in opposition, before he speaks.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,—
nōn prius jugulandī fīnis fuit, quam Sulla omnēs suōs
dīvitiīs explēvit, there was no end of murder until Sulla
satisfied all his henchmen with wealth.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as
anticipated.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote—
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,—
priusquam dīmicārent, foedus īctum est, i.e. in
anticipation of the fight, a treaty was struck.
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used
of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,
—
tempestās minātur antequam surgat, the tempest
threatens before it rises.
b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,—
priusquam tēlum adicī posset, omnis aciēs terga vertit,
before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.
c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,—
animum omittunt priusquam locō dēmigrent, they die
rather than quit their post.
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some
writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,—
sōl antequam sē abderet fugientem vīdit Antōnium, the
sun before it set saw Antony fleeing.
 Clauses introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad.

293. 1. Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,
—
Alexander, dum inter prīmōrēs pugnat, sagittā ictus est,
Alexander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by
an arrow;
dum haec geruntur, in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, while
these things were being done, he arrived in the territory
of the Venelli.
II. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as,—
dum anima est, spēs est, as long as there is life, there is
hope;
Lacedaemoniōrum gēns fortis fuit, dum Lycūrgī lēgēs
vigēbant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful,
as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force;
Catō, quoad vīxit, virtūtum laude crēvit, Cato, at long as
he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues.
III. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, until, take:—
1. The Indicative, to denote an actual event; as,—
dōnec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he came;
ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renūntiātum est
Boeōtiōs vīcisse, he kept the iron in his body until word
was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dōnec in this sense
often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,—
trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant dōnec timor quiētem
fēcisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear
produced quiet.
2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expectancy; as,—
exspectāvit Caesar dum nāvēs convenīrent, Caesar
waited for the ships to assemble;
 dum litterae veniant, morābor, I shall wait for the letter
to come.

Substantive Clauses.

294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or

Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the
following classes of verbs:—
1. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade,
induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,—
postulō ut fīat, I demand that it be done (dependent form of
the Jussive fīat, let it be done!);
ōrat, nē abeās, he begs that you will not go away;
mīlitēs cohortātus est ut hostium impetum sustinērent,
he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the
enemy;
Helvētiīs persuāsit ut exīrent, he persuaded the Helvetii to
march forth.
a. Jubeō, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction

ut); as,—
huic concēdō ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by
(dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him
pass that by!);
cōnsulī permissum est ut duās legiōnēs scrīberet, the
consul was permitted to enroll two legions.
3. With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions nē, quōminus,
quīn); as,—
 nē lūstrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented
him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past
tense of nē lūstrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);
prohibuit quōminus in ūnum coīrent, he prevented them
from coming together;
nec quīn ērumperet, prohibērī poterat, nor could he be
prevented from rushing forth.
a. Quīn is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by
a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not
necessarily used even then.

4. With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,
—
cōnstitueram ut prīdiē Īdūs Aquīnī manērem, I had
decided to remain at Aquinum on the 12th;
dēcrēvit senātus ut Opīmius vidēret, the Senate decreed
that Opimius should see to it;
convēnit ut ūnīs castrīs miscērentur, it was agreed that
they should be united in one camp.
5. With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,—
fac ut eum exōrēs, see to it that you prevail upon him!
cūrā ut vir sīs, see to it that you are a man!
labōrābat ut reliquās cīvitātēs adjungeret, he was striving
to join the remaining states to him.
a. Cōnor, try, always takes the Infinitive.
NOTE.—Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in
poetry.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur,
licet, oportet; as,—
sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to show;
licet redeās, you may return;
oportet loquāmur, we must speak.
On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est
cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as,—
nūlla causa est cūr timeam, there is no reason why I
should fear (originally Deliberative: why should I fear?
There's no reason);
nihil est quīn dīcam, there is no reason why I should not
say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive
without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but
simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose.
This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other
examples are:—
eōs moneō dēsinant, I warn them to stop;
huic imperat adeat cīvitātēs, he orders him to visit the
states.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:—

1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupiō, optō, volō, mālō
(conjunctions ut, nē, ut nē); as,—
optō ut in hōc jūdiciō nēmō improbus reperiātur, I hope
that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut
reperiātur represents a simple optative of direct
statement, viz. reperiātur, may no bad man be found!);
cupiō nē veniat, I desire that he may not come.
a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with
verbs of this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrībās, I
wish you would write; vellem scrīpsisset, I wish he had written.
2. With expressions of fearing (timeō, metuō, vereor, etc.). Here nē means
that, lest, and ut means that not; as,—
 timeō nē veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he
not come! I'm afraid [he will]);
timeō ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally:
may he come! I'm afraid [he won't]).
a. Nē nōn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the
verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to
emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause; as,—
nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fīat, I am not afraid that this will
not happen;
vereor nē exercitum fīrmum habēre nōn possit, I fear
that he is unable (nōn possit) to have a strong army.

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nōn) are a

development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of
words:—
1. As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially faciō,
efficiō, cōnficiō). Thus:—
gravitās morbī facit ut medicīnā egeāmus, the severity of
disease makes us need medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur,
accidit, ēvenit, contingit, accēdit, fierī potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur.
Thus:—
ex quō efficitur, ut voluptās nōn sit summum bonum,
from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest
good;
ita fit, ut nēmō esse possit beātus, thus it happens that no
one can be happy;
accēdēbat ut nāvēs deessent, another thing was the lack of
ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).
3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jūs est, mōs est,
cōnsuētūdō est; also after neuter pronouns, hōc, illud, etc. Thus:—
 est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem plūribus rēbus
excellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same
person to excel in many things.

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quīn.

298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quīn (used sometimes as subject,

sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of
doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after nōn dubitō, I do not doubt;
quis dubitat, who doubts?; nōn (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The
mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:—
quis dubitat quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint, who doubts that
in virtue there are riches?
nōn dubium erat quīn ventūrus esset, there was no doubt
that he was about to come.
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive
sometimes takes the place of the quīn-clause after nōn dubitō;
as,—
nōn dubitāmus inventōs esse, we do not doubt that men
were found
b. Nōn dubitō, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the
Infinitive, though sometimes by a quīn-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.

299. 1. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the
Indicative. This construction occurs especially—
a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hōc, id, illud,
illa, ex eō, inde, etc. Thus:—
illud est admīrātiōne dignum, quod captīvōs retinendōs
cēnsuit, this is especially worthy of admiration, that he
thought the prisoners ought to be kept;
hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod colloquimur
inter nōs, in this one respect we are especially superior
to the beasts, that we talk with each other.
 b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mīror, etc.;
as,—
bene mihi ēvenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for
me that I am sent to death;
bene fēcistī quod mānsistī, you did well in remaining.
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as
regards the fact that. Thus:—
quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcō, id
meī mūniendī causā faciō, as regards the fact that I am
transporting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am
doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;
quod mē Agamemnona aemulārī putās, falleris, as
regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you
are mistaken.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking,
inquiring, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like
Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced—
a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,—
dīc mihi ubi fuerīs, quid fēcerīs, tell me where you were,
what you did;
oculīs jūdicārī nōn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it
cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the
Arar flows;
bis bīna quot essent, nesciēbat, he did not know how many
two times two were.
NOTE.—Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative
Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:—
effugere nēmō id potest quod futūrum est, no one can
escape what is destined to come to pass; but saepe
 autem ne ūtile quidem est scīre quid futūrum sit, but
often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass.
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,—
Epamīnōndās quaesīvit num salvus esset clipeus, or
salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his
shield was safe;
disputātur num interīre virtūs in homine possit, the
question is raised whether virtue can die in a man;
ex Sōcrate quaesītum est nōnne Archelāum beātum
putāret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he
did not think Archelaus happy.
NOTE.—Nōnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerō, as in the last
example above.
2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the
direct discourse; as,—
nesciō quid faciam, I do not know what to do. (Direct:
quid faciam, what shall I do!)
3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspectō, cōnor, experior,
temptō) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sī; as,—
cōnantur sī perrumpere possint, they try whether they can
break through.
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,—
pergit ad proximam spēluncam sī forte eō vēstīgia
ferrent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the
tracks led thither.
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles
as direct double questions (§ 162, 4); viz.;—

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;
—— ... an;
—— ... ne.
Examples:—
quaerō utrum vērum an falsum sit, }
quaerō vērumne an falsum sit, } I ask whether it
quaerō vērum an falsum sit, } is true or false?
quaerō vērum falsumne sit, }
a. 'Or not' in the second member of the double question is
ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an nōn; as,—
dī utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there
are gods or not.
5. Haud sciō an, nesciō an, by omission of the first member of the double
question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: I am inclined to think,
probably, perhaps; as,—
haud sciō an ita sit, I am inclined to think this is so.
6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect
Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two
parts, the Protasis (or condition), usually introduced by sī, nisi, or sīn, and the
Apodosis (or conclusion). There are the following types of Conditional
Sentences:—

First Type.—Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis.
Any tense may be used; as,—
sī hōc crēdis, errās, if you believe this, you are mistaken;
nātūram sī sequēmur, numquam aberrābimus, if we
follow Nature, we shall never go astray;
sī hōc dīxistī, errāstī, if you said this, you were in error.
2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (§ 356,
3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as,—
 memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās, memory is impaired
unless you exercise it.
3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a
repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2; 288, 3); as,—
sī quis equitum dēciderat, peditēs circumsistēbant, if any
one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about
him.
a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ
the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote
repeated action; as,—
sī dīcendō quis diem eximeret, if (ever) anybody consumed
a day in pleading; sī quandō adsidēret, if ever he sat by.
4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the
First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives
(Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,—
sī hōc crēditis, tacēte, if you believe this, be silent;
sī hōc crēdimus, taceāmus, if we believe this, let us keep
silent.

Second Type.—'Should'-'Would' Conditions.

303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense)
in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,—
sī hōc dīcās, errēs, or sī hōc dīxerīs, errāverīs, if you
should say this, you would be mistaken;
sī velim Hannibalis proelia omnia dēscrībere, diēs mē
dēficiat, if I should wish to describe all the battles of
Hannibal, time would fail me;
mentiar, sī negem, I should lie, if I should deny it;
haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat,
if your country should plead thus with you, would she not
deserve to obtain her request?
 a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this
type is of the Potential variety.
b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences
of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the
accomplishment of a result more positively; as,—
aliter sī faciat, nūllam habet auctōritātem, if he should do
otherwise, he has no authority.

Third Type.—Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis,
the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past; as,
—
sī amīcī meī adessent, opis nōn indigērem, if my friends
were here, I should not lack assistance;
sī hōc dīxissēs, errāssēs, if you had said this, you would
have erred;
sapientia nōn expeterētur, sī nihil efficeret, philosophy
would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing;
cōnsilium, ratiō, sententia nisi essent in senibus, nōn
summum cōnsilium majōrēs nostrī appellāssent
senātum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom
existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called
their highest deliberative body a senate.
2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past,
especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still existing; as,—
Laelius, Fūrius, Catō sī nihil litterīs adjuvārentur,
numquam sē ad eārum studium contulissent, Laelius,
Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to
the study of letters, unless they had been (constantly)
helped by them;
num igitur sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis
eum suae paenitēret, if he had lived to his hundredth
year, would he have regretted (and now be regretting) his
old age?
3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the
Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.—
a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity; as,
—
nisi fēlīcitās in sōcordiam vertisset, exuere jugum
potuērunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly,
they could have thrown off the yoke;
NOTE.—In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is
represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from
the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent
understood (and they would have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is
conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.
eum patris locō colere dēbēbās, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset,
you ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense
of devotion.
b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,—
sī Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī, if Sestius
had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms?
sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if
you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die.

Protasis expressed without Sī.

305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with sī, but may be
implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,—
aliōquī haec nōn scrīberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters
were otherwise) these things would not be written;
nōn potestis, voluptāte omnia dīrigentēs, retinēre
virtūtem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct
everything with reference to pleasure.
2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis.
Thus:—
 crās petitō, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given
you (lit. ask to-morrow, etc.);
haec reputent, vidēbunt, if they consider this, they will see
(lit. let them consider, etc.);
rogēs Zēnōnem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he
would answer.

Use of Nisi, Sī Nōn, Sīn.

306. 1. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; sī nōn negatives a single
word; as,—
ferreus essem, nisi tē amārem, I should be hard-hearted
unless I loved you; but—
ferreus essem, sī tē nōn amārem, I should be hard-hearted
if I did NOT love you.
In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the
second, the notion of loving.
2. Sī nōn (sī minus) is regularly employed:—
a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certē follows; as,—
dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere, tamen occultābō, if I
cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it.
b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,—
sī fēceris, magnam habēbō grātiam; sī nōn fēceris,
ignōscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you
do not do it, I shall pardon you.
a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
minus is admissible; as,—
hōc sī assecūtus sum, gaudeō; sī minus, mē cōnsōlor, if I
have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself.
3. Sīn. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but
affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sīn; as,—
 hunc mihi timōrem ēripe; sī vērus est, nē opprimar, sīn
falsus, ut timēre dēsinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is
well founded, that I may not be destroyed; but if it is
groundless, that I may cease to fear.
4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (nōn, nēmō, nihil); as,—
nihil cōgitāvit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder.
a. Nōn and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
5. Nisi forte, nisi vērō, nisi sī, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with
ironical force), take the Indicative; as,—
nisi vērō, quia perfecta rēs nōn est, nōn vidētur
pūnienda, unless indeed, because an act is not
consummated, it does not seem to merit punishment.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac

sī, ut sī, quasi, quam sī, tamquam sī, velut sī, or simply by velut or
tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an
ellipsis (see § 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:—
tantus patrēs metus cēpit, velut sī jam ad portās hostis
esset, as great fear seized the senators as (would have
seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates;
sed quid ego hīs testibus ūtor quasi rēs dubia aut
obscūra sit, but why do I use these witnesses, as (I
should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure;
serviam tibi tam quasi ēmerīs mē argentō, I will serve
you as though you had bought me for money.
2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles
for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the
Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English
uses the Past and Past Perfect.

Concessive Clauses.
308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from
the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see § 278)
as,—
sit fūr, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperātor, granted that
he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander;
haec sint falsa, granted that this is false;
nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est, granted
that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil.

Adversative Clauses with Quamvīs, Quamquam, etc.

309. Clauses introduced by quamvīs, quamquam, etsī, tametsī, cum,

although, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially different from
genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede anything,
but rather state that something is true in spite of something else. They
accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate
Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses
have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows:—
1. Quamvīs, however much, although, does not introduce a statement of fact,
but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive,
usually of the present tense; as,—
hominēs quamvīs in turbidīs rēbus sint, tamen interdum
animīs relaxantur, in however stirring events men may
engage, yet at times they relax their energies;
nōn est potestās opitulandī reī pūblicae quamvīs ea
premātur perīculīs, there is no opportunity to succor the
state, though it be beset by dangers.
2. Quamquam, etsī, tametsī, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are
followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,—
quamquam omnis virtūs nōs allicit, tamen jūstitia id
maximē efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice
does so especially;
Caesar, etsī nōndum cōnsilium hostium cognōverat,
tamen id quod accidit suspicābātur, Caesar, though he
 did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was
suspecting what actually occurred.
a. Etsī, although, must be distinguished from etsī, even if. The
latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions
admissible for sī. (See §§ 302-304.)
3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,—
Atticus honōrēs nōn petiit, cum eī patērent, Atticus did
not seek honors, though they were open to him.
4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to the level of
a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or
Perfect; as,—
licet omnēs terrōrēs impendeant, succurram, though all
terrors hang over me, (yet) I will lend aid.
5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal
clauses; as,—
quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?
6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the
Subjunctive, while quamvīs is often used to introduce statements of fact, and
takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:—
quamquam movērētur hīs vōcibus, although he was
moved by these words;
quamvīs multī opīnārentur, though many thought;
quamvīs īnfēstō animō pervēnerās, though you had come
with hostile intent.

Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative nē) and have
two distinct uses:—
I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the
subject of the leading verb; as,—
 multī honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam
cōnsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to
obtain power (if only they may attain);
omnia postposuī, dum praeceptīs patris pārērem, I made
everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the
injunctions of my father;
nīl obstat tibi, dum nē sit dītior alter, nothing hinders you
in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than
you.
II. They are used to express a proviso ('provided that'); as,—
ōderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear;
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et
industria, old men retain their faculties, provided only
they retain their interest and vigor;
nūbant, dum nē dōs fiat comes, let them marry, provided
no dowry goes with it.

Relative Clauses.

311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or

Adverbs.
312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially
clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the
suffix -oumque; as,—
quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dōna ferentēs, whatever
it is, I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts;
quidquid oritur, quālecumque est, causam ā nātūrā
habet, whatever comes into being, of whatever sort it is,
has its primal cause in Nature.
2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the
three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as,—
quī hōc dīcit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First
Type);
 quī hōc dīcat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say
this (Second Type);
quī hōc dīxisset, errāsset, the man who had said this would
have been mistaken.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (ŌRĀTIŌ OBLĪQUA).

313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without

change, that is called Direct Discourse (Ōrātiō Recta); as, Caesar said, 'The
die is cast.' When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to
depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse
(Ōrātiō Oblīqua); as, Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that
his troops were victorious.
a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main

clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses
take the Subjunctive; as,—
Rēgulus dīxit quam diū jūre jūrandō hostium tenērētur
nōn esse sē senātōrem, Regulus said that as long as he
was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator.
(Direct: quam diū teneor nōn sum senātor.)
2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the
context; as,—
tum Rōmulus lēgātōs circā vīcīnās gentēs mīsit quī
societātem cōnūbiumque peterent: urbēs quoque, ut
cētera, ex īnfimō nāscī, then Romulus sent envoys
around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance
 and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like
everything else, start from a modest beginning.
3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer
and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize
the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,—
nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem,
quod est oppidum maximum Sēquanōrum
contendere, it was reported that Ariovistus was
hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of
the Sequani.
4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in
sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This
occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quī is equivalent to et hīc,
nam hīc, etc.; as,—
dīxit urbem Athēniēnsium prōpugnāculum oppositum
esse barbarīs, apud quam jam bis classēs rēgiās
fēcisse naufragium, he said the city of the Athenians had
been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near
which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met
disaster.
5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers
to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied
from the context; as,—
cum id nescīre Māgō dīceret, when Mago said he did not
know this (for sē nescīre).

Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are
regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,—
Ariovistus Caesarī respondit: sē prius in Galliam vēnisse
quam populum Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? Cūr in
suās possessiōnēs venīret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar
that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people.
 What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his
domain? (Direct: quid tibi vīs? cūr in meās
possessiōnēs venīs?)
2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and
being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the
Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :—
quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more
trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius
in the Indirect.
3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in
mood in the Indirect: as,—
quid faceret, what was he to do? (Direct: quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as

Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,—
mīlitēs certiōrēs fēcit paulisper intermitterent proelium,
he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct:
intermittite.)
a. The negative in such sentences is nē; as,—
nē suae virtūtī tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own
valor!

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the
Infinitive as given in § 270.
a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the
Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus:—
 sciō tē haec ēgisse may mean—
I know you were doing this.(Direct: haec agēbās.)
I know you did this. (Direct: haec ēgistī.)
I know you had done this. (Direct: haec ēgerās.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being
Principal if the verb of saying is Principal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for
the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an
historical tense (Repraesentātiō); as,—
Caesar respondit, sī obsidēs dentur, sēsē pācem esse
factūrum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he
would make peace.
a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the

corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317, a).
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are
required by the Sequence of Tenses.
Examples:—
DIRECT. INDIRECT.
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errāre;
sī hōc crēdis, errās,
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāre.
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum esse;
sī hōc crēdēs, errābis, dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
sī hōc crēdideris, errābis, dīcō, sī hōc crēderīs, tē errātūrum
esse;
 dīxī, sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
dīcō, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse;
sī hōc crēdēbās, errāvistī,
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse.
a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a
principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an
historical tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse

regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.
B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded
by the sequence of tenses.
Examples:—
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum esse;
sī hōc crēdās, errēs, dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321. A. THE APODOSIS.

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future
Infinitive.
a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical
Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars
question the correctness of this passage.
2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:—
a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -ūrus fuisse.
b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futūrum fuisse ut with the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always
remains unchanged.
Examples:—
dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēderēs, tē
sī hōc crēderēs, errārēs,
errātūrum esse;
sī hōc crēdidissēs, dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē
errāvissēs, errātūrum fuisse;
sī hōc dīxissēs, pūnītus dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc dīxissēs, futūrum
essēs. fuisse ut pūnīrēris.
322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to
the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quīn-clause (after nōn dubitō,
etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -ūrus fuerim; as,—
ita territī sunt, ut arma trāditūrī fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar
subitō advēnisset, they were so frightened that they
would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly
arrived;
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs,[57] I do
not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made
a mistake.
a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive,
such sentences, when they become dependent, remain
unchanged; as,—
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, vituperātus essēs, I do
not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been
blamed.
b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional
sentence of the Third Type, -ūrus fuerim (rarely -ūrus fuissem)
is used; as,—
quaerō, num, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs (or fuissēs).
c. Potuī, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this
Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,—
concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs
quoque ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, they
were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so
 that the interest of the people would have been enough to
excite even the most apathetic orators.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect
character is merely implied by the context; as,—
dēmōnstrābantur mihi praetereā, quae Sōcratēs dē
immortālitāte animōrum disseruisset, there were
explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates
had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e.
the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);
Paetus omnēs librōs quōs pater suus relīquisset mihi
dōnāvit, Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said)
his father had left.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently
attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but
constitute an essential part of one complex idea; as,—
nēmō avārus adhūc inventus est, cui, quod habēret, esset
satis, no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with
what he had;
cum dīversās causās afferrent, dum fōrmam suī quisque
et animī et ingeniī redderent, as they brought forward
different arguments, while each mirrored his own
individual type of mind and natural bent;
quod ego fatear, pudeat? should I be ashamed of a thing
which I admit?
2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the
Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,—
mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī
sint in proeliīs interfectī, it is the custom at Athens every
 year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been
killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who
fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these
partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or
Adjective, on the other. Thus:—
As Verbs,—

a) They may be limited by adverbs;

b) They admit an object;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,—

a) They are declined;

b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or

Appositive.
NOTE.—The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be
seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulcēs
occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch
kisses.

A. As Subject.
327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse
and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet,
juvat, dēlectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,—
 dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī, it is sweet and
noble to die for one's country;
virōrum est fortium toleranter dolōrem patī, it is the part
of brave men to endure pain with patience;
senātuī placuit lēgātōs mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it
pleased the Senate) to send envoys.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a
Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,—
aliud est īrācundum esse, aliud īrātum, it is one thing to
be irascible, another to be angry;
impūne quaelibet facere, id est rēgem esse, to do
whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate
Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as,
licuit esse ōtiōsō Themistoclī, lit. it was permitted to
Themistocles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other
Impersonals.

B. As Object.
328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of
many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after—
volō, cupiō, mālō, nōlō, dēbeo, cōgitō, meditor, purpose, intend;
ought; neglegō, neglect;
statuō, cōnstituō, decide; vereor, timeō, fear;
audeō, dare; mātūrō, festīnō, properō,
studeō, contendō, strive; contendō, hasten;
parō, prepare (so parātus); assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, accustom
incipiō, coepī, īnstituō, begin; myself (so assuētus, īnsuētus,
pergō, continue; assuēfactus);
dēsinō, dēsistō, cease; discō, learn;
possum, can; sciō, know how;
cōnor, try; soleō, am wont;
as,—
 tū hōs intuērī audēs, do you dare to look on these men?
Dēmosthenēs ad flūctūs maris dēclāmāre solēbat,
Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea.
2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the
Nominative; as,—
beātus esse sine virtūte nēmō potest, no one can be happy
without virtue;
Catō esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, Cato preferred to
be good rather than to seem so.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or

Appositive.

A. As Subject.
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used
as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, ūtile
est, turpe est, fāma est, spēs est, fās est, nefās est, opus est, necesse est,
oportet, cōnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,—
nihil in bellō oportet contemnī, nothing ought to be
despised in war;
apertum est sibi quemque nātūrā esse cārum, it is
manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself.

B. As Object.
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the
following classes of verbs:
1. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the
like (Verba Sentiendi et Dēclārandī). This is the regular construction of
Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are,
among others, the following: sentiō, audiō, videō, cognōscō; putō, jūdicō,
spērō, cōnfīdō; sciō, meminī; dicō, affīrmō, negō (say that ... not), trādō,
nārrō, fateor, respondeō, scrībō, prōmittō, glōrior. Also the phrases:
certiōrem faciō (inform), memoriā teneō (remember), etc.
Examples:—
Epicūrēī putant cum corporibus simul animōs interīre,
the Epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body;
Thalēs dīxit aquam esse initium rērum, Thales said that
water was the first principle of the universe;
Dēmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum,
Democritus says nothing is everlasting;
spērō eum ventūrum esse, I hope that he will come.
II. With jubeō, order, and vetō, forbid; as,—
Caesar mīlitēs pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the
soldiers to make a bridge.
a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in
the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.
III. With patior and sinō, permit, allow; as,—
nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, he did not permit
himself to be involved in any difficulty.
IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is
different from that of the governing verb; as,—
nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, nor do I wish this
error to be wrested from me;
eās rēs jactārī nōlēbat, he was unwilling that these matters
should be discussed;
tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your
worth.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive
is regularly used in accordance with § 328, 1. But exceptions
occur, especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,—
 cupiō mē esse clēmentem, I desire to be lenient;
Tīmoleōn māluit sē diligī quam metuī, Timoleon preferred
to be loved rather than feared.
b. Volō also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nōlō the
Subjunctive alone. (See § 296, 1, a.)
V. With Verbs of emotion (joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeō, laetor,
doleō; aegrē ferō, molestē ferō, graviter ferō, am annoyed, distressed;
mīror, queror, indignor; as,—
gaudeō tē salvum advenīre, I rejoice that you arrive
safely;
nōn molestē ferunt sē libīdinum vinculīs laxātōs ēsse,
they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of
passion;
mīror tē ad mē nihil scrībere, I wonder that you write me
nothing.
a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a
quod- clause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus:—
mīror quod nōn loqueris, I wonder that you do not speak.
VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other
of the Thing (§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative;
as,—
cōgō tē hōc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. tē hōc
cōgō);
docuī tē contentum esse, I taught you to be content (cf. tē
modestiam docuī, I taught you temperance).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with
Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive.
This is true of the following and of some others:—
a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,—
 mīlitēs pontem facere jussī sunt, the soldiers were ordered
to build a bridge;
pōns fierī jussus est, a bridge was ordered built;
mīlitēs castrīs exīre vetitī sunt, the troops were forbidden
to go out of the camp;
Sēstius Clōdium accūsāre nōn est situs, Sestius was not
allowed to accuse Clodius.
b) videor, I am seen, I seem; as,—
vidētur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.
c) dīcor, putor, exīstimor, jūdicor (in all persons); as,—
dīcitur in Italiam vēnisse, he is said to have come into
Italy;
Rōmulus prīmus rēx Rōmānōrum fuisse putātur,
Romulus is thought to have been the first king of the
Romans.
d) fertur, feruntur, trāditur, trāduntur (only in the third person);
as,—
fertur Homērus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been
blind;
carmina Archilochī contumēliīs referta esse trāduntur,
Archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of
abuse.
NOTE.—In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of
verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as—
trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, the story goes that
Homer was blind.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parātus, assuētus, etc.; see § 328,
1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,—
contentus dēmōnstrāsse, contented to have proved;
audāx omnia perpetī, bold for enduring everything.
 Infinitive in Exclamations.

334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indignation, or

regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause.
Examples:—
huncine sōlem tam nigrum surrēxe mihi, to think that to-
day's sun rose with such evil omen for me!
sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, to stay whole days at the villa.

Historical Infinitive.

335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect
Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,—
interim cottīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre,
meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the
Haedui.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see § 270),
express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the
Participle depends.
2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb.
Thus:—
audiō tē loquentem = you ARE speaking and I hear you;
audiēbam tē loquentem = you WERE speaking and I
heard you;
audiam tē loquentem = you WILL BE speaking and I shall
hear you.
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative
force; as,—
 assurgentem rēgem resupīnat, as the king was trying to
rise, he threw him down.
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb. Thus:
—
locūtus taceō = I HAVE spoken and am silent;
locūtus tacui = I HAD spoken and then was silent;
locūtus tacēbō = I SHALL speak and then shall be silent.
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined
entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs
are used as Presents; viz. arbitrātus, ausus, ratus, gāvīsus, solitus, ūsus,
cōnfīsus, diffīsus, secūtus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or

predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:—
glōria est cōnsentiēns laus bonōrum, glory is the
unanimous praise of the good;
Conōn mūrōs ā Lysandrō dīrutōs reficit, Conon restored
the walls destroyed by Lysander.
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate
clause. Thus the Participle may denote:—
a) Time; as,—
omne malum nāscēns facile opprimitur, every evil is
easily crushed at birth.
b) A Condition; as,—
mente ūtī nōn possumus cibō et pōtiōne complētī, if
gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects.
c) Manner; as,—
 Solōn senēscere sē dīcēbat multa in diēs addiscentem,
Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily.
d) Means; as,—
sōl oriēns diem cōnficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the
day.
e) Opposition ('though'); as,—
mendācī hominī nē vērum quidem dīcentī crēdimus, we
do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.
f) Cause; as,—
perfidiam veritus ad suōs recessit, since he feared
treachery, he returned to his own troops.
3. Videō and audiō, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the
Predicate use; as,—
videō tē fugientem, I see you fleeing.
a. So frequently faciō, fingō, indūcō, etc.; as,—
eīs Catōnem respondentem facimus, we represent Cato
replying to them;
Homērus Laërtem colentem agrum facit, Homer
represents Laërtes tilling the field.
4. The Future Active Participle (except futūrus) is regularly confined to its
use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used
independently, especially to denote purpose; as,—
vēnērunt castra oppugnātūrī, they came to assault the
camp.
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coördinate clause; as,
—
urbem captam dīruit, he captured and destroyed the city
(lit. he destroyed the city captured).
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes
equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,—
post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city;
 Quīnctius dēfēnsus, the defense of Quinctius;
quibus animus occupātus, the preoccupation of the mind
with which.
7. Habeō sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate
construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect
Indicative; as,—
equitātus quem coāctum habēbat, the cavalry which he
had collected.
8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Participles it
may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:—
liber legendus, a book worth reading;
lēgēs observandae, laws deserving of observance.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est,
etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only
impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction
(Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,—
veniendum est, it is necessary to come;
oblīvīscendum est offēnsārum, one must forget injuries;
numquam prōditōrī crēdendum est, you must never trust
a traitor;
suō cuique ūtendum est jūdiciō, every man must use his
own judgment.
2) After cūrō, provide for; dō, trādō, give over; relinquō,
leave; concēdō, hand over, and some other verbs, instead
of an object clause, or to denote purpose; as,—
Caesar pontem in Ararī faciendum cūrāvit, Caesar
provided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar;
imperātor urbem mīlitibus dīripiendam concessit, the
general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, 1.
 THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:—
1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used—
a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200,
202); as,—
cupiditās dominandī, desire of ruling;
ars scrībendī, the art of writing.
b) With Adjectives; as,—
cupidus audiendī, desirous of hearing.
c) With causā, grātiā; as,—
discendī causā, for the sake of learning.
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used—
a) With Adjectives; as,—
aqua ūtilis est bibendō, water is useful for drinking.
b) With Verbs (rarely); as,—
adfuī scrībendō, I was present at the writing.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions,
chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,—
homō ad agendum nātus est, man is born for action.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used—
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see
§§ 218, 219); as,—
mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, the mind is nourished
by learning and reflection.
Themistoclēs maritimōs praedōnēs cōnsectandō mare
tūtum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by
following up the pirates.
b) After the prepositions ā, dē, ex, in; as,—
summa voluptās ex discendō capitur, the keenest pleasure
is derived from learning;
 multa dē bene beātēque vīvendō ā Platōne disputāta
sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the subject
of living well and happily.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a
preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object,
another construction may be, and very often is, used. This consists in putting
the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the
Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction.
Thus:—
GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION.
cupidus urbem videndī, desirous
cupidus urbis videndae;
of seeing the city.
dēlector ōrātōrēs legendō, I am
dēlector ōrātōribus legendīs
charmed with reading the orators.
2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the
Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,—
locus castrīs mūniendīs aptus, a place adapted to
fortifying a camp;
ad pācem petendam vēnērunt, they came to ask peace;
multum temporis cōnsūmō in legendīs poētīs, I spend
much time in reading the poets.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must
not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus
regularly—
philosophī cupidī sunt vērum invēstīgandī, philosophers
are eager for discovering truth (rarely vērī
invēstīgandī);
studium plūra cognōscendī, a desire of knowing more (not
plūrium cognōscendōrum).
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the
Gerundive construction; but ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive)
regularly admit it; as,—
hostēs in spem potiundōrum castrōrum vēnerant, the
enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of
the camp.
5. The Genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, when used in the Gerundive
Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number,
since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively.
Thus:—
mulier suī servandī causā aufūgit, the woman fled for the
sake of saving herself;
lēgātī in castra vēnērunt suī pūrgandī causā, the envoys
came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves.
So nostrī servandī causā, for the sake of saving ourselves.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote
purpose; as,—
quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvertundae, which
he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws
and liberty.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions
which have the character of formulas; as,—
decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, decemvirs for codifying the
laws;
quīndecimvirī sacrīs faciundīs, quindecimvirs for
performing the sacrifices.

THE SUPINE.
340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express purpose;
as,—
 lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt, envoys
came to Caesar to congratulate him.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,—
pācem petītum ōrātōrēs Rōmam mittunt, they send
envoys to Rome to ask for peace.
b. Note the phrase:—
dō (collocō) fīliam nūptum, I give my daughter in
marriage.
2. The Supine in -ū is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis,
difficilis, incrēdibilis, jūcundus, optimus, etc.; also with fās est, nefās est,
opus est; as,—
haec rēs est facilis cognitū, this thing is easy to learn;
hōc est optimum factū, this is best to do.
a. Only a few Supines in -ū are in common use, chiefly audītū,
cognitū, dictū, factū, vīsū.
b. The Supine in -ū never takes an Object.

CHAPTER VI.—Particles.

COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word, phrase, or clause to

another.
1. a) et simply connects.
b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the
two members have an internal connection with each other; as,—
parentēs līberīque, parents and children;
cum hominēs aestū febrīque jactantur, when people are
tossed about with heat and fever.
c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things
connected,—and also, and indeed, and in fact. After words of
 likeness and difference, atque (ac) has the force of as, than.
Thus:—
ego idem sentiō ac tū, I think the same as you;
haud aliter ac, not otherwise than.
d) neque (nec) means and not, neither, nor.
2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two
words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is
appended to the first word of the second clause; but when the
first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly
appended to the next following word; as,—
ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing.
b) atque is used before vowels and consonants; ac never before
vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu.
c) et nōn is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests
upon a special word; as,—
vetus et nōn ignōbilis ōrātor, an old and not ignoble
orator.
d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly said
nec ūsquam, nec umquam, nec ūllus, etc.
3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively; as,
—
et ... et, both ... and;
neque (nec) ... neque (nec), neither ... nor;
cum ... tum, while ... at the same time;
tum ... tum, not only ... but also.
Less frequently:—
et ... neque; neque ... et.
a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical
relations, often uses correlatives, especially et ... et, et ... neque,
neque ... et, where the English employs but a single connective.
4. In enumerations—
 a) The different members of a series may follow one another
without connectives (Asyndeton; see § 346). Thus:—
ex cupiditātibus odia, discidia, discordiae, sēditiōnēs,
bella nāscuntur, from covetous desires spring up hatred,
dissension, discord, sedition, wars.
b) The different members may severally be connected by et
(Polysyndeton). Thus:—
hōrae cēdunt et diēs et mēnsēs et annī, hours and days
and months and years pass away.
c) The connective may be omitted between the former members,
while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et); as,—
Caesar in Carnutēs, Andēs Turonēsque legiōnēs dēdūcit,
Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the
Carnutes, Andes, and Turones.
342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.
1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive;
as,—
cita mors venit aut victōria laeta, (either) swift death or
glad victory comes.
b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alternatives; as,—
quī aethēr vel caelum nōminātur, which is called aether
or heaven.
2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correlatively; as,—
aut ... aut, either ... or;
vel ... vel, either ... or;
sīve ... sīve, if ... or if.
343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote opposition.
1. a) sed, but, merely denotes opposition.
b) vērum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.
c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition. It is
always post-positive.
DEFINITION. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence, but is
placed after one or more words.
d) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an
opposing argument.
e) atquī means but yet.
f) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not
always.
g) vērō, however, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive.
2. Note the correlative expressions:—
nōn sōlum (nōn modo) ... sed etiam, not only ... but also;
nōn modo nōn ... sed nē ... quidem, not only not, but not
even; as,—
nōn modo tibi nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem
factum tuum, I not only am not angry with you, but I do
not even blame your action.
a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the
second member, nōn modo may be used for nōn modo nōn; as,
—
adsentātiō nōn modo amīcō, sed nē līberō quidem digne
est, flattery is not only not worthy of a friend, but not
even of a free man.
344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the statement which they
introduce as following from or as in conformity with what has preceded.
1. a) itaque = and so, accordingly.
b) ergō = therefore, accordingly.
c) igitur (regularly post-positive[58]) = therefore, accordingly.
2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.
345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give an explanation. They
are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, for.
346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted between coördinate
members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus:—
 a) A copulative Conjunction is omitted; as,—
avāritia īnfīnīta, īnsatiābilis est, avarice is boundless
(and) insatiable;
Cn. Pompejō, M. Crassō cōnsulibus, in the consulship of
Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crassus.
The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of
consuls when the praenomen (Mārcus, Gaius, etc.) is
expressed.
b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as,—
ratiōnēs dēfuērunt, ūbertās ōrātiōnis nōn dēfuit,
arguments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was
not.

ADVERBS.
347. 1. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more
properly Adverbs:—
etiam, also, even.
quoque (always post-positive), also.
quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word.
It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but
more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.
nē ... quidem means not even; the emphatic word or phrase always
stands between; as, nē ille quidem, not even he.
tamen and vērō, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often
employed as Adverbs.
2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in
English, as nōn nūllī, some; but when nōn, nēmō, nihil, numquam, etc., are
accompanied by neque ... neque, nōn ... nōn, nōn modo, or nē ... quidem, the
latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it; as,—
habeō hīc nēminem neque amīcum neque cognātum, I
have here no one, neither friend nor relative.
nōn enim praetereundum est nē id quidem, for not even
that must be passed by.
 a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a
modifier of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud sciō
an. Later writers use it freely with verbs.

CHAPTER VII.—Word-order and Sentence-Structure.

A. WORD-ORDER.

348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the
beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end; as,—
Dārīus classem quīngentārum nāvium comparāvit,
Darius got ready a fleet of five hundred ships.
349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned,
and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the
sentence; as,—
magnus in hōc bellō Themistoclēs fuit, GREAT was
Themistocles in this war; aliud iter habēmus nūllum,
other course we have NONE.

SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.
350. 1. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly follows the word
upon which it depends. Thus:—
a) Depending upon a Noun:—
tribūnus plēbis, tribune of the plebs;
fīlius rēgis, son of the king;
vir magnī animī, a man of noble spirit.
Yet always senātūs cōnsultum, plēbis scītum.
b) Depending upon an Adjective:—
ignārus rērum, ignorant of affairs;
dignī amīcitiā, worthy of friendship;
 plūs aequō, more than (what is) fair.
2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; as,—
Philippus, rēx Macedonum, Philip, king of the
Macedonians;
adsentātiō, vitiōrum adjūtrīx, flattery, promoter of evils.
Yet flūmen Rhēnus, the River Rhine; and always in good prose urbs Rōma,
the city Rome.
3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words; as,—
audī, Caesar, hear, Caesar!
4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the position of Adjectives.
On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it.
a. Adjectives of quantity (including numerals) regularly precede
their noun; as,—
omnēs hominēs, all men;
septingentae nāvēs, seven hundred vessels.
b. Note the force of position in the following:—
media urbs, the middle of the city;
urbs media, the middle city,
extrēmum bellum, the end of the war;
bellum extrēmum, the last war.
c. Rōmānus and Latīnus regularly follow; as,—
senātus populusque Rōmānus, the Roman Senate and
People;
lūdī Rōmānī, the Roman games;
fēriae Latīnae, the Latin holidays.
d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a
Genitive, a favorite order is: Adjective, Genitive, Noun; as,—
summa omnium rērum abundantia, the greatest
abundance of all things.
5. Pronouns.
 a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns
regularly precede the Noun; as,—
hīc homō, this man;
ille homō, that man;
erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., there were two
routes, by which, etc.
quī homō? what sort of man?
b. But ille in the sense of 'that well known,' 'that famous,' usually
stands after its Noun; as,—
testula illa, that well-known custom of ostracism;
Mēdēa illa, that famous Medea.
c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun;
as,—
pater meus, my father;
homō quīdam, a certain man;
mulier aliqua, some woman.
But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its
Noun; as,—
meus pater, MY father (i.e. as opposed to yours, his, etc.).
d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the
Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity; as,—
nisi forte ego vōbīs cessāre videor, unless perchance I
seem to you to be doing nothing.
6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify; as,
—
valdē dīligēns, extremely diligent;
saepe dīxī, I have often said;
tē jam diū hortāmur, we have long been urging you;
paulō post, a little after.
7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.
a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and
its case; as,—
 dē commūnī hominum memoriā, concerning the common
memory of men;
ad beātē vīvendum, for living happily.
b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often
placed before the preposition; as,—
magnō in dolōre, in great grief;
summā cum laude, with the highest credit;
quā dē causā, for which cause;
hanc ob rem, on account of this thing.
c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see §
144, 3.
8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in the second place
in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third; as,
—
ita est enim, for so it is.
9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it,
regularly stand first; as,—
id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, when he heard that
(referring to the contents of the preceding sentence), he
moved to Corcyra;
eō cum Caesar vēnisset, timentēs cōnfirmat, when
Caesar had come thither (i.e. to the place just
mentioned), he encouraged the timid.
10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are
etymologically related; as,—
ut ad senem senex dē senectūte, sīc hōc librō ad amīcum
amīcissimus dē amīcitiā scrīpsī, as I, an old man, wrote
to an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond
friend, I have written to a friend, concerning friendship.
11. Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following:—
 a) Hypérbaton, which consists in the separation of words that
regularly stand together; as,—
septimus mihi Orīginum liber est in manibus, the seventh
book of my 'Origines' is under way;
receptō Caesar Ōricō proficīscitur, having recovered
Oricus, Caesar set out.
b) Anáphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or
the same word-order in successive phrases; as,—
sed plēnī omnēs sunt librī, plēnae sapientium vōcēs,
plēna exemplōrum vetustās, but all books are full of it,
the voices of sages are full of it, antiquity is full of
examples of it.
c) Chiásmus,[59] which consists in changing the relative order of
words in two antithetical phrases; as,—
multōs dēfendī, laesī nēminem, many have I defended, I
have injured no one;
horribilem illum diem aliīs, nōbīs faustum, that day
dreadful to others, for us fortunate.
d) Sýnchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly
confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that
of the Imperial Period; as,—
simulātam Pompejānārum grātiam partium, pretended
interest in the Pompeian party.
12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided;
others were much employed. Thus:—
a) Cadences avoided.
as, esse vidētur (close of hexameter).
as, esse potest (close of pentameter).
b) Cadences frequently employed.
as, auxerant.
as, comprobāvit.
as, esse videātur.
as, rogātū tuō.
 B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.

351. 1. Unity of Subject.—In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds to

unity of Subject in the different members; as,—
Caesar prīmum suō, deinde omnium ex cōnspectū
remōtīs equīs, ut aequātō perīculō spem fugae tolleret,
cohortātus suōs proelium commīsit, Caesar having first
removed his own horse from sight, then the horses of all,
in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope
of flight, encouraged his men and joined battle.
2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a
subordinate one, stands before both; as,—
Haeduī cum sē dēfendere nōn possent, lēgātōs ad
Caesarem mittunt, since the Haedui could not defend
themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar;
ille etsī flagrābat bellandī cupiditāte, tamen pācī
serviendum putāvit, although he was burning with a
desire to fight, yet he thought he ought to aim at peace.
a. The same is true also
1) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or
Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as,—
Caesar, cum hōc eī nūntiatum esset, mātūrat ab urbe
proficīscī, when this had been reported to Caesar he
hastened to set out from the city.
2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same
time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause; as,
—
L. Mānliō, cum dictātor fuisset, M. Pompōnius tribūnus
plēbis diem dīxit, M. Pomponius, tribune of the people,
instituted proceedings against Lucius Manlius, though he
had been dictator.
3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more
commonly precede the main clause; indirect questions and clauses of purpose
or result more commonly follow; as,—
 postquam haec dīxit, profectus est, after he said this, he
set out;
sī quis ita agat, imprūdēns sit, if any one should act so, he
would be devoid of foresight;
accidit ut ūnā nocte omnēs Hermae dēicerentur, it
happened that in a single night all the Hermae were
thrown down.
4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the subordinate clause;
as,—
sī quid est in mē ingenī, quod sentiō quam sit exiguum, if
there is any talent in me, and I know how little it is.
5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a
compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the
main clause; as,—
Caesar etsī intellegēbat quā dē causā ea dīcerentur,
tamen, nē aestātem in Trēverīs cōnsūmere cōgerētur,
Indutiomārum ad sē venīre jussit, though Caesar
perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be forced
to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered
Indutiomarus to come to him.
In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence
is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-
structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their
language; in English we generally avoid it.
6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so
arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus:—
At hostēs cum mīsissent, quī, quae in castrīs gererentur,
cognōscerent, ubi sē dēceptōs intellēxērunt, omnibus
cōpiīs subsecūtī ad flūmen contendunt, but the enemy
when they had sent men to learn what was going on in
camp, after discovering that they had been outwitted,
followed with all their forces and hurried to the river.
 CHAPTER VIII.-Hints on Latin Style.

352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin

diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar.

NOUNS.

353. 1. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the

Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the Plural than is the
English; as,—
domōs eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes);
Germānī corpora cūrant, the Germans care for the body;
animōs mīlitum recreat, he renews the courage of the
soldiers;
diēs noctēsque timēre, to be in a state of fear day and
night.
2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin
often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singular; as,—
omnia sunt perdīta, everything is lost;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so;
haec omnibus pervulgāta sunt, this is very well known to
all.
3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and especially less bold
in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus:—
ā puerō, ā puerīs, from boyhood;
Sullā dictātōre, in Sulla's dictatorship;
mē duce, under my leadership;
Rōmānī cum Carthāginiēnsibus pācem fēcērunt = Rome
made peace with Carthage;
liber doctrīnae plēnus = a learned book;
 prūdentiā Themistoclīs Graecia servāta est =
Themistocles's foresight saved Greece.
4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147, 1) denote a permanent or
characteristic activity; as,—
accūsātōrēs, (professional) accusers;
ōrātōrēs, pleaders;
cantōrēs, singers;
Arminius, Germāniae līberātor, Arminius, liberator of
Germany.
a. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are
commonly employed; as,—
Numa, quī Rōmulō successit, Numa, successor of
Romulus;
quī mea legunt, my readers;
quī mē audiunt, my auditors.
5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In
English we say: 'The war against Carthage'; 'a journey through Gaul'; 'cities
on the sea'; 'the book in my hands'; 'the fight at Salamis'; etc. The Latin in such
cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus:—
a) A Genitive; as,—
dolor injūriārum, resentment at injuries.
b) An Adjective; as,—
urbēs maritimae, cities on the sea;
pugna Salamīnia, the fight at Salamis.
c) A Participle; as,—
pugna ad Cannās facta, the battle at Cannae.
d) A Relative clause; as,—
liber quī in meīs manibus est, the book in my hands.
NOTE.—Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepositional phrases
as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is
derived from a verb. The following are typical examples:—
 trānsitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain;
excessus ē vītā, departure from life;
odium ergā Rōmānōs, hatred of the Romans;
liber dē senectūte, the book on old age;
amor in patriam, love for one's country.

ADJECTIVES.

354. 1. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjectives are—

a) A Genitive; as,—
virtūtēs animī = moral virtues;
dolōrēs corporis = bodily ills.
b) An Abstract Noun; as,—
novitās reī = the strange circumstance;
asperitās viārum = rough roads.
c) Hendiadys (see § 374, 4); as,—
ratiō et ōrdō = systematic order;
ārdor et impetus = eager onset.
d) Sometimes an Adverb; as,—
omnēs circā populī, all the surrounding tribes;
suōs semper hostēs, their perpetual foes.
2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an
Adjective; as,—
doctrīna, theoretical knowledge;
prūdentia, practical knowledge;
oppidum, walled town;
libellus, little book.
3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names; but an
Adjective may limit vir, homō, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive
of a proper name; as,—
Sōcratēs, homō sapiēns = the wise Socrates;
 Scīpiō, vir fortissimus = the doughty Scipio;
Syrācūsae, urbs praeclārissima = famous Syracuse.
4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective Genitive; as,
—
pāstor rēgius, the shepherd of the king;
tumultus servīlis, the uprising of the slaves.

PRONOUNS.

355. 1. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for

connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one; as,—
ā quō cum quaererētur, quid maximē expedīret,
respondit, when it was asked of him what was best, he
replied. (Less commonly, quī, cum ab eō quaererētur,
respondit.)
2. Uterque, ambō. Uterque means each of two; ambō means both; as,—
uterque frāter abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e.
separately);
ambō frātrēs abiērunt, i.e. the two brothers departed
together.
a. The Plural of uterque occurs—
1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56); as,—
in utrīsque castrīs, in each camp.
2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of
persons or things; as,—
utrīque ducēs clārī fuērunt, the generals on each side
(several in number) were famous.

VERBS.

356. 1. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is supplied:—

 a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse,
etc.; as,—
in odiō sumus, we are hated;
in invidiā sum, I am envied;
admīrātiōnī est, he is admired;
oblīviōne obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by
oblivion);
in ūsū esse, to be used.
b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus:—
agitārī as Passive of persequī;
temptārī as Passive of adorīrī.
2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied—
a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Deponent; as,
—
adhortātus, having exhorted;
veritus, having feared.
b) By the Ablative Absolute; as,—
hostium agrīs vāstātīs Caesar exercitum redūxit, having
ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his
army.
c) By subordinate clauses; as,—
eō cum advēnisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he
pitched a camp;
hostes quī in urbem irrūperant, the enemy having burst
into the city.
3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second
Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= 'one'). Cf. the English 'You can drive
a horse to water, but you can't make him drink.' But in Latin this use is mainly
confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§
280), Jussive (§ 275), Deliberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional
sentences of the sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples:—
vidērēs, you could see;
 ūtāre vīribus, use your strength,
quid hōc homine faciās, what are you to do with this man?
mēns quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lūminī oleum
īnstīllēs, exstinguuntur senectūte, the intellect and mind
too are extinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you
keep pouring oil into the lamp;
tantō amōre possessiōnēs suās amplexī tenēbant, ut ab
eīs membra dīvellī citius posse dīcerēs, they clung to
their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that
you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn
from their bodies.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

357. 1. To denote 'so many years, etc., afterwards or before' the Latin employs
not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see §
223), but has other forms of expression. Thus:—
post quīnque annōs, five years afterward;
paucōs ante diēs, a few days before;
ante quadriennium, four years before;
post diem quārtum quam ab urbe discesserāmus, four
days after we had left the city;
ante tertium annum quam dēcesserat, three years before
he had died.
2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same
Infinitive; as,—
Rōmānōs Hannibalem vīcisse cōnstat.
Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans
had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans.
Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive; as,—
Rōmānōs ab Hannibale victōs esse cōnstat, it is well
established that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.
 PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF THE
DATIVE.

358. 1. The English for does not always correspond to a Dative notion in
Latin, but is often the equivalent of prō with the Ablative, viz. in the senses—
a) In defense of; as,—
prō patriā morī, to die for one's country.
b) Instead of, in behalf of; as,—
ūnus prō omnibus dīxit, one spoke for all;
haec prō lēge dicta sunt, these things were said for the
law.
c) In proportion to; as,—
prō multitūdine hominum eōrum fīnēs erant angustī, for
the population, their territory was small.
2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad.
a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scrībere ad
aliquem, or scrībere alicui, according as the idea of
motion is or is not predominant. So in several similar
expressions.
3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, joining, clinging to,
etc., sometimes take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus:—
sē miscet virīs, he mingles with the men;
contendis Homērō, you contend with Homer;
dextrae dextram jungere, to clasp hand with hand.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.

359. 1. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of
Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession; as,—
hortus patris est, the garden is my father's;
mihi hortus est, I possess a garden.
2. The Latin can say either stultī or stultum est dīcere, it is foolish to say; but
Adjectives of one ending permit only the Genitive; as,—
sapientis est haec sēcum reputāre, it is the part of a wise
man to consider this.
 PART VI.
PROSODY.

360. Prosody treats of metres and versification.

361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different in character from
English. In our own language, poetry is based upon accent, and poetical
form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented
syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but
upon quantity, so that with the Romans poetical form consisted in a certain
succession of long and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of
time.
This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is
a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English
is a strongly accented language, in which quantity is relatively subordinate.
Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative language, in which accent was
relatively subordinate.

QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have
been given above in § 5. The following peculiarities are to be noted here:—
1. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel (§ 5, A, 2), but
the following exceptions occur:—
a) In the Genitive termination -īus (except alterĭus); as, illīus,
tōtīus. Yet the i may be short in poetry; as, illĭus, tōtĭus.
b) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension;
as, diēī, aciēī. But fidĕī, rĕī, spĕī (§ 52, 1).
 c) In fīō, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er.
Thus: fīēbam, fīat, fīunt; but fĭerī, fĭerem.
d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the
Greek; as, dīus, Aenēās, Dārīus, hērōes, etc.
2. A diphthong is usually long (§ 5, B, 2), but the preposition prae in
composition is often shortened before a vowel; as, prăĕacūtus.
3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (§ 5, B,
2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the following word; as,
terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants
are in the following word; as, prō segete spīcās.
4. Compounds of jaciō, though written inicit, adicit, etc., have the first
syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-.
5. Before j, ă and ĕ made a long syllable, e.g. in major, pejor, ejus,
ejusdem, Pompejus, rejēcit, etc. These were pronounced, mai-jor, pei-
jor, ei-jus, Pompei-jus, rei-jēcit, etc. So also sometimes before i, e.g.
Pompe-ī, pronounced Pompei-ī; re-iciō, pronounced rei-iciō.

Quantity of Final Syllables.

A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel.

363. 1. Final a is mostly short, but is long:—
a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension; as, portā.
b) In the Imperative; as, laudā.
c) In indeclinable words (except ită, quiă); as, trīgintā, contrā,
posteā, intereā, etc.
2. Final e is usually short, but is long:—
a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, diē, rē;
hence hodiē, quārē. Here belongs also famē (§ 59, 2, b).
b) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, monē, habē,
etc.; yet occasionally cavĕ, valĕ.
 c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second
Declension, along with ferē and fermē. Benĕ, malĕ, temerĕ,
saepĕ have ĕ.
d) In ē, dē, mē, tē, sē, nē (not, lest), nē (verily).
3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisĭ and quasĭ. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi,
ubi, have regularly ĭ, but sometimes ī; yet always ibīdem, ibīque, ubīque.
4. Final o is regularly long, but is short:—
a) In egŏ, duŏ, modŏ (only), citŏ.
b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in
Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amŏ, leŏ.
c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro,
especially before f; as prŏfundere, prŏficīscī, prŏfugere.
5. Final u is always long.

B. Final Syllables ending in a Consonant.

364. 1. Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short. The
following words, however, have a long vowel: sāl, sōl, Lār, pār, vēr, fūr,
dīc, dūc, ēn, nōn, quīn, sīn, sīc, cūr. Also the adverbs hīc, illīc, istīc.[60]
2. Final syllables in -as are long; as, terrās, amās.
3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short:—
a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems (§
33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the
Genitive; as, segĕs (segetis), obsĕs (obsidis), mīlĕs, dīvĕs.
But a few have -ēs; viz. pēs, ariēs, abiēs, pariēs.
b) In ēs (thou art), penēs.
4. Final -os is usually long, but short in ŏs (ossis), compŏs, impŏs.
5. Final -is is usually short, but is long:—
a) In Plurals; as, portīs, hortīs, nōbīs, vōbīs, nūbīs (Acc.).
 b) In the Second Person Singular Perfect Subjunctive Active; as,
amāverīs, monuerīs, audīverīs, etc. Yet occasional
exceptions occur.
c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of
the Fourth Conjugation; as, audīs.
d) In vīs, force; īs, thou goest; fīs; sīs; velīs; nōlīs; vīs, thou wilt
(māvīs, quamvīs, quīvīs, etc.).
6. Final -us is usually short, but is long:—
a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension; as, frūctūs.
b) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of
the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem; as,
palūs (-ūdis), servitūs (-ūtis), tellūs (-ūris).
365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as, Aenēā,
epitomē, Dēlos, Pallas, Simoīs, Salamīs, Dīdūs, Paridī, āēr, aethēr,
crātēr, hērōăs. Yet Greek nouns in -ωρ (-ōr) regularly shorten the vowel of
the final syllable; as, rhētŏr, Hectŏr.

VERSE-STRUCTURE.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
366. 1. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, technically
called a mora ( ). A long syllable ( ) is regarded as equivalent to two
morae.
2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most important
kinds of fundamental feet:—
FEET OF THREE FEET OF FOUR
MORAE. MORAE.
Trochee. Dactyl.
Iambus. Anapaest.
3. A Verse is a succession of feet.
4. The different kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic,
Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure.
5. Ictus. In every fundamental foot the long syllable naturally receives the
greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus.[61] It is denoted thus:

6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is called the
thesis; the rest of the foot is called the arsis.
7. Elision. Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m are
regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In reading, we
omit the elided syllable entirely. This may be indicated as follows: corpore
in ūnō; multum ille et; mōnstrum horrendum; causae īrārum.
a. Omission of elision is called Hiátus. It occurs especially
before and after monosyllabic interjections; as, Ō et
praesidium.
8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a Caesúra (cutting) Every
verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot
together within the verse is called a diaeresis.
9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Catalectic verse
is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more
syllables; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete.
10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final syllable
may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may terminate in a vowel
or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel.
11. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as
dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies (pairs of
feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and
are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.
367. 1. Synizésis (synaéresis). Two successive vowels in the interior of a
word are often united into a long syllable; as,—
aur{eī}s, d{ei}nde, ant{eī}re, d{ee}sse.
2. Diástole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as,—
vidēt, audīt.
3. Sýstole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short; as,—
stetĕrunt.
a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They
usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed
out of vogue in the ordinary speech.
4. After a consonant, i and u sometimes become j and v. The preceding
syllable then becomes long; as,—
abjete for abiete; genva for genua.
5. Sometimes v becomes u; as,—
silua for silva; dissoluō for dissolvō.
6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is called an
Hypérmeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with
the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synaphéia. Thus:—
... ignārī hominumque locōrumque
 errāmus.
7. Tmesis (cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated into their
elements; as,—
quō mē cumque rapit tempestās, for quōcumque, etc.
8. Sýncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants;
as,—
repostus for repositus

THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.

368. 1. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of
six dactyls. But in all the feet except the fifth, a spondee ( ) may take the
place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee,
since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short (syllaba
anceps). The following represents the scheme of the verse:—

2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are called
Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the fifth and sixth
feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable; as,—

armātumque aurō circumspicit Ōrīōna.

cāra deum subolēs, magnum Jovis incrēmentum.
3. Caesura.
a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic
Hexameter is after the thesis of the third foot; as,—
arma virumque canō || Trōjae quī prīmus ab ōrĭs.
b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the
fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second
 foot; as,—
inde torō || pater Aenēās || sīc ōrsus ab altō est.
c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syllables
of the third foot; as,—
Ō passī graviōra || dabit deus hīs quoque fīnem.
This caesura is called Feminine, as opposed to the caesura
after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a
and b)
d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot. This
is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the
Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus:—
sōlstitium pecorī dēfendite; || jam venit aestās.

DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.
369. 1. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which
contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable. Spondees may take the
place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable
at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word. The scheme is
the following:—

2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with the
Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Elegiac Distich.
Thus:—

Vergilium vīdī tantum, neo amāra Tibullō

 Tempus amīcitiae fāta dedēre meae.

IAMBIC MEASURES.
370. 1. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter (§ 366,
11), called also Senarius. This is an acatalectic verse. It consists of six
Iambi. Its pure form is:—
Beātus ille quī procul negōtiīs.
The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less frequently in the fourth.
2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach ( ) may stand in any foot but the
last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or
Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent. Sometimes a
Proceleusmatic ( ) occurs.
3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great freedom is
permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. the Dactyl,
Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any
foot except the last.
 SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. JULIAN CALENDAR.
371. 1. The names of the Roman months are: Jānuārius, Februārius,
Mārtius, Aprīlis, Majus, Jūnius, Jūlius (Quīntīlis[62] prior to 46 B.C.),
Augustus (Sextīlis[62] before the Empire), September, Octōber,
November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement
with mēnsis understood.
2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month:—
a) The Calends, the first of the month.
b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in
March, May, July, and October.
c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fifteenth
in March, May, July, and October.
3. From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently all days
after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the
Calends of the month next following.
4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as
prīdiē Kalendās, Nōnās, Īdūs. The second day before was designated as
diē tertiō ante Kalendās, Nōnās, etc. Similarly the third day before was
designated as diē quārtō, and so on. These designations are arithmetically
inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. The Roman
numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual
number of days before Nones, Ides, or Calends.
5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an
Adjective agreeing with Kalendās, Nōnās, Īdūs. Various forms of
expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common:—
a) diē quīntō ante Īdūs Mārtiās;
 b) quīntō ante Īdūs Mārtiās;
c) quīntō (V) Īdūs Mārtiās;
d) ante diem quīntum Īdūs Mārtiās.
6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the
prepositions in, ad, ex; as,—
ad ante diem IV Kalendās Octōbrēs, up to the 28th of
September.
ex ante diem quīntum Īdūs Octōbrēs, from the 11th of
October.
7. In leap-year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th
was designated as ante diem VI Kalendās Mārtiās, and the 25th as ante
diem bis VI Kal Mārt.
372. CALENDAR.

==================================================
===================
Days |March,May,July|January, August|
April,June, |
of the| October. | December |
September, | February
month.| | | November
|
------+--------------+---------------+------------
---+---------------
1 |KALENDĪS |KALENDĪS |KALENDĪS
|KALENDĪS
2 |VI Nōnās |IV Nōnās |IV Nōnās
|IV Nōnās
3 |V " |III " |III "
|III "
4 |IV " |Prīdiē Nōnās |Prīdiē Nōnās
|Prīdiē Nōnās
5 |III " |NŌNĪS |NŌNĪS
|NŌNĪS
 6 |Prīdiē Nōnās |VIII Īdūs |VIII Īdūs
|VIII Īdūs
7 |NŌNĪS |VII " |VII "
|VII "
8 |VIII Īdūs |VI " |VI "
|VI "
9 |VII " |V " |V "
|V "
10 |VI " |IV " |IV "
|IV "
11 |V " |III " |III "
|III "
12 |IV " |Pr. Īdūs |Pr. Īdūs
|Pr. Īdūs
13 |III " |ĪDIBUS |ĪDIBUS
|ĪDIBUS
14 |Pr. Īdūs |XIX Kalend. |XVIII
Kalend.|XVI Kalend.
15 |ĪDIBUS |XVIII " |XVII "
|XV "
16 |XVII Kalend. |XVII " |XVI "
|XIV "
17 |XVI " |XVI " |XV "
|XIII "
18 |XV " |XV " |XIV "
|XII "
19 |XIV " |XIV " |XIII "
|XI "
20 |XIII " |XIII " |XII "
|X "
21 |XII " |XII " |XI "
|IX "
22 |XI " |XI " |X "
|VIII "
23 |X " |X " |IX "
|VII "
24 |IX " |IX " |VIII "
|VI "
25 |VIII " |VIII " |VII "
|V (bis VI)"
26 |VII " |VII " |VI "
|IV (V) "
27 |VI " |VI " |V "
|III (IV) "
28 |V " |V " |IV "
|Pr.Kal.(III K.)
29 |IV " |IV " |III "
|(Prīd. Kal.)
30 |III " |III " |Pr. Kalend.
|(Enclosed forms are
31 |Pr. Kalend. |Pr. Kalend. |
|for leap-year.)
==================================================
===================

II. PROPER NAMES.

373. 1. The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts: the
praenōmen (or given name), the nōmen (name of the gens or clan), and the
cognōmen (family name). Such a typical name is exemplied by Mārcus
Tullius Cicerō, in which Mārcus is the praenōmen, Tullius the nōmen,
and Cicerō the cognōmen. Sometimes a second cognōmen (in later Latin
called an agnōmen) is added—expecially in honor of military
achievements; as,—
Gāius Cornēlius Scīpiō Āfricānus.
2. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.
=
A. = Aulus. Mam.
Māmercus.
App. = N. =
 Appius. Numerius.
C. = Gāius. P. = Pūblius.
=
Cn. Q. = Quīntus.
Gnaeus.
=
D. Sex. = Sextus.
Decimus.
K. = Kaesō. Ser. = Servius.
=
L. Sp. = Spurius.
Lūcius.
=
M. T. = Titus.
Mārcus.
=
M'. Ti. = Tiberius.
Mānius.

III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.

A. Figures of Syntax.

374. 1. Ellípsis is the omission of one or more words; as,—

quid multa, why (should I say) much?
2. Brachýlogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as,—
ut ager sine cultūrā frūctuōsus esse nōn potest, sīc
sine doctrīnā animus, as a field cannot be productive
without cultivation, so the mind (cannot be productive)
without learning.
Special varieties of Brachylogy are—
a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two; as,—
minīs aut blandīmentīs corrupta = (terrifed) by threats
or corrupted by flattery.
 b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an
object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as,—
dissimilis erat Charēs eōrum et factīs et mōribus, lit.
Chares was different from their conduct and character
i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc.
3. Pléonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as,—
prius praedīcam, lit. I will first say in advance.
4. Hendíadys (‛εν δια δυοιν, one through two) is the use of two nouns
joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an
Adjective; as,—
febris et aestus, the heat of fever;
celeritāte cursūque, by swift running.
5. Prolépsis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of
the action which makes it appropriate; as,—
submersās obrue puppēs, lit. overwhelm their
submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships.
a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a
noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should
expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus:—
nōstī Mārcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow
Marcellus is (lit. you know Marcellus, how slow he is).
Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.
6. Anacolúthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the construction of
the sentence; as,—
tum Ancī fīliī ... impēnsius eīs indignitās crēscere, then
the sons of Ancus ... their indignation increased all the
more.
7. Hýsteron Próteron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two
words or phrases; as,—
 moriāmur et in media arma ruāmus = let us rush into
the midst of arms and die.

B. Figures of Rhetoric.

375. 1. Lítotes (literally softening) is the expression of an idea by the denial

of its opposite; as,—
haud parum labōris, no little toil (i.e. much toil);
nōn ignōrō, I am not ignorant (i.e. I am well aware).
2. Oxymóron is the combination of contradictory conceptions; as,—
sapiēns īnsānia, wise folly.
3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting
frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as,—
sēnsim sine sēnsū aetās senēscit.
4. Onomatopœia is the suiting of sound to sense; as,—
quadrupedante putrem sonitū quatit ungula
campum, 'And shake with horny hoofs the solid
ground.'

INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.[63]

§ 162. nonne videtis, Sest. 47. num exspectas, Phil. ii, 86. videsne, Vatin.
30. sensistine, Cat. 1, 8. a rebus, de Sen. 15. visne locum, Leg. ii, 1. estisne,
Liv. i, 38, 2. jam ea, Ter. Phor. 525. estne frater, Ter. Ad. 569.
§ 166. decorum est, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13. opportune accidit Att. i, 17, 2.
§ 168. Numa, Eut. i, 3. philosophia, Tusc. Disp. ii, 16.
§ 169. assentatio, Lael. 89. Corinthi, Tac. H. ii, 1.
§ 171. audi tu, Livy, i, 24. nate, mea, Aen. i, 664.
§ 174. rumor est, Ter. And. 185.
§ 175. galeam, Aen. ii, 392. cinctus, Ov. Am. iii, 9, 61 nodo sinus, Aen. i,
320.
§ 176. idem gloriari, de Sen. 32. eadem peccat, N.D. i, 31. multa egeo, Gell.
xiii, 24. multum valet, Hor. Epp. i, 6, 52. nihil peccat, Stat. 161. minitantem
vana, Sil. i, 306 acerba tuens, Lucr. v, 33. dulce loquentem, Hor. Od. i, 22,
24. multum sunt, B.G. iv, 1, 8. servitutem, Pl. Pers. 34 a. vitam, Ter. Ad.
859. stadium Off. iii, 10, 42. Olympia, de Sen. 14. piscis, Sen. N.Q. iii, 18,
2. orationes, Brut. 82.
§ 177. homines, Rosc. Am. 101.
§ 178. otium, Hor. Od. ii, 16, 1. me duas, Att. ii, 7, 1. te litteras, Pis. 73. hoc
te, Ter. Hec. 766. me id, Pl. Tr. 96. non te, Fam. ii, 16, 3. omnes artes, Liv.
25, 37. rogatus, de Dom. 16. multa, N.D. ii, 166.
§ 179. milites, B.C. i, 54.
§ 180. tremit, Lucr. iii, 489. nuda, Aen. i, 320. manus, Aen. ii, 57.
§ 181. hic locus, B.G. i, 49.
§ 182. Thalam, Sall. Jug. 75, 1. Thurios in, Nep. Alc. 4. cum Acen, Nep.
Dat. 5. Italiam venit, Aen. i, 2.
§ 187. amicis, Sall. C. 16, 4. Orgetorix, B.G. i, 2. munitioni, B.G. i, 10.
§ 188. mihi ante, Verr. v, 123. illi, Tac. Ag. 9. intercludere, Pl. M.G. 223.
oppidum, B.C. iii, 80 tu mihi, Verr. 3, 213. quid mihi, Hor. Epp. i, 3, 15. erit
ille, Ecl. i, 7. quae ista, Par. 41. honorem, Verr. iv, 25. Caesar, Div. ii, 79.
scintillam, Aen. i, 174.
§ 189. disputatio, Tusc. Disp. ii, 2. honesta, Off. iii, 38.
§ 191. castris, B.G. vii, 16. legiones, B.C. ii, 22. receptui, B.G. vii, 47.
fortunae, Fam. vi, 5, 1. quibus, Flac. 19. hos tibi, Nep. Paus. 2. me gerendo,
Liv. i, 23. noxiae, Leg. iii, 11.
§ 192. it clamor, Aen. v, 451.
§ 193. dum Latio, Aen. i, 6.
§ 203. magni, Nep. Cat. 1, 2. tantae molis, Aen. i, 33.
§ 204. viri, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43. memoria, Or. 54.
§ 206. Epicuri, F. v, 3. praeteritorum, Div. i, 63. nomina, Pl. Poen. 1062.
reminiscere, B.G. i, 13. reminiscens, Nep. Alc. 6. mihi patriae, Sull. 19.
§ 207. te veteris, ad Her. iv, 24, 33. me admones, ad Att. v, 1, 3.
§ 208. pecuniae, Flacc. 43.
§ 209. miseremini, Verr. 1, 72.
§ 212. desine, Hor. Od. ii, 9, 17. operum, Hor. Od. iii, 17, 16.
§ 214. p. 142, curis, Marc. 34. Caesar, B.G. 5, 51. caret, Hor. Sat. i, 3, 66.
urbem, Nep. Thras. 1. abstinere, Plin. Epp. i, 12, 9. hostes, B.G. i, 1, 4.
praedones, Verr. iv, 144. dissentio, Planc. 9. secernantur, Cat. i, 32.
§ 215. ab Ulixe, Liv. i, 49, 9.
§ 216. a fortuna, B.G. v, 34, 2. a multitudine, B.G. iii, 2, 1.
§ 217. melle dulcior, de Sen. 31. patria, Cat. i, 27. amplius, B.G. vii, 15, 1.
opinione, B.G. ii, 3, 1.
§ 218. munere, Aen. vi, 885. carne, Sall. Jug. 89. castris, B.G. ii, 26, 4. opus
est properato, Mil. 49. nititur, Aen. vi, 760 nervis, N.D. ii, 59 mortali, Lucr.
v, 65. quid hoc, Sest. 29. quid mea, Fam. xiv, 4, 3. fossas, B.G. iii, 18.
vinum, Juv. vii, 121. militibus, B.G. i, 8, 1.
§ 219. victoria, B.G. i, 14, 4. natura loci, B.G. iii, 9, 3.
§ 221. nulla est, Brut. 164. exstinguitur, Tac. A. ii, 72. longo, Aen. v, 320.
§ 222A. cum febri, de. Or. iii, 6. improbitas, de Or. ii, 237. aer calore, N.D.
ii, 27. assuetus, de Or. iii, 58.
§ 224. puella, Pl. Merc. 13. vir singulari, Pl. Vid. 41. sunt specie, B.G. vi,
28, 1. scopulis, Aen. i, 166.
§ 226. Helvetii, B.G. i, 2, 2. me dignor, Aen. i, 335.
§ 227. Cn. Pompeio, B.G. iv, 1. omnes virtutes, Fin. ii, 117. perditis, Fam.
vi, 1, 4. nullo adversante, Tac. A. i, 2. passis palmis, B.C. iii, 98. audito
eum, Liv. xxviii, 7.
§ 228. stant litore, Aen. vi, 901.
§ 229. a Gergovia, B.G. vii, 59, 1.
§ 231. stella, N.D. ii, 52. biennio, Tac. Agr. 14.
§ 234. prima et, Tac. A. i, 37. omnium rerum, Fam. vi, 21, 1.
§ 235. eadem alacritas, B.G. iv, 24, 4. res operae, B.G. v, 11, 5. stultitia, F.
iii, 39. domus, uxor, Ter. And. 891. pars, Sall. Jug. 14, 15.
§ 240. senectus, de Sen. 55. exercitus, Livy, xxxix, 1.
§ 242. virtus, Lael. 100.
§ 244. me oravit, Phil. ii, 45. me oraverunt, Div. Caec. 2. suum genium,
Tac. Dial. 9. Hannibalem, Sest. 142. suus quemque, Rosc. Am. 67.
§ 245. Belgae, B.G. ii, 1, 1. Galli, B.G. vi, 8, 1.
§ 246. Themistocles, Nep. Them. 9. illud intellego, Sall. Jug. 85, 5. hic est,
Pl. Tr. 697.
§ 247. Maximum, de Sen. 10. non is sum, B.G. v, 30, 2. non suspicabatur,
Verr. i, 36. vincula, Cat. iv, 7.
§ 248. quod idem, Ac. ii, 52. bonus vir, Lael. 65.
§ 249. ipso terrore, B.G. iv, 33, 1. valvae se, Div. i, 74. Persae, Nep. Alc. 5.
ea molestissime, Q. Fr. i, 1, 2.
§ 250. carcer quae, Verr. v, 143. Belgae, B.G. ii, 1, 1. nostra qui, Cat. i, 7.
servili, B.G. i, 40. erant, B.G. i, 6. quam quisque, Tusc. Disp. i, 41. non
longe, B.G. i, 10, 1. Themistocles, Nep. Them. 4. 3. numquam digne, de
Sen. 2.
§ 252. cognatio, Arch. 2. mors est, Tusc. Disp. i, 27. justitia, F. i, 50. si
quisquam, Lael. 9. potestne, Tusc. Disp. iv, 54. si ullo, Att. xii, 23, 1.
taetrior, Verr. iv, 123. quod cuique, Off. i, 21. quinto quoque, Verr. ii, 139.
nemo Romanus, Liv. viii, 30, 3.
§ 253. alter exercitum, Planc. 86. alteri se, B.G. i, 26, 1. causidicus, de Or. i,
202.
§ 254. Tarquinii, Liv. i, 34, 7. non omnis, Div. ii, 90. Corioli, Liv. ii, 33, 8.
duo milia, Curt. iii, 2, 5.
§ 255. temeritas, F. iii, 72. si tu, Fam. xiv, 5, 1.
§ 256. velatus, Ov. Met. v, 110. tunica, Aen. viii, 457.
§ 259. virtus, Lael. 100. dum vitant, Hor. Sat. i, 2, 24. Caesar, B.G. vii, 90,
2. jam pridem, Att. ii, 5, 1.
§ 260. Duilium, de Sen. 44. hostes, B.G. v. 9, 6. domicilium, Arch. 7.
§ 262. Regulus, Off. iii, 100.
§ 263. Caesar, B.G. iv, 17, 1.
§ 265. nihil habebam, Att. ix, 10, 1.
§ 268. videor, N.D. ii, 72. Gallos, B.G. vii, 4, 4. honestum, F. ii, 49. si solos,
Tusc. Disp. i, 9. rex tantum, Nep. Con. 4. Verres, Verr. Act. Pr. 12. ardebat,
Brut. 302.
§ 269. Caesar, B.G. iii, 24, 1.
§ 270. hoc jam, Cat. i, 5. dico me, Sull. 27.
§ 275. quare, Cat. 1, 32. isto bono, de Sen. 33.
§ 276. ne repugnetis, Cluent. 6 tu vero, Tusc. Disp. i, 112. impii ne, Leg. ii,
41. cave ignoscas, Lig. 14.
§ 277. quid faciam, Pl. Curc. 589. ego redeam, Ter. Eun. 49. huic cedamus!
Phil. xiii, 16. quid facerem, Ter. Eun. 831. hunc ego, Arch. 18.
§ 278. ne sint, de Sen. 34. fuerit, Verr. i, 37.
§ 279. di istaec, Ter. H.T. 1038. falsus utinam, Liv. xxi, 10, 10.
§ 280. dicat aliquis, Ter. And. 640. fortunam, Pub. Syr. 193. velim mihi,
Fam. xiii, 75, 1. nolim putes, Fam. ix, 15, 4. dies deficat, N.D. iii, 81.
§ 281. egredere, Cat. i, 20. rem vobis, Verr. iv, 1. si bene, de Sen. 3.
consules, Leg. iii, 8. hominem, Twelve Tables. amicitia, Liv. 38, 38, 1. quin
equos, Liv. i, 57, 7.
§ 282. adjuta, Ter. Eun. 150. portas, B.G. ii, 33 haec, And. 472. ut ne, Off. i,
103. ut non, Cat. i, 23. ut earum, B.G. iv, 17, 10. Helvetii, B.G. i, 7, 3. haec
habui, de Sen. 85. non habebant, B.G. iv, 38, 2. idoneus, Verr. iii, 41. dignus,
Leg. iii, 5.
§ 283. multa, Tusc. Disp. i, 80. sunt qui, Inv. ii, 144. nemo, Fam. i, 4, 2.
sapientia, Fin. i, 43. quae, Lael. 23. non is sum, B.G. v, 30, 2. non longius,
B.G. ii, 21, 3. o fortunate, Arch. 24. ut qui, Phil. xi, 30. egomet, de Or. i, 82.
nemo est, Verr. iv, 115. nemo fuit, B.C. iii, 53, 3. quem audierim, Nep. Ar. 1,
2.
§ 284. quis tam, Tusc. Disp. iii, 71. Siciliam, Verr. Act. Pr. 12. mons, B.G. i,
6, 1. non is, Cat. i, 22. nemo est, de Sen. 24. habetis, Cat. iv, 24. nihil, Ter.
H.T. 675. nemo est, B.G. vi, 39, 3.
§ 286. Themistocles, Nep. Them. 8, 3. neque, de Sen. 84. quoniam, Nep.
Milt. 7, 5. noctu, Tusc. Disp. iv, 44. Bellovaci, B.G. vii, 75. id feci, Caec.
101. Crasso, Fam. xiii, 16, 3. hoc ita, Leg. iii, 31. Haeduos, B.G. i, 16, 6. id
omitto, Sall. Jug. 110, 7.
§ 287. Epaminondas, Nep. Ep. 9, 4. id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3. Caesar, B.G. iii,
9, 2. ubi de, B.G. i, 7, 3. ut quisque, Verr. v, 143. hostes, B.G. iv, 26, 2. id
ubi, Liv. i, 32, 13. postquam occupatae, Liv. xxiv, 35, 4. postquam Romam,
Sall. Jug. 28, 2. postquam structi, Liv. i, 23, 6. posteaquam, Leg. ii, 64.
§ 288. an tum, Pis. 26. credo tum, Verr. iv, 46. eo tempore, Lig. 20. illo die,
Mil. 38. Lysander, Div. i, 96. Pythagoras, N.D. iii, 88. jam Galli, B.G. vii,
26, 3. Treveri, B.G. vi, 7, 1. cum ad, Verr. v, 27. cum equitatus, B.G. v, 19,
2. saepe cum, Nep. Cim. 4, 2. cum procucurrissent, B.C. ii, 41, 6.
§ 289. tum tua, Hor. Epp. i, 18, 84. cum videbis, Pl. Bacch. 145. stabilitas,
Lael. 82.
§ 290. cum tacent, Cat. i, 21. cum te, Att. xiv, 17 A, 4.
§ 291. prius, Pl. Merc. 456. nihil contra, Flacc. 51. non prius, Sall. C. 51.
§ 291. priusquam, Liv. i, 24, 3. tempestas, Sen. Ep. 103, 2. priusquam telum,
B.C. ii, 34, 6. animum, Pl. Amph. 240. sol antequam, Phil. xiv, 27.
§ 293. Alexander, Quint. Curt. iv, 6, 17. dum haec, B.G. iii, 17, 1. dum
anima, Att. ix, 10, 3. Lacedaemoniorum, Tusc. Disp. i, 101. Cato, Nep. Cat.
2, 4. donec, Liv. xxiii, 31, 9. ferrum, Nep. Ep. 9, 3. trepidationis, Liv. xxi,
28, 11. exspectavit, B.G. iv, 23, 4. dum litterae, Fam. xi, 23, 2.
§ 295. postulo, Ter. And. 550. orat, Ter. Ad. 882. milites, B.G. ii, 21, 2.
Helvetiis, B.G. i, 2, 1. huic, Rosc. Am. 54. consuli, Liv. xxxv, 20, 4. ne
lustrum, Liv. xxiv, 43, 4. prohibuit, Liv. xxv, 35, 6. nec quin, Liv. xxvi, 40, 4.
constitueram, Att. xvi, 10, 1. decrevit, Cat. i, 4. convenit, Liv. x, 27, 2. fac
ut, Pl. Rud. 1218. cura ut, Cat. iii, 12. laborabat, B.G. vii, 31, 1. sequitur,
N.D. ii, 81. eos moneo, Cat. ii, 20. huic imperat, B.G. iv, 21, 8.
§ 296. opto, Verr. Act. Pr. 50. vereor ne, Att. vii, 12, 2.
§ 297. ex quo, F. ii, 24. ita fit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 16. est mos, Brut. 84.
§ 298. quis, Par. 48.
§ 299. illud, Off. iii, 111. hoc uno, de Or. i, 32. bene mihi, Tusc. Disp. i, 97.
quod, B.G. i, 44, 6. quod me, Nep. Ep. 5, 6.
§ 300. oculis, B.G. i, 12, 1. bis bina, N.D. ii, 49. effugere, N.D. iii, 14. saepe
autem, N.D. iii, 14. Epaminondas, F. ii, 97. ex Socrate, Tusc. Disp. v, 34.
nescio, Pl. Amph. 1056. conantur, B.G. i, 8, 4. pergit, Liv. i, 7, 6, quaeritur,
N.D. i, 61. haud scio, Tusc. Disp. ii, 41.
§ 302. naturam, Off. i, 100. memoria, de Sen. 21. si quis, B.G. i, 48, 6. si
dicendo, Tac. Dial. 19.
§ 303. mentiar, Lael. 10. haec si, Cat. i, 19.
§ 304. sapientia, F. i, 42. consilium, de Sen. 19. Laelius, Arch. 16. num
igitur, de Sen. 19. nisi felicitas, Tac. Agr. 31. eum patris, Phil. ii, 99. si
Sestius, Sest. 81. si unum, Liv. ii, 38, 5.
§ 305. non potestis, F. ii, 71. cras, Pl. Merc. 770. haec reputent, Tusc. Disp.
i, 51. roges, F. iv, 69.
§ 306. ferreus, Fam. xv, 21, 3. dolorem, Phil. 12, 21. si feceris, Fam. v, 19,
2. hoc si, Fam. vii, 1, 6. hunc mihi, Cat. i, 18. nihil, Cat. ii, 10. nisi, Mil. 19.
§ 307. sed quid, Div. Caec. 14. serviam, Pl. Men. 1101.
§ 308. sit fur, Verr. v, 4. haec sint, Ac. ii, 105. ne sit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 14.
§ 309. homines, Phil. ii, 39. non est, Rep. i, 10. quamquam, Off. i, 56.
Caesar, B.G. iv, 31, 1. Atticus, Nep. Att. 6, 2. licet, Rosc. Am. 31.
quamquam quid, Cat. i, 22. quamquam, Liv. xxxvi, 34, 6. quamvis, multi,
Tac. Dial. 2. quamvis infesto, Liv. ii, 40, 7.
§ 310. multi, Off. iii, 82. omnia postposui, Fam. xvi, 21, 6. nil obstat, Hor.
Sat. i, 1, 40. oderint, Acc. 204. manent, de Sen. 22. nubant, Pl. Aul. 491.
§ 312. quidquid, Aen. ii, 49. quidquid oritur, Div. ii, 60.
§ 314. Regulus, Off. iii, 100. tum Romulus, Liv. i, 9, 2. nuntiatum, B.G. i,
38, 1. dixit, Nep. Them. 7, 5.
§ 315. Ariovistus, B.G. i, 44, 7.
§ 316. milites, B.G. iii, 5, 3.
§ 318. Caesar, B.G. i, 14, 6.
§ 322. concursu, Tac. Dial. 39.
§ 323. demonstrabantur, de Sen. 78. Paetus, Att. ii, 1, 12.
§ 324. nemo, Par. 52. cum diversas, Tac. Dial. 1, 4. mos est, Orat. 151.
quod ego, Pl. Capt. 961.
§ 327. dulce, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13. virorum, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43. aliud est, Tusc.
Disp. iv, 27. impune, Sall. Jug. 31, 26. licuit, Tusc. Disp. i, 33.
§ 328. Demosthenes, F. v, 5. beatus, N.D. i, 48. Cato, Sall. Cat. 54, 5.
§ 330. apertum est, F. v, 34.
§ 331. Epicurei, Lael. 13. Thales, N.D. i, 25. Democritus, N.D. i, 20. nullo
se, Lig. 3. nec mihi, de Sen. 85. eas res, B.G. i, 18. te tua, Brut. 331. cupio,
Cat. i, 4. Timoleon, Nep. Tim. 3, 4. gaudeo, Pl. Bacch. 456. non moleste, de
Sen. 7.
§ 332. Sestius, Sest. 95. traditum, Tusc. Disp. v, 114.
§ 333. audax, Hor. Od. i, 3, 25.
§ 334. huncine, Hor. Sat. i, 9, 72.
§ 335. interim, B.G. i, 16, 1.
§ 336. assurgentem, Liv. iv, 19.
§ 337. gloria, Tusc. Disp. iii, 3. Conon, Nep. Con. 4, 5. omne, Phil. v, 31.
mente, Tusc. Disp. v, 100. Solon, de Sen. 26. sol, N.D. ii, 102. mendaci, Div.
ii, 146. perfidiam, B.G. vii, 5, 5. eis Catonem, de Sen. 3. Homerus, de Sen.
54. urbem, Liv. xxii, 20. equitatum, B.G. i, 15, 1. obliviscendum, Tac. Hist.
ii, 1. numquam, Verr. i, 38. suo cuique, N.D. iii, 1. Caesar, B.G. i, 13, 1.
§ 338. scribendo, Fam. xv, 6, 2. mens, Off. i, 105. Themistocles, Nep. Them.
2, 3. multa, F. i, 5.
§ 339. ad pacem, Liv. xxi, 13. hostes, B.G. iii, 6, 2. legati, B.G. iv, 13, 5.
quae ille, Sall. Fr. i, 77, 11.
§ 340. legati, B.G. i, 30, 1. do (colloco), Pl. Tr. 735. hoc est, Att. vii, 22, 2.
§ 341. cum homines, Cat. i, 31. discidia, F. i, 44. horae, de Sen. 69. Caesar,
B.G. ii, 35, 3.
§ 342. cita, Hor. Sat. i, 1, 8. qui aether, N.D. ii, 41.
§ 343. adsentatio, Lael. 89.
§ 346. Cn. Pompeio, B.G. iv, 1, 1.
§ 348. Darius, Nep. Milt. 4, 1.
§ 349. magnus, Nep. Them. 6, 1.
§ 350. erant duo, B.G. i, 6, 1. nisi forte, de Sen. 18. id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3.
eo cum, B.G. vii, 7, 4. ut ad, Lael. 5. septimus, de Sen. 38. recepto, B.C. iii,
12, 1. sed pleni, Arch. 14. horribilem, Tusc. Disp. i, 118. simulatam, Tac. A.
i, 10.
§ 351. Caesar, B.G. i, 25, 1. Haedui, B.G. i, 11, 2. Caesar cum, B.G. i, 7, 1.
accidit, Nep. Alc. 3, 2. si quid, Arch. 1. Caesar, B.G. v, 4, 1.
§ 356. hostium, B.G. iii, 29, 3. mens quoque, de Sen. 36. tanto, Sull. 59.
§ 358. pro multitudine, B.G. i, 2, 5.
§ 374. ut ager, Tusc. Disp. ii, 13. minis, Tusc. Disp. v, 87. dissimilis, Nep.
Chab. 3, 4. febris, Cat. i, 31. submersas, Aen. i, 69. nosti, Fam. viii, 10, 3.
tum Anci, Liv. i, 40, 2. moriamur, Aen. ii, 353.
§ 375. quadrupedante, Aen. viii, 506.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Ac., Cicero, Academica.
Acc., Accius.
ad Her., ad Herennium.
Aen., Virgil, Aeneid.
Arch., Cicero, pro Archia.
Att., Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticus.
B.C., Caesar, de Bello Civili.
B.G., Caesar, de Bello Gallico.
Brut., Cicero, Brutus.
Caec., Cicero, pro Caecina.
Cat., Cicero, in Catilinam.
Cluent., Cicero, pro Cluentio.
Curt., Quintus Curtius
de Dom., Cicero, de Domo Sua.
de Or., Cicero, de Oratore.
de Sen., Cicero, de Senectute.
D., Cicero, de Divinatione.
Div. Caec., Cicero, Divinatio in Caecilium.
Ecl., Virgil, Eclogues.
Eut., Eutropius.
F., Cicero, de Finibus.
Fam., Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares.
Flac., Cicero, pro Flacco.
Gell, Aulus Gellius.
Hor., Horace.
—— Epp., Epistles.
—— Od., Odes.
—— Sat., Satires.
Inv., Cicero, de Inventione.
Juv., Juvenal.
Lael., Cicero, Laelius, de Amicitia.
Leg., Cicero, de Legibus.
Lig., Cicero, pro Ligario.
Liv., Livy.
Lucr., Lucretius.
Marc., Cicero, pro Marcello.
Mil., Cicero, pro Milone.
N.D., Cicero, de Natura Deorum.
Nep., Nepos.
—— Alc., Alcibiades.
—— Ar., Aristides.
—— Att., Atticus.
—— Cat., Cato.
—— Chab. Chabrias.
—— Cim., Cimon.
—— Con., Conon.
—— Dat., Datames.
—— Ep., Epaminondas.
—— Milt., Miltiades.
—— Paus., Pausanias.
—— Them., Themistocles.
—— Thras., Thrasybulus.
—— Tim., Timoleon.
Off., Cicero, de Officiis.
Or., Cicero, Orator.
Ov., Ovid.
—— Am., Amores, —— Met., Metamorphoses.
Par., Cicero, Paradoxa.
Phil., Cicero, Philippics.
Pis., Cicero, in Pisonem.
Planc., Cicero, pro Plancio.
Pl., Plautus.
—— Amph., Amphitruo.
—— Aul., Aulularia.
—— Bacch., Bacchides.
—— Capt., Captivi.
—— Curc., Curculio.
—— Men., Menaechmi.
—— Merc., Mercator.
—— M.G., Miles Gloriosus.
—— Pers., Persa.
—— Poen., Poenulus.
—— Rud., Rudens.
—— Tr., Trinummus.
—— Vid., Vidularia.
Plin. Epp., Pliny the Younger, Letters.
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus.
Q.F., Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem.
Rosc. Am., Cicero, pro Roscio Amerino.
Sall., Sallust.
—— C., Catiline.
—— Fr., Fragments.
—— Jug., Jugurtha.
Sen., Seneca.
—— Ep., Epistles.
—— N.Q., Naturales Quaestiones.
Sest., Cicero, pro Sestio.
Sex. Rosc., Cicero, pro Sexto Roscio.
Sil., Silius Italicus.
Stat., Caecilius Statius.
Sull., Cicero, pro Sulla.
Tac., Tacitus.
—— A., Annals.
—— Agr., Agricola.
—— Dial., Dialogus de Oratoribus.
—— Ger., Germania.
—— H., Histories.
Ter., Terence.
—— Ad., Adelphoi.
—— And., Andria.
—— Eun., Eunuchus.
—— Hec., Hecyra.
—— H.T., Hautontimoroumenos.
—— Phor., Phormio.
Tusc. Disp., Cicero, Tusculan Disputations.
Twelve Tables, Laws of the Twelve Tables.
Vatin., Cicero, in Vatinium.
Verr., Cicero, in Verrem.
Verr. Act. Pr., Cicero, Actio Prima in C. Verrem.
 INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT VERBS
NOTE.—Compounds are not given unless they present some special
irregularity. The references are to sections.
 A.
abdō, 122, I, 4. abiciō, 122, III. abnuō, 122, II.

aboleō, 121, I. abstergeō, 121, III absum, 125.

accendō, 122, I, 4. accidit, 138, III. acciō, 121, I, N. accipiō, 122, III.

acquīrō, 122, I, 6. acuō, 122, II. addō, 122, I, 2.

adhaerēscō, 122, IV, 2. adipīscor,

122, V. adolēscō, 122, IV, 1. adsum, 125.

adveniō, 123, IV. afferō, 129. afficiō, 122, III.

afflīgō, 122, I, 1, a.

agnōscō, 122, IV, 1. agō, 122, I, 3. algeō, 121, III. alō, 122, I, 5. amiciō,
123, III. amō, 120, I.

amplector, 122, V. angō, 122, I, 7. aperiō, 123, II. appetō, 122, I, 6. arceō,
121, II, a. arcessō, 122, I, 6. ārdeō, 121, III. ārēscō, 122, IV, 2. arguō, 122,
II. ascendō, 122, I, 4. aspiciō, 122, III. assentior, 123, VII.

assuēfaciō, 122, III.

assuēfīō, 122, III. audiō, 123, I. auferō, 129.

augeō, 121, III. aveō, 121, II, a, N. 2.

 C.
cadō, 122, I, 2. caedō, 122, I, 2. calefaciō, 122, III. calefiō, 122,

III. caleō, 121, II, a.

calēscō, 122, IV, 2. canō, 122, I, 2. capessō, 122,

I, 6. capiō, 122, III. careō, 121, II, a. carpō, 121, I, 1, a. caveō, 121, V. cēdō,
122,

I, 1, b. cēnseō, 121, II,

b. cernō, 122, I, 6. cieō, 121, I. cingō, 122, I, 1,

a. circumsistō, 122, I, 2.

claudō, 122, I, 1, b. claudō, 122, I, 7. coëmō, 122, I,

3. coepī, 133. coërceō, 121, II, a. cognōscō, 122, IV, 1. cōgō, 122, I, 3.
colligō, 122,

I, 3. colō, 122, I, 5. comminīscor, 122, V. comperiō, 123, V.

compleō, 121, I. concutiō, 122, III. condō, 122, I,

2. cōnferō, 129. cōnfiteor, 121, VII. congruō, 122,

II. cōnsenēscō, 122, IV, 2.

cōnserō, 122, I, 5. cōnserō,

122, I, 6 (plant). cōnsidō, 122, I, 4. cōnsistō, 122, I, 2. cōnspiciō, 122, III.

cōnstat, 138,

III. cōnstituō, 122, II.

cōnsuēscō, 122, IV, 1.

cōnsulō, 122, I, 5. contineō, 121, II, b. contingit, 138, III. coquō, 122, I,

1, a. crepō, 120, II.

crēscō, 122, IV, 1. cubō, 120, II. cupiō, 122, III.

currō, 122, I, 2.
 D.
dēbeō, 121, II, a.

dēcernō, 122, I, 6. decet, 138, II. dēdecet, 138,

II. dēdō, 122, I, 2. dēfendō,

122, I, 4. dēlēo, 121, I dēligō, 122,

I, 3. dēmō, 122, I, 3.

dēsērō, 122, I, 5 dēsinō,

122, I, 6. dēsum, 125.

dīcō, 122, I, 1, a. differō,

129. dīligō, 122,

I, 3. dīmicō, 120, II. dirimō, 122, I, 3. dīripiō, 122, III. dīruō, 122, II.
discernō, 122,

I, 6. discō, 122, IV, 1. disserō, 122, I, 5. distinguō, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44.
dīvidō, 122, I, 1,

b. dō, 127. doceō, 121, II, b. doleō, 121, II, a. domō, 120, II. dūcō, 122,

I, 1, a.
 E.
ēdō, 122, I, 2. edō, 122, I, 3. efferō, 129.

effugiō, 122, III. egeō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

ēliciō, 122, III. ēmineō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

emō, 122, I, 3. eō, 132. ēsuriō, 123, VI. ēvādō, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45.
ēvānēscō, 122, IV, 3. excolō, 122, I, 5. excūdō, 122, I, 4. exerceō,

121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. expleō, 121, I, N. explicō, 120, II.

exstinguō, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. extimēscō, 122, IV, 2.

 F.
faciō, 122, III. fallō, 122, I, 2. fateor, 121, VII.

faveō, 121, V. feriō, 123, VI. ferō, 129.

ferveō, 121, VI fīgō, 122, I, 1, b. findō,122, I, 2, N. fingō, 122, I, 1, a. fiō,

131. flectō, 122, I, 1, b. fleō, 121, I. flōreō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

flōrēscō, 122, IV, 2. fluō, 122, II. fodiō, 122, III.

foveō, 121, V. frangō, 122, I, 3. fremō, 122, I, 5. fricō, 120, II. frīgeō, 121,
II, a, N. 2.

fruor, 122, V. fugiō, 122, III. fulciō, 123, III. fulgeō, 121, III. fulget, 138, I.
fundō, 122, I, 3.

fungor, 122, V. furō, 122, I, 7.

 G.
gemō, 122, I, 5. gerō, 122, I, 1, a. gignō, 122, I, 5. gradior, 122, V.
 H.
habeō, 121, II, a. haereō, 121, III. hauriō, 123, III. horreō, 121, II, a, N. 1.
 I.
ignōscō, 121, IV, 2. illiciō, 122, III. imbuō, 122, II.

immineō, 121, II, a, N. 2. impleō, 121, I, N. implicō, 120, II.

incipiō, 122, III. incolō, 122, I, 5. incumbō, 122,

I, 5. indulgeō, 121, III. induō, 122, II. īnferō, 129. ingemīscō, 122,

IV, 2. īnsum, 125. intellegō, 122, I, 3. interficiō, 122, III. intersum, 125.

invādō, 122, I, 1, b., footnote

45. inveniō, 123, IV.

īrāscor, 122, V.
 J.
jaceō, 121, II, a. jaciō, 122, III. jubeō, 121, III. jungō, 122, I, 1, a. juvō,
120, III.
 L.
lābor, 122, V. lacessō, 122, I, 6. laedō, 122, I,

1, b. lambō, 122, I, 7. largior, 123, VII. lateō, 121, II,

a, N. 1. lavō, 120, III. legō, 122, I,

3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II.

loquor, 122, V. lūceo, 121, III. lūdō, 122,

I, 1, b. lūgeō, 121, III.

luō, 122, II.

 M.
maereō, 121, II, a, N. 2. mālō, 130.

maneō, 121, III.

mātūrēscō, 122, IV, 3. medeor,

121, VII. meminī, 133.

mereō, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergō, 122, I,

1, b. mētior, 123, VII. metuō, 122, II. micō, 120, II.

minuō, 122, II. misceō, 121, II, b. miseret, 138, II. misereor, 121, VII.

mittō, 122, I, 1, b. molō, 122, I, 5. moneō, 121,

II, a. mordeō, 121, IV. morior, 122, V. moveō, 121,

V.
 N.
nancīscor, 122, V. nāscor, 122, V. nectō, 122, I, 1, b. neglegō, 122, I, 3.
ningit, 138, . niteō, 121, II, a, N. 1. nītor, 122, V. noceō, 121, II, a. nōlō, 130.
nōscō, 122, IV, 1. nūbō, 122, I, 1, a.
 O.
obdūrēscō, 122, IV, 3.

oblinō, 122, I, 6. oblīvīscor, 122, V. obmūtēscō, 122, IV, 3. obruō, 122, II.
obsolēscō, 122, IV, 1. obsum, 125. obtineō, 121, II, b. ōdī, 133. offerō, 129.
oleō, 121, II, a, N. 1. operiō, 123, II. oportet, 138, II.

opperior, 123, VII. ōrdior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VII.

 P.
paenitet, 138, II. palleō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

pandō, 122, I, 4. parcō, 122, I, 2. pāreō, 121, II, a. pariō, 122, III. pāscō,
122, IV, 1. pāscor, 122,

IV, 1. patefaciō, 122, III.

patefīō, 122, III. pateō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

patior, 122, V. paveō, 121, V. pelliciō, 122,

III. pellō, 122, I, 2. pendeō, 121, IV. pendō, 122, I,

2. peragō, 122, I, 3. percellō, 122, I, 2, N. percrēbrēscō, 122, IV, 3.

perdō, 122, I, 2. perficiō, 122, III. perfringō, 122,

I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlegō, 122, I, 3. permulceō, 121, III. perpetior, 122,

V.

pervādō, 122, I, 1, b., footnote

45. petō, 122, I, 6.

piget, 138, II. pingō, 122, I, 1, a. placeō, 121, II, a. plaudō, 122, I, 1, b.
pluit, 138, I. polleō, 121, II,

a, N. 2. polliceor, 121, VII. polluō, 122,

II. pōnō, 122, I, 6. poscō, 122, IV, 1. possīdō, 122, I, 4. possum, 126.

pōtō, 120, I. praebeō, 121, II, a. praestat, 138, III. praesum, 125.

prandeō, 121, VI. prehendō, 122, I, 4. premō, 122, I,

1, b. prōdō, 122, I, 2.

prōmō, 122, I, 3. prōsum, 125. prōsternō, 122,

I, 6. pudet, 138, II. pungō, 122, I, 2.

 Q.
quaerō, 122, I, 6. quatiō, 122, III. queror, 122, V. quiēscō, 122, IV, 1.
 R.
rādō, 122, I, 1, b.

rapiō, 122, III. reddō, 122, I, 2. redimō, 122, I, 3. referciō, 123, III. referō,
129. rēfert, 138, II.

regō, 122, I, 1, a. relinquō, 122, I, 3. reminīscor, 122, V. reor, 121, VII.

reperiō, 123, V. rēpō, 122, I, 1, a. resistō, 122, I, 2. respuō, 122, II.

restinguō, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. retineō, 121, II, b. rīdeō, 121, III.

rōdō, 122, I, 1, b. rubeō,

121, II, a, N. 1.

rumpō, 122, I, 3. ruō, 122, II.

 S.
saepiō, 123, III. saliō, 123, II. sanciō, 123,

III. sapiō, 122, III. sarciō, 123, III. scindō, 122, I,

2, N. scīscō, 122, IV, 2. scribō, 122,

I, 1, a. sculpō, 122, I, 1, a.

secō, 120, II. sedeō, 121, V. sentiō, 123, III.

sepeliō, 123, I. sequor, 122, V. serō, 122, I, 6.

serpō, 122, I, 1, a. sileō, 121, II, a, N. sinō, 122, I, 6. solvō, 122, I, 4. sonō,
120, II.

spargō, 122, I, 1, b. spernō, 122, I, 6. splendeō, 121,

II, a, N. 1. spondeō, 121, IV. statuō, 122, II.

sternō, 122, I, 6. -stinguō, 122, I, 1, a. stō, 120, IV. strepō, 122, I,

5. strīdeō, 121, VI. stringō, 122, I, 1, a. struō, 122, II. studeō, 121, II,

a, N. 1. suādeō, 121, III. subigō, 122, I,

3. subsum, 125. sum, 100.

sūmō, 122, I, 3. suō, 122, II. supersum, 125.

sustineō, 121, II, b.

 T.
taceō, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II. tangō, 122, I,

2. tegō, 122, I, 1, a. temnō, 122, I, 1, a. tendō, 122, I, 2. teneō, 121,

II, b. terō, 122, I, 6. terreō,

121, II, a. texō, 122, I, 5. timeō, 121,

II, a, N. 1. tingō, 122, I, 1, a. tollō, 122, I, 2, N. tonat, 138, I. tondeō, 121, IV.

tonō, 120, II. torpeō, 121, II, a, N. 1.

torqueō, 121, III. torreō, 121, II, b. trādō, 122, I, 2. trahō, 122, I,

1, a. tremō, 122, I, 5. tribuō,

122, II. trūdō, 122, I, 1, b. tueor, 121, VII. tundō, 122, I,

2.
 U.
ulcīscor, 122, V. unguō, 122, I, 1, a. urgeō, 121, III. ūrō, 122, I, 1, a. ūtor,
122, V.
 V.
vādō, 122, I, 1, b. valeō, 121, II, a. vehō, 122, I, 1, a. vellō, 122, I, 4. veniō,
123, IV. vereor, 121, VII. vergō, 122, I, 7. verrō, 122, I, 4. vertō, 122, I, 4.
vescor, 122, V. vetō, 120, II. videō, 121, V. vigeō, 121, II, a, N. 1. vinciō,
123, III. vincō, 122, I, 3. vireō, 121, II, a, N. 1. vīsō, 122, I, 4. vīvō, 122, I,
1, a. volō, 130. volvō, 122, I, 4. vomō, 122, I, 5. voveō, 121, V.
 GENERAL INDEX.

The references are to sections and paragraphs.

ABBREVIATIONS.—Abl., ablative; acc., accusative; adj., adjective; adv.,

adverb, adverbial, or adverbially; cf., compare; comp., comparison or
comparative; conj., conjunction or conjugation; const., constr., construction;
dat., dative; decl., declension; gen., genitive; ind., indicative; indir. disc.,
indirect discourse; loc., locative; N., note; nom., nominative; plu., plural;
prep., preposition; pron., pronoun or pronunciation; sing., singular; subj.,
subject; subjv., subjunctive; voc., vocative; w., with.
A.
ă, vowel, 2, 1;
—— pronunciation, 3, 1;
—— development of ă, before a single consonant, 7, 1, a; ——
before two consonants, 7, 1, b;
—— ă as ending of nom. sing. of 1st decl., 20; —— in voc. sing. of
Greek nouns in -ēs of 1st decl., 22; —— in nom. sing. of
Greek nouns in -ē of 1st decl., 22, 3; —— termination of
nom. and acc. plu. of neuters, 23; 35; 48; —— termination
of nom. sing. of nouns of 3d decl., 28;
—— gender of nouns in -ă of 3d decl., 43, 3; —— ending of acc.
sing. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 1;
—— regular quantity of final a, 363, 1; —— exceptions to quantity
of final a, 363, 1, a-c.
ā, pronunciation, 3, 1;
—— arising by contraction, 7, 2;
—— as ending of stem in 1st decl., 18;
—— ā-stems inflected, 20;
—— in voc. sing. of Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22;
—— in voc. sing. of Greek nouns in -ās of 3d decl., 47, 4; ——
distinguishing vowel of 1st conjugation, 98;
—— ending of imperative act. of 1st conj., 101;
—— final a long by exception, 363, 1, a-c.
ā, ab, abs, use, 142, 1; —— with town names, 229, 2.
ā to denote agency, 216.
—— to denote separation, 214.
—— place from which, 229.
—— with town names, 229, 2.
—— with abl. of gerund, 338, 4, b.
ā-stems, 20; 98; 101.
Abbreviations of proper names, 373.
Ablative case, 17; 213 f.
—— in -ābus, 21, 2, e.
—— in -d in prons., 84, 3; 85, 3.
—— formation of sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a; 70, 1-5.
—— of ĭ-stems, 37; 38.
—— genuine abl. uses, 214 f.
—— absolute, 227.
—— of agent, 216.
—— of accompaniment, 222.
—— of accordance, 220, 3.
—— of association, 222A.
—— of attendant circumstance, 221; 227, 2, e).
—— of cause, 219.
—— of comparison, 217.
—— of degree of difference, 223.
—— of fine or penalty, 208, 2, b.
—— of manner, 220.
—— of material, 224, 3.
—— of means, 218.
—— of penalty, 208, 2, b.
—— of place where, 228.
—— of place whence, 229.
—— of price, 225.
—— of quality, 224.
—— of separation, 214;
—— —— with compounds of dis- and sē-, 214, 3.
—— of source, 215.
—— of specification, 226.
—— of time at which, 230.
—— of time during which, 231, 1.
—— of time within which, 231.
—— of way by which, 213, 9.
—— with continēri, cōnsistere, cōnstāre, 218, 4.
—— with special phrases, 218, 7.
—— with jungere, mīscēre, mūtāre, etc., 222A.
—— with faciō, fiō, 218, 6
—— with prepositions, 142; 213 f.
—— with verbs of filling, 218, 8.
—— with verbs and adjs. of freeing, 214, I, a, and N. 1.
—— with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8.
—— with ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, 218, 1.
—— with opus and ūsus, 218, 2
—— with nītor, innīxus, and frētus, 218, 3.
abs, 142, 1.
absēns, 125.
Absolute, ablative, 227.
—— time, of participles, 336, 4.
—— use of verbs, 174, a.
Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b);
—— plural of, 55, 4, c).
-ābus, 21, 2, e).
ac, 341, 2, b); —— = as, than, 341, 1, c).
Acatalectic verses, 366, 9.
accēdit ut, 297, 2.
Accent, 6;
—— in gen. of nouns in -ius and -ium, 25, 1 and 2.
accidit ut, 297, 2.
accidit quod, 299, 1, b.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 222.
Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3.
Accusative case, 17;
—— in -ān and -ēn of Greek nouns, 22; —— in -om in 2d decl., 24;
—— in -on and -ōn in Greek nouns, 27; —— in -ă in sing. of Greek
nouns, 47, 1; —— in -ăs in plu., 47, 3;
—— in -im and -is in i-stems, 37; 38; —— acc. sing. neut. as adv.,
77, 3; 176, 3; 172 f.
—— of duration of time, 181.
—— of result produced, 173, B; 176.
—— of extent of space, 181.
—— of limit of motion, 182 f.
—— of neut. prons. or adjs., 176, 2.
—— of person or thing affected, 173, A; 175.
—— in exclamations, 183.
—— as subj. of inf., 184.
—— with admoneō, commoneō, etc., 207.
—— with adv. force, 176, 3.
—— with compounds, 175, 2.
—— with impersonal verbs, 175, 2, c.
—— with intransitive verbs, 175, 2, a.
—— with passive used as middle, 175, 2, d).
—— with verbs of remembering and forgetting (meminī, oblīvīscor,
reminīscor), 206, 1; 2.
—— with verbs expressing emotion, 175, 2, b.
—— with verbs of tasting and smelling, 176, 5.
—— with verbs of making, choosing, calling, regarding, etc., 177.
—— with verbs of asking, requesting, demanding, teaching,
concealing, 178, 1-5.
—— with adjs. (propior, proximus), 141, 3.
—— with adverbs (propius, proximē), 141, 3; —— —— clam,
prīdiē, 144, 2.
—— Genavam ad oppidum, 182, 2, a.
—— cognate acc., 176, 4.
—— Greek acc., 180.
—— synecdochical acc., 180.
—— two accs., direct obj. and pred. acc., 177;
—— —— person affected and result produced, 178;
—— —— with compounds of trāns, 179; —— —— with other
compounds, 179, 2.
—— with prepositions, 141; 179 f.
—— retained in pass., 178, 2.
Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
accūsō, constr., 178, 1, d).
ācer, decl., 68;
—— compared, 71, 3.
Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
ac sī with subjv., 307, 1.
ad, 'toward,' 'in vicinity of,' 182, 3; —— with acc. alternating with
dat., 358, 2.
—— compounds of ad governing dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d.
—— with gerund denoting purpose, 338, 3.
-adēs, patronymic ending, 148, 6, a.
adg- = agg-, 9, 2.
Adjectives, 62 f; 354; —— derivation of, 150 f.
—— of 1st and 2d decl., 63 ff.
—— in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a.
—— of 3d decl., 67, ff;
—— —— in abl., 70, 5.
—— comparison of adjs., 71 f.;
—— —— in -er, 71, 3;
—— —— in -ilis, 71, 4;
—— —— comparative lacking, 73, 3;
—— —— defective comparison, 73;
—— —— not admitting comparison, 75;
—— —— comparison by magis and maximē, 74.
—— numerals, 78 f.
—— syntax, 233 ff.;
—— —— attributive and predicate adjs., 233, 2.
—— agreement, 234, f.
—— used substantively, 236 f.
—— denoting part of an object, 241, 1.
—— with force of adverbs, 239.
—— force of comp. and superl., 240, 1.
—— not followed by infinitive, 333.
—— not used with proper names, 354, 3.
—— equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4.
—— special Latin equivalents of Eng. adjs., 354, 1.
—— equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2.
—— as pred. acc., 177, 2.
—— position of adj., 350, 4.
—— pronominal adjs., 92.
—— governing gen., 204.
—— governing dat., 192.
—— governing acc., 141, 3.
—— construed with abl., 214, 1, d; 217, 1; 218, 8; 223; 226, 2; 227,
1.
—— with supine in -ū, 340, 2.
adl- = all-, 9, 2.
admoneō, constr., 207.
Admonishing, const. of verbs of, 207.
adr- = arr-, 9, 2.
ads- = ass-, 9, 2.
ad sensum, constr., 235, B, 2, c; 254, 4.
adulēscēns, spelling, 9, 2.
adulter, decl., 23, 2.
adultus, force, 114, 2.
Adverbs, defined, 140;
—— formation and comparison, 76 f.; 140; 157.
—— in -iter from adjs. in -us, 77, 4.
—— in -tus and -tim, 77, 5.
—— in ō and -o, 77, 2.
—— numeral, 79.
—— as preps., 144, 2.
—— derivation of, 157.
—— with gen., 201, 2; 3; and a.
—— special meanings, 347.
—— position, 350, 6.
Adversative clauses, 309.
—— conjunctions, 343.
adversus, prep. with acc., 141.
ae, how pronounced, 3, 2;
—— phonetic changes, 7, 1, d.
aedēs, plu., 61.
aequālis, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a; —— as subst., 238.
aequor, decl., 34.
aequum est = aequum sit, 271, 1, b).
aes, in plu., 55, 4, b; —— lacks gen. plu., 57, 7.
aetās, decl., 40, 1, e); —— id aetātis, 185, 2.
-aeus, suffix, 152, 3.
aevom, decl., 24.
Affected, acc. of person or thing, 175.
Agency, dat. of, 189;
—— abl., 216.
Agent, abl., 216;
—— with names of animals, 216, 2.
ager, decl., 23.
Agreement, nouns, 166; 168; 169, 2; 3; 4.
—— adjs., 234;
—— —— in gender, 235, B;
—— —— in number, 235, A;
—— prons., 250;
—— verbs, with one subj., 254, 1;
—— —— with two or more subjs., 255, 1.
-āī, case-ending, gen. sing., 1st decl., poet., 21, 2, b).
aīn, 135, N.
ajō, 135;
—— quantity of first syllable, 362, 5.
-al, declension of nouns in, 39.
alacer, decl., 68, 1;
—— comp., 73, 4.
aliqua, 91, 2.
aliquī, 91; 91, 2.
aliquis, 91; 252, 2; —— aliquis dīcat, dīxerit, 280, 1.
-ālis, suffix, 151, 2.
aliter ac, 341, 1, c.
alius, 66; 92, 1; —— used correlatively, 253, 1.
alius ac, 'other than,' 341, 1, c).
Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N.
alliciō, conj., 109, 2, b).
Alliteration, 375, 3.
Alphabet, 1.
alter, decl., 66; 92, 1; —— used correlatively, 253, 1.
Alternative questions, 162, 4;
—— indirect, 300, 4.
alteruter, decl., 92, 2.
alvus, gender of, 26, 1, b.
amandus sum, conj., 115.
amātūrus sum, conj., 115.
amb- (ambi-), 159, 3, N.
ambō, 80, 2, a; —— usage, 355, 2.
amō, conj., 101.
amplius = amplius quam, 217, 3.
amussis, -im, 38, 1.
an, 162, 4, and a); 300, 4; —— haud sciō an, nesciō an, 300, 5.
Anacoluthon, 374, 6.
Anapaest, 366, 2.
Anaphora, 350, 11, b).
Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3; 144, 3.
anceps (syllaba anceps), defined, 366, 10.
Androgeōs, decl., 27.
animal, decl., 39.
Animals, as agents, 216, 2.
animī, locative, 232, 3.
annōn, in double questions, 162, 4.
Answers, 162, 5.
ante, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— as adv., 144, 1;
—— dat. w. verbs compounded w. ante, 187, III; —— in
expressions of time, 357, 1; 371, 5; —— ante diem, 371, 5;
6.
Antecedent of rel., 251.
—— attraction of, 251, 4.
—— incorporated with rel., 251, 4.
Antecedent omitted, 251, 1.
—— repeated with rel., 251, 3.
Antepenult, 6, 2.
antepōnō, with dat., 187, III, 2.
antequam, with ind., 291;
—— with subjv., 292.
Anticipation, denoted by subjv., w. antequam and priusquam, 292;
—— by subjv. with dum, dōnec, quoad, 293, III, 2; 374, 5.
-ānus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 3.
Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.
Apodosis, 301 ff.
—— in conditional sent. of 1st type, 302, 4;
—— result clauses as apodoses, 322;
—— quīn- clauses as apodoses, 322;
—— ind. questions as apodoses, 322, b; —— potuerim in apodosis,
322, c; —— apodosis in indir. disc., 319-321;
—— in expressions of obligation, ability, etc., 304, 3, a; —— with
periphrastic conjugations, 304, 3, b.
Apposition, 169;
—— agreement, 169, 2;
—— partitive, 169, 5;
—— with voc. in nom., 171, 2;
—— genitive w. force of appositive, 202;
—— id as appositive of clause, 247, 1, b; —— inf. as appositive,
326; 329; —— subst. clauses as appositives, 282, 1, f; 294;
297, 3.
Appositive of locative, 169, 4;
—— with acc. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a; —— with town names,
in abl. of place whence, 229, 2.
—— position of, 350, 2.
aptus, w. dat., 192, 2.
apud, prep. w. acc., 141.
Archiās, declension of, 22.
-ar, declension of nouns in, 39.
arguō, constr., 178, 1, d).
-āris, suffix, 151, 2.
-ārium, suffix, 148, 3.
-ārius, suffix, 151, 2.
armiger, decl., 23, 2.
Arrangement of words, 348-350;
—— of clauses, 351.
Arsis, defined, 366, 6.
artūs, dat. and abl. plu. of, 49, 3.
arx, decl., 40.
-ăs, acc. plu. in Greek nouns, 47, 3.
-ās, old gen. sing., 1st decl., case-ending, 21, 2, a).
—— ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22.
—— gender of nouns in -ās, 43, 2; 45, 1.
—— voc. of Greek nouns in -ās, antis, 47, 4.
—— -ātis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).
Asking, case const, with verbs of, 178, 1, c; —— subst. clauses w.,
295, 1;
—— ind. questions, 300, 1.
Aspirates, 2, 3, c.
Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f.; 9, 2.
Association, abl. of, 222A.
Asyndeton, 341, 4, a); 346.
at, 343, 1, d).
-ātim, suffix, 157, 2.
Atlās, decl., 47, 4.
atomus, gender of, 26, 1, c).
atque, 341, 2, b); —— = as, 341, 1, c).
atquī, 343, 1, e).
Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221: 227, 2, e).
Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5;
—— of relatives, 250, 5;
—— subjunctive by attraction, 324;
—— of adjectives, 327, 2, a; 328, 2.
Attributive adjs., 233, 2.
-ātus, its force as suffix, 151, 4.
audācter, formation and comparison, 76, 2.
audeō, conj., 114, 1.
audiō, conj., 107;
—— with pres. partic., 337, 3.
aulāī, archaic gen., 21, 2, b.
ausus, force as participle, 336, 5.
aut, 342, 1, a).
autem, 343, 1, c); 350, 8.
Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5:
—— —— in finite forms, 166, 3.
auxilium, auxilia, 61.
-āx, suffix, 150, 2.
B.
balneum, balneae, 60, 2.
barbitos, decl., 27.
Believing, verbs of, with dat., 187, II.
bellī, locative, 232, 2.
bellum, decl., 23.
bene, comparison, 77, 1.
Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
benevolus, comparison, 71, 5, a).
-ber, declension of month names in, 68, 1.
-bilis, suffix, 150, 4.
bonus, decl., 63; comparison, 72.
bōs, decl., 41.
Brachylogy, 374, 2.
Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d
-bulum, suffix, 147, 4.
-bundus, suffix, 150, 1.
būris, decl., 38, 1
C.
C., for G. as abbreviation of Gāius, 373.
caedēs, decl., 40.
Caesura, 366, 8:
—— in dactylic hexameter 368, 3.
calcar, decl., 39.
Calendar, 371; 372.
Calends, 371, 2, a).
campester, decl., 68, 1
canis, decl., 38, 2.
capiō, conj., 110
carbasus, gender of, 26, 1 b).
carcer, carcerēs, 61.
Cardinals, defined. 78, 1;
—— list of, 79;
—— decl., 80;
—— with and without et, 81, 1; 3;
—— expressed by subtraction, 81, 2;
—— replaced by attributives in poetry, 81, 4, d.
cārē, comparison, 76, 2.
carō, decl., 42.
carrus, carrum, 60, 1.
Cases, 17;
—— alike in form, 19; 170 ff.
Case-endings, 17, 3.
castrum, castra, 61.
Catalectic verses, 366, 9.
causā, with gen., 198, 1;
—— nūlla causa est cūr, with subjv., 295, 7.
Causal clauses, 285; 286; —— clause of characteristic with
accessory notion of cause, 283, 3.
—— conjunctions, 345.
Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d) cavē, cavē nē in prohibitions, 276, b.
-ce, 6, 3 f.; 87, footnote 23.
cedo, cette, 137, 3.
cēdō, with dat. 187, II.
celeber, decl., 68, 1.
celer, decl., 68, 2.
cēlō, constr., 178, 1, e).
cēnātus, force, 114, 2.
cētera, adverbial acc., 185, 2.
ceterī, use, 253, 4.
Characterstic, clauses of, 283;
—— denoting cause or opposition ('although'), 283, 3;
—— gen. of, 208, 1;
—— abl., 224.
Charge, gen. of, 208, 1; 2.
Chiasmus, 350, 11, c).
Choosing, const. w. verbs of, 177, 1-3.
circā, circiter, circum, preps. w. acc., 141.
circum, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III.
circumdō, const., 187, 1, a.
Circumstance, abl. of attendant, 221.
cis, prep. w. acc., 141.
citerior, comparison, 73, 1.
cito, 77, 2, a.
citrā, prep. w. acc., 141.
cīvitās decl., 40, 1, e.
clam, with acc., 144, 2.
Clauses, coörd. and subord., 164, 165.
Clauses of characteristic, 283;
—— purpose, 282;
—— result, 284;
—— causal, 285;
—— temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc., 287; —— with
cum, 288;
—— substantive clauses, 294 f.;
—— condition, 301 f.;
—— conditional comparison, 307;
—— concessive, 308;
—— adversative, 309;
—— wish or proviso, 310;
—— relative, 311 f.; 283 f.
clāvis, decl., 38, 1.
Clinging, construction of verbs of, 258, 3.
clipeus, clipeum, 60, 1.
Close of sentences, cadences used, 350, 12.
coepī, conj., 133;
—— coeptus est, 133, 1.
Cognate acc., 176, 4.
cognōmen, 373.
cōgō, w. acc., 178, 1, d); —— w. infin., 331, VI.
Collective nouns, 12, 2, a);
—— w. plu. verb, 254, 4.
colus, gender of, 26, 1, b).
com-, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III.
comedō, conj., 128, 2.
comētēs, decl., 22.
comitia, as time expression, 230, 1.
Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 187, II;
—— subst. clause w. verbs of, 295, 1;
—— commands expressed by jussive subjv., 275;
—— —— by imperative, 281.
Common gender, 15, B, N. 1.
—— nouns, 12, 1.
—— syllables, 5, B, 3.
commonefaciō, w. gen, and acc., 207.
commoneō, w. gen. and acc., 207.
commūnis, w. gen., 204, 2;
—— with dat., 204, 2, a.
commūtō, w. abl., 222A.
Comparatives, decl., 69;
—— w. abl., 217;
—— w. quam, 217, 2;
—— occasional meaning, 240.
—— two required in Latin, 240, 4.
Comparison of adjs., 71 f.;
—— of adverbs, 76; 77.
—— participles as adjs., 71, 2.
—— adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5.
—— defective, 73.
—— abl. of, 217.
Comparison, conditional, 307.
Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, b); —— w. result clauses, 284, 4;
—— w. clauses of characteristic, 283, 2, a.
Completed action, tenses expressing, 262-4; 267, 3.
Compounds, 158 f.;
—— spelling of, 9, 2.
Compound sentences, 164.
—— verbs governing acc., 175, 2, a; —— governing dat., 187, III;
188, 2, d.
Conative uses of pres., 259, 2;
—— of imperf., 260, 3;
—— of pres. partic., 336, 2, a.
Concessive clauses, 308;
—— 'although' as accessory idea to clause of characteristic, 283, 3.
—— subjunctive, 278.
Conclusion, see Apodosis.
Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a).
Condemning, verbs of, constr., 208, f.
Conditional clauses of comparison, 307.
—— sentences, 1st type (nothing implied), 302;
—— —— in indir. disc., 319;
—— —— 2d type ('should'-'would'), 303;
—— —— in indir. disc., 320;
—— —— 3d type (contrary to fact), 304;
—— —— in indir. disc., 321;
—— —— abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b); —— —— introduced
by relative pronouns, 312;
—— —— general conditions, 302, 2; 3;
—— —— indicative in contrary-to-fact apodoses, 304, 3;
—— —— protasis omitted or implied, 305, 1;
—— —— protasis contained in imperative, or jussive subjv., 305,
2; —— —— employment of nisi, sī nōn, sīn, sī minus, 306;
—— —— conditional relative sentences, 312, 2.
cōnfīdō, w. abl., 219, 1, a.
Conjugation, 11; 93 f.; —— the four conjugations, 98;
—— periphrastic, 115;
—— peculiarities of conj., 116.
Conjunctions, 145, 1; 341 f.
cōnor, with inf., 295, 5, a.
Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses.
cōnsistere, with abl., 218, 4.
Consonant stems, nouns, 29 f.;
—— adjs., 70, 1.
—— partially adapted to ĭ-stems, 40.
Consonants, 2, 2 f.;
—— pronunciation, 3, 3.
—— double, 2, 9.
—— combinations of, in division into syllables, 4, 2 f.
Consonant changes, 8;
—— omission of finals 8, 3;
—— assimilation of, 8, 4 f.
—— stems, 29;
—— —— following analogy of ĭ-stems, 40.
cōnspiciō, conj., 109, 2, b).
cōnstāre, w. abl., 218, 4.
Construction acc. to sense, 254, 4; 235, B, 2, c).
cōnsuētūdō est, with subjv. substantive clause, 297, 3.
cōnsuēvī = pres., 262, A.
cōnsulāris, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a.
Contending, verbs of, with dat., 358, 3.
contentus, w. abl., 219, 1.
continerī, with abl., 218, 4.
contingit ut, 297, 2.
Continued action, tenses for, 257, 1, b.
contrā, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— as adv., 144, 1.
Contraction, 7, 2.
—— length of vowel as result of, 5, A, 1, b).
Contrary-to-fact conditions, 304.
Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
Coördinate clauses, 165.
—— conjunctions, 341 f.
cōpia, cōpiae, 61.
Copulative conjunctions, 341.
cor, lacks gen. plu., 57, 7.
cornū, decl., 48.
Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, 2.
—— adverbs, 140.
cottīdiē, spelling, 9, 2.
Countries, gender of, 26, 1, a.
Crime, gen. of, 208, 1; 2.
-crum, suffix, 147, 4.
-culum, suffix, 147, 4.
-culus (a, um), suffix, 148, 1.
cum, appended, 142, 4.
cum (conj.), 'when,' 288-290;
—— 'whenever,' 288, 3.
—— adversative, 309, 3.
—— causal, 286, 2.
—— explicative, 290.
—— to denote a recurring action, 288, 3; 289, a.
—— inversum, 288, 2.
com ... tum, 290, 2.
cum prīmum, 287, 1.
cum, spelling of, 9, 1.
cum (prep.), with abl. of manner, 220; —— with abl. of
accompaniment, 222;
—— appended to prons., 142, 4.
-cundus, suffix, 150, 1.
cupiō, conj, 109, 2, a); —— with subst. clause developed from
optative, 296;
—— w. inf., 331, IV, and a.
cūr, nūlla causa est cūr, w. subjv., 295, 7.
cūrō, with gerundive const as obj., 337, 8, b, 2.
Customary action, 259, 1; 260, 2.
D.
D, changed to s, 8, 2; —— d final omitted, 8, 3;
—— assimilated, 8, 4.
Dactyl, 366, 2.
Dactylic hexameter, 368.
—— pentameter, 369.
dapis, defective, 57, 6.
Daring, verbs of, with obj. inf., 328, 1.
Dates 371, 2-5;
—— as indeclinable nouns, 371, 6;
—— in leap year, 371, 7.
Dative 17;
—— irregular, 1st decl., 21, 2, c);
—— 3d decl., 47, 5;
—— 4th decl., 49, 2; 3;
—— 5th decl., 52, 1 and 3; 186 ff.
—— in the gerundive const., 339, 7.
—— of agency, 189.
—— of direction and limit of motion, 193.
—— of indir. obj., 187.
—— of advantage or disadvantage, so called, 188, 1.
—— of local standpoint, 188, 2, a).
—— of person judging, 188, 2, c).
—— of possession, 190; 359, 1.
—— of purpose or tendency, 191; 339, 7.
—— of reference, 188.
—— of separation, 188, 2, d).
—— of the gerund, 338, 2.
—— with adjs., 192;
—— with proprius, commūnis, 204, 2; —— with similis, 204, 3.
—— with compound verbs, 187, III.
—— with intrans. verbs, 187, II.
—— with nōmen est, 190, 1.
—— with impersonal pass. verbs, 187, II, b.
—— with trans. verbs, 187, I.
—— with verbs of mingling, 358, 3.
—— ethical dat., 188, 2, b).
dē, prep. w. abl., 142;
—— with abl. instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; —— with verbs
of reminding, 207, a; —— compounds of dē governing dat.,
188, 2, d; —— dē vī, with verbs of accusing and convicting,
208, 3; —— with gerund and gerundive, 338, 4, b.
dea, deābus, 21, 2, e).
dēbēbam, dēbuī in apodosis, 304, 3, a).
dēbeō, governing obj. inf., 328, 1.
dēbuī, with pres inf., 270, 2.
decemvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b).
dēcernē, w. subst. clause developed from volitive, 295, 4.
decet, w. acc., 175, 2, c).
Declarative sentences, defined, 161, 1;
—— in indir. disc., 314.
Declension, 11;
—— heteroclites, 59.
—— stems and gen. terminations, 18.
—— 1st decl., 20-22;
—— 2d decl., 23-27;
—— 3d decl., 28-47;
—— 4th decl., 48-50;
—— 5th decl., 51-53;
—— of Greek nouns, 22; 27; 47; —— of adjs., 62-69;
—— of prons., 84-90.
Decreeing, verbs of, w. subjv., 295, 4.
dēdecet, 175, 2, c).
Defective verbs, 133 f.;
—— nouns, 54 f.; 52, 4; 57; —— comparison, 73.
Definite perfect, see Present perfect.
Degree of difference, abl. of, 223.
Degrees of comparison, 71 ff.
dēlectat, w. inf. as subj., 327, 1.
dēlector, w. abl. of cause, 219.
Deliberative subjv., 277;
—— in indir. questions, 300, 2;
—— in indir. disc., 315, 3.
Demanding, verbs of, w. two accs., 178, 1;
—— w. subst. clause, 295, 1.
Demonstrative pronouns, 87; 246; —— of 1st, 2d, and 3d persons,
87;
—— position of demonstratives, 350, 5, a.
Denominative verbs, 156.
Dental mutes, 2, 4;
—— stems, 33.
Dependent clauses, 282 ff.
Deponent verbs, 112;
—— forms with passive meanings, 112, b); —— semi-deponents,
114.
Depriving, verbs of, w. abl, 214, 1, b.
Derivatives, 147 f.
-dēs, patronymics in, 148, 6.
Description, imperf. as tense of, 260, 1, a.
Desideratives, 155, 3.
Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1;
—— verbs of, w. subst. clauses, 296, 1.
dēterior, 73, 1.
deus, decl., 25, 4.
dēvertor, 114, 3.
dexter, decl, 65, 1.
dī-, 159, 3, N.
Diaeresis, 366, 8;
—— bucolic d., 368, 3, d).
Diastole, 367, 2.
dīc, 116, 3.
dīcitur, dictum est, w. inf., 332, note.
dīcō, accent of compounds of, in imperative, 116, 3.
-dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
Dīdō, decl, 47, 8.
diēs, decl., 51;
—— gender, 53.
Difference, abl of degree of, 223.
difficile est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b).
difficilis, comp., 71, 4.
dignor, with abl., 226, 2.
dignus, 226, 2;
—— in rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 3.
Dimeter, verses, 366, 11.
Diminutives, 148, 1.
Diphthongs, 2, 1; 3, 2; —— diphthong stems, 41;
—— diphthongs shortened, 362, 2.
diphthongus, gender of, 26, 1. c).
Dipodies, 366, 11.
Direct reflexives, 244, 1.
—— object, 172.
—— quotation, 313.
—— discourse, 313.
—— questions, 162.
dis-, in compounds, 159, 3, N.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 342.
dissimilis, comp., 71, 4.
Distributives, 63, 2; 78, 1; 79; 81, 4.
diū, compared, 77, 1.
dīves, decl., 70, 1;
—— compared, 71, 6.
dīxtī, 116, 4, c.
dō, conj., 127.
doceō, with acc., 178, 1, b); —— with inf., 331, VI.
domī, locative, 232, 2.
domō, 229, 1, b).
domōs, 182, 1, b.
domum, 182, 1, b); —— 'house,' in acc., 182, N.
domus, decl., 49, 4;
—— gender, 50.
dōnec, with ind., 293;
—— with subjv., 293, III, 2.
dōnō, constr., 187, 1, a.
dōs, gender, 44, 3.
Double consonants, 2, 9.
—— questions, 162, 4;
—— —— indirect, 300, 4.
Doubting, verbs of, w. quīn, 298.
Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative.
dubitō, dubium est, nōn dubitō, nōn dubium est, with quin, 298;
—— nōn dubitō w. inf., 298, a.
dūc, 116, 3.
dūcō, accent of compounds of, in imper., 116, 3.
duim, duint, 127, 2.
-dum, 6, 3.
dum, temporal with ind., 293;
—— with subjv., 293, III, 2;
—— in wishes and provisos, 310.
dummodo, 310.
duo, decl, 80, 2.
Duration of time, 181, 2.
Duty, expressed by gerundive, 189, 337, 8; —— verbs of duty in
conclusion of cond. sentences contrary-to-fact, 304, 3, a;
—— subst. clauses dependent on verbs of, 295, 6;
—— inf. w. verbs of duty, 327, 1; 328, 1; 330; —— 'it is the duty
of,' 198, 3;
—— 'I perform a duty, 218, 1.
duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b).
dux, decl, 32.
E.
ĕ, as vowel, 2, 1;
—— as second member of diphthongs, 2, 1;
—— sound of, 3, 1;
—— change, to ĭ, 7, 1, a;
—— for ă, 7, 1, c;
—— in voc. sing, of 2d decl., 23;
—— in abl. sing, of 3d decl., 31;
—— dropped in nom. of neuters of 3d decl., 39;
—— -ĕ for -ĭ in abl. of mare, 39;
—— alternating w. ī in abl. sing. of ĭ-stems, 37, 38; —— for ē in
gen. sing. of 5th decl., 52, 1;
—— in abl. sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 70, 1;
—— in benĕ and malĕ, 77, 1; —— distinguishing vowel of 3d
conj., 98;
—— before j, 362, 5;
—— for -ē in imperatives, 363, 2, b; —— in temerĕ and saepĕ, 363,
2, c.
ē, pronunciation, 3, 1;
—— by contraction, 7, 2;
—— as ending of Greek nouns, 22;
—— ē-stems, 51;
—— ending of dat. of 5th decl., 52, 3;
—— distinguishing vowel of 2d conj., 98;
—— -ē in famē 363, 2, a; —— —— in adverbs, 363, 2, c
ē, ex, use, 142; see ex.
ecquis, 91, 6.
ēdīc, 116, 3.
Editorial 'we,' 242, 3.
edō, 128.
ēdūc, 116, 3.
efficiō ut, 297, 1.
efficitur ut, 297, 2.
Effort, subjv. w. verbs of, 295, 5.
egeō, w. abl., 214, 1, c.
ego, 84.
egomet, 84, 2.
ei, diphthong, 2, 1; 3, 2.
-ĕi, gen. of 5th decl., 52, 1.
-ēis, 148, 6, b).
ejus, as poss., 86, 1;
—— quantity, 362, 5.
Elegiac distich, 369, 2.
Elision, 266, 7.
Ellipsis, 374, 1.
-ellus (a, um), 148, 1.
Emphasis, 349.
Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable, 6, 3.
—— -met, 84, 2;
—— -pte, 86, 3;
—— cum as enclitic, 142, 4
End of motion, see Limit.
Endings, case endings, 17, 3;
—— personal, of verb, 96;
—— in formation of words, 147 f.
enim, 345.
-ēnsimus (-ēnsumus), 79, N.
-ēnsis, 151, 2; 152, 3.
Envy, verbs of, with dat., 187, II
eō, 132;
—— cpds., 132, 1.
Epexegetical genitive, 202.
Epistolary tenses, 265.
epistula, spelling, 9, 2.
epitomē, decl., 22.
epulum, epulae, 60, 2.
equābus, 21, 2, e).
equester, decl., 68, 1.
equos, decl., 24.
-er, decl., of nouns in, 23;
—— adjs., 63; 64; 65; —— adjs. in -er compared, 71, 3.
ergā, prep. w. acc., 141.
ergō, 344, 1, b).
-ernus, suffix, 154.
-ĕs, gender of nouns in, 43, 1;
—— —— exception, 44, 5;
—— in nom. plu. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 2.
-ēs, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22.
—— gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, a).
esse, conjugation of, 100;
—— compounds of, 125; 126; —— esse omitted, 116, 5.
est quī, with subj., 283, 2.
et, 341, 1, a; —— in enumerations, 341, 4, c).
et is, 247, 4.
et ... neque, 341, 3.
Ethical dative, 188, 2, b).
etiam, in answers, 162, 5.
et nōn, 341, 2, c).
etsī, 'although,' 309, 2;
—— etsī, 'even if,' 309, 2, a.
-ētum, suffix, 148, 3.
-eus, inflection of Greek nouns in, 47, 6; —— adj. suffix, 151, 1.
ēvenit ut, 297, 2.
ex, 142, 2;
—— with abl., instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; —— compounds
of, with dat., 188, 2, d; —— with abl. of source, 215, 1.
Exchanging, verbs of, with abl. of association, 222A.
Exclamation, acc. of, 183.
Exclamatory sentences, 161, 3.
Expectancy, clauses denoting, in subjv., 292, 1; 293, III, 2.
exposcō, constr., 178, 1, a).
exsistō, spelling, 9, 2.
exspectō, spelling, 9, 2.
exterī, xterior, 73, 2.
extrēmus, use, 241, 1.
exuō, w. abl., 214, 1, b.
F.
f, pronunciation, 3, 3;
—— nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a.
fac, 116, 3;
—— with subjv., 295, 5.
facile, 77, 3.
facilis, comp., 71, 4.
faciō, 109, 2, a); —— pass. of, 131.
—— in imper., 116, 3.
falsus, comparison, 73, 3.
famē, 59, 2, b).
Familiarity, adjs. of, w. gen., 204. 1.
familiās, 21, 2, a.
fārī, 136.
fās, indeclinable, 58.
faucēs, decl., 40, 1, d.
Favor, verbs signifying, with dat., 187, II.
Fearing, verbs of, constr. 296, 2.
febris, decl. 38, 1.
fēlīx, 70.
Feminine, see Gender.
Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c.
femur, decl. 42, 4.
-fer, decl. of nouns in; adjs., 23, 2; —— adjs. 65, 1.
ferō, and its compounds, 129.
-ficus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
fideī, 52, 1.
fīdō, 114, 1;
—— with abl., 219, 1, a.
fīdus, compared, 73, 3.
fĭerem, fĭerī 362, 1, c; —— fierī potest ut, 298, 2.
Fifth decl., 51 f.
Figures of rhetoric, 375.
—— of syntax, 374.
fīlī, 25, 3.
fīlia, fīliābus, 21, 2, e Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 218, 8.
Final clauses, see Purpose clauses.
Final consonant omitted, 8, 3.
Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364.
fīnis, fīnēs, 61.
Finite verb, 95.
fīō, conj., 131.
fīō, with abl., 218, 6.
First conj., 101;
—— principal parts of verbs of, 120;
—— deponents of 1st conj., 113.
First decl., 20 f.;
—— peculiarities, 21;
—— Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22.
fit ut, 297, 2.
flāgitō, constr., 178, 1, a.
fodiō, conj., 109, 2, a.
Foot, in verse, 366, 2.
'For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, 1.
fore, 100, footnote 32.
fore ut, 270, 3;
—— 297, 2.
forem, forēs, etc., 100, footnote 31.
forīs, 228, 1, c.
Formation of words, 146 f.
fors, forte, 57, 2, a.
fortior, decl., 69.
fortis, 69.
fortūna, fortūnae, 61.
Fourth conj., 107.
Fourth decl., 48;
—— dat. in -ū, 49, 2;
—— gen. in -ī, 49, 1;
—— dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, 49, 3.
fraude, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
Free, abl. w. adjs. signifying, 214, 1, d.
Freeing, abl. w. verbs of, 214, 1, a.
frēnum, plu. of, 60, 2.
Frequentatives, 155, 2.
frētus w. abl., 218, 3.
Fricatives, 2, 7.
Friendly, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 192, 1.
frūctus, decl., 48.
frūgi, compared, 72; 70, 6.
frūgis, 57, 6.
fruor, with abl., 218, 1;
—— in gerundive constr., 339, 4.
fugiō, conj., 109, 2, a).
fuī, fuistī, etc., for sum, es, etc., in compound tenses, 102, footnotes
36, 37.
Fullness, adjs. of, w. abl., 218, 8;
—— w. gen., 204, 1.
fungor, w. abl., 218, 1;
—— in gerundive constr., 339, 4.
fūr, decl., 40, 1, d.
fūrtō, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
Future tense, 161;
—— w. imperative force, 261, 3.
—— time in the subjv., 269.
—— perfect, 264;
—— —— with future meaning, 133, 2;
—— —— inf., 270, 4.
—— imperative, 281, 1.
—— infinitive, 270;
—— —— periphrastic fut. inf., 270, 3, and a.
—— participle, 337, 4.
futūrum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.
G.
gaudeō, semi-deponent, 114, 1.
gemō, w. acc., 175, 2, b.
Gender 13-15;
—— in 1st decl., 20; 21; —— in 2d decl., 23;
—— exceptions, 26;
—— in 3d decl., 43 f.;
—— in 4th decl., 50;
—— in 5th decl., 53;
—— determined by endings, 14;
—— —— by signification, 15, A;
—— heterogeneous nouns, 60.
gener, decl, 23, 2.
General relatives, 312, 1;
—— general truths, 259, 1; 262, B, 1; —— 'general' conditions,
302, 2; 3.
Genitive, 17;
—— in -ī for -iī, 25, 1 and 2; —— of 4th decl., in -ī, 49, 1;
—— of 5th decl. in -ī, 52, 2;
—— of 5th decl. in -ĕī, 52, 1;
—— —— in -ē, 52, 3;
—— of 1st decl. in -āī, 21, 2, b; —— of 1st decl. in -ās, 21, 2, a;
—— gen. plu. -um for -ārum, 21, 2 d); —— —— -um for
ōrum, 25, 6; 63, 2; —— —— -um for -ium, 70, 7; —— gen.
plu. lacking, 57, 7;
—— syntax of, 194 f.
—— of characteristic, 203, 1.
—— of charge with judicial verbs, 208.
—— of indefinite price, 203, 4.
—— of indefinite value, 203, 3.
—— of material, 197.
—— of measure, 203, 2.
—— of origin, 196.
—— of possession, 198.
—— of quality, 203.
—— of the whole, 201.
—— appositional, 202.
—— objective, 200.
—— of separation, 212, 3.
—— subjective, 199.
—— with adjs., 204;
—— —— with participles, 204, 1, a.
—— with causā, grātiā, 198, 1.
—— with verbs, 205 f.;
—— —— of plenty and want, 212;
—— —— with impers. verbs, 209.
—— position of gen., 350, 1.
genus, decl. 36;
—— id genus, 185, 1.
-ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2;
—— adjs., 65, 1.
Gerund, 95, 1;
—— 1st conj., 101;
—— 2d conj., 103;
—— 3d conj., 105;
—— 4th conj., 107;
—— syntax, 338;
—— with object, 338, 5.
Gerundive, 95, 1;
—— 1st conj., 102;
—— 2d conj., 104;
—— 3d conj., 106;
—— 4th conj., 108;
—— in periphrastic conj., 115; 337, 8.
Gerundive, const., 339, 1-6;
—— in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f.;
—— gen. denoting purpose, 339, 6;
—— with dat. of purpose, 191, 3; 339, 7.
gnārus, not compared, 75, 2.
Gnomic present, 259, 1;
—— perfect, 262, 1.
gradior, conj., 109, 2, c.
Grammatical gender, 15.
grātiā, with gen., 198, 1;
—— grātia, grātiae, 61.
Greek nouns, 1st decl., 22;
—— 2d decl., 27;
—— —— exceptions in gender, 26, 1, c); —— 3d decl., 47;
—— Greek acc., 180;
—— Greek nouns in verse, 365.
grūs, decl., 41, 2.
gu = gv, 3, 3.
Guttural mutes, 2, 4.
—— stems, 32.
H.
h, pron., 3, 3;
—— ph, ch, th, 2, 4; 3, 3.
habeō, with perf. pass. partic., 337, 6.
Hadria, gender, 21, 1.
Happening, verbs of, w. ind., 299, 1, 2;
—— w. subjv., 297, 2.
Hard consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4.
Hardening, 367, 4.
haud, use, 347, 2, a; —— haud sciō an, 300, 5.
havē, 137, 5.
Help, verbs signifying, w. dat. 187, II.
Hendiadys, 374, 4.
herī, locative, 232, 2.
Heteroclites, 59.
Heterogeneous nouns, 60.
Hexameter, dactylic, 368.
Hiatus, 366, 7, a.
hīc, 87; 246, 1; 246, 2; —— hĭc, 364, footnote 60.
hiems, 35, footnote 13.
Hindering, verbs of, with subjv., 295, 3.
Historical tenses, 258;
—— historical present, 259, 3; 268, 3; —— historical perfect, 262,
B;
—— historical infinitive, 335.
honor, decl., 36.
Hoping, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I.
Hortatory subjv., 274.
hortus, decl., 23.
hōscine, 87, footnote 23
hostis, decl., 38.
hūjusce, 87, footnote 23
humī, locative, 232, 2.
humilis, comp., 71, 4.
humus, gender of, 26, 1, b.
huncine, 87, footnote 23
Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a.
Hypermeter, 367, 6.
Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.
I.
ĭ, 1, 1;
—— in diphthongs, 2, 1;
—— pron., 3, 1;
—— from ĕ, 7, 1, a; —— from ă, 7, 1, b; —— dropped by syncope,
7, 4;
—— for ŭ in some words, 9, 1;
—— changes to ĕ, 39;
—— dropped, 39;
—— final i short, 363, 3;
—— becomes j, 367, 4.
ĭ-stems, 37; 39; —— not always ending in -is, 38, 3.
-ī, gen. and voc. of 2d decl. nouns in -ius and -ium in, 25, 1 and 2.
—— gen. of 4th decl. nouns in -us, 49, 1.
—— gen. of 5th decl. nouns, 52, 2.
ī-stem, vīs, 41.
ī, in abl., 3d decl., 38, 1; 39; —— in adjs., 67, 3, a; 70, 5; ——
participles, 70, 3;
—— patrials, 70, 5, c);
—— nom. plu., of is, 87;
—— as characteristic of 4th conj., 98.
-ia, 149.
Iambus, 366, 2.
Iambic measures, 370.
—— trimeter, 370.
-iānus, suffix, 152, 1.
-ias, suffix, 148, 6, b).
-ībam, in imperf., 116, 4, b).
-ībō, in future, 116, 4, b).
Ictus, 366, 5.
-icus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 2.
id aetātis, 185, 2.
id genus, 185, 1.
id quod 247, 1, b.
id temporis, 185, 2.
Ideal 'you'; see Indefinite second person.
īdem, 87; 248.
īdem ac, 248, 2.
Ides, 371, 2, c).
-īdēs, suffix, 148, 6, a).
-ĭdēs, suffix, 148, 6, a).
-īdō, suffix, 147, 3, c).
idōneus, not compared, 74, 2;
—— w. dat., 192, 2.;
—— w. ad and acc., 192, 2 and N.; —— with rel. clause of purpose,
282, 3.
-ĭdus, suffix, 150, 3.
Īdūs, fem. by exception, 50.
-ie, in voc. sing. of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1.
iēns, pres. partic. from eō, 132.
-iēns, as ending of numeral adverbs, 97 and N.
-ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, a.
-iēs, nouns in, 51.
igitur, 344, 1, c).
īgnis, decl., 38.
-iī, in gen, sing. of iŏ-stems, 25, 2.
iīs, in dat. and abl. plu. of is, 87.
-īle, suffix, 148, 3.
Īlion, decl., 27.
-īlis, suffix, 151, 2.
-ilis, suffix, 150, 4.
Illative conjunctions, 344.
ille, 87;
—— 'the following,' 246, 2;
—— 'the former,' 246, 1;
—— 'the well-known,' 246, 3;
—— position, 350, 5, b.
illūc, 87, footnote 25.
-illus (a, um), diminutive suffix, 148, 1.
-im, in acc., 3d decl., 38, 1.
-im, -īs in subjv., 116, 4, d.
impedīmentum, impedīmenta, 61.
Imperative, 281;
—— tenses in, 94, 3; 281, 1; —— future indic. with force of, 261,
3.
—— as protasis of a conditional sent., 305, 2;
—— —— as apodosis, 302, 4.
—— sent. in indir disc., 316.
Imperfect tense, 260;
—— conative, 260, 3;
—— inceptive, 260, 3;
—— with jam, etc., 260, 4;
—— epistolary imp., 265.
Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent. referring to the past, 304, 2.
Impersonal verbs, 138;
—— gen. with, 209;
—— dat. with, 187, II, b;
—— in passive, 256, 3;
—— with substantive clauses developed from volitive, 295, 6; ——
of result, 297, 2;
—— with infin., 327, 1; 330.
impetus, defective, 57, 4.
Implied indir. disc., 323.
īmus, 'bottom of,' 241, 1.
in, prep., 143;
—— verbs compounded w. in governing acc., 175, 2, a, 2; ——
verbs compounded w. in governing dat., 187, III.
in with abl. of place, 228;
—— with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231.
-īna, suffix, 148, 5.
Inceptives, 155, 1.
Inchoatives, 155, 1.
Incomplete action, 257, 1, b; 267, 3.
Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6.
—— nouns, 58;
—— —— gender of, 15, 3.
Indefinite price, 225, 1; 203, 4.
Indefinite pronouns, 91, 252; —— in conditions, 302, 3.
Indefinite second person, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2.
Indefinite value, 203, 3.
Indicative, equivalent to Eng. subjv., 271.
—— in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3, a) and b).
indigeō, constr., 214, 1, N. 2.
indignus, with abl., 226, 2;
—— with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3.
Indirect discourse, defined, 313 f.;
—— —— mood in, 313 ff.;
—— —— tenses in 317-18;
—— —— declarative sentences in, 314;
—— —— interrog. sentences in, 315;
—— —— imperative sentences in, 316;
—— —— conditional sentences in, 319-22;
—— —— verbs introducing, 331, 1;
—— —— verb of saying, etc., implied, 314, 2; —— —— ind. in
subord. clauses of indir. disc., 314, 3;
—— —— inf. for subjv. in indir. disc., 314, 4;
—— —— subj. acc. omitted, 314, 5;
—— —— implied indir. disc., 323.
—— questions, 300;
—— —— particles introducing, 300, 1, a; —— —— deliberative
subjv. in indir. quest., 300, 2;
—— —— indir. quest. w. sī, 300, 3; —— —— double indir.
questions, 300, 4;
—— —— in indir. quest., 300, 6;
—— —— in conditional sents. of 3d type, 322, b.
—— reflexives, 244, 2.
—— object, 187.
īnferum, īnferior, 73, 2.
īnfimus, 241, 1.
Infinitive, gender of, 15, A 3;
—— in -ier, 116, 4, a; —— force of tenses in, 270; 326 ff.
—— fut. perf. inf., 270, 4;
—— —— periphrastic future, 270, 3.
—— without subj. acc., 326-328; 314, 5.
—— with subj. acc., 329-331.
—— as obj., 328; 331, —— as subj., 327; 330.
—— with adjs., 333.
—— denoting purpose, 326, N.
—— in abl. abs., 227, 3.
—— in exclamations, 334.
—— historical inf., 335.
īnfitiās, constr., 182, 5.
Inflection, 11.
Inflections, 11 ff.
īnfrā, prep. w. acc., 141.
ingēns, comp., 73, 4.
injūriā, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
injussū, defective, 57, 1;
—— the abl., 219, 2.
inl- = ill-, 9, 2.
innīxus, w. abl., 218, 3.
inops, decl., 70, 2.
inquam, conj., 134.
Inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N.
īnsidiae, plu. only, 56, 3.
īnstar, 58.
Instrumental uses of abl., 213; 218 ff.
Intensive pron., 88.
Intensives (verbs), 155, 2.
inter, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— compounded w. verbs, governing dat. 187, III;
—— to express reciprocal relation, 245.
interdīcō, const., 188, 1, a.
interest, constr., 210; 211.
interior, comp., 73, 1.
Interjections, 145.
Interlocked order, 350, 11, d.
Interrogative pronouns, 90.
—— sentences, 162;
—— particles, 162, 2;
—— —— omitted, 162, 2, d);
—— in indir. disc., 315.
intrā, prep. w. acc., 141.
Intransitive verbs, with cognate acc., 176, 4;
—— in passive, 256, 3; 187, II, b; —— impersonal intransitives,
138, IV.
-īnus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 152, 3.
-iō, verbs of 3d conj., 109.
-ior, ius, comparative ending, 71.
ipse, 88; 249; —— as indir. reflexive, 249, 3.
ipsīus and ipsōrum, with possessive pronouns, 243, 3.
-ir, decl. of nouns in, 23.
Irregular comparison, 72 ff.;
—— nouns, 42;
—— verbs, 124 f.
is, 87; 247; —— as personal pron., 247, 2.
-is, as patronymic ending, 148, 6, b); —— nouns in -is of 3d decl.,
37 f.; —— adjs. in -is, 69.
-īs, acc. plu., 3d decl., 37; 40.
—— -ītis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).
istaec, 87, footnote 24.
iste, 87; 246, 4.
istīc, 6, 4.
istūc, 6, 4; 87, footnote 24.
ita, in answers, 162, 5.
itaque, 344, 1, a).
iter, 42, 1.
-itia, 149.
-itō, frequentatives in, 155, 2, a.
-ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2;
—— ending of gen. plu., 3d decl., 37 f.; 39; 40; 147, 3, b); 148, 2.
-ius, gen. and voc. sing. of nouns in, 25, 1 and 2; —— of adjs., 63,
a; 151, 2; 152, 2; 152, 3; —— -ĭus for -īus, 362, 1, a).
-īvus, suffix, 151, 2.
J.
j, 1, 2.
jaciō, conj., 109, 2, a); —— compounds of, 9, 3; 362, 5.
jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4; —— with imperfect, 260, 4.
jecur, decl., 42, 3.
jocō, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
jocus, plu. of, 60, 2.
Joining, verbs of, construction, 358, 3.
jubeō, constr., 295, 1, a: 331, II.
jūdicor, w. inf., 332, c.
jūgerum, 59, 1.
Julian calendar, 371.
jungō, w. abl., 222A.
Juppiter, decl., 41.
jūrātus, 114, 2.
jūre, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
jūs est, with substantive clause, 297, 3.
jussū, 57, 1;
—— the abl., 219, 2.
Jussive subjv., 275;
—— equiv. to a protasis, 305, 2.
juvat, w. acc., 172, 2, c); —— with inf., 327, 1.
Juvenāle, abl., 70, 5, b.
juvenis, a cons. stem, 38, 2;
—— comparison, 73, 4.
juvō, with acc., 187, II, N.
jūxtā, prep. w. acc., 141.
K.
k, 1, 1.
Knowing, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I.
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 204.
L.
l, pron., 3, 3.
Labial mutes, 2, 4.
—— stems, 31;
—— —— gender of, 43, 3; 46, 1.
lacer, decl., 65, 1.
lacus, decl., 49, 3.
laedō, w. acc., 187, II, N.
laetus, w. adverbial force, 239.
lapis, decl., 33.
largior, 113.
Latin period, 351, 5.
Length of syllables, 5, B.
Length of vowels, 5, A.
-lentus, suffix, 151, 3.
leō, decl., 35.
Līber, decl, 23, 2.
līber, adj., decl., 65, 1.
līberō, constr., 214, 1, N. 1.
līberta, lībertābus, 21, 2, e).
liberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c).
licet, with subjv., 295, 6 and 8; 308, a; —— with inf., 327, 1; 330.
licet, adversative, 309, 4.
Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1.
Limit of motion, acc. of., 182.
Lingual mutes, 2, 4.
linter, decl., 40.
Liquids, 2, 5.
—— stems, 34.
līs, decl., 40, 1, d).
Litotes, 375, 1.
littera, litterae, 61.
Locative, 17, 1;
—— in -ae, 21, 2, c); —— in -i, 25, 5;
—— syntax, 232;
—— apposition with, 169, 4;
—— loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f.
locō, locīs, the abl., 228, 1, b.
locus, plurals of, 60, 2.
Long syllables, 5, B, 1.
—— vowels, 5, A, 1.
longius = longius quam, 271, 3.
longum est = Eng. potential, 217, 1, b.
lubet, lubīdō, spelling, 9, 1.
lūdīs, the abl., 230, 1.
-lus, -la, -lum, diminutives in, 148, 1.
lūx, 57, 7.
M.
m, pron., 3, 3;
—— changed to n before d, c, 8, 5, c; —— m-stem, 35, footnote 13;
—— m-final in poetry, 366, 10.
maereō, w. acc., 175, 2, b.
magis, comparison, 77, 1;
—— comparison with, 74.
magnī, gen. of value, 203, 3.
magnopere, compared, 77, 1.
magnus, compared, 72.
Making, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 177.
male, comparison, 77, 1.
maledīcēns, comparison, 71, 5, a).
mālim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a.
māllem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
mālō, 130;
—— with inf., 331, IV, and a;
—— with subjv., 296, 1, a.
malus, comparison, 72.
māne, indeclinable, 58.
Manner, abl. of, 200.
mare, decl., 39, 2;
—— marī, 228, 1, c).
mās, decl., 40, 1, d).
Masculine, see Gender.
Masculine caesura, 368, 3, c.
Material, abl. of, 224, 3.
māteriēs, māteria, 59, 2, a).
mātūrē, compared, 77, 1.
mātūrus, compared, 71, 3.
maximē, adjs. compared with, 74.
maximī, as gen. of value, 203, 3.
maxumus, 9, 1.
Means, abl. of, 218;
—— abl. abs. denoting, 227, 2;
—— denoted by partic., 337, 2, d.
mēd, for mē, 84, 3.
Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 5.
medius, 'middle of', 241, 1.
meī, as objective gen., 242, 2.
melior, comparison, 72.
melius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b).
memini, 133;
—— constr., 206, 1, a; 2, a.
memor, decl., 70, 2.
-men, -mentum, suffixes, 147, 4.
mēnsis, 38, 2, footnote 14.
mentem (in mentem venīre), 206, 3.
-met, enclitic, 6, 3; 84, 2.
Metrical close of sent., 350, 12.
metuō, w. subjv., 296, 2.
mī, dat., 84, 1.
mī, voc. of meus, 86, 2.
Middle voice, verbs in, 175, 2, d).
mīles, decl., 33.
mīlitiae, locative, 232, 2.
mīlle, mīlia, decl., 80, 5.
minimē, comparison, 77, 1;
—— in answers, 162, 5, b).
minimus, comparison, 72.
minor, comparison, 72.
minōris, gen. of value, 203, 3;
—— of price, 203, 4.
minus, comparison 77, 1;
—— = minus quam, 217, 3;
—— quō minus, 295, 3;
—— sī minus, 306, 2 and a.
mīror, conj., 113.
mīrus, comparison, 75, 2.
miscēre, with abl., 222A;
—— with dat., 358, 3.
misereor, with gen., 209, 2.
miserēscō, with gen., 209, 2.
miseret, constr., 209.
Mixed stems, 40.
modium, gen. plu., 25, 6, a).
modo, in wishes and provisos, 310.
moneō, 103;
—— constr., 178, 1, d).
months, gender of names of, 15, 1;
—— decl. 68, 1;
—— abl., of month names, 70, 5, a); —— names, 371, 1.
Moods, 94, 2.
—— in independent sentences, 271 f.
—— in dependent clauses, 282 f.
Mora, 366, 1.
morior, conj. 109, 2, c); mōs, decl., 36;
—— mōrēs, 61.
mōs est, with subjv. clause, 297, 3.
muliebre secus, constr., 185, 1.
Multiplication, distributives used to indicate, 81, 4, c.
multum, 77, 3;
—— compared, 77, 1.
multus, compared, 72;
—— with another adj., 241, 3.
mūs decl., 40, 1, d).
mūtāre, with abl., 222A.
Mutes, 2, 3.
Mute stems, 30.
N.
n, pronunciation, 3, 3;
—— n-stems, 35.
n adulterīnum, 2, 6.
-nam, appended to quis, 90, 2, d.
Names, Roman, 373.
Naming, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 117, 1.
Nasals, 2, 6.
Nasal stems, 35.
nātū, 57, 1;
—— maximus nātū, minimus nātū, 73, 4, footnotes 20, 21; 226, 1.
Natural gender, 14.
nātus, constr., 215.
nāvis, decl., 41, 4.
nd, vowel short before, 5, 2, a.
-ne, 6, 3 f; 162, 2, c); 300, 1, b); —— -ne ... an, 162, 4;
—— —— in indir. double questions, 300, 4.
nē, in prohibitions, 276;
—— with hortatory subjv., 274;
—— with concessive, 278;
—— with optative, 279;
—— in purpose clauses, 282;
—— in substantive clauses, 295 f., 296; —— in provisos, 310.
nē, 'lest,' 282, 1; 296, 2.
nē nōn for ut after verbs of fearing, 296, 2, a.
nē ... quidem, 347, 1; 2.
Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1.
nec, 341, 1, d); —— nec ūsquam, 341, 2, d).
necesse est, w. subjv., 295, 8.
necne, in double questions, 162, 4.
nefās, indeclinable, 58.
Negatives, 347, 2;
—— two negatives strengthening the negation, 347, 2.
nēmō, defective, 57, 3;
—— use, 252, 6.
nēquam, indeclinable, 70, 6;
—— compared, 72.
neque, 341, 1, d); —— neque in purpose clauses, 282, 1, e.
nequeō, conj., 137, 1.
ne quis, use, 91, 5.
nēquiter, compared, 77, 1.
nesciō an, 300, 5.
nesciŏ quis, as indef. pron., 253, 6.
Neuter, see Gender.
neuter, decl., 66;
—— use, 92, 1.
nēve (neu), in purpose clauses, 282, 1, d.
nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a.
nihil, indeclinable, 58.
nihil est cūr, quīn, 295, 7.
ningit, 'it snows,' 138, 1.
nisi, 306, 1 and 4.
nisi forte, 306, 5.
nisi sī, 306, 5.
nisi vērō, 306, 5.
nītor, constr., 218, 3.
nix, decl., 40, 1, d).
No, in answers, 162, 5, b.
-nō, class of verbs, 117, 4.
nōlī, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, b.
nōlim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a.
nōllem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
nōlō, 130;
—— with inf., 331, IV and a; 276, 2, a; —— with subjv., 296, 1, a.
nōmen, decl., 35;
—— nōmen est, constr., 190, 1;
—— nōmen, as part of Roman name, 373.
Nominative, 17; 170; —— used for voc., 171, 1;
—— nom. sing. lacking, 57, 6;
—— pred. nom., 168.
Nones, 371, 2, b).
nōn, in answers, 162, 5, b); —— with poten. subjv., 280;
—— with deliberative, 277.
nōn dubitō quīn, with subjv., 298; —— nōn dubitō, w. inf., 298, a;
b.
nōn modo for nōn modo nōn, 343, 2, a.
nōnne, 162, 2, a); 300, 1, b), N.
nōn quia, with ind., 286, 1, c; —— with subjv., 286, 1, b.
nōn quīn, with sujbv., 286, 1, b.
nōn quod, with ind., 286, 1, c; —— with subjv., 286, 1, b.
nōs = ego, 242, 3.
nostri, as objective gen., 242, 2.
nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; —— as possessive gen., 242, 2,
a.
Nouns, 12 ff.; 353; —— derivation of, 147 f.
—— in -is not always ĭ-stems, 38, 1.
—— of agency, force, 353, 4.
—— used in plu. only, 56.
—— used in sing. only, 55.
—— used only in certain cases, 57.
—— indeclinable, 58.
—— with change of meaning in plural, 61.
—— syntax, 166 f.
—— predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f.
—— appositives, agreement of, etc., 169 f.
Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, 2.
nōvī, as pres., 262, A.
novus, compared, 73, 3.
ns, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a.
-ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c).
nt, quantity of vowel before, 5, 2, a.
nūbēs, decl., 40, 1, a nūlla causa est cūr, quīn, 295, 7.
nūllus, decl., 66; 57, 3; —— use, 92, 1.
num, 162, 2, b); 300, 1, b).
Number, 16; 94, 4.
Numerals, 78 f.;
—— peculiarities in use of, 81.
numquis, decl., 91, 5.
nūper, compared, 77, 1.
-nus, suffix, 151, 2.
O.
ŏ, vowel, 2, 1;
—— as element in dipthong œ, 2, 1;
—— pron., 3, 1;
—— alternating w. ŭ in certain classes of words, 9, 1; 2; 4; —— ŏ-
stems, 23; 24; —— in citŏ, 77, 2, a; —— in duŏ, 80, 2;
—— in egŏ, 84; 363, 4, a; —— in modŏ, 363, 4, a; —— in
compounds of pro-, 363, 4, c; —— in amŏ, leŏ, etc., 363, 4,
b.
ō, pron. 3, 1;
—— for au, 7, 1, e; —— by contraction, 7, 2;
—— in abl. sing. of 2d decl., 23;
—— in nom. sing. of 3d decl., 35;
—— in Greek nouns, 47, 8;
—— in adverbs, 77, 2;
—— in ambō, 80, 2, a; —— in personal endings, 96.
ob, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— verbs compounded w. governing dat., 187, III.
Obeying, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
Object, direct, 172 f.;
—— two objects w. same verb, 177; 178; —— indirect, 187 f.;
—— inf. as obj., 326; 328; 329; 331.
Objective gen., 200.
Obligation, verb in expression of, 304, 3, a; —— see also Duty.
Oblique cases, 71, 2.
oblīvīscor, constr., 206, 1, b; 2.
octōdecim (for duodēvīgintī), 81, 2.
ōdī, 133.
oe, 2, 1;
—— pron., 3, 2.
Old forms, familiās, 21, 2, a; —— aulāī, 21, 2, b; —— servos,
aevom, equos, etc., 24; —— mēd, tēd, 84, 3; —— sēd, 85, 3.
olle, archaic for ille, 87.
-olus (a, um), 148, 1.
-om, later -um in 2d decl., 23.
-on, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
Onomatopœia, 375, 4.
opera, operae, 61.
Operations of nature, impersonal verbs expressing, 138, 1.
opīniōne with comparatives, 217, 4.
opis, 57, 6;
—— opēs, 61.
oportet, 138;
—— w. subjv., 295, 6; 8;
—— w. inf., 327, 330.
oportuit, with pres. inf. 'ought to have', 270, 2; —— with perf. inf.,
270, 2, a.
oppidum (Genavam ad oppidum), 182, 2, a.
Optative subjv., 272; 279; —— substantive clauses developed from,
296.
optimātēs, decl., 40, 1, d.
optimus, comp., 72.
optō, w. subst. cl. developed from optative, 296, 1.
optumus, spelling, 9, 1.
opus est, w. abl., 218, 2;
—— w. partic., 218, 2, c.
-or, nouns in, 34;
—— -or for -os, 36; —— gender of nouns in, 43, 1;
—— exceptions in gender, 44, 2;
—— as suffix, 147, 2.
Oratio Obliqua, 313 f.
Order of words, 348 f.
Ordinals, 78, 1; 79.
orior, conjugation, 123, VII.
oriundus, constr., 215, 2.
ōrō, with acc., 178, 1, a Orpheus, decl., 47, 6.
Orthography, peculiarities, 9.
ortus, constr., 215.
ōs, decl., 57, 7.
os, decl., 42.
-os, later -us in 2d decl., 23.
-ōs, later -or in 3d decl., 36, 1.
—— -ōs, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
-ōsus, form of suffix, 151, 3.
ovis, decl., 38, 1.
Oxymoron, 375, 2.
P.
p, pron., 3, 3;
—— by assimilation, 8, 4;
—— by partial assimilation, 8, 5.
paenitet, 138, II;
—— with gen., 209
palam, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2.
Palatal mutes, 2, 4.
palūster, decl., 68, 1.
Parasitic vowels, 7, 3.
parātus, with infin., 333.
Pardon, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187, II.
pariō, 109, 2, a).
pars, partēs, 61.
parte, abl. of place, 228, 1, b.
partem, adverbially used, 185, 1.
Participation, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1.
Participial stem, 97, III;
—— formation, 119.
Participles, in -āns and -ēns, 70, 3; —— gen. plu. of in -um, 70, 7;
—— pres. act. partic., 97, I, 5; 101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113; ——
fut. act. partic., 97, III;
—— as one of the principal parts of the verb, 99, footnote 28; 100;
101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113; —— perf. pass. partic., 97, III;
102; 104; 106; 108; 111; 113;; —— gerundive, see
Gerundive;
—— fut. act., peculiar formation of, 119, 4;
—— perf. pass., w. act. or neuter meaning, 114, 2;
—— of deponents, 112, b;
—— syntax, 336 ff.
Participles, fut. act., 119, 4;
—— —— denoting purpose, 337, 4.
—— perf. act., how supplied, 356, 2.
—— perf. pass. 336, 3;
—— —— as pres., 336, 5.
—— pres. partic., 336, 2;
—— —— with conative force, 336, 2, a.
—— perf. pass., with active meaning, 114, 2;
—— pred. use of partic., 337, 2;
—— participles equivalent to subordinate clauses, 337, 2;
—— —— to coördinate clauses, 337, 5;
—— w. opus est, 218, 2, c; —— with noun, equivalent to abstract
noun, 337, 6;
—— with habeō, 337, 7.
—— with videō, audiō, faciō, etc., 337, 3.
Particles, 139 f.; 341 f.
Partitive apposition, 169, 5.
Partitive gen., so called, 201.
Parts of speech, 10.
parum, comparison, 77, 1.
parvī, gen. of value, 203, 3.
parvus, comparison, 72.
Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, 175, 2, d; 256; —— verbs
governing dat. used in pass. only impersonally, 187, II, b;
—— constr. of passive verbs of saying, etc., 332 and note;
—— how supplied when missing, 356, 1.
patior, conj., 109, 2, c; 113; —— with inf., 331, III.
Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c.
Patronymics, 148, 6.
paulum, formation, 77, 3.
paulus, spelling, 9, 2.
pauper, decl.,, 70, 1.
pedester, decl., 68, 1.
pejor, quantity of first syllable, 362, 5.
pelagus, gender of, 26, 2.
Penalty, abl. of, 208, 2, b.
penātēs, decl., 40, 1, d).
penes, prep. w. acc., 141.
Pentameter, dactylic, 369.
Penult, 6, 2.
per, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— with acc. of time and space, 181, 2.
Perceiving, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I.
Perfect active ptc., how supplied in Latin, 356, 2.
Perfect pass. partic., force of w. deponent verbs, 112, b; —— dat. of
agency sometimes used w., 189, 2;
—— opus, 218, 2, c.
Perfect stem, 97, II;
—— —— formation, 118.
—— in -āvī, -ēvī, -īvī contracted, 116, 1.
—— historical perf., 262.
—— with force of pres. 262; 133, 2; —— pres. perf. and hist. perf.
distinguished, 237, 1 and 2; —— gnomic perf., 262, 1;
—— perf. subjv. as historical tense, 268, 6 and 7, b; —— perf. inf.
w. oportuit, 270, 2; —— perf. prohibitive, 279, a;
—— perf. potential, 280, 1 and 2;
—— perf. concessive, 278;
—— sequence of tenses after perf. inf., 268, 2.
Periodic structure, 351, 5.
Periphrastic conj., 115; 269, 3; —— in conditional sentences of the
3d type, 304, 3, b); —— in indir. disc., 322;
—— in passive, 337, 8, b, 1.
—— fut. inf., 270, 3.
Persons, 95, 4;
—— 2d sing, of indefinite subject, 356, 3.
Personal pronouns 84; 242; —— —— as subject, omission of, 166,
2;
—— —— as objective genitives, 242, 2.
—— endings, 96.
persuādeō, with dat., 187, II, a; —— with subjv., 295, 1.
Persuading, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
ph, 2, 3, c; 2, 4; 3, 3.
piget, with gen., 209.
Pity, verbs of, w. gen., 209, 1 and 2.
Place to which, 182;
—— whence, 229;
—— place where, 228.
placitus, force, 114, 2.
Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II, a; —— w. acc., 187, II, a, N.
plēbēs, heteroclite, 59, 2, d).
plēbi, gen., 52, 2.
Plenty and Want, verbs of, constr., 212; cf. 218, 8.
plēnus, w. gen., 218, 8, a.
Pleonasm, 374, 3.
plēráque, 6, 5.
pluit, 138, I.
Pluperfect tense, formation, 100;
—— syntax, 263; 265; 287, 2; 288, 3; —— with imperfect
meaning, 133, 2.
Plural, 16;
—— in 5th decl., 52, 4;
—— of proper names, 55, 4, a);
—— of abstract nouns, 5, 4, c);
—— nouns used in, only, 56;
—— with change of meaning, 61;
—— stylistic use, 353, 1, 2.
Pluralia tantum, 56; 81, 4, b).
plūris, gen. of value, 203, 3;
—— of price, 203, 4.
plūs, decl., 70; 70, 4; —— = plūs quam, 217, 3.
poēma, decl., 47, 5.
Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b).
por-, inseparable prep., 159, 3, e.
porticus, gender, 50.
portus, decl., 49, 3.
poscō, constr., 178, 1, a).
Position of clauses, 351, 3.
—— of words, 348; 350; 351.
Possessive dat., 190;
—— gen., 198;
—— —— contrasted with dat. of poss., 359, 1.
Possessive pronouns, 86, 243; —— = objective gen., 243, 2;
—— position of, 243, 1, a.
Possibility, verbs of, put in indic. in cond. sentences, 304, 3, a.
possum, 126;
—— with present infin., 'I might,' 271, 1, a; —— in cond.
sentences, 304, 3, a.
post, prep. w. acc., 144, 1;
—— in expressions of time, 357, 1.
Post-positive words, 343, 1, c).
posteāquam, 287;
—— separated, 287, 3;
—— with imperf. ind., 287, 4;
—— w. pluperf. ind., 287, 3;
—— with subjv., 287, 5.
posterus, posterior, comp., 73, 2.
postrēmus, use, 241, 2.
postrīdiē, with gen., 201, 3, a.
postulō, constr., 178, 1, a.
Potential subjv., 272; 280.
potior, with gen., 212, 2;
—— with abl., 218, 1;
—— in gerundive constr., 339, 4.
—— adj., 73, 1.
potius, compared, 77, 1.
potuī, poteram, in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3,
a); —— in indir. disc., 322, c.
potuī, with pres. inf. = 'could have,' 270, 2.
potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c.
pōtus, force, 114, 2.
prae, prep, w. abl., 142;
—— verbs compounded with governing dat., 187, III;
—— short in praeacūtus, etc., 362, 2.
Praenōmen, 373.
praesēns, 125.
praesum, w. dat., 187, III.
prānsus, force, 114, 2.
precī, -em, -e, 57, 5, a.
Predicate, 163.
—— gen., 198, 3; 203, 5.
Predicate nouns, 167; 168; —— in acc., 177;
—— predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to dat., 327, 2, a; —— ——
to nom., 328, 2.
—— adjectives, 232, 2; 177, 2.
Prepositions, assimilation of, in compounds, 8, 4; 9, 2; —— with
acc., 141;
—— with abl., 142;
—— as adverbs, 144;
—— inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N.; —— position, 350, 7;
—— prepositional phrases as attributive modifiers, 353, 5; ——
anastrophe of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; —— usage with abl. of
sep., 214 f;
—— with abl. of source, 215.
Present tense, 259;
—— gnomic, 259, 1;
—— conative, 259, 2;
—— historical, 259, 3;
—— with jam prīdem, jam diū, etc., 259, 4; —— with dum, 'while,'
293, I;
—— in Repraesentātiō, 318;
—— pres. subjv., in -im, 127, 2;
—— pres. partic., see Participle.
—— stem, 97, I;
—— —— formation, 117.
—— perf., 257, 1 and 2.
Preventing, verbs of, w. subjv. clause, 295, 3.
Price, indefinite, special words in gen. 203, 4; also 225, 1.
—— abl. of, 225.
prīdiē, with gen., 201, 3, a; —— with acc., 144, 2.
Primary tenses, see Principal tenses.
prīmus, 'first who,' 241, 2.
prīnceps, decl., 31.
Principal parts, 99;
—— —— list.
—— tenses, 258 f.
prior, compared, 73, 1.
prius, compared, 77, 1.
priusquam, with ind., 291;
—— with subjv., 292;
—— separated, 292.
Privation, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 1, b and c.
prō, prep. w. abl., 142.
procul, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2.
prohibeō, w. abl., 214, 2;
—— w. subjv. clause, 295, 3.
Prohibitions, method of expressing, 276.
Prohibitive subjv., 276.
Prolepsis, 374, 5.
Pronominal adjs., 253.
Pronouns, defined, 82;
—— classes, 83;
—— personal, 84;
—— reflexive, 85;
—— possessive, 86;
—— demonstrative, 87;
—— intensive, 88;
—— relative, 89;
—— interrogative, 90;
—— indefinite, 91;
—— pronominal adjs., 92;
—— personal, omission of, as subject, 166, 2;
—— syntax, 242 f.;
—— —— personal, 242 f.;
—— —— possess., 243 f.;
—— —— reflex., 244 f.;
—— —— reciprocal, 245 f.;
—— —— demonstrative, 246 f.;
—— —— relative, 250 f.;
—— —— indef., 252 f.;
—— position, 350, 5; 355.
Pronunciation, Roman, 3.
prope, compared, 77, 1.
Proper names, abbreviated, 373.
—— nouns, 12, 1.
propior, compared, 73, 1;
—— with acc., 141, 3.
proprius, with dat., 204, 2, a; —— with gen., 204, 2.
propter, prep. w. acc., 141.
Prosody, 360 f.
prōsper, decl., 65, 1.
prōsum, conj., 125, N.
Protasis, 301;
—— denoting repeated action, 302, 3;
—— without sī, 305;
—— of indef. 2d sing., 302, 2;
—— see Conditions.
Provisos, 310.
proximē, -us, comp., 73, 1; 77, 1; —— with acc., 141, 3.
prūdēns, decl., 70.
-pte, 86, 3.
pudet, with gen, 209;
—— w. inf., 327, 1.
puer, decl., 23.
pulcher, comp., 71, 3.
puppis, decl., 38, 1.
Purpose, dat. of purpose, 191;
—— with dat. and gerundive, 191, 3;
—— w. ad and acc., 192, 2;
—— subjv. of purp., 282, 1;
—— —— w. quō, 282, 1, a; —— —— w. ut nē, 282, 1, b; ——
—— with nōn in purpose clause, 282, 1, c; —— —— nēve
(neu) in purpose clauses, 292, 1, d; —— —— neque, 282, 1,
e; —— rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 2;
—— —— w. dignus, indignus, idōneus, 282, 3; —— independent
of principal verb, 282, 4;
—— inf., denoting purpose, 326, N.; —— fut. partic., denoting
purpose, 337, 4;
—— gerund, w. ad, 338, 3;
—— gerundive, 339, 2;
—— supine, 340.
Q.
qu, pron., 3, 3;
—— both letters consonants, 74, a.
quaerō, w. indir. questions, 300, 1, b), N.
quaesō, 137, 2.
Quality, gen., 203;
—— abl., 224.
quam, in comparisons, 217, 2;
—— with superl., 240, 3;
—— ante ... quam, post ... quam, prius ... quam, see antequam,
postquam, priusquam; quam quī, 283, 2, a.
quam sī, 307, 1.
quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4.
quamquam, with ind., 309, 2;
—— with subjv., 309, 6;
—— = 'and yet,' 309, 5.
quamvīs, with subjv., 309, 1; 6; —— denoting a fact, 309, 6.
quandō, 286, 3, b.
quantī, as gen. of price, 203, 4; —— of value, 203, 3.
Quantity, 5.
—— of syllables, 5, B; 363 f.
—— of vowels, 5, A; 362; —— —— in Greek words, 365.
quasi, 307, 1.
quatiō, conj., 109, 2, a).
-que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3; 6, 5; 341, 1, b); 2, a); 4, c).
queō, 137, 1.
Questions, word, sentence, 162 f.;
—— rhetorical, 162, 3;
—— double (alternative), 162, 4;
—— indirect, 300;
—— questions in indir. disc., 315.
quī, rel., 89;
—— interr., 90;
—— indef., 91;
—— for quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b; —— with nē, sī, nisi,
num, 91, 5; —— in purpose clauses, 282, 2;
—— abl., 90, 2, a.
quia, in causal clauses, 286, 1.
quīcum, 89.
quīcumque, decl., 91, 8.
quīdam, decl, 91; syntax, 252, 3.
quidem, post-positive, 347, 1.
quīlibet, decl., 91,
quīn, in result clauses, 284, 3; —— in substantive clauses, 295, 3;
298; —— = quī nōn in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4; ——
with ind., 281, 3;
—— in indir. disc, 322 and a;
—— nūlla causa est quīn, 295, 7.
quīnam, 90, 2, d.
Quīntīlis (= Jūlius), 371.
quīppe quī, in clauses of characteristic, 283, 3.
Quirītēs, decl., 40, 1, d.
quis, indef., 91;
—— interr., 90; 90, 2, c.; 252, 1; —— nesciŏ quis, 253, 6;
—— with nē, sī, nisi, num, 91, 5.
quis est quī, 283, 2.
quīs = quibus, 89.
quisnam, inflection, 90, 2, d.
quispiam, inflection, 91.
quisquam, inflection, 91;
—— usage, 252, 4.
quisque, inflection, 91;
—— usage, 252, 5.
quisquis, inflection, 91, 8.
quīvīs, inflection, 91
quō, in purpose clauses, 282, 1, a..
quoad, with ind., 293;
—— with subjv. 293, III, 2.
quod, in causal clauses, 286, 1; —— in substantive clauses, 299;
331, V, a; —— 'as regards the fact,' 299, 2.
quod audierim, 283, 5;
—— quod sciam, 283, 5.
quod (sī), adverbial acc., 185, 2.
quom, early form of cum, 9, 1.
quō minus, after verbs of hindering, 295, 3.
quoniam, in causal clauses, 286, 1.
quoque, post-positive, 347.
-quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
R.
r, pron., 3, 3;
—— for s between vowels ('Rhotacism'), 8, 1.
rapiō, conj., 100, 2 a).
rāstrum, plurals of, 60, 2.
ratus, 'thinking,' 336, 5.
Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2; 245; cf. 253, 3.
Reduplication in perf., 118, 4, a); —— in pres., 117, 7.
Reference, dat. of, 188.
rēfert, constr., 210; 211, 4.
Reflexive pronouns, 85; 244; 249, 3.
regō, conj., 105.
Regular verbs, 101-113.
rĕi, 362, 1, b).
reiciō, quantity, 362, 5.
Relative adverbs, in rel. clauses of purp., 282, 2.
—— clauses, of purp., 282, 2;
—— —— w. dignus, indignus, idōneus, 282, 3; —— —— of
characteristic, 283;
—— —— denoting cause or opposition, 283, 3;
—— —— restrictive, 283, 5;
—— —— introduced by quīn, 283, 4; 284, 3; —— ——
conditional rel. clauses, 311; 312, 1 and 2; —— ——
relative as subj. of inf., 314, 4;
—— —— rel. clause standing first, 251, 4, a.
—— pronouns, inflection, 89;
—— —— use, 250, ff.;
—— —— = Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6;
—— —— agreement, 250;
—— —— not omitted as in Eng., 251, 5;
—— —— fondness for subordinate clauses, 355.
relinquitur ut, 297, 2.
reliquī, use, 253, 5.
reliquum est, with subjv., 295, 6.
rēmex, decl., 32.
Remembering, verbs of, cases used w., 206.
Reminding, verbs of, const., 207.
reminīscor, constr., 206, 2.
Removing, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 2.
reposcō, constr., 178, 1, a).
Repraesentātiō, 318.
requiēs, requiem, requiētem, 59, 2, c).
rēs, decl., 51.
Resisting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
Restrictive clauses, 283, 5.
Result, acc. of, 173, B; 176; —— clauses of, 284; 297; —— —— in
dependent apodosis, 322, and a; —— —— sequence of
tense in, 268, 6.
revertor, semi-deponent, 114, 3.
Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a; —— in indir. disc., 315, 2.
Rhotacism, 8, 1; 36, 1.
Rivers, gender of names of, 15, A, 1.
rogātū, abl. of cause, 219, 2.
rogō, constr., 178, 1, c); 178, 1, a).
Roman pronunciation, 3.
Root, 17, 3, footnote 12.
-rs, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c).
rūre, abl., place from which, 229, 1, b.
rūrī, abl., place in which, 228, 1, c.
rūs, 57, 7;
—— acc., limit of motion, 182, 1, b.
S.
s, pron., 3, 3;
—— changed to r between vowels, 8, 1: —— s, ss from dt, tt, ts, 8,
2.
-s, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants,
40, 1, b).
s-stems, 36.
sacer, decl., 65;
—— comparison, 73, 3.
saepe, compared, 77, 1.
sāl, 57, 7;
—— sălēs, 61.
salūbris, decl., 68, 3.
salūtāris, comp., 73, 4.
salvē, salvēte, 137, 4.
Samnĭtēs, 40, 1, d).
sānē, in answers, 162, 5.
sapiō, conj., 109, 2, a).
satur, decl., 65, 2.
Saying, verbs of, w. inf. of ind. disc., 331, I.
sciō, quod sciam, 283, 5.
-scō-class of verbs, 117, 6; 155.
scrībere ad alīquem, 358, 2.
sē, use, 244.
sē-, compounds of, 159, 3, e.
Second conj., 103;
—— decl., 23;
—— peculiarities, 25;
—— second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2.
Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses.
secundum, prep. w. acc., 141.
secūris, decl., 38, 1.
secus, compared, 77, 1.
secus (virīle secus), 185, 1; 58.
secūtus, 'following', 336, 5.
sed, sē, 85, 3.
sēd-, compounds of, 159, 3, e.
sēd, 343, 1, a).
sedīle, decl., 39.
sēmentis, decl., 38, 1.
Semi-deponent verbs, 114.
Semivowels, 2, 8.
senex, decl., 42;
—— compared, 73, 4.
Sentences, classification, 160, f.;
—— simple and compound, 164;
—— sentence-structure, 351;
—— sentence questions, 162, 2.
sententiā, abl. of accordance, 220, 3.
Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d); —— gen., 212, 3;
—— abl., 214.
Sequence of tenses, 267; 268.
sequester, decl., 68, 1.
sequitur ut, 297, 2.
sequor, conj., 113.
Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
servos, decl., 24.
sēsē, decl., 85.
Sextīlis (= Augustus), 371.
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1.
Short syllables, 5, B, 2;
—— vowels, 5, A, 2.
Showing, verbs of, w. two accs., 177.
sī, with indir. questions, 300, 3; —— in protasis, 301;
—— omitted, 305.
signifer, decl., 23, 2.
silentiō, abl of manner, 220, 2.
silvester, decl., 68, 3.
similis, with dat., 204, 3;
—— with gen., 204, 3;
—— comp., 71, 4.
sī minus, use, 306, 2.
Simple sentences, 164.
simul, as prep., w. abl., 144, 2.
simul ac, w. ind., 287, 1; 2.
sī nōn, usage, 306, 1 and 2.
sīn, usage, 306, 3.
sīn minus, 306, 2, a.
Singular, second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2.
sinō with inf., 331, III.
sitis, decl., 38, 1.
Smelling, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.
Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5.
-sō, verbs in, 155, 2.
socer, decl., 23, 2.
socium, gen, plu., 25, 6, c).
sōl, decl., 57, 7.
soleō, semi-dep., 114, 1.
solitus, used as present partic., 336, 5.
sōlus, 66;
—— sōlus est qui with subjv., 283, 2.
Sonant consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5.
Sōracte, decl., 39, 2.
Sounds, classification, 2.
—— of the letters, 3.
Source, abl., 215.
Space, extent of, 181.
Sparing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
Specification, abl. of, 226.
spĕī, quantity, 362, 1, b.
Spelling, see Orthography.
Spirants, 2, 7.
Spondaic verses, 368, 2.
Spondee, 368, 1.
sponte suā, abl. accordance, 220, 3.
spontis, -e, defective, 57, 2, b.
Statutes, fut. imperative used in, 281, 1, b.
Stem, 17, 3.
—— verb, 97; 117.
Structure of sentences, see Sentences.
Style, hints on, 352 f.
su = sv, 3, 3.
sub, prep. with acc. and abl., 143; —— compounds of, w. dat., 187,
III.
Subject, 163;
—— nom., 166;
—— acc., 184;
—— subject acc. of inf., 184;
—— omitted, 314, 5;
—— clauses as subject, 294; 295, 6; —— inf. as subj., 327; 330.
Subjective gen., 199.
Subjunctive, tenses in, 95, 3.
—— in independent sentences, 272;
—— by attraction, 324;
—— tenses of, 266 f.;
—— method of expressing future time in, 269;
—— volitive (hortatory, jussive, probibitive, deliberative,
concessive), 273 f.; —— optative (wishes), 279;
—— potential, 280;
—— in clauses of purpose, 282;
—— of characteristic, 283;
—— of result, 284;
—— of cause, 286;
—— temporal clauses with postquam, posteāquam, 287, 5; ——
temporal clauses with cum, 288-290; —— with antequam
and priusquam, 292; —— with dum, dōnec, quoad, 293, III,
2; —— substantive clauses, 294 f.;
—— indir. questions, 300;
—— in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4;
—— jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2; —— with
velut, tamquam, etc., 307; —— with necesse est, opportet,
etc., 295, 6 and 8; —— with licet, 309, 4;
—— with quamvīs, quamquam, etsī, cum 'although,' 309 f.
sublātus, 129, N.
subm- = summ-, 9, 2.
Subordinate clauses, 165.
Substantive clauses, 294 f.;
—— —— developed from the volitive, 295, 1-8;
—— —— developed from the optative, 296;
—— —— with nōn dubitō, 298;
—— —— indir. questions, 300;
—— —— without ut, 295, 8;
—— —— of result, 297;
—— —— introduced by quod, 299.
—— use of adjs., 236-238.
subter, prep, w. acc., 143, 1.
Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote 12; 147 f.
suī, 85;
—— as objective gen., 244, 2;
—— = possessive gen., 244, 2.
sum, conj., 100;
—— omitted when auxiliary, 166, 3.
summus, 'top of,' 241, 1.
sunt quī, with subjv., 283, 2.
suōpte, suāpte, 86, 3.
supellex, decl., 42, 2.
super, prep. w. acc., 143, 1.
Superlative degree;
—— of adjs., 71, 1;
—— —— in -rimus, 91, 3;
—— —— in -limus, 71, 4;
—— —— irregular superl., 72; 73;
—— —— lacking, 73, 4;
—— —— formed w. maximē, 74;
—— of adverbs, 76, 2;
—— —— irregular, 77, 1;
—— force of, 240, 2.
superus, compared, 73, 2.
Supine, 340.
suprā, prep. w. acc., 141.
-sūra, suffix, 147, 3, a.
Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4.
sūs, decl., 41.
sustulī, 129, N.
suus, decl., 86, 1; 244; —— suus quisque, 244, 4, a.
Syllaba anceps, 366, 10.
Syllables, division, 4;
—— quantity of, 5, B.
Synapheia, 367, 6.
Synaeresis, 367, 1.
Synchysis, 350, 11, d.
Syncope, 7, 4; 367, 8.
Synecdochical acc., 180.
Synizesis, 367, 1.
Syntax, 160 f.
Systole, 367, 3.
T.
t, pron., 3, 3;
—— th, 2, 3, c; 3, 3; —— changes, 8, 2;
—— dropped, 8, 3.
taedet, 138, II;
—— w. gen., 209.
Taking away, verbs of, w. dat., 188, 2, d.
talentum, gen. plu., 25, 5, a.
tamen, 343, 1, f.
tametsī, 309, 2.
tamquam, tamquam sī, w. subjv., 307.
tantōn, 6, 4.
-tas, 149;
—— gen. -tātis, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, e).
Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.
Teaching, verbs of, constr., 178, 1, b.
tēd = tē, 84, 3.
Temporal clauses, w. postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, 287; —— w. cum,
288; 289; —— w. antequam and priusquam, 291; 292; ——
with dum, dōnec, quoad, 293.
temporis (id temporis), 185, 2.
Tendency, dat. of, 191.
tener, decl., 64.
Tenses, 94, 3; 257 ff.; —— of inf., 270;
—— of inf. in indir. disc., 317;
—— of participles, 336;
—— of subjv., 266;
—— sequence of, 266-268;
—— in indir. disc., 317; 318.
Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote 4.
tenus, position, 142, 3.
Terminations, 17, 3.
ternī, how used, 81, 4, b.
-ternus, 154.
terrā marīque, 228, 1, c.
terrester, 68, 3.
Tetrameter verses, 366, 11.
Thematic verbs, 101-113.
—— vowels, 117, footnote 39.
Thesis, 366, 6.
Third conj., 105; 109 f.; —— decl., 28 f.;
—— gender in, 43 f.
Threatening, verbs of, 187, II.
-tim, adverbs in, 157, 2.
Time, at which, 230;
—— during which, 181; 231, 1; —— within which, 231.
timeō nē and ut, 296, 2.
-tinus, suffix, 154.
-tiō, suffix, 147, 3.
Tmesis, 367, 7.
-to as suffix of verbs, 155, 2.
-tor, use of nouns in, 353, 4.
tōtus, 66;
—— preposition absent w., in expression of place relations, 228, 1,
b).
Towns, gender of names of, 15, 2;
—— names of, denoting limit of motion, 182, 1, a; —— denoting
place where, 228, 1, a; —— place from which, 229, 1, a;
—— appositives of town names, 169, 4; 229, 2.
trāditur, trāditum est, w. inf., 332, N.
trāns, prep, w. acc., 141;
—— constr. of verbs compounded with, 179.
Transitive verbs, 174.
Trees, gender of names of, 15, 2.
trēs, decl., 80, 3.
Tribrach, 370, 2.
tribus, decl., 49, 3;
—— gender, 50.
Trimeter verses, 366, 11.
trīnī, use, 81, 4, b).
triumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b).
-trīx, suffix, 147, 1.
Trochee, 366, 2.
-trum, suffix, 147, 4.
Trusting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
tū, decl., 84.
-tūdō, suffix, 84.
tuī, as objective gen., 242, 2.
-tūra, suffix, 147, 3, a).
tūs, decl., 57, 7.
-tus, suffix, 147, 3; 151, 4.
tussis, decl., 38.
tūte, tūtemet, tūtimet, 84, 2.
Two accusatives, 177; 178.
Two datives, 191, 2.
U.
u, instead of i in some words, 9, 1; —— instead of a, 9, 1; 9, 4.
u, becomes v 367, 4.
ŭ-stems, 48.
ū-stems, 41.
-ū, dat. sing., 4th decl, 49, 2.
ūber, decl., 70, 1.
ubi, with ind., 287, 1; 2;
—— with gen., 201, 3.
-ubus, dat., plu., 4th decl., 49, 3.
ūllus, decl., 66.
ulterior, compared, 73, 1.
ultimus, use, 241, 2.
ultrā, prep. w. acc., 141.
-ulus, diminutive ending, 150, 2; —— (a, um), 148, 1.
-um, 1st decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d); —— 2d decl., 25, 6;
—— for -ium, 70, 7.
-undus, -undī, in gerund and gerundive, 116, 2.
ūnus, decl., 66; 92, 1; —— ūnus est qui, with subjv., 283, 2.
-uriō, ending of desiderative verbs, 155, 3.
-ūrus, ending of fut. act. partic., 101; 103 ff.; —— -ūrus fuisse in
apodosis of conditional sentences contrary-to-fact, in indir.
disc., 321, 2; —— -ūrus fuerim in indir. questions serving as
apodoses, 322, b.
-us, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2; —— nom. in 3d decl., in -us,
36; —— gender of nouns in -us of 3d decl., 43, 3; ——
exceptions in gender, 46, 4.
-ūs, nouns of 3d decl. in, 43, 2.
ūsque ad, w. acc., 141, 1.
ūsus est, with abl., 218, 2.
ut, temporal, 287, 1; 2;
—— ut, utī, in purpose clauses, 282; —— in result clauses, 284;
—— in substantive clauses, 295 f.;
—— substantive clauses without, 295, 8;
—— with verbs of fearing, 296, 2.
ut nē = nē, 282, 1, b; 295, 1, 4, 5.
ut non instead of nē, 282, 1, c; —— in clauses of result, 284, 297.
ut quī, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3.
ut sī, w. subjv., 307, 1.
uter, decl., 66; 92, 1.
ūter, decl., 40, 1, d).
utercumque, decl., 92, 2.
uterlibet, decl., 92, 2.
uterque, decl., 92, 2;
—— use, 355, 2.
utervīs, decl., 92, 2.
ūtilius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b).
utinam, with optative subjv., 279, 1 and 2.
ūtor, with abl., 218, 1;
—— in gerundive constr., 339, 4
utpote qui, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3.
utráque, 6, 5.
utrum ... an, 162, 4; 300, 4.
V.
v, 1, 1;
—— pron., 3, 3:
—— developing from u, 367, 4.
v, becomes u, 367, 5.
valdē, by syncope, for validē, 7, 4.
valĕ, 363, 2, b).
Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3.
vannus, gender of, 26, 1, b).
Variations in spelling, 9.
vās, decl., 59, 1.
-ve, 6, 3; 342, 1, b).
vel, 342, 1, b); —— with superl., 240, 3.
velim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a.
vellem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
velut, velut sī, w. subjv., 307, 1.
venter, decl., 40, 1, d).
Verba sentiendī et dēclārandī, w. inf. of indir. disc., 331, I; ——
passive use of these, 332.
Verbal adjs., 150, 1-4.
Verbs, 94 f.;
—— personal endings, 96;
—— deponent, 112;
—— archaic and poetic forms, 116, 4;
—— irregular, 124;
—— defective, 133;
—— impersonal, 138;
—— with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2;
—— omission of, 166, 3;
—— transitive, 174;
—— —— used absolutely, 174, a;
—— passives used as middles, 175, 2, d); —— of smelling and
tasting, constr., 176, 5;
—— not used in passive, 177, 3, a; —— intransitives impersonal in
passive, 187, II, b; 256, 3; —— compounded with preps.,
 constr., 187, III;
—— of judicial action, constr., 208;
—— derivation of, 155 f.;
—— inceptive or inchoative, 155, 1;
—— frequentative or intensive, 155, 2;
—— desiderative, 155, 3;
—— denominative, 156;
—— agreement of, 254 f.
Verb stems, 97;
—— formation of, 117 f.
vereor, conj., 113;
—— with subst. clause in subjv., 296, 2.
Vergilius, gen. of, 25, 1.
veritus, with present force; 336, 5.
vērō, 343, 1, g); —— in answers, 162, 5.
Verse, 366, 3.
Verse-structure, 366 f.
Versification, 361.
versus, prep. w. acc., 141;
—— follows its case, 141, 2.
vērum, 343, 1, b).
vescor, with abl., 218, 1.
vesper, decl., 23, 2.
vesperī, locative, 232, 2.
vestrī, as obj. gen., 242, 2.
vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; —— as possessive gen., 242, 2,
a.
vetō, with inf. 331, II.
vetus, decl., 70;
—— compared, 73, 3.
vī, 220, 2.
vicem, used adverbially, 185, 1; —— vicis, vice, 57, 5, b.
victor, decl., 34.
videō, with pres. partic., 337, 3.
vigil, decl., 34.
violenter, formation, 77, 4, a.
vir, decl., 23.
—— gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 25, 6, b).
virīle seces, constr., 185, 1.
vīrus, gender of, 26, 2.
vīs, decl., 41.
vīscera, used in plu. only, 56, 3.
Vocative case, 17; 19, 1; —— of Greek proper names in -ās, 47, 4;
—— of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1; 171; —— in -ī for -ie, 25, 1;
—— position of, 350, 3.
Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a).
Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b).
Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a).
Voices, 94; 256; —— middle voice, 256, 1.
Volitive subjunctive, 272 f.
volnus, spelling, 9, 1.
volō, 130;
—— with inf., 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a; —— with subjv., 296, 1, a.
volt, spelling, 9, 1.
voltus, spelling, 8, 1.
volucer, decl., 68, 1.
voluntāte, 220, 2.
-volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5
Vowels, 2, 1;
—— sounds of the, 3, 1;
—— quantity of, 5, A;
—— contraction of, 7, 2;
—— parasitic, 7, 3.
Vowel changes, 7.
vulgus, gender of, 26, 2.
-vum, -vus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
W.
Want, verbs and adjs. of, w. abl., 214, 1, c; d.
Way by which, abl. of, 218, 9.
We, editorial, 242, 3.
Whole, gen. of, 201.
Wills, use of fut. imperative in, 281, 1, b.
Winds, gender of names of, 15, 1.
Wish, clauses with dum, etc., expressing a, 310.
Wishes, subjunctive in, 279;
—— see Optative subjunctive.
Wishing, verbs of, with subst. clause 296, 1;
—— with obj. inf., 331, IV.
Word-formation, 146 f.
Word-order, 348 f.
Word questions, 162, 1.
X.
x, 2, 9;
—— = cs and gs, 32.
-x, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more cons., 40, 1,
b); —— gender of nouns in -x of 3d decl., 43, 2; ——
exceptions, 45, 4.
Y.
y, 1, 1.
Yes, how expressed, 162, 5.
'You,' indefinite, 356, 3; 280, 3; 302, 2.
Z.
z, 1, 1; 2, 9.
Zeugma, 374, 2, a).
 FOOTNOTES
[1] Sometimes also called Aryan or Indo-Germanic.
[2] Cuneiform means "wedge-shaped." The name applies to the form of the strokes of
which the characters consist.
[3] The name Zend is often given to this.
[4] For 'voiceless,' 'surd,' 'hard,' or 'tenuis' are sometimes used.
[5] For 'voiced,' 'sonant,' 'soft,' or 'media' are sometimes used.
[6] In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them; as, ā, ī, ō, etc.
Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels; as, ĕ, ŭ.
[7] To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.
[8] But if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is
always long; as, abrumpō.
[9] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
[10] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
[11] The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The principles for
determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.
[12] The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root. Thus, the stem
porta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are usually monosyllabic. The addition made
to a root to form a stem is called a Suffix. Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta.
[13] There is only one stem ending in -m:—hiems, hiemīs, winter.
[14] Mēnsis, month, originally a consonant stem (mēns-), has in the Genitive Plural both
mēnsium and mēnsum. The Accusative Plural is mēnsēs.
[15] This is practically always used instead of alīus in the Genitive.
[16] A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs.
[17] Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.
[18] Supplied by recentior.
[19] For newest, recentissimus is used.
[20] Supplied by minimus nātū.
[21] Supplied by maximus nātū.
[22] The final i is sometimes long in poetry.
[23] Forms of hīc ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis; as, hūjusce, this ...
here; hōsce, hīsce. When -ne is added, -c and -ce become -ci; as huncine, hōscine.
[24] For istud, istūc sometimes occurs; for ista, istaec.
[25] For illud, illūc sometimes occurs.
[26] Sometimes quīs.
[27] An ablative quī occurs in quīcum, with whom.
[28] Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is
given as one of the Principal Parts.
[29] The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.
[30] The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied,
particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For
fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.
[31] For essem, essēs, esset, essent, the forms forem, forēs, foret, forent are sometimes
used.
[32] For futūrus esse, the form fore is often used.
[33] Declined like bonus, -a, -um.
[34] The Imperfect also means I loved.
[35] For declension of amāns, see § 70, 3.
[36] Fuī, fuistī, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fuerās, etc., for
eram, etc.; fuerō, etc., for erō, etc.
[37] Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim; so fuissem, etc., for essem.
[38] In actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents (§ 112).
[39] Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (ĕ or ŏ); as, dīc-
ĕ-, dīc-ŏ-; amā-ĕ-, amā-ŏ-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a
scientific treatment of the subject here. See the author's Latin Language.
[40] But the compounds of juvō sometimes have -jūtūrus; as, adjūtūrus.
[41] Used only impersonally.
[42] So impleō, expleō.
[43] Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation: acciō, accīre, etc.
[44] Fully conjugated only in the compounds: exstinguō, restinguō, distinguō.
[45] Only in the compounds: ēvādō, invādō, pervādō.
[46] It will be observed that not all the forms of ferō lack the connecting vowel. Some of
them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation.
[47] For the Predicate Genitive, see §§ 198, 3; 203, 5.
[48] Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once governed the
Dative.
[49] This was the original form of the preposition cum.
[50] Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here for sake of
convenience.
[51] Especially: moneō, admoneō; rogō, ōrō, petō, postulō, precor, flāgitō; mandō,
imperō, praecipiō; suādeō, hortor, cohortor; persuādeō, impellō.
[52] Especially: permittō, concēdō, nōn patior.
[53] Especially: prohibeō, impediō, dēterreō.
[54] Especially: cōnstituō, dēcernō, cēnseō, placuit, convenit, pacīscor.
[55] Especially: labōrō, dō operam, id agō, contendō, impetrō.
[56] Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as cōnsiderā quam
variae sint hominum cupīdinēs, consider how varied are the desires of men. (Direct:
quam variae sunt hominum cupīdinēs!)
[57] Trāditūri fuerint and errātūrus fuerīs are to be regarded as representing trāditūri
fuērunt and errātūrus fuistī of Direct Discourse. (See § 304, 3, b.)
[58] Except in Sallust and Silver Latin.
[59] So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter Χ (chi). Thus:—
multōs laesī
Χ
dēfendī nēminem
[60] The pronouns hic, hoc, and the adverb huc, probably had a short vowel. The syllable
was made long by pronouncing hicc, hocc, etc.
[61] Ictus was not accent,—neither stress accent not musical accent,—but was simply the
quantitative prominence inherent in the long syllables of fundamental feet.
[62] Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names Quīntīlis,
Sextīlis, September etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc.
[63] For explanation of the abbreviations, see list.
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Table of Contents
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
CHARLES E. BENNETT
PREFACE.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.
PART II.
INFLECTIONS.
PART III.
PARTICLES.
PART IV.
WORD FORMATION.
PART V.
SYNTAX.
PART VI.
PROSODY.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTION.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN
FAMILY.
EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN
FAMILY.
PART I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
CONSONANT CHANGES[10]
PART II.
INFLECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.—Declension.
A. NOUNS.
Cases alike in Form.
ā-Stems.
 Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.
Greek Nouns.
ŏ-Stems.
Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quus.
Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.
Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.
I. Consonant-Stems.
II. ĭ-Stems.
III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves
to the Inflection of ĭ-Stems.
IV. Stems in -ī, -ū, and Diphthongs.
V. Irregular Nouns.
General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.
Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.
ŭ-Stems.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.
ē-Stems.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.
Gender in the Fifth Declension.
Nouns used in the Singular only.
Nouns used in the Plural only.
Nouns used only in Certain Cases.
Indeclinable Nouns.
Heteroclites.
Heterogeneous Nouns.
Plurals with Change of Meaning.
B. ADJECTIVES.
Nine Irregular Adjectives.
Adjectives of Three Terminations.
Adjectives of Two Terminations.
Adjectives of One Termination.
Irregular Comparison.
Defective Comparison.
Comparison by Magis and Maximē.
 Adjectives not admitting Comparison.
Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.
Declension of the Cardinals.
Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.
C. PRONOUNS.
CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.
Formation of the Present Stem.
Formation of the Perfect Stem.
Formation of the Participial Stem.
First (Ā-) Conjugation.
Second (Ē-) Conjugation.
Third (Consonant) Conjugation.
Fourth Conjugation.
PART III.
PARTICLES.
ADVERBS.
PREPOSITIONS.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
PART IV.
WORD-FORMATION.
I. DERIVATIVES.
1. Nouns derived from Verbs.
2. Nouns derived from Nouns.
3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.
1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.
2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.
3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.
4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.
1. Verbs derived from Verbs.
2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives
(Denominatives).
II. COMPOUNDS.
PART V.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.—Sentences.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.
SUBJECT.
PREDICATE NOUNS.
APPOSITIVES.
THE CASES.
Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.
Accusative of the Result Produced.
Two Accusatives—Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.
Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.
Two Accusatives with Compounds.
Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.
Accusative of Time and Space.
Accusative of Limit of Motion.
Accusative in Exclamations.
Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.
Other Uses of the Accusative.
Dative of Indirect Object.
Dative of Reference.
Dative of Agency.
Dative of Possession.
Dative of Purpose or Tendency.
Dative with Adjectives.
Dative of Direction.
Memini, Reminīscor, Oblīvīscor.
Admoneō, Commoneō, Commonefaciō.
Verbs of Judicial Action.
Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.
Interest, Rēfert.
Genitive with Other Verbs.
Ablative of Separation.
Ablative of Source.
Ablative of Agent.
Ablative of Comparison.
Ablative of Means.
Ablative of Cause.
 Ablative of Manner.
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.
Ablative of Accompaniment.
Ablative of Association.
Ablative of Degree of Difference.
Ablative of Quality.
Ablative of Price.
Ablative of Specification.
Ablative Absolute.
Ablative of Place.
Ablative of Time.
CHAPTER III.—Syntax of Adjectives.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.
ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
OTHER PECULIARITIES.
CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Hīc, Ille, Iste.
Is.
Īdem.
Ipse.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.
AGREEMENT. With One Subject.
With Two or More Subjects.
VOICES.
TENSES.
Principal and Historical Tenses.
Present Indicative.
Imperfect Indicative.
Future Indicative.
Perfect Indicative.
Pluperfect Indicative.
Future Perfect Indicative.
Epistolary Tenses.
Sequence of Tenses.
Peculiarities of Sequence.
Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.
THE MOODS.
The Indicative in Independent Sentences.
The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.
The Imperative.
Clauses of Purpose.
Clauses of Characteristic.
Clauses of Result.
Causal Clauses.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul
ac, etc.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.
Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.
Clauses introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad.
Substantive Clauses.
A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.
C. Substantive Clauses of Result.
D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quīn.
E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.
F. Indirect Questions.
First Type.—Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the
Supposed Case.
Second Type.—'Should'-'Would' Conditions.
Third Type.—Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to
Fact.
Protasis expressed without Sī.
Use of Nisi, Sī Nōn, Sīn.
Conditional Clauses of Comparison.
Concessive Clauses.
 Adversative Clauses with Quamvīs, Quamquam, etc.
Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a
Proviso.
Relative Clauses.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE (ŌRĀTIŌ OBLĪQUA).
Declarative Sentences.
Interrogative Sentences.
Imperative Sentences.
A. Tenses of the Infinitive.
B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.
Conditional Sentences of the First Type.
Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.
Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
Infinitive without Subject Accusative.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
Infinitive with Adjectives.
Infinitive in Exclamations.
Historical Infinitive.
Tenses of the Participle.
Use of Participles.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.
CHAPTER VI.—Particles.
COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
CHAPTER VII.—Word-order and Sentence-Structure.
A. WORD-ORDER.
B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.
CHAPTER VIII.-Hints on Latin Style.
NOUNS.
ADJECTIVES.
PRONOUNS.
VERBS.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.
PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF
THE DATIVE.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.
PART VI.
PROSODY.
QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES
Quantity of Final Syllables.
VERSE-STRUCTURE.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
A. Figures of Syntax.
B. Figures of Rhetoric.
INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE
EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.[63]
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIVE
EXAMPLES
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT
VERBS
A.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.
R.
S.
T.
U.
V.
GENERAL INDEX.
FOOTNOTES
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE