Development of a Sustainability Management

System for Petroleum Companies

Ammar Irhoma

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requir ements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

October 2017

ii Copyright Statement
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Declaration
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unless
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The
work has not previously been submitted in any form to Nottingham Trent University
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iii Abstract
Petroleum companies contribute to the largest proportion of environmental
degradation
in Libya. In support, the 2014 environmental performance index ranks Libya 120th
out of
178 countries which suggest the country faces serious environmental degradation,
unlike
the developed countries. It is necessary to critically investigate the key
environmental
sustainability issues faced by the Libyan petroleum companies to develop a
Sustainability Management System (SMS).
The research aims to develop a SMS for the petroleum companies through critical
investigations of sustainability -related impacts, issues, and barriers to the
sustainability
approaches, and to develop suggestions for reduction of the adverse effects.
The mixed -methods approach involved a survey -based questionnaire and field visits
for
interviews (semi -structured) with a number of stakeholders. An Environmental
Impact
Assessment study (EIA) was also conducted as a case study in one of the field
visits.
Furthermore, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study to Libyan crude oil. The survey
quest ionnaire was used to collect data from the workers. The interviews provide
insight
into the concerns, barriers, and challenges from the policy makers,
environmentalists,
and industrial professionals at a senior level. The use of life -cycle assessment
(LCA) has
further outlined the environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the petroleum
industry in
Libya. Data analysis was performed through triangulation of the qualitative and
quantitative approaches.
The LCA results show that there are diverse environmental impacts caused by the
Libyan
petroleum industry, which require the implementation of an SMS to minimise these
impacts. EIA results revealed high levels of environmental impacts mainly
associated
with air emissions such as GHGs and hazardous H2S along with oil spillages, at
the
upstream and downstream levels of production. Interviews and the survey confirmed
that
there are issues/obstacles associated with sustainability in the Libyan petroleum
sector
which limits the provision of quality and efficient servi ces. The current
approaches
adopted by companies are neither matched with the developments in the
sustainability
field in other developed countries nor fit, with the managerial or governance
processes.
The proposed SMS, applicable in developing countries, proposes the incorporation
of
environmental factors to increase the scope of stakeholders’ participation in the
process,
as well as the environmental performance of petroleum companies.

iv Dedication

This Ph.D. thesis is dedicated to my

daughter Yasmine , my dear wife and my
beloved parents.

v ‫ِبْس ِم َّ لالِه الرهْح َمِن الرهِح يم‬

ALL PRAISE IS DUE TO ALLAH, THE MOST
GRACIOUS, THE MOST MERCIFUL
Acknowledgements
My Ph.D. journey would not have been completed without the support, help, and
encouragement of many people . Thanking them here seems inadequate as they
provided me with the moral support I needed to complete this thesis. I can say
that this thesis was all about people in which I must show my gratitude and thanks
for their assis tance, support and encouragement was critical. I have experienced
several difficulties through my research studies and also have had different
roles
such as being a husband and a father, a researcher and an academic
professional. Therefore, I thank all peo ple who contributed directly or indirectly
to
the completion of this thesis.
As a PhD researcher;
I must start by thanking my supervisors Prof. Daizhong Su and Martin Higginson .
I am very grateful to both of my supervisors for their unlimited help, support
and
encouragement. Prof. Su was kind enough to provide me with all the support that
I needed to accomplish this thesis. He was also there for guidance and directions
which I needed throughout this journey. I had struggled in prioritising my goals
when I first started but with the help and guidance from my supervisor s, I
managed to cope well. Even at the difficult time that I went through, they were
there to provide support and reassurance .
My supervisor s’ rich experience has also made this j ourney more challenging and
enjoyable for me. My supervisors were al so kind enough to give verbal and
written feedback on all my drafts during this journey . Hence, I will never forget
all
the encouragement and help I received from them to be able to comple te this
thesis. I should also show my gratitude and thanks to all staff at the School of
Architecture, Design and the Built Environment for their cooperation and
guidance along with University support staff, particularly in the Library with
respect to the literature review process. As a result of the unfailing support and
vi guidance I received , I was able to overcome all the difficulties throughout
this long
journey!
As a husband and father;
I am grateful to my family and in particular to my parents ba ck home in Libya for
their continu ous moral support and encouragement. I should also not forget to
thank my brothers for their kind and continuous support which gave me the
strength to believe in my capabilities and complete this thesis. I give thanks and
gratitude to my wife who was very patient and coped with my “long disappearance
from home ” for weeks and months especially when carrying out the field visits or
the process of writing up. I thank her all f or the never ending cups of tea,
encour agement and being able to look after for our beautiful daughter Jasmine.
As a part -time academic professional,
To all my colleagues at Nottingham Trent University and previously at Derby
College, thank you very much for your cooperation, support and tole rance to let
me focus on my PhD thesis.
To my best friends who has supported me throughout this, Mustafa Elmontsri and
Khaled Hader who at different points in time contributed meaningfully to the
various aspects of this study. Your contributions have influenced the final output
of this research.
Finally, I am very grateful for all those who assisted with the process of data
collection in the different phases of the study. In particular, I am thankful to
Mr.
Ahmed Al -Sharaidi, Eng. Khalid Musbah and Dr. Younes Al -Gilushi from the
Libyan National Oil Corporation in Tripoli for their support in obtaining local
approvals and liaising with other departments to allow me collect the primary
data. I should also thank all those who participated in the questionna ire surveys
and in the semi -structured interviews for their valuable input. I am also
thankful
to all my friends here in Nottingham and in Libya for making this journey an
enjoyable one.

vii List of Publications

Journal Articles
1. Irhoma , A., Su, D.Z. and Higginson, M., 2014. Analysis of the Barriers to
Environmental Management Systems Implementation in the Libyan Oil
Industry. Key Engineering Materials, 572, 672 -677.
2. Irhoma , A., Su, D. and Higginson, M., 2016. Analysis and evaluation of the
environmental impacts of 'upstream' petroleum operations. International
Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Management , 30(1-2), pp.116 -
142.
Conference Papers
1. Irhoma , A., Su, D.Z. and Higginson, M., 2014. Analysis of the Barriers to
Environmental Management Systems Implementation in the Libyan Oil
Industry. In Su D (Ed) Procs. 5th International Advanced Design and
Manufacture conference, 25 -28 September 2013, Valencia, Spain.
2. Irhoma, A. (2014). Analysis of Environmental Impacts at the Midstream
Petroleum Operations. In Breaking Boundaries Conference. Professional
Research practice conference. 18th May, 2014, Nottingham, UK.
3. Irhoma, A., Su, D.Z. and Higginson. 2014. Life Cycle Assessme nt of
Libyan Crude Oil. Proc. ISSST. Doi information v2 (2014). Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies
(ISSN 2329 -9169) is published by the Sustainable Conoscente Network .
Melissa Bilec and Jun -Ki Choi, co -editor s. The International Symposium
on Sustainable Systems and Technology, 19 -21 May, 2014, Oakland,
California, USA.
4. Irhoma, A. (2014). Life Cycle Assessment of Libyan Crude Oil. In Hoxley
M (Ed) Procs. Annual College research conference and festival, 20th Ju ne,
2014. Nottingham, UK.
5. Irhoma, A. (2014). Analysis of Environmental sustainability issues at the
Libyan petroleum industry. Life beyond PhD conference, 26th -29th August,
2014 at Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, UK.
Poster Presentations
1. Irhoma, A. (2014). Li fe Cycle Assessment of Libyan Crude Oil. Annual
College research conference and festival, 20th June, 2014. Nottingham,
UK.
2. Irhoma, A. (2014). Analysis of Environmental sustainability issues at the
Libyan petroleum industry. Libyan Higher Education forum , 5th July, 2014,
London, UK.
viii List of Abbreviations

AGOCO Arabian Gulf Oil Company

AP Acidification Potential
BOE The barrel of oil equivalent
COEP Crude Oil Extraction Plant
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
DALY Disability -Adjusted Life Years [year]
EcS Economic Sustainability
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMAS Eco-Management And Audit Scheme
EMS Environmental Management System
EoL End oF Life
EPI Environmental Performance Index
EP Eutrophication Potential
EPSA Exploration And Production Sharing Agreement
ES Environmental Sustainability
FCC Fluid catalytic cracking

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GWP Global Warming Potential
IEA International Energy Agency
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMPACT 2002+ Impact Assessment of Chemical Toxics and denotes
the multimedia fate & multipathway exposure and
effects model assessing toxic emission on human
toxicity and ecotoxicity
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change
ISO International Organisation For Standardization
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCI Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment
LYDS Libyan Dinners
MMT Million Metric Tons
ix NGOS Non-Governmental Organisations
NOC National Oil Corporation (Libya)
ODP Ozone Depletion Potential
OPEC Organisation Of The Petroleum Exporting Countries
PAF Potentially Affected Fraction of species
PDCA Plan, Do, Check And Act
PDF Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species
SD Sustainable Development
SMS Sustainability Management System
SS Social Sustainability
TBL Triple Bottom Line
TETP Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Potential
TQM Total Quality Management
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
WLGP Western Libya Gas Project
WOC Waha Oil Compnay
ZOC Zueitina Oil Company

x Table of Contents
Copyright
Statement ................................ ................................ ......
.......................... ..... ii
Declaration ................................ ................................ .....
........................... ...................... ii
Abstract ................................ ................................ .......
......................... .......................... iii
Dedication ................................ ................................ .....
........................... ...................... iv
Acknowledgements ................................ ................................
................................ ....... v
List of
Publications ................................ ................................ ...
............................. ...... vii
List o f
Abbreviations ................................ ................................ ..
.............................. ... viii
Table of
Contents ................................ ................................ .......
......................... .......... x
Chapter
1 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ......... 1
Introduction ................................ ................................ ...
............................. ..... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................ ................................
............................... 1
1.2 Context of the
Research ................................ ................................ .......
.... 1
1.3 Synthesis of Recent Literature on
Sustainability ................................ . 11
1.4 Aim, Objectives and Research
Questions ................................ ............ 16
1.4.1.
Aim ................................ ................................ ............
.................... ...................... 16
1.4.2. Research
Objectives ................................ ................................ .....
................... 16
1.4.3 Research
Questions ................................ ................................ ......
................... 17
1.5 Rationale of the
Study: ................................ ................................ .........
.. 17
1.5.1 Theoretical Rationale (Scientific
Relevance): ................................ ............... 17
1.5.2 Practical Rationale (Societal
Relevance): ................................ ..................... 18
1.6 Organisation of the Succeeding
Chapters ................................ ............ 19
1.9 Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
........... 20
Chapter
2 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ....... 21
Literature
Review ................................ ................................ .........
................. 21
2.1.
Introduction ................................ ................................ ...
......................... 21
2.2. Backg round of
Sustainability ................................ ...............................
22
2.3. What Is
Sustainability? ................................ ................................
.......... 26
2.4 Models of
Sustainability ................................ ................................ .
........ 31
2.4.1. Three -overlapping Circle Model of S
ustainability: ................................ ....... 31
2.4.2. Three -Nested Dependencies Model of
Sustainability: ............................... 33
2.4.3. Three -Legged Sustainability
Stool: ................................ ............................... 34
2.4.4. Levett’s Model of
Sustainability: ................................ ................................
..... 34
2.5. Categorization of Sustainability
Models: ................................ ............. 35
xi 2.5.1. Pictorial Visualization
models: ................................ ................................ ........
35
2.5.2. Quantitative
Models: ................................ ................................ ........
................ 35
2.5.3. Physical
Models: ................................ ................................ ........
....................... 36
2.5.4. Conceptual
Models: ................................ ................................ ........
................. 36
2.5.5. Standardized
Models: ................................ ................................ ........
.............. 36
2.6. Triple Bottom Line: An Important Phenom
ena ................................ .... 37
2.6.1. The Economic/Money
Line ................................ ................................ ...........
.. 38
2.6.2. Social
Line: ................................ ................................ ..........
...................... ........ 38
2.6.3. Environmental
Line: ................................ ................................ ..........
............... 39
2.7. Sustainability Efforts Made By Different
Countries: ........................... 40
2.7.1. Efforts made by
Switzerland: ................................ ................................ ...
....... 40
2.7.2. Efforts made by United States of
America: ................................ .................. 41
2.7.3. Efforts made by other European
Nations: ................................ .................... 41
2.8. Env ironmental
Sustainability ................................ ................................
41
2.9. Sustainability in the Context of Petroleum
Industry ........................... 43
2.10 The Challenges of
Sustainability ................................ ......................... 46
2.11 Petroleum Industry Sustainability
Impacts ................................ ......... 49
2.11.1. Human, Socio -Economic and Cultural
Impacts ................................ ......... 49
2.11.2. Atmospheric
Impacts ................................ ................................ ........
............. 50
2.11.3. Aquatic
Impacts ................................ ................................ ........
...................... 51
2.11.4. Terrestrial
Impacts ................................ ................................ ........
................. 51
2.11.5. Potential
Emergencies ................................ ................................ ....
.............. 51
2.12 Sustainability Approaches and
Technologies ................................ .... 52
2.12.1 Environme nt Management
System ................................ .............................. 53
2.12.1.1 ISO
4001 ................................ ................................ ...........
..................... ....... 54
2.12.2. Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) ................................ ................................ ...... 61
2.12.2.1. LCA
TOOLS ................................ ................................ ..........
...................... . 65
2.12.2.2. Limitations of
LCA ................................ ................................ ............
........... 66
2.12.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) ................................ .................... 68
2.13. Barriers and Suc cess
Factors ................................ ............................. 71
2.13.1. Implementation
Barriers ................................ ................................ .......
......... 71
2.13.2. Success
Factors ................................ ................................ ........
..................... 73
2.14. Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
........ 75
Chapter
3 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ....... 77
Libya’s Oil & Gas
Industry ................................ ................................ .......
.... 77
xii 3.1.
Introduction ................................ ................................ ...
......................... 77
3.2.
Libya ................................ ................................ ..........
...................... ....... 77
3.2.1 Location, Religion, Language and
History ................................ ..................... 77
3.2.2. The Economic
Context ................................ ................................ ........
............ 80
3.3. Libyan Petroleum
Industry ................................ ................................ .... 82
3.3.1 Joint Ventures in the Oil
Industry ................................ ................................ .... 87
3.3.2. Exploration and Production Sharing Agreement
(EPSA) ........................... 88
3.3.3. Natural
Gas ................................ ................................ ............
.................... ....... 88
3.3.4 Western Libya Gas Project
(WLGP) ................................ ............................... 90
3.4. Upstream and Downstream Petroleum Operations .............................
90
3.4.1. Upstream Petroleum
Operations ................................ ................................ ...
91
3.4.2. Downstream Petroleum
Operations ................................ .............................. 95
3.4.2.1. Petroleum
Refineries ................................ ................................ .....
............... 95
3.4.2.2. Petrochemical
plant ................................ ................................ ..........
............ 96
3.5. Libyan Petroleum
Laws ................................ ................................ .........
97
3.5.1. The Environmental Law No. 7 of
1982 ................................ ......................... 97
3.5.2. The Environmental Law No. 15 of
2003 ................................ ....................... 98
3.6. Petroleum Sector Sustainability Issues and Challenges ....................
99
3.7. Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
........ 103
Chapter
4 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 105
Research Methodolo
gy ................................ ................................ ..............
105
4.1 Introduction ................................ ................................
........................... 105
4.2 Sustainability Management as the Field of this Study .......................
105
4.3 Research Paradigms and Theoretical Ass umptions ..........................
106
4.4 Research
Design ................................ ................................ .........
.......... 111
4.4.1 Methodological
Approach ................................ ................................ .......
........ 112
4.5 Research
Strategy ................................ ................................ .......
......... 113
4.5.1 Qualitative
Strategy ................................ ................................ .......
.................. 116
4.5.1.1 Implementing Qualitative
Research ................................ .......................... 118
4.5.1.2 Limitations of Qualitative
Research ................................ ........................... 119
4.5.1.3 Evaluation of Qualitative
Strategies ................................ .......................... 119
4.5.2 Quantitative
Strategy ................................ ................................ .......
............... 121
4.6 Research
Methods ................................ ................................ ........
........ 123
4.6.1 Selection of Data Collection
Methods ................................ .......................... 124
4.7 Research
Process ................................ ................................ ........
......... 128
xiii 4.7.1
Fieldwork ................................ ................................ ......
.......................... ........... 130
4.7.2 Stage One – Literature
Review ................................ ................................ ..... 131
4.7.3 Stage Two –
Interviews ................................ ................................ .....
............. 132
4.7.4 Stage Three – Case
studies ................................ ................................ ........
.. 140
4.7.5 STAGE Four –
SURVEY ................................ ................................ .........
....... 146
4.7.6 STAGE Five – Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) ................................ ............. 147
4.7.7 Stage Six – Development of Sustainability Management System ........... 148
4.7.8 Stage Seven – SMS evaluation and validation ................................
........... 149
4.8 Research Reliability and
Validity ................................ ......................... 149
4.8.1 Reliability and Validity
Implications ................................ ............................... 152
Chapter
5 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 154
Interviews Results &
Analysis ................................ ................................ ... 154
5.1 Introduction ................................ ................................
........................... 154
5.2 Sample
Profile ................................ ................................ ........
............... 154
5.2.1 Instrument ................................ ................................
................................ ......... 156
5.2.2 Procedures ................................ ................................
................................ ....... 157
5.3 Data
Analysis ................................ ................................ .......
................. 157
5.3.1 Thematic
Analysis ................................ ................................ .......
.................... 158
5.4.
Results ................................ ................................ ........
........................ .. 158
5.5
Discussion ................................ ................................ .....
....................... 168
5.6 Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
......... 169
Chapter
6 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 171
Survey Results &
Analysis ................................ ................................ .......
.. 171
6.1 Introduction ................................ ................................
........................... 171
6.2 Reliability
Analysis ................................ ................................ .......
........ 171
6.2.1 Sustainability
practices: ................................ ................................ .....
............. 172
6.2.2 Barriers to introducing
sustainability: ................................ ........................... 172
6.2.3 Factor contributing to the success of
Sustainability: ................................ .. 172
6.2.4 Motivations for implementing Sustainability Management Systems: ...... 172
6.2.5 Solution for reducing negative environmental
impact: ............................... 173
6.3 Demographic
Analysis ................................ ................................ .......
.. 173
6.4 Descriptive Analysis and
ANOVA ................................ ........................ 179
6.5
Discussion ................................ ................................ .....
....................... 197
6.6 Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
......... 198
Chapter
7 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 200
xiv Environmental Impact Assessment Study
(EIA) ................................ ....... 200
7.1 Environmental Impact
Assessment ................................ ..................... 200
7.4
Discussion ................................ ................................ .....
....................... 208
7.5 Chapter
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
......... 211
Chapter
8 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 212
Life Cycle Assessment Study
(LCA) ................................ ......................... 212
8.1.
Introduction ................................ ................................ ...
....................... 212
8.1.1.
Objectives ................................ ................................ .....
........................... ........ 212
8.1.2. Crude oil extraction plant and life cycle
assessment ................................ 213
8.2. Methodological
Approach ................................ ................................ ... 214
8.2.1. Life Cycle Assessment (Type of
Study) ................................ ...................... 214
8.3. Goal of the
Study ................................ ................................ ..........
....... 216
8.3.1. Reasons for carrying out the
study ................................ .............................. 216
8.3.2. Intended
Applications ................................ ................................ ...
................. 217
8.4. Scope of the
Study ................................ ................................ ..........
.... 217
8.4.1. Function and Functional
Unit ................................ ................................ ........
217
8.4.2 System
Boundary ................................ ................................ .......
..................... 218
8.4.3. Cut -Off Criteria for Initial Inclusion of Inputs and
Outputs ....................... 222
8.5. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI
Phase) ................................ ........................ 223
8.5.1. Data Collection
Procedures ................................ ................................ .....
..... 223
8.5.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Description of Unit
Processes ..................... 224
8.6. Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Analysis ................................ ............ 229
8.6.1. The LCIA Procedures and
Factors ................................ .............................. 229
8.6.2. Reference for All Characterisation Models, Characterisation Factors,
Reference Substances, and Damage Units Used In IMPACT 2002+ .............. 230
8.6.3. Limitations and the Relationship of the LCIA Results Relative to the Defined
Goal and Scope of the
LCA ................................ ................................ ............
......... 232
8.7. Life Cycle
Interpretation ................................ ................................ .
..... 233
8.7.1. The r
esults ................................ ................................ .........
....................... ....... 234
8.7.2 Better Understanding of Impact Assessment
Units ................................ ... 239
8.8.
Discussion ................................ ................................ .....
...................... 241
8.8.1. Assum ptions and Limitations Associated With the Interpretation of Results,
Both Methodology and Data
Related ................................ ................................ .....
243
8.8.2. Full Transparen cy In Terms Of Value -Choices and Rationales .............
244
8.9
Conclusion ................................ ................................ .....
....................... 244
Chapter
9 ................................ ................................ ..............
.................. ..... 250
xv Sustainability Management
System ................................ .......................... 250
9.1 Introduction ................................ ................................
........................... 250
9.2 Brief Restatement of the Research
Problem ................................ ....... 250
9.3 SMS Development
Stages ................................ ................................ .... 251
9.4 Aim of the
SMS ................................ ................................ ............
......... 254
9.5 Sustainability Management System
(SMS) ................................ ......... 255
9.6 The Components of the
SMS ................................ ............................... 293
9.6.1 Planning
Phase ................................ ................................ ..........
...................... 294
9.6.2 Development and Implementation
Phase ................................ ................... 297
9.7 Framework Validation
Process ................................ ............................ 303
9.7.1 Validation
Findings ................................ ................................ .......
................... 306
9.8 Benefits of the Developed
SMS ................................ ........................... 311
9.9 Applying the
SMS ................................ ................................ ............
..... 313
9.10 Limitations of the
SMS ................................ ................................ ....... 314
9.11
Discussion ................................ ................................ .....
..................... 315
9.12
Summary ................................ ................................ ........
..................... 319
Chapter
10 ................................ ................................ .............
................... ... 321
Conclusions &
Recommendations ................................ ............................ 321
10.1
Introduction ................................ ................................ ...
...................... 321
10.2 Restatement of Research
Objectives ................................ ................ 321
10.3 Conclusions ................................ ................................
........................ 322
10.4 Contribution to
Knowledge ................................ ................................ 324
10.4.1 Theoretical
Implications ................................ ................................ ...
............ 326
10.4.2 Practical
Implications ................................ ................................ ...
................. 327
10.4.3 Policy
Implications ................................ ................................ ...
...................... 327
10.5
Recommendations ................................ ................................
.............. 327
10.6 Research
Limitations ................................ ................................ ....
...... 329
10.7 Future Research
Ideas ................................ ................................ .......
330
References &
Appendices ................................ ................................ .....
..... 331
Appendix 1 – Interview Schedule & Sample Transcript ...........................
359
Appendix 2 - Copy of the Survey
Questionnaire ................................ ...... 365
Appendix 3 – Participant Information Sheet & Cover Letter ....................
371

xvi

List of Tables
Table No Title Page No
2.1 Key significant stages of sustainability 24
2.2 ISO 4001 benefits according the recent literature 57
3.1 Libyan GDP by sector 80
3.2 Libyan petroleum industry companies 85
3.3 Libya gas production rate 2004 and 2011 88
3.4 Libyan petroleum refineries 95
4.1 Opposite suggestions of positivism and Interpretivism 107
4.2 Difference between quantitative and qualitative 112
4.3 Strengths and weaknesses of using qualitative approach 118
4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews 124
4.5 Daily produced products in its cubic meter quantities M^3 142
4.6 Actions taken to enhance the quality of the findings 151
5.1 Demographic s of the participants in the interviews 155
5.2 Example of coding process 158
6.1 Sustainability Practices 180
6.2 Sustainability Practices Means Score 181
6.3 Sustainability Practices Mean Score Vs. Company Type 183
6.4 ANOVA Table 183
6.5 Barriers to Introducing Sustainability 184
6.6 Mean Score of Barriers to Sustainability 185
6.7 Factors Contributing to Success of Sustainability 187
6.8 Means Score of Success Factors 188
6.9 Motivations for Implementing Sustainability 190
6.10 Mean Score of Motivations for Sustainability 190
6.11 Solution for Negative Environmental Impact 192
6.12 Mean Score of Solutions for Negative Environmental Impact 195
6.13 Mean Score of Employee Opinion towards Sustainability 194
6.13.1 Employee Position vs. Opinion towards Sustainability 196
6.13.2 ANOVA Table 197
7.1 Degree of control (Co) 201
7.2 Frequency (Fr) of Impact 201
7.3 The Environment (Env) 202
7.4 Nature (Na) of the impact 203
7.5 Magnitude (Ma) of the impact 203
7.6 Risk Categories 203
7.7 EIA results and recommendations 203
8.1 Oil refining technologies - Azzawiya(AORC, 2015) 220
8.2 Know inputs from techno -sphere used in LCI modeling (A) 225
xvii 8.3 Emissions to air (A) 225
8.4 Emissions to water (A) 226
8.5 Wastes and emissions (A) 226
8.6 Know inputs from techno -sphere used in second phase (T1) 226
8.7 Emissions to water (T1) 227
8.8 Know inputs from nature used in LCI modeling (B) 227
8.9 Know inputs from techno -sphere used in LCI modeling (B) 227
8.10 Emissions to air (B) 228
8.11 Emissions to water (B) 229
8.12 Know inputs from techno -sphere used in second phase (T2) 230
8.13 Emissions to water (T2) 230
8.14 Main sources for characterization factors, reference
substances, and damage units 232
8.15 Characterization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included. Results are specified per
functional unit of 1 kg. 236
8.16 Normalization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included. Results are specified per
functional unit of 1 kg produced crude oil 238
8.17 Normalization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included – endpoint level 239
8.18 Single score results - midpoint level 240
8.19 Single score results - end point level 241
9.1 Descriptions of the terms used in the SMS 293
9.2 Sample profile in the validation process 305
9.3 Validation Survey Tool 306

xviii

List of Figur es
Figure
No Title Page No

1.1 Models of Sustainability 10

2.1 Three -overlapping Circle Model of Sustainability 32
2.2 Three -Nested Dependencies Model of Sustainability 33
2.3 Three -Legged Sustainability Tool 34
2.4 Levett’s Model of Sustainability 34
2.5 ISO 14001 and environment management systems 55
2.6 World Distribution of ISO 14001 certifications in 2013 60
2.7 Evolution of ISO 14001 certificates in Libya 60
2.8 The number of ISO 14001 certificates issued from 1996 to
2009 61
2.9 LCA framework 63
2.10 Summary of Life Cycle Assessment procedure for a typical
industry 66
3.1 Map of Libya 77
3.2 Drake Well 81
3.3 Libyan crude oil production, Jan 2000 – May 2012 83
3.4 Libyan crude oil production, Jan 2010 – Sep 2013 83
3.5 World’s top 10 holders of proved crude oil reserve 84
3.6 Petroleum upstream exploration and production activities 90
3.7 seismic survey 91
4.1 Research strategy 113
4.2 Qualitative research implementation 117
4.3 the research design 122
4.5 the research process adopted for this study 128
4.6 Alignment of research questions with the research
objectives 129
4.7 Samples of interviews 135
4.8 Interviews data analysis process 138
4.9 Case -study planning 140
4.10 Selected case -studies 141
4.11 Case Study data collection method 143
4.12 Participants in the interviews (from case -studies) 144
5.1 Participants in the interviews during the case -studies 154
5.2 Participants in the interviews in the early stages of the
research 154
5.4 Qualitative Analysis diagram 1 160
xix 5.5 Qualitative Analysis diagram 2 160
6.1 Age groups of respondents 174
6.2 Petroleum company type 175
6.3 Industrial experience of participants 176
6.4 Participants’ operational department 177
6.5 Employee positiion 178
6.6 Partiicpants opinoion towards their company envrioemtal
performamce 179
6.7 Sustinaiblity practices mean score 182
6.8 Barriers to sustainability 186
6.9 Mean score of success factors 189
6.10 Mean score of Motivations for sustainability 191
6.11 Mean score for solutions for negative environmental impact 193
6.12 Employee opionin towards sustainaiblity 194
8.1 Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO
14040:2006; modified) 215
8.2 Description of system boundary 216
8.3 Network Diagram 220
8.4 Destination between Oil field and Oil refinery (Google Map,
2015) 222
8.5 Overall scheme of the IMPACT 2002+ vQ2.2 framework2,
linking LCI results via the midpoint categories to damage
categories, based on Jolliet et al. (2003a). 231
8.6 Characterization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included. Results are specified per
functional unit of 1 kg of produced crude oil 237
8.7 Normalization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included. Results are specified per
functional unit of 1 kg produced crude oil 239
8.8 Normalization results for analyzed COEP system with
distribution system included – endpoint level 240
8.9 Single score results - midpoint level 241
8.10 Single score results - end point level 242
8.11 General cause -effect chain for environmental impacts
(adopted version from Finnveden 1992) 243
8.12 In depth analysis - characterization results (main unit
processes) 245
8.13 The most contributing substances to the Non -renewable
impact category 246
9.1 SMS development process 257
9.2 Proposed Sustainability Management System for Libyan
Petroleum Sector 259
9.3 Revised Sustainability Management System for Libyan
Petroleum Sector 310
1 | P a g e
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction
his chapter offers a guide to the research and the problem being
investigated. It provides an overview of the work conducted in this
research study , methodolog ies applied, the key findings and the
contribution to the body of knowledge. The chapter is arranged into a number of
sub-sections , which include the context and rationale of the research study, aims
and objectives, an overview of the work done and the structure of the thesis.
1.2 Context o f the Research
Since the industrial revolution and the discovery of oil on the face of earth, the
oil
industry became the main supplier of energy in the world. The world economy is
highly dependent on oil ( Ferrier and Fursenko, 2016 ). It is agreed that strong,
fruitful, and efficient petroleum industry is vital to econ omic and social
success.
Frank et al. (2016: p. 1190) argued that the " oil and gas industry is
internationally
recognized as one of the most economically important industries for society ".
They state d that the petroleum industry contributes significantly t o every
economy; for instant, in 2008, U.S . petroleum industry was the largest source of
energy , around 62% of the total energy consumed in the US (38% from oil and
24% from natural gas). In the UK, the petroleum industry covered 73% of the
UK’s total primary energy and paid £11.2 billion in corporate taxes in the year
2012 (Oil & Gas economic report, 2012). The o il industry has not only contributed
to the economy directly but also indirectly because of the large number of
employ ees in the supply chain (Keane and Prasad, 1996).
Whilst there are clear commercial benefits associated with the petroleum
industry, there are some pro blems as well. George et al. (2016: p. 197) stated
that the "oil and gas indust ry, despite being the mainstay of global economic
progress, is known for damaging the environment, destroying habitats and
adversely affecting the livelihood of communities living near operation sites ".
The
amount of carbon being emitted by the oil industr y is far too high for the T
2 | P a g e
environment to sustain with a three - fold increase reported in the last 50 years
due to increased demand for oil by industry and in transportation use, for
example. (Saswattecha, et al. 2015). The Petroleum industry ha s been criticised
by researchers, n on-governmental organisations (NGOs) and environmentalists
for its high environmental impacts, health and safety issues and environmental
damages which is mainly attributed to the lack of effective sustainability
management and processes to decrease the negative effects of it (Krupnick and
Gordon, 2015). They believe that sustainability approaches and systems are
essential for better -performed petroleum operations, less carbon dioxide
emissions and more social, economic and envir onmental benefits. According to
Fuchs (200 7), advancement in engineering and technology, have improved
petroleum operations ' effectiveness in relation to production and sales , but
sustainability has been neglected for quite some time.
However, more recent studies argue that " oil and gas companies have become
aware of environmental implications of their operations and as consumers have
imposed increasing market demands for environmental safety and sustainability "
(Frank et al., 2016: p. 1192) . This implies t hat petroleum companies have started
initiating sustainability programs and approaches to tackle their sustainability
issues. Omer (2008) adds, that with the increasing concerns from the
international community and organi sations such as the United Nations (in
particular the United Nations Environmental Programme ) and governments,
many of the international pe troleum companies have implemented su stainability
approaches and practices as a response. Some of these approaches are the
Environmental Management Sys tems such as the ISO 4001 and the Eco -
Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) ( Anifowose et al. 2016; Iraldo et al.
2009). Other companies have created their own sustainability programs where
they publish their performance in an annual sustainability report. Th ese
companies have adopted many approaches fro m internationally recognis ed
systems to enhance their performance as well.
In developing and under developed countries there is evidence that many have
not shifted to the concept of decreasing the environmenta l effect which this
industry is causing (Hall, et al. , 2013) and are still happy to put profit well
ahead
of environmental concerns. Many developing countries especially in the Middle
East have made small progress in sustainab le development when it comes to the
3 | P a g e
petroleum industry. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has produced standards which
ensure the sustainable development in the oil rich parts of the country and they
have even introduced ISO 4001 in many organi sations, which surel y is a big step
forward (Bag and Anand, 2014). However, many organisation s in the country
have not yet recognised and embraced sustainability.
Moreover, George et al. (2016: p. 197) explained that oil and gas companies
"have been accused of ‘green washing’ in their marketing campaigns and
corporate reports, and concerns have been raised over their sustainability
policies and practices. Reduced profits have resulted in some oil and gas giants
drastically reducing their spending on high capital renewa ble energy (solar and
wind energy) to focus on investments with better returns, such as bio -fuel
technologies and cleaner ways of using fossil fuels, which are far from ‘green’ ".
This is true in many developing countries with weak environmental regulations
including Libya.
When it comes to Libya, Zahari and Shurbagi (2012) believe that petroleum
companies are very slow in implementing modern concepts and approaches of
sustainability. Furthermore, Mohamed, et al. (2012) add ed that there is little
research i n the sustainability literature concern ing Libya in general and the
Libyan
petroleum companies in particular. In fact, these research studies are just
concerned with the renewable energy perspective . According to Busnaina and
Woodall (2015) , the Libyan eco nomy is mainly dependent on the revenues of the
petroleum industry, which create about 95% of export incomes, 80% of GDP, and
99% of government revenue. Libya has the highest revenue generation through
the petroleum sector with the smallest population size in Africa, according to
Bindra and Salih, (2014). This demonstrates the significance of the petroleum
industry in Libya. Yet, sustainability and environmental management have been
widely ignored at the Libyan petroleum companies as claimed by some scholar s
such as Emodi and Boo, (2015).
Libya is a developing country, which has endured negative experiences in recent
times due to several events in which the country’s development process was
hindered. Libya witnessed wars, sanctions, invasions and instability which is
still
ongoing. Libya gained its independence in 1951 but it d id not fully utilise its
wealth
as it was sanctioned by the UN for almost two decades , which has affected the
4 | P a g e
country’s development. Due to these issues , in near past and coming future, the
Libyan Government has tried to develop the economy of the country and the
biggest asset in this respect is the petroleum industry. Keeping the sanctions in
mind, the Libyan Government has focussed on the eco nomic benefi t and
profitability of the p etroleum industry and ignored the Environmental and
sustainability part of it (Chikaire, et al. 2015). On the other hand, Busnaina and
Woodall (2015: p. 786) argued that " since 2003, and the lifting of UN sanctions,
Libyan econo mic reform has progressed substantially, and the country has
worked hard to re -integrate with the global business community ".
However, despite the recent economic developments, s ustainability in the Libyan
petroleum sector remains neglected . The government has not yet utilised the
country's substantial financial resources to develop the national infrastructure
or
the economy, nor implement modern systems and technologies to boost the
sustainability of the petroleum sector. The environmental performance index for
2014 ranks Libya 120th out of 178 countries (EPI, 2014), which suggests a
country with serious environmental degradation. Considering that the main
industry in Libya is the petroleum industry, this indicates that the major
environmental issues stem from the petroleum operations. Biltayib (2006 ) state s
that major sustaina bility concerns in Libya relate to pollution, emissions from
fossil fuels, flaring and other chemical wastes. He added that the Libyan
petroleum sector suffers from various infrastructure damages, lack of technology
and external political factors.
Other researchers such as Bindra et al (2015) argue that the key issues with the
Libyan petroleum companies are related to humans i.e. lack of effective
management, negative attitudes of employees towards the environment and poor
sustainability awareness. Evidently, there is a clear gap in knowledge and
implementation of sustainability approaches in the Libyan petroleum companies
compared to the international petroleum companies in the developed world.
Current literature tends to focus more on renewable energy utilisation in Libya
rather than organisations ’ sustainability performance (e.g. Bora, and Dubey,
2015; Ahmad , 2014) . It is the intention of this research to develop a
sustainability
management system, which addresses sustainability issues and environmental
impact in order to enhance current practice.
5 | P a g e
Recently, there has been a growing interest in sustainability research . Dresner,
(2008) and Adams, (2006) argue that the history of sustainability is new and can
be traced back to the 1970s. Wittgenstein (1953) state s that the “meaning” of a
word is defined by the way language used. It can have full meaning, some
meaning, or may be empty of meaning, consequently, to explain a word , it is
sensible to appreciate its history and its background . The term “sustainability”
is
given various definitions in the existing literature and m any scholars have
approached the meaning differently. The term “sustainability”, which literally
means the “ability” to “sustain”, is presently a key concern that appears to have
a vague interpretation by many academics and practitioners.
Largely, sustainability is professed to be ecology. The word “Eco” mea ns
“environmentally friendly ” or “sensitive”. Ecology is defined by Oxford
Dictionaries, (2014) as the “ the branch of biology that deals with the relations
of
organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings ”, whereas
sustainability is derived f rom the Latin word “sustinere” – meaning to sustain .
Many other synonyms like to keep in existence, to maintain, and to keep (The
free Dictionary) are also provided demonstrat ing a clear difference between the
words, whil st some are complement ary. Mensah et al, (2012) stated that the
current debate is about what may be termed sustinere -eco, which literally means
to hold the environment or maintain the environment. Adams (2006) stated that
the term 'sustainable development' isn't that new and can be traced back to a
conference held 3 decades ago.
It is claimed that sustainability began from the United Nations conference on
human environment when poverty was the key issue at the time (UNEP, 1972).
A thoughtful statement by India's former P rime Minster, Indira Gan dhi, argued
that “p overty is the worst pollution” (Dresner, 2008; Adams, 2006). This
statement
changed researcher's understanding of sustainability. The social aspect of
sustainability became as important as the ecological and economical aspects.
The term eco -development was formulated at the first meeting as an intention to
develop environ mental protection. The concept of sustainability was f irst cited
in
the conference of Science and Technology for human development (World
Council of Churches, 1 974) and was a reaction to concerns of developing
countries about deprivation and poverty (Dresner, 2008) ; poverty being the main
6 | P a g e
theme of both c onferences. I n the 1980s and through the world conservation
strategy , the term 's ustainable development ' emerged (Adams, 2006).
It was in 1987 when the concept of sustainability and sustainable development
became fam ous following the United Nations Brundtland report. This defines
Sustainability as the “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs” (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987 : p. 8). In 1992 , business
leaders and government institutions increasingly acknowledged sustainability at
the United Nations conferen ce on Environment and Development. Since then,
research in the field of sustainability aimed to enhance the appreciation and
understanding of organisations, societies and individuals in relation to the
influence of economic activities on the nearby environ ments and society as a
whole (Daily, et al. 1994). Still, however, practitioners and researchers in this
field
perceive the meaning of sustainability and sustainable development differently.
Some scholars view sustainable development is an oxymoron, as de velopment
appears to involve environment degradation. Some say that sustainable
development is shrinkage and the word is used to cover up the continuity of
destroying the natural world (O’Riordan, 1988). The perspective of Serageldin
and Grootaert (2000) a nd Porritt (2007) is that the economy itself is a subsystem
of human society, which in itself, is a subsystem of the biosphere (the totality of
life on earth). In addition, no subsystem is able to expand beyond the capacity of
the total system. Others from an economic perspective argued that sustain able
development is too cautious and watchful for the future, which affects the
economic growth for the sake of extreme anxiety about depletion of natural
resources (Dresner, 2008).
Sustainable development is also defined as “a development that improves the
quality of human life, while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco
-
systems” (Hill and Bowen, 1997) . Adams (2006: p.2) sees the definition of
Brundtland report as general and vague. He argues the concept gets individuals
together but does not essentially aid them to decide on purposes; therefore,
sustainable development debatably sums up meaning nothing. According to
Dresner, (2008, p. 66) sustainable development is a “contestable concept”.
7 | P a g e
Researchers involved in complementing the B rundtland report and the debate of
sustainability definitions argue that disagreement about the wording does not
mean it is meaningless. The deviation of opinions debated above demonstrate s
the complexity of the concept and evidences that sustainability is vaguely defined.
Thus, this study reache d a conclusion that there is no clear and common
understanding of the concept of sustainability, but there is a separate and
overlapping theme of e nhancing the economy and upholding the biosphere and
human race. Sustainability in the petroleum industry is taken as a different and
standalone concept.
Since the developments towards the concept of sustainability, there have been
various Sustainability i nitiatives implemented to enhance individual organisations
’
sustainable development (Whiteman and Cooper, 2000; Savitz and Weber,
2006). Theoretically, the concept of sustainability includes three overlapping
pillars: the environment, the economy, and the society (Katrinli et al . 2017;
Karunasena et al. 2016; Galpin et al. 2015). Meaning that for an organisation to
be truly sustainable, it has to exhibit exceptional environmental, economic, and
social performances. Song et al. (2017: p. 100) defined sustain ability in the
context of supply chain management as " a strategic, transparent integration and
achievement of social, environmental, and economic goals in the systemic
coordination of key business processes for improving the long -term economic
performance of the individual company and its supply chains ".
A “triple bottom line” theory ha s been developed by Elkington (199 7, 2004) which
recommends that the only way to become truly sustainable is to concurrently and
continuously balance social, environmental an d economic objectives in a way that
improves competitiveness and safeguards long -term survivability a s well as
thinking about the effect on future generations. In addition, sustainability is not
only about the minimisation of environmental impacts, but als o about smarter
management of an enterprise's strategic, operational and organisational affairs .
(Savitz and Weber 2006). Álvarez et al. (2017: p. 3890) argue that the concept of
'Triple Bottom Line' " provides a new framework to manage the sustainable
projects and its main objective is to improve the economic, environmental and
social performance, simultaneously, and to contribute to the reintegration of the
techno -sphere and natural ecosystems ".
8 | P a g e
Three concepts a re provided. Social Sustainability (SS) which can be attained
by systematic community participation and strong civil society ( Goodland and
Daly, 1996: p. 1003) . The most important considerations stated are “moral
capital” like diversity, sodality, sense of community, humanity, love, patience
honesty etc.
Economic Sustainability (E cS) which is about utilising the assets available to
the enterprise in an efficient manner , so that growth and profitability can
continue
overtime. Wise et al. (2016: p. 31) argued that the economic component of
sustainability is concerned with " regeneration, and its focus is often on income
generation aimed at reviving and sustaining the economy ". Wise et al. (2016: p.
32) also stated that the "economic indicators drive chang e and development.
Economic development in its broadest sense not only considers urban income
generation, but also how such developments create new cultural, social and
employment opportunities ".
Environmental Sustainability (ES) is mainly about improving the welfare and
social sustainability of humans by ensuring that raw m aterials are protected and
risks associated with human practices are minim ised to reduce the impact on
mankind (Serageldin et al, 1994). In other words, Environmental sustainability
means, “maintaining natural capital”.
Despite the fact that this research aims to tackle all sustainability issues in the
Libyan petroleum sector, it gives more emphasis towards the environmental side
of sustainability. Economic and social sides are not addr essed in full in this
study
due to the need to ensure the research is specific.
Seuring et al. (2008: p. 1545) provided a more comprehensive view of
sustainability and defined sustainable management in the context of operations
management as the " management of material and information flows as well as
cooperation among companies along the supply chain while taking goals from all
three dimensions of sustainable development, i.e. economic, environmental and
social, and stakeholder requirements into a ccount. In sustainable supply chains,
environmental and social criteria need to be fulfilled by supply chain members to
remain within the supply chain, while it is expected that competitiveness would
be maintained through meeting customer needs and related economic criteria ".
9 | P a g e
This definition doesn't just emphasise the importance of integrating the three
pillars of sustainability, but also argues that the success of an organisation's
sustainability efforts is contingent upon the involvement of key stakehold ers and
on meeting customers' needs, wants and expectations.
Factors such as continuous improvement, organisational culture, personal and
organisational responsibility are seen as vital to the success of an organisation
and significant in approaching chan ge and development (Kuipers et al., 2014).
Kamal, et al. (2014) argue that continuous improvement culture is important for
organisations to develop, and therefore, petroleum companies need to embrace
a continuous improvement culture in all their systems an d operations to maximise
benefit. Kongsvik, et al. (2015) admits that Libyan petroleum companies have
issues with organisational culture and accountab ility towards the environment.
This research project sees continuous improvement culture and personal and
organisational accountability as very significant factors, thus, related issues
were
investigated and addressed in this research.
The Petroleum industry is a very polluting industry and as advised by the Oil
Industry International Exploration and Production Forum (E&P Forum) and United
Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), there have been various models of
sustainability developed. These models have mostly been extracted from the
“triple bottom line” theory developed by Elkington (199 7, 2004). Adams, (2006)
argues that mainstream sustainability thinking has become a three dimensional
idea i.e. environment, society, and economy. These have been displayed in
numer ous ways, as ‘pillars’, as concentric circles, or as overlapping circles
(Figure 1.1).
The IUCN Programme implemented in 2005, used the overlapping circles model
to establish that the three purposes ought to be better combined, with action to
reform the b alance among sustainability dimensions.

10 | P a g e

There are many sustainability models present at th e moment; Todorov and

Marinova (2009) classify them as (1) quantitative models, (2) physical models,
(3) conceptual models and (4) standardising models. These models are further
investigated in the literature review chapters. Each of these models have their
benefits and drawbacks, for instance quantitative models are critici sed for being
poorly equipped to provide a holistic perspective and address the local -global
viewpoint or acknowledge the necessity for stakeholders’ participation ( Waheed
et al. 2011). T he most concerning drawbacks of the conceptual models is their
inability to manage change and uncertainty.
There is no doubt that the current models of sustainability have major advantages
and have triggered many debates with policy makers, yet, there is a gap for
specific industries to have their own flexible models. For instant, the petroleum
industry, a very important industry for the world economy, lacks effective
systematic sustainability approa ches. Todorov and Marinova, (2011) critici se
petroleum companies for their “ineffective sustainability performance”, others like
Krishnaraj, (2015 ) claim that many of petroleum companies follow generic
systems such as the Environmental Management Systems ( ISO 4001) and Eco -
Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). Others still claim to have their own
approach to address sustainability such as (McPhee, 2014).
Adams (2006) stresse s that in spite of the accomplishments of the last three
decades , the current models of sustainability and sustainable development are
evidently inadequate . He adds that the key issue with sustainability concepts are
not that the hopeful values they signify are wrong, but that they are “over -worked
and tired” as presently expressed, as th ey are too loose to make effective
change .
Figure 1.1: Models of sustainability (source: Todorov and Marinova, 2009)
11 | P a g e
He is of the opinion that the efforts which are being made on this issue are
becoming obsolete and as a consequence, .we need to i ntroduce new and
improved techniques .
Many other researchers agree with Adams, (20 06) and criticise the present
sustainability models and frameworks in that they are too optimistic and generic
and they suggest that there is a significant need to create models and systems
to tackle specific sustainability issues. Their effectiveness vari es depending on
factors such as the implementation drivers, the level of sustainability awareness
and top management commitment .
In the case of Libyan organisations, Elhuni and Ahmed (2014 ) argue that there is
massive lack of implementation of Sustainability and quality approaches in the
Libyan organisations. Although considerable research has been devot ed to
quality (i.e. L ean, TQM and ISO 9001), less attention has been paid to
investigate
the low utilisation of sustainability methods and envir onmental management
systems.
1.3 Synthesis of Recent Literature on Sustainability
Panagiotakopoulos et al (2015) argue that in recent years more emphasis on
sustainable development should be placed on the individual organisation. They
state there is a gap in the literature in relation to the ability to implement
sustainability into every level of the organisation. In their evaluation of the
currently available sustainability related standards such as ISO 26000, ISO
14001 and ISO 14044, they conclude that each standard can be regarded as a
distinct management layer and an integrated approach to sustainability
management is required . Other studies focus on the need to develop models that
can integrate Corporate Social Responsibility with current management systems
need ing to be more stakeholder -driven ( Ranänge and Zobel, 2014; Maas and
Reniers, 2014).
Lozano (2012) argue s that corporate leaders and employees have a vital role in
sustainability in which many different voluntary approaches, tools, initiatives and
standards have been developed to assist corporation engage sustainability.
However, he suggests that there has been a lack of clarity in determining how the
initiatives address different elements of the overall company system i.e.
12 | P a g e
operation s, processes, management strategy, communication etc. and how they
contribute to the sustainability dimensions. In a study carried out by Lee (2015)
which explored th e extent to which Korean companies adopt energy efficiency in
manufacturing production , it was found that the main drivers for sustainable
energy management include organisational and individual factors such as top
management and energy taxes.
In an extensive literature review carried out by Engert et al (2016) to explore the
integration of co rporate sustainability into strategic management, they found that
legal compli ance and stakeholder disengagement, as well as lack of
organisational learning and knowledge management are among the main barriers
that hinder the integration of corporate susta inability into strategic
management.
On the other hand , several scholars have discussed the importance of having
laws, regulations and legal frameworks in the context of incorporating
sustainability as a source of pressure to push companies towards corpora te
sustainability (Gond et al., 2012; Van Bommel, 2011; Schaltegger, 2011).
Moreover, Abdulrahman et al (2015) examined one of Egypt’s recent
sustainability improvement initiatives associated with refinery flare gas recovery
within the Egyptian Oil and Gas industry and found that technological,
administrative and operational considerations have limited the efficiency of the
new flare gas recovery project. Among st the barriers that w ere identified is the
inadequate internal capability and experience of opera tional staff as well as
reliance on low quality equipment. In another study carried out by George et al
(2016) to identify the barriers and enablers of sustainability integration into
performance management systems of an oil and gas company , it was found t hat
among the barriers are lack of key performance indicators and minimal
stakeholder engagement as well as the absence of an innovation culture for
sustainability. In terms of enablers , the study found that expanded sustainability
planning and top management commitment as well as stakeholder engagem ent
and feedback are critical for successful sustainability integration into corporate
strategies .
Similarly, Saeed et al (2016) assessed sustainability practices in the energy
sector of Iraq and found t hat Iraq suffers an unprecedented rise in the amount of
the greenhouse gas emissions and no governmental efforts are being taken to
13 | P a g e
integrate sustainability practices within the sector. Dubey et al . (2015 ) argue
that
leadership plays a significant role in integrating Total Quality Management
systems within organisations to help achieve better environmental performance.
Having a clear strategy in regards to sustainability was seen by Whi te (2009) as
essential for overall improvement of sustainability across organisations.
Sustainability has also been examined in relation to supply chain management
(e.g. Wilhelm et al., 2016; Seuring and Gold, 2013; Meixell and Luoma, 2015).
These studies affirm the need to develop appropriate performance measures,
stakeholde r engagement and the need for supplier partnership standards in order
to successful ly integrate sustainability into supply chain management
strategies .
Corporate Sustainability Management is another concept that has been
introduced by researchers which wa s described as an easy to underst and
concept but difficult to implement (Ameer and Othman, 2012; Kiron et al., 2012).
It is concerned with " how sustainability issues are dealt with in practice. In
profit -
oriented organisations, these usually form a subset of the corporate competitive
strategy. One essential item here is the advantage that is identified by the
management board while pursuing sustainability, that is, the strategic reason
stated for developing and implementing a specific corporate sustainabili ty
strategy " (Baumgartner and Rauter, 2017: p. 82). The basic assumption of the
Corporate Suitability Management (CSM) is that for organisations to survive in
the long term, they need to have a balance between financial, environmental and
social performance (Rahardjo et al., 2013).
However, there is limite d scope to its applicability. For example, Vnoučková et al
(2014) point out that for the CSM to be successfully incorporated within
organisations there are several factors that should be taken into consideration
which include; the amount of commitment of s hareholder s to encourage the
management to be involved in social and environmental issues, the corporate
culture, stakeholders’ engagement and organisational as well as individual
factor s.
Sustainability culture was also another area examined by scholars in the field in
which they emphasise that having a sustainability culture is vital in creating a
strong corporate sustainability (Linnenluecke and Griffiths, 2010; Robinson and
Boulle, 2012; Arevalo et al., 2011; Aris et al., 2016; Busc h, 2016). The initia
tives
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need ed to create a culture of sustainability can be summarised to include;
integrating the organisation’s vision and strategy with sustainability corporate
employee involvement and participation in planning process, creating a learning
organisation w hich allows for continuous improvement and building an inspiring
and proactive leadership towards sustainability management. This argument is
supported by Matinaro and Liu (2017: p. 3186) who stated that " there are variety
of causes that are against strate gic sustainable development. These causes
include ineffective leadership, ingrained cultures, outdated technologies, and
poor logistics ".
A Sustainability culture requires " radical, systemic shifts in values and beliefs,
patterns of social behavior, and m ultilevel governance and management
regimes " (Olsson et al., 2014). Hence, recent literature on sustainability
management triggers the need for having a robust and comprehensive
sustainability management system that takes into account the organisational,
environmental and human factors based on empirical collection of data , which
was the purpose of this research study.
In a study carried out by Esquer -Peralta et al (2008) exploration of the
perception
of different experts in regards to having a holistic sy stems approach to
environmental, social and economic elements was conducted . The study found
that management systems were useful for sustainable development but did not
provide a framework for the integration of sustainability practices into one
system.
In summary, there has not been an integrated and a holistic approach to
sustainability management within the oil and gas sector a nd the current EMS
systems cannot fully achieve sustainability as argued by Panagiotakopoulos et al
(2015). In the Libyan contex t, there have n't been any studies that aimed to
explore sustainability practices in the petroleum sector.
The issues in the Libyan petroleum companies differ from th ose at other
international petroleum companies but these have not been fully investigated and
consequently, no holistic system has been developed to address the m and
improve current sustainability practices . Concerns include all kind of practices
from creating a system , to training people to follow ing it in an appropriate way
to
get the best ou t of it. Hence, this study set s out to fill this gap in the
sustainability
literature.
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Key Rationale P oints:
1. The Petroleum industry contributes significantly to every economy, it
impacts every person, especially where they live or work. The
management of sustainability is essential for having a green, efficient and
vibrant economy and society. Equally, the petroleum industry is the highest
contributor to emissions and other environmental degradations. Therefore,
effective sustainability management is cruc ial to every society, economy
and environment.
2. The integration of sustainability principles which consider environmental,
economic and social factors is extremely significant to the success of the
petroleum industry.
3. Continuous improvement culture is crucial for any organisation to adopt
sustainability approaches. It eases the implementation process of any
development approach (Environmental management approach, quality
improvement approach or sustainability system) in any organisation .
4. Not only the systems are required to be introduced in many countries, but
also the employees and all other stakeholders are required to be trained
to use those systems. There are many countries or organisation s where
they have introduce d good systems on sustainability but stakeholders are
not trained which resulted in poor results.
5. In sustainability management, numerous empirical and professional
studie s have established the significance of effective sustainability
approach, where enviro nmental sustainability is recogni sed as a major
contributor to the reduction of emissions and meeting the UNEP
requirements. Many researchers stress the significance of a sustainability
management system for petroleum companies which could be tailored to
specific organisation situation s.
6. In spite of numerous r esearch studies into sustainability, there are few for
the Libyan petroleum industry specific ally and limited sustainability and
environment management systems in both the literature and practice.
Even though existing approaches have been critici sed as insufficient and
limited, they cannot be replaced since there is no better replacement yet
established.
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• The existing approaches such as EMS ISO 4001 and EMAS are
generic approaches and are not specific f or petroleum companies.
• There is a l ack of effective identification of problem s and barriers to
the implementation of new approaches.
• No systematic approach to implement new concepts of
sustainability .
• Lack of will to work on this concept by the higher authorities.
• Poor awareness of sustainability in developing countries .
• Lack of training and professional continuous development .

1.4 Aim, Objectives and Research Questions

1.4.1. Aim
The aim of this research is to develop a sustainability management system (SMS)
for petroleum companies in Libya . Critical investigations will be conducted with
the purpose of identifying, and subsequently minimising, environmental impacts
and the barriers to SMS implementation lead ing to enhanced sustainability
practices.
1.4.2. Research Objectives
To achieve the research aim, the study address ed the following objectives:
1. To c ritically review the literature on the concept of sustainability,
environmental sustainability and enviro nmental management systems as it
applies to the petroleum industry.
2. To empirically investigate the sustainability situation in the Libyan petroleum
sector to identify and assess relevant issues and environmental risks.
3. To identify and critically analyse the barriers and success factors of
implementing sustainability approaches and environmental management
systems in the Libyan petroleum industry.
4. To explore the extent to which sustainability is being practiced in the oil and
gas industry in Libya through quantitative and qualitative approaches and
using case -studies .
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5. To develop a Sustainability Management System (SMS) for petroleum
companies operating in the oil and gas industry in Libya.
6. To evaluate and validate the developed SMS and create guidance to support
its implementation .

1.4.3 Research Questions

The research sought answers to three main questions :
Q1. What are the sustainability problems and challenges associated with the
Libyan petroleum operations, and what are the major environmental
sustainability impacts in the Libyan petroleum industry?
Q2. What are the barriers to the implementation of sustaina bility approaches
and environmental management systems at the Libyan petroleum
companies and are there examples of recognised good practice that can
be shared ?
Q3. How can the sustainability problems and challenges identified in Q1 and
the barriers and suc cess factors identified in Q2 be addressed in an
innovative sustainability management system to enhance current
practice? Moreover, how can the new SMS be implemented to maximise
performance and reduce environmental impact ?
1.5 Rationale of the Study:
1.5.1 Theoretical Rationale (Scientific Relevance):
It is argued by Goodland (2008) that Libya lacks scientific studies on
sustainability
but the country has the potential to become an environmentally sustainable
nation . There is no published literature about sustainability management in the
petroleum sector in Libya. Previous studies about Libya have focused on the
environmental aspect of sustainability in the manufacturing, transport and food
sectors (Emhemad et al, 2014; Maatugh, 2016; Abogrean and Bindra, 2015;
Saad, 2016).
Hence, the theoretical rationale of this study arises from the fact that no
previous
studies were carried out to examine the challenges face d by petroleum
companies in Libya to adopt sustaina bility practices. This study will, therefore,
make a significant contribution to the academic literature especially in the
context
of developing countries and the oil industry in particular .
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There are different level s of research undertaken in this study which help ed the
researchers obtain feedback from the stakeholders of the petroleum industry and
add it to the literature (from t he Libyan prospective ). As explained earlier,
there
was no academic research being undertaken in the area of sustainability
implementation in Libya at the time of starting this research , so this surely was
the rationale behind th e study. The study did not only involve social research ,
but
also adopted scientific research as part of the methodology. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) and Environmental Impact Assessment were part of the study
and the result s from them will give future researchers some basis for their
studies
in the Middle East . The study conclude s by creating a Sustainability Management
System (SMS) which is aimed at helping the petroleum industry in Libya
implement a system which will ensure employees and other stakeholders
decrease the adverse effects of the petroleum industry on environment.
1.5.2 Practical Rationale (Societal Relevance):
Both petroleum exploration and pro duction pose significant risks to the
environment (Kharaka and Dorsey, 2005). In Libya, the petroleum indust ry is the
country’s main source of revenue (Mohamed et al., 2009). Hence, and based on
the researcher’s own practical experience in the petroleum se ctor in Libya, there
is a need for a robust system to be put in place to ensure that environmental
impacts are minimised. This emphasises the need to investigate the problem in
its natural setting. Thus, the practical rationale for this study arises from t he
fact
that it is based on a case -study design to explore and investigate the issues that
face the petroleum industry in Libya from the perspectives of industry -specific
professionals and policy makers in the country along with using methodological
approa ches to acquire scientific evidence.
Environmental sustainability is among the goals of the United Nations Millennium
Development Goals (UN, 2010). All countries are required to improve their
environmental sustainability. Thus, this study focuses on ensur ing that the
petroleum sector in Libya adopts an integrated approach to environmental
management that aims to reduce environmental impact s such as the reduction of
harmful gas emissions and achieving economic benefits.
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Moreover, the study has focused on important issues related to the Libyan
economy since the growth and development of the national economy relies on
urgent and sustainable improvements in its oil and gas industry.

1.6 Organisation of the Succeeding Chapters

Chapters 1 to 3 have focused on the existing knowledge and information using
various literature sources such as books, e -books, journal articles, professional
and government website etc. to provide the solid basis for this research. The
literature review chapters have al so highlighted a gap of knowledge and
established the context of this study, in other words, the first chapters focused
on
secondary research (stage 1). This chapter ( 4) has provided the research
methodology followed to achieve the research goals. The subsequent chapters
are concerned with the primary research , in which the results of each stage are
presented and discussed. These pave the way for the development of the SMS
model as well as presenting the key conclusions and recommendations of the
study in the final chapter. Chapter 5 presents the findings of the qualitative
study
that was carried out in Libya using semi -structured interviews. Chapter 6
presents
the results of the quantitative approach that used a questionnaire survey which
was distribute d among employees working in the oil and gas sector to understand
their concerns, awareness and challenges that face the oil and gas industry in
Libya in terms of sustainability and env ironmental management. Chapter 7
presents the results of the Environmen tal Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA can be
described as a procedure that aims to assess, analyse, and inform, all possible
effects which any new project, process or development has on the environment.
To further explore the issues associated with environment al management and
sustainability in Libya, EIA was carried out to assess various impacts in Libya so
that sources of these impacts can be identified and mitigation measures
proposed. Chapter 9 presents the results of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
that wa s carried out in Libya. The LCA study has been designed to appropriately
identify the best actions to undertake in order to minimise the environmental
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footprint of the crude oil extraction process. Chapter 10 presents the
Sustainability Management System t hat was developed as part of this research.
The chapter presents and discusses in detail the process that was adopted to
develop the proposed system and also elaborat es on the different system
components.
Sustainability management in the oil and gas indust ry requires a systematic
approach that aims to integrate policy -making, technology, organisational and
individual factors. This chapter further provides a detailed explanation of the
benefits of the developed system and its application in the Libyan contex t taking
into consideration the barriers and challenges. It also presents the results of the
validation study that was carried out to test the usefulness and suitability of the
proposed SMS model to the Libyan context. Chapter 10 presents the conclusions
of the study and discuss es whether the research objectives have been achieved.
The chapter also lists specific recommendations to the policy makers in Libya
and discusses the research limitations and ideas for future research.
1.9 Chapter Summary
The purpo se of this chapter i s to provide a summary of the overall thesis . It
presents the problem statement followed by the aim, objectives and research
questions. It also gives the thesis structure.
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Chapter 2

Literature Review
2.1. Introduction
ustainability is not a new topic but researchers are working hard to find
the exact meaning of it and that of sustainable de velopment in relation
to different subject areas . This chapter explores the term “sustainability”
and how it has been interpreted b y various scholars. Initially, th e chapter gives
an overview and background of the sustainability definition. It will discuss the
evolution of sustainability and the debate surrounding its definitions before
briefly
review ing the models of sustainability. This chapter concludes with the
establishment of a clear understanding of the sustainability definition in the
specific area of research.
Environmental deterioration has become a significant problem in recent decades
and we need to move towards sustainabl e development in order to save the
planet from our own selves. There are different issues which are making things
ever worse. Climate change and global warming risks are rising significantly
( Hall
et al. 2017: Starik, and Kanashiro, 2013). Bui and de Villi ers (2017: p. 5)
referred
to climate change risk as all risks associated with " changing fuel prices and the
related changing valuation of generation equipment, the direct cost of carbon
emissions, windfall gains for renewable generation capacity, societal pressures
and customer reactions, competitive risks, and opportunities to invest in new
renewable generation ".
The petr oleum industry has been criticis ed as one of the largest contributors to
the world ’s carbon emissions and the main hurdle in the way of attaining
sustainability . For example, despite the petroleum industry ’s significant
economic
contributions to the UK’s GDP and its use for the supply of 75% of the UK ’s
primary energy source (Total Energy , 2014) , it contributes to about 133.9 million
tonnes of carbon emissions representing around 28.8% UK’s CO 2 emissions.
In Libya, the petroleum industry is the most significant sector in the country and
represents over 90% of government revenues . It contributes 61.69 million ton nes
of carbon emission, which is higher than for any other source. The p etroleum S
22 | P a g e
industry is economically driven and originated for economic benefits.
Practitioners and researchers in the field of sustainability are studying ways to
attain sustainability in other sectors to reduce the reliance on petroleum products
for energy generation. They have concentrated on renewable energy sources
and technologies, yet a large amount of environmental emissions are incurred by
oil and gas operations which cannot be easily ignored .
Although it is known that renewable energy sources are increasing, the petroleum
industry is still a significant energy provider and is not likely to be replaced by
other industries in the near future (SESR, 2006 and Mohamed et al., 2012) . There
are energy replacem ent developments in the market like s olar, air etc. but still
the
main emphasis of our energy consumption is petroleum. T herefore, any industrial
endeavours and management measures are essential to address and achieve
sustainability for petroleum operations, which might help save our planet.
2.2. Background of Sustainability
Wittgenstein (1953) stated that “ meaning ” is defin ed by the way language is
used.
He stated that the meaning of the word depends on how it is used and how the
receiver will interpret it. A word may have full meaning, some meaning or be
empty of meaning, consequently, to explain a word it is sensible to a ppreciate its
history and background , since the definition of a word is vital to its
understanding.
In order to understand the real meaning of the word sustainability and find the
perfect definition of this word, we need to discuss the history and context of the
word first (Pennington, et al. 2014).
The term “sustainability” has various definitions in the existing literature, which
makes it difficult to define a common clear definition. Many researchers and
scholars have approached the meaning of sustainab ility differently depending on
the subject it is related to. According to Van Zon (2002), it was only during the
second half of the 20th century when the terms “sustainability” and “sustainable”
appeared for the first time in the Oxford English Dictionary. Van Zon reported
that
other equivalent terms were used in other language such as ‘ durabilite ’ and
‘durable’ in French, ‘Nachhaltigkeit’ which literally means “lastingness” in German
as well as “duurzaamheid and duurzaam” which are in the Dutch language.
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Sustainability means the ability to sustain and practitioners as well as academics
in the field define and interpret sustainability into many different ways. In its
early
use, sustainability was always linked with the term “eco” which means
“environmentall y friendly” or “sensitive” that is abbreviated from the term
“ecology. According to the Oxford Dictionaries (2014), ecology is defined as “ the
branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to
their physical surroundings in a given time ”. Hodge, (1997: p. 9) defined
sustainability more specifically as the " persistence over an apparently indefinite
future of certain necessary and desired characteristics of both the ecosystem and
the human subsystem within ". The Latin word “su stinere” which means to sustain
is the root word of sustainability. It has many other synonyms such as to keep, to
maintain and to preserve. According to Mensah et al (2012), “sustinere -eco” is
the term that is receiving much debate in which it means to ho ld or to maintain
the environment.
Adams (2006) states that the term sustainability is new and can be traced back
to a conference held 3 decades ago. It is claimed that sustainability began from
the United Nations conference on human environment when th e poverty was the
key issue at the time (UNEP, 1972). A thoughtful statement that changed our
understanding of sustainability was given by the Indian prime Minster, Indira
Gandhi which is “Poverty is the worst pollution” (Dresner, 2008; Adams, 2006).
The use of the word pollution was the main cause of all the happenings and it
caused the foundation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in
Kenya (Dresner, 2008). The term eco -development was first formulated at the
first meeting as an intention to develop the environmental protection.
The term 'sustainable development' was first established in the conference of
Science and Technology for human development in early 1970s (World Council
of Churches, 1974). It was a reaction to the objections of d eveloping countries
about the environment wh o felt there should be more focus on human s in some
parts of the world suffering from deprivation and poverty (Dresner, 2008, p. 1).
Poverty was the main theme of both conferences. It is in the 1980s, through the
world conservation strategy that the term Sustainable development was
progressively adopted (Adams, 2006).
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The concept of sustainability came to the surface in 1987 when the U nited
Nations issued the Brundtland report. It defines sustainability as the
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs ” (World Commission on
Environment and Development, 198 7, p. 8). Although the Brundtland definition of
sustainable development is popular, there is no one generally recognised and
accepted definition. Pearce et al, (1989) in their book “blueprint for a green
economy ” mention 23 definitions, and Murcott (1997) revised the list and
combined 57 different definitions of sustainable development, which make it very
confusing even for people working in the same subject area. Pezzey (1992)
archives sixty definitions ! In 1992, sustainability was increasingly acknowledge d
by business leaders and government institutions through the United Nations
conference on Environment and Development. Table (2.1) shows the key
historical milestone of sustainability as offered by (Yusuf et al., 2013.p502)
Table 2.1 Key significant stages of sustainability (Yusuf et al., 2013: p. 502)
Year Event and description
1946 Introduction of Sustainable agriculture
1949 First UN Scientific Conference: The issue of social and economic
development through proper management of natural resources in order
to avoid their depletion was first mentioned.
1968 Inclusion of environmenta l issues in the global consciousness and
agenda: UN Economic and Social Council added environmental issues
to its major agenda.
1972 First Earth Summit: The UN Conference on the Human Environment
took place in Stockholm and came up with a declaration th at first
mentioned the issue of climate change.
1983 Establishment of Brundtland Commission: The resolutions titled ‘‘The
Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond’’ was passed
by the UN Assembly
1987 Brundtland Report was published: The report first brought the issues
of sustainable development to the spotlight
1990 World Climate Conference: Indicated an urgent need for international
action on the environment.
1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development: Requests for
various countries to consent to the UNFCCC framework.
1997 Kyoto Protocol came into existence: The agenda was to reduce carbon
emission to at least 5% of 1990 levels from 2008 –2012.
2009 UN Climate Summit: Recognised the need to keep rising temperatures
at r2 1C but failed to provide the protocols to do so.
2010 UN Climate Change Conference, Cancun: Latin American countries
threatened withdrawal if developed countries were not mandated to
show more commitment to the Kyoto protocol.
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2011 UN Climate Conference, D urban, South Africa, 28 November to 11
December 2011, was meant to establish a new treaty to limit carbon
emissions. All the countries at the conference agreed to a legally
binding deal that will be prepared in 2015 and to take effect in 2020.
Progress was also made concerning the creation of a Green Climate
Fund (GCF).

Research in the field of sustainability aims to enhance the appreciation and

understanding of organisations, societies and individuals in relation to the
influence of economic activities o n the nearby environments and society as a
whole (Daily, et al. 1994). Yet, the meaning of sustainability and sustainable
development is perceived differently by practitioners and researchers in this
field.
Some scholars view sustainable development as an oxymoron , since
development appears to involve environment degradation. Some s ay that
sustainable development, as a concept, is used to cover up the continuity of
destroying the natural world (O’Riordan 1988). Others like Missimer et al. (2017:
p. 44) argu e that " sustainability is thus about the elimination of mechanisms of
systematic degradation of essential aspects of both the ecological and the social
system ".
The perspective of Serageldin and Grootaert (2000) and Porritt, (2007) is that the
economy itse lf is a subsystem of human society, which is a subsystem of the
biosphere (the totality of life on earth) and that no subsystem is able to expand
beyond the capacity of the total system. Others from an economic perspective
state that sustai nable developmen t is too cautious and affects the economic
growth for the sake of extreme anxiety about depletion of natural resources
(Dresner, 2008). This initiated a debate among researchers from various fields.
Some economists see consumption of the Earth’s capital as if it were revenue.
Sustainability is also defined as “non -declining capital” by David Pearce where
earth is discussed as a natural capital ( Dresner, 2008: p. 76). Sustainable
development is also defined as “ a development that improves the quality of
human life, while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco -systems ”
(Hill and Bowen, 1997) defined by Caring d oe the Earth. Regardless of the fact
that Adams (2006, p. 2) sees the definition of the Brundtland report as imprecise,
he thought th at it ingeniously captured two vital issues: environmental
degradation and economic growth. He disputed that the definition of sustainability
26 | P a g e
is general and vague, which is backed by many other researchers and scholars.
This concept gets individuals togeth er, but does not essentially aid them to
decide
on purposes, therefore sustainable development debatably ends up meaning
nothing. According to Dresner, (2008, p. 66) Michael Jacobs likewise states that
sustainable development is a “contestable concept”.
The UK Government ’s definition of sustainable is captured with this quote: "our
strategy for sustainable development aims to enable all people throughout the
world to satisfy their basic needs and enjoy a better quality of life without
compromising the quality of life of future generations ” (HM Government, 2005: p.
6). D ebate of sustainability definitions argue that disagreement does not mean it
is meaningless. There is sensible agreement that sustainable development
should address ethical authoritative and moral necessities to provide for the
wants of those alive at present without hindering future generations' probabilities
of the same. The deviation of opinions debated above demonstrates the
complexity of the concept and evidences that sustainability i s vaguely defined.
Thus, this study reaches a conclusion that there is no clear and common
understanding of the concept of sustainability, however there is a separate and
overlapping theme of enhancing the economy, and upholding the biosphere and
human rac e.
Nevertheless, explanations and meaning such as those conveyed by the
Brundtland report and the UK government provoke as many questions as they
answer. For instant, whose life do we mean? How are we to differentiate between
desires and needs ? Is it just for us living in the developed world ? Regrettably
the
answers are not clear -cut. Besides, despite sustainability as a subject matter
being complex and treacherously subjective, the overwhelming question is `how
is sustainabil ity to be achieved in practice ?’ This question requires some
elaboration of the conditions that must be satisfied and it is this qualified
definition
that is developed here. The following section will discuss the definition of
sustainability and produce a context -specific definition - a definition that is
consistent with the needs of this study.
2.3. What Is Sustainability ?
In order to move forward with the study, it was important to agree on one
definition
from the literature. Thiele, (2013), argues that sustainability is one of the least
27 | P a g e
meaningful and most overused words in the English language. She suggests that
it might be clearer if the practice of sustainability was more measurable and
impactful. A common understanding of the term sustainability is hard to attain due
to the limited discussion of the definition in the current literature.
Whenever we hear or read about sustainability, our attention diverts towards
environmental issues, because sustainability is always referred to in the context
of the environment, but this is not actually the case. To be truly sustainable, an
organisation, or a project must do more than just safeguard nature and protect
natural resources. In fact, it must meet and support economic needs as well. In
parallel, it mus t address social needs a nd equitable relationships. Sénéchal et
al.
(2017: p. 331) explained that sustainability is " hinged on three dimensions: the
social dimension that consists of looking after the welfare of people, the
environmental (or ecological) di mension that deals with the planet's health, and
the financial dimension aimed at reducing costs and boosting benefits ".
The term “ sustainable development” was used to support the sustainability
phenomena , in which economic aspects were added to the former ecological and
social aspects that were presented and introduced by the Brundtland Report in
1987. Furthermore, the Agenda 21 with “sustainable development ” as a glob al
object was a declaration signed in the United Nation’s Conference on
Environment and Development in 1992 , in which more than 170 nations
participated. The declaration was considered by many as another milestone in
the sus tainability arena. However, Agenda 21 was not followed by great
cooper ation from member states of the UN, so an opportunity was lost to further
ensure that sustainability was a key priority of governments’ policies.
Another issue with the understanding of the subject of sustainability is because
the terms `sustainability' an d `sustainable development' are being used
interchangeably. The problem is seen by the ambiguity of the phrase `sustainable
development (O’Riordan 1988). Some might think that the term `development'
means `economic growth' but it has a much wider emphasis than just economics
and is intended to embrace `quality of life' and the fulfilment of wellbeing
necessities (Pearce et al, 1989). Selmes (2005) agrees with Thiele, (2013) and
argues that there is a significant need for more clarity about sustainability wi
thin
the field of environmental management and other disciplines. The need for clarity
28 | P a g e
is due to the risk of confusion, but more seriously the failure to effectively
communicate and understand sustainability issues which in return damages the
ability to ac t decisively (Boron and Murray, 2004). So, in order to work properly
in
the field, we really need to understand the difference between the two terms .
The UN definition of sustainability has been criticised by Taylor (2002) in which
he argued that determini ng the future needs of the next generations is a difficult
task because of the differences in perceptions and values that they could have
from the people of today. Moreover, Taylor indicated that needs are perceived
differently between developed and develo ping countries. However, it can be
argued that the UN definition provide s better understanding of two important
areas associated with sustainability which are : the need to raise awareness about
environmental impacts that exist as a result o f economic growth , and combating
poverty in societ y.
A conceptual model to describe the three interconnected sectors associated with
sustainability was proposed by Barton (2000) and Du Pressis (2000) in which the
model presents how the economy, the society and the e nvironment interconnect
as shown in Figure 2.1. They argue that a reasonable level of balance should be
kept amongst these three areas so that sustainable development can be
achieved. According to Boron & Murray, (2004) sustainable development is
defined as “ a system for the meeting of needs in a way that could continue
forever, and the state of sustainability is the result of sustainable develo pment
achieved globally ”. The definitions explains that the term sustainability is the
general outcome and sustainable development describes this outcome functional
and is implemented at a more local and specific scale (such as an organisation
or a country ). It is similar to the Brundtland 's definition which defined
sustainable
development as the " development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future gene rations to meet their own needs " (UN,
1987) .
The rate of environmental degradation as a result of e conomic growth and
development is increasing at a fast rate as reported in the literature. Developing
countries are also witnessing some degree of development associated with the
transformat ion of the earth as there is growing industrialisation in these co
untries.
This is highlighted by Wackernagel and Rees, (1996) who argued that
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consumption of resources as raw materials is high and growing which imposes
significant risks to the environment. Lang et al (2012) affirmed that a balance
should be maintained be tween the economy, the environment and mankind in
which many organisations, governments and the world at large is finding hard to
maintain. This could imply that the world efforts communicated through the UN
and other leading organisations of both develope d and developed countries are
coordinated to ensure sustainable development is incorporated at policy level.
There have been various s ustainability initiatives developed and implemented to
enhance organisations ' sustainable development (Whiteman and Cooper, 2000;
Savitz and Weber, 2006). Theoretically, the concept of sustainability includes
three overlapping pillars: the environment, the economy, and the society. This
means that for an organisation to be truly su stainable, it has to exhibit
exceptional
environmental, economic, and social performances. A “triple bottom line” theory
has been developed by Elkington (199 7, 2004) which recommends that the only
way t o become truly sustainable is to con currently and con tinuously balance
social, environmental and economic objectives in a way that improves
competitiveness and safeguards long -term survivability. In addition,
sustainability
is not only about the minimisation of environmental impacts, but also about
smarter m anagement of an enterprise's strategic, operational and organisational
affairs (Savitz and Weber, 2006).
The reasons for not having a clear definition of sustain ability as claimed by
Goodland and Daly, (1996) are because “Detractors are terrified of defi ning
Environmental Sustainability precisely since they know to do so would change
their behaviour ” (Goodland and Daly, 1996: p. 1002). They argue that for a clear
definition of sustainability, it is important to separate and distinguish the
environment, society and economy for sustainability. In othe r words, it is the
challenge of social scientists to define social sustainability, and the same goes
to
economists to define economic sustainability and environmentalists
“environmental sustainability”.
Three distinguished concepts are given. Social Sustainability (SS) is attained by
systematic community participation and strong civil society. Almahmoud and
Doloi (2012) described social sustainability as a " positive condition within
communities and a process that can achieve it ". Goodland and Daly, (1996, p .
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1003) state that social sustainability emphasises “moral capital” such as
diversity,
sodality, sense of community, humanity, love, patience honesty e tc. Ahmad and
Thaheem (2017: p. 3) identified eight soci al issues that are commonly addressed
by nations as part of their social sustainability efforts, namely: " health,
participation, safety, security, accessibility, education, identity and job
opportunity ".
Economic S ustainability (EcS) refers to “maintenanc e of capital”. Economic
sustainability includes using the various assets of the enterprise
efficiently to let
it continue functioning profitably over time (Business Dictionary).
Environmental Sustainability (ES) seeks to improve human welfare and social
sustainability by protecting the sources of raw materials used for human needs
and ensuring that sinks for huma n wastes are not exceeded, to prevent harm to
humans (Serageldin et al, 1994 ; Soflaei et a. 2017). In other words,
environmental sustainability means “maintaining natural capital” (Cook et al .
2017).
In the 20th century, we were able to see our planet fr om space for the first
time .
It did not look as if it was dominated by a pattern of human’s activities, but more
like a pattern of small ball s surrounded by clouds, and domina ted by oceans, soil
and woods. Humans failed to fit their activities into that pa ttern, which affects
and
changes our ecosystems. Several of these activities and changes risk life-
threatening dangers. This new reality must be re alised and managed effectively
since there is no escape f rom it (Morelli, 2011).
In regard to the concept of environmental sustainability (ES), Goodland, (1995 )
discussed the hist ory of sustainability and pointed out its significance. He
attempted to define ES by distinguishing it from social and economic
sustainability. He stated that sustainable development (S D) should integrate
environmental, economic and social sustainability and use them to make
development sustainable. Goodland (1995: p. 10) defines environmental
sustainability as “Maintenance of Natural capital”. By this d efinition , he
confirms
that ES is a natural science concept which follows biophysical laws. He also
defines ES and SS, as being all related and conne cted to ES. Morelli, (2011)
agrees with Goodland ’s definitions and confirms their validity. In this
research,
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these definitions are not repeated, but also are accepted as valid and will be
used
to proceed for further developing the concept.
The discussions above indicate that the term “environmental” is what is largely
associated with and describes the relationship between human s and the
ecosystem. It is shown that the terms sustainability and sustainable development
have been revolutionised over the past three decades. Several definitions have
been proposed by many scholars and organi sations to clearly define and inter pret
sustainability and societies can achieve sustainable development. This research
is focused on enhancing environmental sustainability of the Libyan petroleum
sector. In other words, it addresses how Libyan petroleum c ompanies could be
more efficient, environmentally friendly, resources efficient, produce lower
emissions and apply effective waste management . Fu rthermore, humans’
influence is still considered in this research due to the fact that it represents a
major pa rt of the problem and the solution at the same time. This research
considers the definition of sustainability by Brundtland to be valid .
2.4 Models of Sustainability
Sustainability as a concept is wide -ranging, covering far more than environmental
issues . To make the matter more manageable, as discussed by Goodland (1995),
the subject is often differentiated between economic, social, and environmental
domains. All the three domains are so well connected that it is difficult to
contemplate significant prog ress in any one domain of sustainability to the
exclusion of others (Selmes, 2005). Indeed, the requirement that all three
domains are properly accounted for is central to the `triple bottom line' (TBL)
approach , which is the core theory of this concept.
2.4.1. Three -overlapping Circle Model of Sustainability:
The sustainability concept is often portrayed pictorially as three intersecting
circles of social, economic and environmental objectives (Mebratu, 1998) (see
Figure 2.1). The intersecting circle model look s like a Venn diagram (This is a
mathematical concept which shows the common things in two sets within
overlapping circles) and imply that the delivery of social, economic, and
environmental goals will deliver `true' sustainability at the point where these
three
features (circles) overlap (we can see this in Figure 2.1 as S).
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Figure 2.1: Three -overlapping Circle Model of Sustainability (Source: Mebratu,
1998)
The overlapping region correctly suggests that all three domains have to be
ultimately satisfied, but this does not mean that all efforts towards
sustainability
are required to be balanced between these three domains. This model does not
replicate the fact th at the economic sphere is exclusively reliant on the other
two
and is therefore somewhat vague. Of the economic, social and environmental
aspects of sustainability, it is the environmental issue that is the most
fundamental and it is sensible that be refle cted in such a diagram (Brockhaus et
al. 2017).
It is the natural environment that supports societies and economies (Mitchell,
2000). In other words, the environment can survive without human societies and
economies, yet economies and societies cannot su rvive without the
environment's resources, which surely make s the environment domain the most
important one in this theory ( Wagner, 2015) . Economic advantage has to be
based on sustainable activities which function within the constraints of society
and nat ure. Furthermore, economic mechanisms must promote sustainable
activities which then deliver a sustainable economy. In fact, the integration of
environmental sustainability into organisations' strategic management functions
is believed to contribute positi vely to their economic sustainability. Wagner
(2015:
p. 1310) argued that the " integration of environmental issues relates positively
to
economic performance and thus also support the notion of organisational
idiosyncrasies in the case of integration. Ther efore, firms that increase
integration
can realise competitive advantages and improved performance in a variety of

33 | P a g e
economic performance dimensions, such as risk, image, efficiency or market
performance ".
In today’s world, humans tend to see themselves as somehow emancipated from,
or in control of, the natural environment. The human s believe that they can
control
nature , but this is not the case as they are actually under the control of the
Mother
Nature . This perception is unhelpful as it makes it harder t o see problems , yet
this kind of thinking is perhaps encouraged by the intersecting circles model.
What is more, interpreting the three domains as requiring equal attention
encourage s thinking about the continued practicality of trade -offs which arises
directly out of the business dilemma. Unfortunately, this model implies that the
economy can exist independently of society and the environment —that the part
of the economy circle that does not overlap with the society and environment
circle s has an existence of its own. This large incongruity leads us to the next,
more accurate model.
2.4.2. Three -Nested Dependencies Model of Sustainability:
Also referred to as concentric circle model of sustainability, it is believed to be
more accurate tha n the previous model.

Figure 2.2: Three -Nested Dependencies Model of Sustainability ((source: Mensah et

al. 2012)
This model tells us that everything is dependent on each other, i.e. all the three
factors are dependent. As far as this model is concerned , the economy is
dependent on the society, which means that money can be taken out of the
society and there is no other place to get the money. The society is dependent
on the environment, which means that the money is also dependent on the
environment.
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2.4.3. Three -Legged Sustainability Stool:
The 3 -legged stool model considers three dimensions which are essential to
enjoy a high quality of life by mankind. It also affirms that high quality of life
cannot
be achieved if one of the three is weak. However, this metaphor separates the
economic, environmental and social legs which are the core of the sustainability
concept.

Figure 2.3: Three -Legged Sustainability Tool

From Figure 2.3 , it can be seen that the stool is not a strong metaphor, which
explains why t he model is not much used in defining and explaining
sustainability.

2.4.4. Levett’s Model of Sustainability:

Figure 2.4: Levett’s Model of Sustainability (Levett, 1998)

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A model such as Figure 2.4 is consistent with that presented by Reid (1995 : p.
34) during a discussion of ‘The Limits to Growth ’. The diagram Reid uses actually
goes further in that it represents the environment as a thermodynamically closed
system. Since `economy' is a construct of society it is possible to go further
still.
Levett makes this very point and re -defines the 3 intersecting circles model as
concentric circles or `Ru ssian dol ls' (Levett, 1998) (see Figure 2.1 ): “`The
economy' is not an end in itself or a force of nature. It is a social construct .
It only
works as it does because human societies have created the institutions, and
inculcated the assumptions, expectations and behaviours which make it so ".
Levett's model is fundamentally different to the intersecting circles model (Figure
2.4). Whether or not the intersecting circles model is intended to imply a balance
of social, economic and environmental go als - or something else entirely - the
concentric circles model helps illustrate unequivocally that the economy is
`within'
society, and that society must live within the limits of the environment.
2.5. Categorization of Sustainability Models:
Todorov and Marinova, (2009) classifies sustainability models into five
categories:
• Pictorial visualization models
• Quantitative models
• Physical models
• Conceptual models
• Standardizing models

2.5.1. Pictorial Visualization models:

The three overlapping circles mo del (economic, social and environmental)
dimensions represented as pillars, Venn diagram or embedded circles are
classified as pictorial visualisation models. Todorov and Marinova, (2009)
criticis ed th em as they are limited in information but complemented them in
regard to reaching a broad audience.
2.5.2. Quantitative Models:
Boulanger and Bréchet, (2005: p. 340-341) state that the quantitative models
include, “ macro -economic models, optimization models, system dynamic models
and computable general equilibrium models ”. This area of models has been
36 | P a g e
extensively researched and as a result, a wide range of models have been
developed , with the m ost common being economic models (Faucheux et al.,
1996). These models are criticised in that they lack the hol istic approach to
address local -global perspective and fail to acknowledge the need for
stakeholders’ participation.
2.5.3. Physical Models:
Sustainability physical models are limited to its environmental component. F or
exam ple, they have been applied for urban design and energy efficiency
(Levings, 2004) and toxicity (e.g. Karlsson, 2008) and in realising engineering
ecology (Todorov and Marinova, 2009). These models a re very specific and
measurable; howeve r, their time period is limited. T hey app ly a par ticipating
methodology which covers only a disjointed part of the sustainability system and
therefore serves a limited purpose.
2.5.4. Conceptual Models:
The conceptual Models are more general and theoretical. The models belong ing
to this category are very broad and relate to societies. They alert global
environmental issues such as global warming and weather changes. Some of
these models date back to 1981 , with the work of the Club of Rome (Meadows et
al., 1971) to the effects of using nuclear power ( Turco et al., 1983) and Ozone
depletion (Litfin, 1994) on global warming and climate change . These models
seem to be more politically centred and similar to other categories, have their
pros and cons. The models have succeeded in alerting the general public / raising
awareness of environmental issues and have trigged a number of political and
environmental policies. Nevertheless, they lack tangible concrete solutions to the
sustainability crisis. The theoretical models make it difficult to manage
uncertainty
and as a result , give rise to a variety of opinions on their effectiveness . An
example of that is the so -called climate change rejection (Nuccitelli, 2014) .
2.5.5. Standardized Models:
The last catego ry of sustainabi lity models are the “Standardised Models”. One of
these examples include s: sustainability indicators. The United Nations provided
96 sustainability indicators (United Nations, 2007) . The standardised models
normally cover specific activities for example sustainable consumption or tools to
37 | P a g e
measure sustainability (Hamilton, et al., 1997) . Other models include ecological
footprint (Rees, 1992) and National happiness (Brooks, 2008).
Thes e models and indicators allow measure ment of the p erformance of the
system (Bell & Morse, 2008) , they can accommodate a very specific local –global
perception and the process of their development can be participating. Todorov &
Marinova, (200 9) argue that although these models attempt to measure
sustainability or unsustainability, we have many other signs available to us which
flawlessly resembles the present situation. Meadows et al., (1972) said and
quoted from Meadows , (2000) “We can learn at least as much about
sustainability by turning our eyes away from numbers and noticing the soil
washing down the streams, the clear -cuts where forests once stood, the changing
climate, the smell of city air, the places on earth too contaminated to live in or
too
desperate to be safe in, and the hectic emptiness of our lives. Some day we may
have numbers to measure these blatant signals of unsustainability. In the
meantime we can admit that we already know ”.
This acceptance of t he problem needs a new way of thinking about sustainability
as argued by Todorov & Marinova, (2009) ; they stated that we need to focus on
the actual process itself rather than the external component and outcomes. With
regards to this, the author agrees with Todorov and M arinova, (2009) however,
this does not mean that the author considers all the above models as
unimportant ; they are useful tools and provide guidelines to improve
sustainability
at various levels and situation s. Ultimately, however, we need a system which
looks at processes and activ ities to offer a better stewardship role of
sustainability ; a model which can be used in all kind of environment and
industries.
2.6. Triple Bottom Line: An Important Phenomena
As explained in the previous sections, the three overlapping circle model of
sustainability is also referred to as the Triple Bottom Line. The Triple bottom
line
is stated to as “a brilliant and far -reaching metaphor” (Henriques, 2007, p. 26),
the concept was coined by Elkington (1997). The term was not coined before the
1990s but is now well -known in environment quarters . TBL has been widely
researched over the past decade as discussed by (Norman & MacDonal, 2004).
38 | P a g e
Elkington (1997) point s out that TBL has integrated the economic and social
aspects with the environmental agenda. The sustainability issue is very well
explained by TBL because it not only connect s with the environment but also with
the economic and social parts of the society. Using economic, social and
environmental lines, TBL offers organisations the opportunity to measure their
performance as reported by (Geol, 2010). It is argued that TBL is a practical
framework or system of sustainability ( Rogers & Hudson, 2011). Many
researc hers believe that if any organis ation wants to develop a sustainability
system, they should follow the TBL. Hence, it could be argued that a consistent
and balanced focus on the social, economic and environmental aspects is
provided by the TBL agenda in which value wil l be created for organisations.
The three lines are explained below:
2.6.1. The Economic/Money Line
The impact of the organisation’s business practices on the economic system is
what is referred to by the economic line of the Triple Bottom Line framework. i.e.
Profit and Loss system (Elkington, 1997). Economy is taken as one of the
subsystems of Sustaina bility whic h will help the organis ation survive, support
future generations and do better in the future as a business (Spangenberg, 2005).
In other words, there is a relationship between the growth of organisations , the
overall economic growth of countries and the TBL framework . This relationship is
affirmed by focusing on the organisation’s economic value in the wider system
(Sarkis and Dhavale, 2015) . It is essential to keep a track of the profit and loss
system from an economic point of view in order to ensure sustainability in the
organisation .
2.6.2. Social Line:
Conducting beneficial and fair business practices to the human resources of the
organisation is what the social line of the TBL is referring to. Elkington (1997)
believes that social benefits should not just reach the direct human resources
associated with the organisation but also to the wider community. For example,
organisations should ensure that their employees and workers are receiving fair
wages and working in healthy and safe environments. Organisations need to
focus on giving back to their communit ies as part of their social
responsibilities.
Moulay et al. (2017: p. 59) stated that social sustainability denotes " the
development and growth suitable for the harmonious evolution of civil society.
39 | P a g e
These foster a supportive environment for greater cohabi tation of culturally and
socially diverse groups by preserving the capacity of current and future
generations to create healthy and livable communities ".
Over history, many companies have witnessed several issues with integrating
their social responsibili ties with in the wider goals of the organisation. For
example, as reported by Dhiman (2008) the public voted against the
establishment of a Home Depot in the Bay area of California during the civic
elections in 2002 as it was perceived to have negative impa ct on the residents.
Thus, as outlined by Geol (2010), the social element is very important in relation
to addressing community involvement, employee relations and human resources.
2.6.3. Environmental Line:
Preserving the environmental resources for futu re generations is the core aspect
of the environmental line of the TBL. In other words, it focuses on the need of
protecting the environment by the efficient use of energy resources. It also puts
much emphasis on the need to reduc e greenhouse gas emissions and the
ecological footprint (Geol, 2010). This is because environmental initiatives
influence the sustainability of organisations as is the case of the social line.
A study by Kearney (2009 ) examined 99 sustainability -focused organisations
across 18 ind ustries in terms of their environmental impacts and how this
associated with the organisational performance. Several industries were
analysed which included retail, tourism, automotive, chemical, food and
technology. The main question was whether companies can withstand an
economic downturn if they are adopting sustainable practices. The selected
organisations were all part of the Dow Jones Index. A three -month and six -month
phase analysis was carried out. The study concluded that orga nisations which
had practices that are geared towards protecting the environment and improving
social well -being of the stakeholders were mor e capable of outperform ing their
peers financially. As explained by Kearney (2009), the financial performance was
associated with reduced operational costs as well as increased level of revenues
from innovative green products.
A study by Hidayati (2011) aimed to understand the extent to which the TBL
approach is being adopted in the execution of corporate social respo nsibility
programmes. Ho and Taylor (2007) us ed a quantitative approach on TBL
40 | P a g e
reporting in which it evaluated how economic, social and environmental issues
are reported within organisations.
2.7. Sustainability Efforts Made By Different Countries:
Different environmental agencies and governments put pressure on countries
and organisation s to work on sustainability development following worldwide
focus. All developing and developed countries started working on systems which
enabled a decreas e in carbo n emission, and they also started working on the
economic and social side of sustainability (Galal and Abdul Moneim , 2016).
Developed countries such as Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland have
had more than fifty years of industrialized activities and cutting down of rain
forests and a huge number of trees all over their countries, which have caused
the high accretion of gr eenhouse gases. However, developing countries such as
Brazil, India, Pakistan and China are just emerging in the industrialized world and
are regarded as not having contributed much to the accumulated greenhouse
gases. Through industrial growth, t hese coun tries have now started to pile up the
gases in the environment, which is a cause for concern. (Daioglou, et al. 2012).
The UNFCC therefore placed a restriction on the emission of greenhouse gases
of the developed countries while the developing countries we re not placed under
any mandatory obligation but were encouraged to access better technology in
order to curb their emissions. Following the industrial revolution in developing
countries, the obligations and rules have been forced on them a lso. (Liu et al. ,
2012).
2.7.1. Efforts made by Switzerland:
After being accused by International agencies o f doing too little to prevent the
erosion of rain forests and the environmental damag e this causes , Switzerland
was the first country to officially start work on sustainability. It work ed on all
the
three fronts previously defined i.e. environmental, social and economy. Almost all
the standards and policies, which are in effect right now were first introduced in
Switzerland. All the industries operating inside S witzerland are obliged to work
under the define d set of rules regarding environmental, economic and social
sustainability, in order that the country follow s UN agencies and partner rules
(Theurillat and Crevoisier, 2014).
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2.7.2. Efforts made by United Stat es of America:
The responsibility on the shoulders of United States of America regarding
sustainability is highest because of their stature in the world. They not only have
to put effort into ensur ing sustainability in their own country but also to make
su re
that other countries are doing so too (Lynch and Mosbah, 2017) . According to
Huang and Wang, (2013), the USA has done a very good job with this
responsibility. They have not only made efforts in their own country but have also
made huge investments in other countries to ensure sustainability in their
countries. The ir support has been technical as well as financial .
2.7.3. Efforts made by other European Nations:
Countries like Germany, UK, France, Spain and Portugal are also working on all
the three part s of sustainability. They have contributed towards many
sustainability systems and standards which are currently in use around the world
(Antonova, 2016) . Countries like the UK and France have also helped developing
countries financially so they can accelerate the adoption of good practices.
2.8. Environmental Sustainability
Goodland, (1995) claims that environmental sustainability definitions should be
left to environmentalists , economic sustainability to economists and social
scholars to define social sustainability. He described environmental sustainability
as the protection of raw materials and sources required to satisfy people needs.
He implies that people must not make more waste than the environment can
handle and that people ’s consumption should contemplate and give emphasis to
sustainability. Bracho (2000) stated that the numerous concerns that occur with
global warming have intensified the type of attention offered to environmental
sustainability. These severe consequences inclu de various weather changes,
floods, increased heat, drought and famine, amongst others, which will cause
disturbance for economic activities and lead to food shortage s.
Another significant issue is the depletion of oil reserves. According to forecasts
from the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2012) , the growth of the world
economy will increase by 60% in the next 20 years. In parallel, geological studies
estimate that global oil product will reach its peak around the year 2020 and from
then on, it declin es to the point of depletion (Bracho, 2000). According to
Bracho,
(2000) one way to avoid this is by the development of renewable alternative
42 | P a g e
sources of energy. Consequently, the public claim in the conventional oil world is
that the problem in the future will not be a lack of demand but shortage of oil
supply . Oil companies around the world use this declaration to defend investment
and favourable treatment. But this conservative understanding should be
confronted and challenged. Others such as Skjærseth & Skodvin, (2003 )
recognise the concerns and add that petroleum companies should do something
towa rds both the depletion of oil and the reduction of environmental impacts.
This
opinion is shared by George et al. (2016: p. 197) who believe that the " social and
environmental impacts of the petroleum industry have serious consequences and
call for sustain able solutions and practices. Embedding sustainability into
organisations is vital to address these issues, and requires the integration of
sustainability into performance management systems ".
Parry (2007) highlights that the climate change issue has become highly visible
and the goals and agreements offered by the Kyoto Protocol are seen by many,
especially by the developing countries as insufficient. Thus , there is a crucial
need to develop more ri gorous principles to limit the exploitation of the
environment by humans. In reality, the means of doing this has challenged
people. It appears that no country is ready to abandon its economic well -being
for the environment (Yahaya et al, 2012 ). Countries such as Libya and Venezuela
are heavily dependent on the ir petroleum industries and any reductions of the
demand will negatively impact their economies . Therefore, one way to reduce the
environmental sustainability issues and improve performance is by ensu ring
companies are responsible for their own environmental degradation and must
apply effective sustainability systems.
Yahya et al, (2013) stated that social sustainability is a means of achieving
economic and environmental sustainability. Goodland and D aly, (1996) argue
that social sustainability can only be achieved by the systematic community
participation and strong civil society. They add that social sustainability puts an
emphasis on “moral capital” which is concerned with diversity, sodality, a sense
of community, humanity, love, patience and honesty. It is also concerned with the
political and economic rights of people, socially conscious , corporate governance
structures, human development and labour rights (Meyer, 2000). Economic
sustain ability, in contrast, is concerned with the “maintenance of capital”.
Economic sustainability focuses on using the various assets of
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the enterprise efficiently to let it to continue functioning profitably over
time. This
is clearly different from environmental sustainability , which is concerned with
the
protection of the ecosystem and the preservation of natural resources (Serageldin
et al, 1994). In other words, e nvironmental sustainability focuses on
“maintaining
natura l capital”. This research mainly focuses on the environmental pillar of
sustainability in the Libyan petroleum sector, however economic and social
dimensions are also considered to some extent.
Morelli, (2011 : p. 23 ) defined environmental sustainability as “a condition of
balance, resilience, and interconnectedness that allows human society to satisfy
its needs while neither exceeding the capacity of its supporting ecosystems to
continue to regenerate the services necessary to meet those needs nor by ou r
actions diminishing biological diversity ”.
2.9. Sustainability in the Context of Petroleum Industry
Words and phrases like green, sustainable, ecological, renewable, conservable
and environmentally conscious may have clear meanings in different contexts
and situations, but in others, their meanings and implications are complex like in
the oil industry. Oil companies realise the importance of adopting sustainability
practices due to pressures from various groups and as reported by USGS (2000) .
However, th ere is limited understanding of how sustainability can be incorporated
into these organisations’ policies and strategies.
Sustainability as understood in the above sections means that it is a “forever”
term. However, in the context of petroleum industry k nowing that oil and natural
gas are non -renewable resources which are set to run out some point in the near
future, sustainability is more of an abstract term; it is hard to imagine the
petroleum industry can ever be fully sustainable. However, for many s cholars
(i.e. Bartlett, 2012) the term sustainability in the context of petroleum industry
does not mean “forever”. Rather , sustainability means more correctly as “an
approach of doing business” or “an approach of doing business in the best
possible way”. Bartlett, (2012 ) provided a business definition of sustainability
which conceptualises it as a means of “linking business decision -making to
ethical value, legal compliance and respect for people, communities and the
environment and at the same time, meet shareholders expectations ”.
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Bartlett's definition appeals to the author as it is more practical and achievable
in
the context of the petroleum industry. However, there is a vagueness of how to
balance the expectations of shareholders and the business goal s with
environment al protection, legal compliance and social welfare. This seems to be
the key challenge of incorporating sustainability principles in this industry.
Therefore, the author considers this definition as valid and the basis of this
research, h owever, the research will investigate ways to address the gaps this
definition leaves .
The World Commission on Environment and Development, (1987) defined
sustainable development as “ meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of th e future generations to meet their needs ”. It could
be argued as noted in the literature review , that oil companies find it difficult
to
differentiate between the concept of being “sustainable”, “green” or
“environmentally conscious” (Silvestre et al . 2017). Oil companies can use the
above definition of sustainability to evaluate their current business strategies
as
it encourages them to preserve the resources for future generations as well as
reducing their environmental impacts.
It is commonly argued in the literature that oil companies should focus on the
need of integrating sustainability within the ir corporate strategy as well as
develop ing and promot ing sustainable policies across the different levels of
their
operations. This w ill help oil companies achieve sustainable growth and
development especially when it comes to minimising the environmental impacts
of their operations. However, Silvestre et al . (2017) complained about the
excessive emphasis put on the environmental pillar of sustainability, while
neglecting the other two pillars. Silvestre et al . (2017: p. 361) argued that the
oil
industry " tends to see sustainability largely through the lens of environmental
concerns and initiatives. This tendency limits the sustainabilit y discourse and
the
perception of what sustainability truly is, creating confusion and misleading
impressions that an operation, organisation, or supply chain is sustainable, while
in reality the social dimension has not been seriously considered ". This suggests
that industries have other responsibilities towards nature and society, which they
need to fulfil in order to be successful and sustainable.
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Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is considered to be synonymous with
sustainability as it include s balancing economic, environmental and social
considerations into decision -making process es.
“CSR is defined as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically
and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of
the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society”
(Crane, et al. 2013).
CSR and sustainability have developed to be significant universal notions in
global discussions and have been well debated and at times followed up throug h
numerous initiatives by shareholders in the developed world (Szczuka, 2015) . In
the developing economies, despite the increasing concerns of the issues, the
level of debate varies from one region to another and one country to another.
Hence CSR has extended to contain not only traits of business conduct that
impose on environment al, social and economic issues, but also the role of the
corporate in regard to poverty reduction in the developing world (Prieto -Carron et
al. 2006). It is clear that for various reasons , such as environmental scandals,
globalisation, environmental issues , human rights issues, global warming and
climate change , petroleum companies are ‘ top of the list ’ for upsetting public
confidence in sustainability and CSR discussions. Thus , companies are "under
intense pressure to rebuild public trust and stay competit ive in a global economy
"
(Jamali, 2007: p. 1).
Sustainability and CSR are no doubt growing in the developing world, how ever,
these concepts vary from country to country and region to region (Eweje, 2011) .
In Libya, Libyan petroleum corporations lack sustainability and CSR in their
agenda (Attah, 2010) . This research considers that the sustainability concept
includes a business approach to optimise and improve environmental, social and
economic aspects in a balanced way. The sustainability goal is not about
unrealistic and unachievable goals such a z ero emissions , but it is about the
process of making sustainability improvements continuously and wherever
possible improve the welfare of local communities .
Despite the different understandings of the term sustainability and sustainable
development and the debate concerning the ambiguousness of the term, it is
generally agreed that in order for business es to be sustainable, they need to
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optimise their activiti es and processes in respect of the economy, society and
the
environment (Rodger and George, 2017) . This research focuses on the la tter
namely “ environmental sustainability”. H owever, it will still consider economic
and
social pillars to some extent.
The d efinitions of environmental sustainability as provided by the Brundtland
report, Goodland, (199 5) and Morelli, (2011) are all considered valid for this
research. In other words, to be environmentally sustainable and safeguard the
environment , businesses an d in particular, petroleum companies need to
minimise environmental impacts and wastes, seek zero air emissions, increase
energy efficiencies, promote sustainable power generation .
2.10 The Challenges of Sustainability
The petroleum industry is debatably the most vital industry to the world’s
economy (Hatler 2011) . Oil and gas products are no doubt the main energy
supply of the world and this is expected to last for several decades ( Longwell,
2012) . Petroleum companies must go through various economic risks as they
participate in investments of new exploration agreements and run large and
complex plant (Junior et al . 2017). This means that petroleum corporations have
to consider how their environmental performance relates to their financial and
strategic performances. Ste ad and Stead (2008, p. 6) defined strategic
management in the context of sustainability as the " processes that are
economically competitive, socially responsible, and in balance with the cycles of
nature. Whereas in traditional strategic management, the te rm, sustainable, is
typically used in reference to a firm’s ability to continuously renew itself in
order
to survive over the long -term, we’re taking a more comprehensive global view of
the term, referring not only to the survival and renewal of the firm i tself, but
also
to the survival and renewal of the greater economic system, social system, and
ecosystem in which the firm is embedded ".
Moreover, sustainability and corporate social responsibility related issues such
as climate change, energy policy, eco system protection, emissions, social
welfare and human rights are becoming the key debated and discussed
challenges (Hatler, 2011; Goldemberg, 2000 ). This is due to recent rise s in
consumer awareness of sustainability issues, as well as intervention from
governments, NGOs and other stakeholders. They refer to these concerns under
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general terms of “sustainability” or “CSR” and are requesting that corporations
display and report their activities and progress towards dealing with these
critical
challenges (du Plessis & Grobler, 2014) .
There is no doubt that the petroleum industry around the world face s major
sustainability challenges (Jafarinejad, 2017) . However, they have been widely
criticis ed that they are not doing enough to enhance their practices. For example,
Schweitzer (201 1) has conducted a review study into three large petroleum
companies namely BP, ExxonMobil and the Royal Dutch Shell. These three are
considered the largest oil and gas corporation s in the world. The author has
carried out an inten sive review into the companies’ sustainability reports to
invest igate whether the companies support the sustainability agenda and the
increasingly “green” rhetoric. The author used word count analysis for the
companies’ annual reports , operational data, ex penditure statements , and
corporate reports to clarify what each corporation is declaring and actually
doing.
The findings of her study suggest that although there are slight differences in
what each corporation does and declare s, each cor poration seemed oddly
similar. She state s that the similarity of their practices was due to external
pressures including press coverage, government legislation, advocacy
campaigns, participation in trade associations and the use of new technology.
Interestingly, just one single disaster in one of these companies could have a
significant impact on the whole industry.
It is important to understand that the statements of an organisation do es not
necessarily reflect the ir action, this goes well with the petroleum giant
companies
as discussed by ( Pulver, 2007 ). Petroleum companies especially the ones
originated in the developed world might have initiated programs to minimise their
emissions and waste, but this does not mean that their products and corporate
decisions are sustainable as they assert. This is considered to be “green -
washing”. According to a New York environm entalists, Jay Westeveland,
“greenwashing” is a term created to refer to the deceptive use of marketing w here
companies dishonestly claim that their policies, products and operations are
sustainable and environmental friendly (Sullivan, 2009). Oil companies such
Exxon mobile, Shell and BP are accused of green -washing (Schweitzer , 2011).
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On the other hand, these companies have been praised for their growing interest
and focus onto environmentally and socially conscious aspects of their str ategies.
One of these aspects is oil companies' investment in renewable energy sources.
In regard to BP, Shell and Exxon Mobile, part of their strateg y is to transform
their
companies to be sustainable. Renewable energy investments have already been
made by several oil and gas companies . Renewable energy sources include
wind, solar, tidal and geothermal heat. These types of energy sources are
considered clean to the environment and sustainable in that they do not deplete
and are able to be regenerated (Hussain et al . 2017). Unlike non-renewable
energy such as oil, natural gas and coal.
Despite the fact that renewable sources are excellent option s from an
environmental impact and emission point of view , there are major barriers
associated with the ir utilisa tion which stands as an obstacle for petroleum
companies to become a key p layer in renewables investment. One of these
barriers is the fact that renewable energy at its current capacity cannot offer
sufficient energy supply for even a small percentage of t he global energy demand
(Lucas et al. 2017).
Another obstacle is the economic feasibility of renewable energy programs and
projects. According to Schweitzer (201 1), renewable energy investment is
deemed not profitable in the short or medium term. For a gre edy petroleum
corporation, profitability is the ultimate goal for the business and this therefore
conflicts with their business goals. Therefore, this identifies other corporate
social
responsibility issues and business culture which requires change. To be fair, the
three giant petroleum companies mentioned above have been making
reasonable growing investments into renewable energy sources , but the
implications of these investments remain unclear.
Petroleum companies in the developing world and in particular the Libyan
petroleum companies , have made minimal investments in renewable energy. In
fact, they are not even making sustainability reports of their activities and
operations. Thus, it could be assumed that it is the time for the Libyan Nationa l
Corporation and its associated companies to show serious inte nt in enhancing
their sustainability performance and apply sustainability systems.
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Business culture and history is believed to be an influential factor on the
business
activities as discussed by Leung et al (2005). In order to understand the
petroleum companies ' statements and actions, it is important to consider the
historical root of each company individually and we should not generalise the
statements and actions of one specific corporation to the whole industry. Although
the structure and the business of each company is similar , the historical
background of each could influence the perspectives on sustainability matters of
each company . For example, the big petroleum corporation ExxonMobile , has
experienced numerous changes in the previous decades, most recently a union
between Mobil and Exxon in 1999 (Yergin, 2008). Similarly, BP has gone through
various changes in the past years ; it originate s in the United Kingdom and
according to Yergin, (2008) BP today is a result of a 2000 merger of Arco, Amoco
and British Petroleum.
2.11 Petroleum Industry Sustainability Impacts
Petroleum operations (upstream, midstream and downstream) have various
environmental impacts (Ahmad et al. 2016) . These impacts are dependent on
factors such as the size of the project, the process, the sensitivity and nature of
the project and most importantly, the effectiveness of planning, control
techniques, pollution prevention and mitigation measures considered before the
project (Ahmad et al . 2016). Oil and gas activities have impacts on huge areas
of
the land and sea . This applies to all stages from exploration activities, oil and
gas
field development to well drilling, production and decommissioning. The
Petroleum i ndustry requires a huge expansion, large infrastructure and
operations onshore and offshore , in addition to a great amount of drill cuttings
being discharged to sea and land.
This section will review the potential impacts associated with the petroleum
industry according to the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP, 1997 ).
It is important to note that these impacts with proper atte ntion and care, could
be
minimis ed or even avoided. These impacts are classified by their type and
namely are: 1) human, s ocio-economic and cultural impact; atmospheric impacts;
aquatic; terrestrial and biosphere impacts .
2.11.1. Human, Socio -Economic and Cultural Impacts
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Oil and gas operations are likely to encourage cultural, economic and social
changes. These changes mainly impact the local people in which the projects
occur. It may affect their traditional lifestyle. The crucial impacts include:
• Impacts on land, agricultural, fishing and hunting (for example land -take
and exclusion) or by affecting access routes and changes to physical land.
• Population level change, the petroleum operations will lead to labour
immigration and other immigration from remote areas due to enhanced
resources and opportunities
• Socio -economic changes due to new jobs.
• Socio -cultural impact s such as practices, beliefs.
• Access to services and goods, and the availability of these resources such
as healthcare, housing, fuel, electricity etc.
• Transportation due to increased movement (i.e. roads, sea and air).
There are also some positive chan ges that will occur due to these projects. These
might include infrastructure improvements, waste treatment, water supply,
education, health care and sewerage. There might be issues that a rise due to the
uneven distribution of such improvements lead ing to random consequences.
2.11.2. Atmospheric Impacts
Air emissions are one of major impacts gaining wider attention and publicity
globally. This is due to the direct influence of emissions to increase global heat,
global warming and climate change. Internati onal community, governments and
industries are all trying to find methods of minimizing atmospheric impacts.
Petroleum companies are expected to minimize their emissions. It is important to
understand the key sources of these impacts , which are :
• Flaring a nd venting
• Exhausts from combustion processes (heavy duty diesel engines, gas and
steam turbines etc. )
• Fleeting gases from process equipment , loading and tankage activities.
The main content of these emissions include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
organic carbon, methane and nitro us oxides. There is a possibility of emissions
of sulphur dioxides and hydrogen sulphide depending on the sulphur content of
the crude oil , especially when used as a diesel fuel. Furthermore, ozone
depleting substances are used in some fire protection systems, principally halon
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and as refrigerants. Flaring produces the highest emitted gases especially in
the
areas where there is no infrastructure.
2.11.3. Aquatic Impacts
Aquatic impacts vary throughout the oil and gas op eration streams but generally
they include:
• Chemica ls, well treatment substances, drilling fluids and muds.
• Leakages and spills,
• Cooling and produced water
• Drainage water, wash and process water.
Similarly to emission, the scale of these impacts is dependent on the amounts of
waste created at each phase of the project. It might be high at the initial stages
of the project , mainly the upstream operations and will decline at the mid and
downstream activities.
2.11.4. Terrestrial I mpacts
These are soil and land related im pacts which according to UNEP (1997 ) occur
from three major sources:
1. Physical disturbance as caused by construction;
2. Contamination caused by leaks, solid waste and spills.
3. Other impacts due social change.
4. Poor d esign and planning could lead to soil contamination.
These impacts negatively affect the environment especially plants, agriculture
and land farming.
2.11.5. Potential Emergencies
Petroleum operations by their natur e are accompanied by high risk from the early
stages of upstream operations to the last stages of downstream activities of sales
and distribution. Therefore, there are potential emergencies along the way which
must be risk a ssessed , prepared for and key measures of mitigation taken. Som e
of these potential emergencies include:
• Spills of crude oil, fuel, gas, chemicals and other dangerous materials.
• Oil/gas well expulsions
• Blowouts
• Fires for facilities and near by
• Un predicted plants upset and shutdown
• Natural disasters (i.e. floods, hurricane , earthquakes, lightening, wars etc)
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The e nvironmental impacts shown above are just a snap shot of the categories
and classifications associated with oil and gas operations. These impacts are
harming the environment, adding more risk to global w arming and climate
change.
Governments and organisation s are starting to integrate sustainability issues into
the business management framework un der a variety of terminologies such as
Sustainability strategy, environmental management strategy and corporate
Social responsibility (CSR) strategies ( D’Amato et al., 2009 ). Furthermore,
industrial sectors including petroleum compani es have responded differently .
One of these major reactions is that companies initiate or implement sustainability
managemen t system in an attempt to improve their sustainability practices. The
following section will review the major sustainability related systems that are
used
to deal with sustainability issues and environmental impacts.
2.12 Sustainability Approaches and Tec hnologies
In response to the sustainability issues and challenges, and with the pressures
from United Nations, g overnments, legislations, NGOs and most importantly the
consumer, organisation s are starting to develop and implement methodologies,
system and approaches in order to enhance their sustainability practices. These
approaches vary in the methodology, effective ness and validity according to
Singh et al., (2009 ). This section aims to review the relevant sustainability
approaches and system to the pet roleum industry. The goal is to establish an
understanding of these approaches, their merits and limitations according to the
literature. It is important to note that throughout this thesis the author refers
to
sustainability, environment interchangeably. However as clarified, sustainability
includes three pillars (the environment, economy, and society). Therefore, in
order to be sustainab le, an improvement and balance among the three must be
created. It was also clarified that the main focus of this research is towards the
envir onment pillar of sustainability, s o whenever the term sustainability is used
, it
basically refers to the “environmen tal sustainability” .
There are many different sustainability and environmental management systems
which are commonly implemented by organisation s, but the most popular are: the
Environmental Management system (ISO 4001); the Eco-Management and Audit
Sche me; and the British Standards BS 8555. Other technological and practical
53 | P a g e
sustainability approaches such as the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) and
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are also popular .
2.12.1 Environment Management System
Environmental Manage ment S ystem is a structured framework for managing
organisation s’ environmental impacts. Granly and Welo, (2014: p. 196) explained
that EMS is the " part of an organisation's management system that is used to
develop and implement its environmental policy a nd manage its environmental
practices. Through a formal EMS, companies are guided in their efforts to
systematically identify and manage environmental practices while communicating
their environmental commitment to corporate stakeholders ". It is a structured tool
which, once implemented, helps a firm to identify the environmental impacts
resulting from its business activities and to improve its environmental
performance (Australian Government 2004) . It offers a methodi cal approach to
planning , implementing and reviewing firms' environmental management ( Pun et
al., 2002) .
It is believed that aligning EMS with existing organisation al systems is more
effective ( McDonald et al., 2003). The environmental aspects of any fir m are all
of its products, services and activities that have an environmental impact. EMSs
enable firms to identify, control and minimis e these impacts ( Melnyk et al., 2003
).
It is argued by Melnyk et al. (2003) that the key purpose of an EMS is to develop,
implement, manage, coordinate and monitor corporate environmental activities
to achieve two goals: legal compliance and waste minimisation (Sayre, 1996).
For an organisation , compliance merely means attaining the essential legal
requirements for suitable environmental impact levels which is drive n by the
desire to evad e legal issue s and penalties. For instance, the inability to
fulfil the
legal standards could lead to amplified costs (fines), bigger outside int erference
in daily operations, and, in risky situations, issuance of cease orders.
Undoubtedly, environmental impact reduction goes beyond legal compliance and
focuses on organisation ’s activities to dramatic ally decrease negative
environmental impact. Th ough the idea of EMS pre -dates the acceptance of the
ISO 14001 EMS standard, scholars paid slight consideration to the study of these
systems. It was not until 1996, that the International Organisation for Standards
(ISO) published the standard and related guidance books (Melnyk et al., 2003).
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There are two key orientation st andards that set requirements for an EMS; the
ISO 14001 established by the International Organisation for Standardization
(Rino and Salvador, 2017) ; and the Eco Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
controlled by the European Regulation EC 1221/2009 (Testa et al. 2014 ). The
two approaches have been very successful due to their f lexibility which ease s the
process to set up and adapt an EMS based on the i nternal features and to
recognis e the best solutions to enhance their performance. The two EMS
standards are invest igated in more detail.
2.12.1.1 ISO 4001
The International Organisation for Standardization designed the Environmental
Management System ISO 4001 in 1996 with the intent to reduce environmental
business impacts , facilitate trade and reduce trade issues as well as raising
expectations for environmental practices worldwide (Meln yk et al. 2003) . ISO
believes that organisation s can meet these expectations if they properly
implement ISO 14001 (Ferrón -Vílchez, 2016) .
Since its introduction, ISO 14001 has been adopted by organisations all over the
world. The areas which are encomp assed include auditing, performance
evaluation, life cycle assessment, product standards and labelling (Tibor and
Feldman, 1996). Two general categories were proposed by Tibor and Feldman
when it comes to environmental management as shown in figure 2.5. Figure 2.5
illustrates the categories which shape the standards. The first category deals with
the organisation evaluation. This category deals with evaluating the
environmental performance of the firm and the auditing practice. The continuous
evaluation and auditing helps ensure that the EMS implementation is successful.
The second category deals with the product and process evaluation. It includes
the life cycle assessments and environmental labelling . The key focus is on the
product and process characteristics.

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Figure 2 .5: ISO 14001 and environment management systems (Source: Tibor and
Feldman, 1996)
Melnyk et al. (2003) state that EMS includes a set of practices and procedures
whose aim is to enhance the environmental performance of the firm. These
involve the trainin g of employees, monitoring, evaluating, summarising and
reporting the performance information to the internal and external holders of the
firm. The EMS requires detail ed documentation of environmental information
which is used to minimise and reduce enviro nmental impacts and enhance the
environmental performance. The focus internally is on the design, pollution and
emissions control and minimisation, waste reduction reporting to top
management and setting goals. EMS is also used to communicate the
environme ntal data of the firm in a form of annual reports to demonstrate
transparent responsibility which therefore enhances corporate image.
It is argued by Brandli et al (2009) that EMS and in particular the ISO 4001 is
an
essential business function in order for the business to attain competitive
advantage and comply with international environmental legislations and
standards. This is due to the fact that ISO 4001 has been proved effective in
allow ing the firms t o reach goals of enhanced environmental and corporate
performance. ISO 4001 certification is seen as an essential means of gaining and
sustain ing a competitive advantage ( Tibor and F eldman, 1996) and (Sayre,
1996 ). The standards are set for basic and struc tural elements of an EMS and
enable management to:
➢ Establish an environmental policy suitable for the firm

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➢ Aid the planning, implementing, regulating and controlling to ensure the
policy is followed and appropriate for the firm
➢ Identify the regulation and law requirements t hat need to be met.
➢ Create a program for implementing the policy and the environmental goals.
➢ Develop management and employee commitment to the stewardship of
the environment.
➢ Support the environmental planning throughout the firm ’s departments and
activities
➢ Offer training and resources to achieve the required performance levels
on a continuous basis.
➢ Create a management procedure to review and audit the EMS and to
recogni se opportunities for enhancement of the system and subsequent
environmental performance.
➢ Start and keep suitable communications with relevant internal and
external parties (Bernardo et al. 2015)
The ISO 4001 Environmental management standards focus on minimi sing
impacts to the environment, pollution prevention. It also focuses on incorporating
continuous improvement culture and uses the PDCA cycle. EMS can allow
savings in input and energy consumption and increase demand among
environmentally sensitive consu mers (Miles and Covin, 2000). The number of
ISO 14001 certificates has risen to 285,844 (see ISO, 2013). Research shows
that the implementation of the standards is very beneficial and has a significant
positive impact on the business performance (Braun, 20 05; Mendel, 2006).
Despite the fact that ISO 4001 is totally voluntary, the increasing awareness of
consumer of environmentally friendly products, make it a compulsory measure.
There are many benefits of the standards as anal ysed by many scholars such as
(Link and Naveh, 2006; Zaramdini, 2007; Gavronski et al., 2008; Singh, 2008) .
Table 2.2 shows the benefits arising from ISO 4001. Scholars have used various
proposed classification of benefits such as operation and financial performance
(Naveh and Marcus, 2004; Briscoe et al., 2005), internal and external benefits
(Casadesús et al., 2001) and many other classifications.

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Table 2.2: ISO 4001 benefits according to Bernardo et al. (2015: p. 262)
Benefits ISO 14001 studies
Efficiency (productivity, cost
savings, reduction in mistakes
and rework, shorter lead
times, improved management
control) Singels et al. (2001), Gotzamani and Tsiotras
(2002), Pan (2003), Arauz and Suzuki (2004), Lo
and Chang (2007), Martínez -Costa et al. (2008),
Singh (2008).
Improved customer
satisfaction (reduction in
complaints, etc.) McAdam and McKeown (1999), Singels et al. (2001),
Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002), Pan (2003), Arauz
and Suzuki (2004), Casadesús and Karapetr ovic
(2005), Lo and Chang (2007), Zaramdini (2007),
Martínez -Costa et al. (2008), Singh (2008)
Improvements in employee
results (motivation,
satisfaction, teams,
communication, knowledge) Arauz and Suzuki (2004), Casadesús and
Karapetrovic (2005), Rodrígu ez-Escobar et al.
(2006), Lo and Chang (2007), Zaramdini (2007),
Martínez -Costa et al. (2008).
Profitability Corbett et al. (2005), Lo and Chang
(2007), Zaramdini (2007), Benner and Veloso
(2008), Martínez -Costa et al. (2008).
Improvement in
systematization (improved
documentation, work
procedures, clarity of work,
improvement in
responsibilities) Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002), Rodríguez -Escobar
et al. (2006), Lo and Chang (2007), Singh (2008).
Market share Rodríguez -Escobar et al. (2006), Lo and Chang
(2007), Zaramdini (2007), Singh (2008).
Sales and sales growth Arauz and Suzuki (2004), Casadesús and
Karapetrovic (2005), Corbett et al. (2005), Singh et
al. (2006).
Improved image Terziovski et al. (1997), Lee (1998), Magd and Curry
(2003), Lo and Chang (2007), Zaramdini (2007).
Exports Magd and Curry (2003), Arauz and Suzuki (2004),
Singh et al. (2006)
Improvement in competitive
position/competitive
advantage Abraham et al. (2000), Rodríguez -Escobar et al.
(2006), Singh et al. (2006), Lo and Chang (2007),
Zaramdini (2007).
Improved relationships with
suppliers Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002), Casadesús and
Karapetrovic (2005), Rodríguez -Escobar et al.
(2006), Zaramdini (2007).
Improved quality in
product/service Gotzamani and Tsiotras (200 2), Magd and Curry
(2003), Zaramdini (2007), Singh (2008).
Improved relationships with
authorities and other
stakeholders Pan (2003), Magd and Curry (2003).
Environmental performance Yin and Schmeidler (2009), Russo (2009),
Gavronski et al. (2008), Barla (2007), Zeng et al.
(2005), Tan (2005), Potoski and Prakash (2005).

In summary, according to the study conducted by Bernardo et al. (2015) which

reviewed 59 research studies on the ISO 4001, the key benefits are classified
into internal and external benefits.
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INTERNAL BENEFITS
Internal benefits are the outcomes of the ISO 4001 implementation and include:
1. Global organisation
The benefits of the ISO 4001 implementation has been proved to increase the
efficiency of the organization as well as enhanc ing organisational culture and
continuous improvement. It provides a m ore efficient and easy communication
system in addition to reductions to resource costs (time, human and financial) .
These benefits lead to improved risk management and competitive market
management.
2. Human resources
The benefits to employees includes increased and enhance d training, increased
awareness of the significance of employee contributions to the organisation and
consequently enhanced staff empowerment. This also leads to increases in
employees’ motivation and productivity.
3. Performance
The EMS system enhances the environmental performance of the organisation
in addition to other external improvement such as higher quality products,
efficient
use of resources and improvement productivity.
4. Management systems
ISO 4001 frameworks improve the management system for an organisation
making the system more systemati c and integral with good planning phases
which incorporates environmental goals. This leads in the avoidance of
duplication in policies and procedures. Efficient documentation and recordings
also lead to generating sufficient data which could be used to improve the
business further.
5. Audits
The ISO 4001 frame work enhances the audits as ISO 4001 is a flexible standard
providing better definitions of management responsibilities.

EXTERNAL BENEFITS
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There are external benefits confirmed by (Bernardo et al. 2015: p. 262) which
include (1) enhance corporate image and reputation; (2) satisfied related
stakeholders and partners; and (3) integrated external audits.
On the other hand, EMSs in general and ISO 4001 has received criticism from
various scholars concerning their effectiveness in improving the environmental
performance ( Yin and Schmeidler, 2007; Morrow and Rondinelli, 2002; Link and
Naveh, 2006 ). For instant, Maier and Vanstone (2005) state that ISO 4001 is an
efficient framework for organisation to apply as it has various managerial and
operation benefits; yet, in regard to the environmental performance it is an
inadequate system due to the fact it gives organisation s the flexibility of
establishing realisti c environmental objectives.
Potoski and Prakash (2005) claim that ISO 4001 certified companies aren't
necessarily environmentally friendly as the certification procedure is g eneral
and
easy to justify. There is no doubt that ISO 4001 is a useful framewor k for
organisation to improve their management procedures and activities, yet in order
to attain environmental sustainability goals, there is a need for a specific and
inclusive sustainability system which integrates and deals with each business
industry a nd focus es mainly on environmental sustainability impacts.
In the context of the Libyan petroleum sector, it is noted that the Libyan
petroleum
companies lack the implementation of ISO 4001. In fact, according to the
International Organisation of Standards (ISO, 2013) only a total of 15 Libyan
companies have successfully gained ISO 4001 certification (see Figure s 2.6 and
2.7) and m ost of these are food and other industrial companies.
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Figure 2.6 : World Distribution of ISO 14001 certifications in 2013 ( Source: ISO,
2013 )

Figure 2.7 : Evolution of ISO 14001 certificates in Libya ( Source: ISO, 2013 )
To & Lee , (2014) show that the number of ISO 4001 certifications increases
gradually every year in the rest of the world , with Europe and the Far East hav
ing
the highest percentage of ISO 14001 implementation. In 2007, the Far East
exceeded Europe and since then has been the leading operator of ISO 14001
certification.

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Figure 2.8 : The number of ISO 14001 certificates issued from 1996 to 2009 (To &
Lee 2014)
There is a clear differen ce between the impl ementation and certification of ISO
4001 in the developed wor ld compared to the developing world and Libya in
particularly . Libyan companies in general and petroleum companies specifically
need to start implementing environmental management systems as the benefits
it offers to organisation s is significant. However, it is known that the lack of
implementation has many explanations . Some studies , such as González, (2004 )
investigated this and concluded a number of reason which include the
bureaucratic work and the costs associated to the certification, the lack of time,
and the difficulty of dealing with environmental aspects and with EMSs. In
addition, resistance to change, lack of information and technical knowledge in the
implementation were also demotivating factors . Libya lacks the investigati ve
research to identify the key causes of extreme lack of implementation; which is
partly addressed by the author in this study .
2.12.2. Life Cycle A ssessment (LCA)
Increasing environmental awareness has led many industries and organisation
to use assessment and management tools for their environmental a ctivities
(Mazzi et al . 2017). Consumers are increasingly aware of sustainability issues
such as global warming, weather changes and resources depletion partly due to
increased press attention. Many well informed organisations have responded by
attempting to provide cleaner and greener products and processes.
Environmental sustainability became a chief issue which led organisations to look
for systems and tools to measure their impacts . Businesses have found that it is
effective to look for techniques to move beyond compliance and envir onmental

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management systems to enhance qualitatively their environmental sustainability
performance.
One of the tools for assessing quantitatively environmental sustainability impact
is Life Cycle Assessment method (LCA). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a
method used to evaluate the potential impacts on the environment of a product,
process, or activity throughout its life cycle (Gillani et al, 2010). The LCA
analysis
considers all of the life cycle stages of the product from raw material extraction,
materia ls processing, manufacture, distribution, use, maintenance through to
disposal or recycling. In other words, it embraces the “cradle to grave” approach
to analysis (Mazzi et al . 2017) . The tool allows estimati on of the
environmental
impacts result ing from all life cycle stag es such as transportation, raw material
extraction, and the end of life disposal. T he evaluation of the impacts is
carried
out throughout all stages which enables a realistic comprehensive view of
environmental aspects of a “process” or “product” to enable efficient and well
informed decisions and product trade -offs.
The most accepted and repeated definitions of LCA are:
1. The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry defines Life
Cycle Assessment as follows : “The life cycle assessment is an objective
process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product,
process, or activity by identifying and quantifying energy and material
usage and environmental r eleases, to assess the impacts of those energy
and material uses and releases to the environment, and to evaluate and
implement opportunities to effect environmental improvements. The
assessment includes the entire life cycle of the product, process, or a ctivity,
encompassing extracting and processing raw materials; manufacturing
transportation and distribution; use/re -use/maintenance; recycling, and
final disposal.” (Consoli et al, 1993)
2. ISO 14040 defines Life Cycle Assessment as follows : "LCA is a techni que
for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated
with a product by:
A. Compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of a
product system;
B. Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated
with those inputs and outpu ts;
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C. Interpreting the results of the inventory analysis and impact
assessment phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout the
product's life (i.e. cradle to grave) from raw materi als acquisition through
production, use and disposal. The general categories of environmental impacts
needing consideration include resource use, human healt h, and ecological
consequences” (ISO 14040; 2006) . The International Standards Organisation
(ISO 14 040, 2006) provides a four phase methodology for L CA (See Figure 2.9 ).
The specific standards are; (ISO 14040: Principles and framework); (ISO 14041:
Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis); (ISO 14042: Life cycle impact
assessment) and (ISO 1404 3: Interpretation). The four phases of LCA are
explained below .

Figure 2.9: LCA framework (ISO 14044:2006)

➢ Goal and scope definition P hase
The goal and scope phase of LCA focuses on establishing the purpose of the
LCA and determine the system boundaries and functional unit. It is very important
to define the LCA study requirements in this phase including all of the relevant
information such a s how accurate the results must be to add value, what analysis
method will be used and how information is interpret ed. This phase will also
define time and resource requirements as well as provid ing details about the
functional unit and system boundaries. The functional unit is the vital beginning
that allows alternative goods or services to be examined and analysed. The
functional unit is a measure of the performance of the functional outputs of the

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product system (Arvanitoyannis 2008). All the impacts id entified along with the
energy and materials from these flows are linked to the functional unit. The
functio nal unit is the base for all comparisons between sensitivity analysis and
the different things under examination within the same functional unit. Co nnecting
the data makes the finding s of various studies comparable; therefore the
functional unit must be clearly defined rel ative to the inputs and outputs and be
measurable as advised by the ISO 14040 (Gillani et al. 2010).
Another significant aspect in the first phase of the LCA is the System boundary.
Defining the system boundaries aims to identify and state which modules have to
be part of the LCA in a study. Numerous influences, such as time, cost and the
access of data affect the system boundaries a nd the study in general. Preferably,
the system under study is determined in such a way that input and output flows
are elementary flows at the point of the system boundaries. The system
boundaries need to be designed to count all processes, contingent on the quantity
and type of products which could lead to huge and complex life cycle inventories
that cannot be dealt with (Gillani et al. 2010).
➢ Life Cycle Inventory analysis (LCI) P hase
This phase is concerned with quantifying energy and raw material needs, air
emissions , wastes (solid and waterborne) and other pollutants and impacts from
the whole life cycle. Typically, in the LCI phase, all relevant data is collected
and
structured. The data is used as a basis to evaluate and compare environmental
impacts for potential improvements (Luz et al . 2015). LCI is very important in
the
sense that the accuracy and detail of the LCA results is mainly based on the
accuracy and detail of the data c ollected for the LCI phase. The main uses of ICI
include assisting in decision -making process for policymaking. LCI provides
understanding which could help developed legislation regarding resource use
and emission (Luz et al . 2015) . LCI quantifies the impa cts emitted to the
environment and the amount of energy and materials used.
➢ Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) P hase
The LCIA is the evaluation and assessment phase (Callesen, 2016) . It uses the
impacts identified from the inventory phase and applies impact assessment tools.
The re sults address the human health and ecological effect and resource
depletions. Impacts categories include climate change; toxicological stress,
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noise; land use, air emissions etc. and, in some cases, in an aggregated way
such as years of human life lost due to climate change, carcinogenic effects,
noise, etc. One of the common issues of this phase is the subjectivity of
modelling
and the choice of evaluation of the impact categories, therefore assumptions
need to be clearly de scribed and reported to ensure transparency (ISO 14040,
2006).
➢ Life Cycle interpretation P hase
According to ISO 14040, (2006) the interpretation of LCA is a “ a systematic
technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results
of the life cycle inventory (LCI) and the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and
communicate them effectively ”. Th is phase requires an analysis and evaluation
of the results of the LCIA to synthesise conclusions. This phase should clarify
understanding t he study's limitations and enable the extracti on of useful, well
informed recommendations based on the finding of the previous phase.
2.12.2.1. LCA TOOLS
LCA assessments methodically analyses and quantifies the environmental
impacts, energy and resources consumption with a process, product or activity.
The analysis of the entire product/process life identifies opportunities to enhance
the environmental performance. In order to ease the LCA analysis, a number of
LCA specific software has been developed in the last two decades as stated by
Mutel and Hellweg, (2009) . The most common and leading software packages
are Gabi life cycle assessment tool, Umberto and SimaPro. GaBi package has
been developed by more than 60 developers, which has provide d over 4000 LC I
profile s for professionals and engineers over the years.
It compiles all of the ISO 14044, 14064 and 14025 standards together . The
Ecoinvent database is also integrated into GaBi software, which offers wide
access to inventories and industrial fields. O ne of market leading LCA tool s is
Umberto. It is widely used by companies and researchers. It is commonly used
for modelling, calculating and visualising energy and material flow systems. The
assessment feature in Umberto uses economic and environmental pe rformance
indicators. This package is useful not just for environmental performance but also
for sound economic decision making as Umberto addresses organisations with
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cost concentrated production that wish to enhance their process es and improve
competitiv eness (Mutel and Hellweg, 2009).

Figure 2.10: Summary of Life Cycle Assessment procedure for a typical industry
( RSC EHSC 2005)
SimaPro is also one of the leading LCA assessment tools. SimaPro LCA tool is
compliant with the ISO 14040 standards and includes most common databases
such as US, Dutch, and Danish Input Output databases, ETH -ESU 96, Ecoinvent,
IDEMAT 2001, LCA food, EuP d atabase for Energy using products etc.
(Goedkoop and Schryver et al, 2008). This research study used SimaPro 7 PhD
version to analyse the Libyan crude oil life cycle in fulfilment of this study's
objectives. The preference of using SimaPro software is due to the availability of
PhD version at the Univerisity Labs and the previous experience of the research
on using this particular software.
2.12.2.2. Limitations of LCA
LCA is tool, which could provide key information about the environmental
performance of a specific product, process or activity. Guldbrandsson and
Bergmark, (2012) consider LCA as one of the most important methodological
platform for environmental prioritization and understanding. On the other hand,
they have stated that LCA is associated with a set of limitations. It is argued
that
the results of the LCA are only valid under the assumptions of the study and are
still allied with considerable uncertainty, which require to be taken into
consideration to understand the study findings.

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Uncertainty
It is known that there is a clear difference between uncertainties and errors (i.e.
mathematical errors). Uncertainty can be certainly minimised, but never fully
removed or avoided whereas errors in principle can be eliminated and/or
corrected . Therefore, it essential to fully understand the uncertainty associated
in
understanding LCA results. The literature indicate s that there are three
distinguished groupings of uncertainties connected to LCA (Lloyd and Ries, 2007;
Finnveden, et al. 2009; an d European Commission, 2010). These are:
▪ Parameter uncertainty : this type of uncertainty is statistical in nature and
can be evaluated with the use of simulation.
▪ Scenario uncertainty: this uncertainty is dependent on the selection of
choices which could cause big variations in the results such as cut -off and
allocation.
▪ Model uncertainty: Recounts to uncertainty from inadequate information
of the mechanism of the calculated system an d is problematic to measure.
It is widely argued in the literature that uncertainty assessment s for LCA in
general are never accurate due to the fact that it relies to some extent on
estimates and assumptions, and therefore parameter and statistical uncer tainty
is beyond reach for LCAs. This is more evident especially for the complex LCA
studies related to petroleum products and crude oil. It is very difficult to
conduct
a study on a complex process or a product such as a crude oil which is associated
with many different raw materials and production processes. The input variable s
will rely on estimates even if supplied by petroleum companies. The study data
comprise s many sources of uncertainty that will influence the accuracy of the
results and the ir interpretation.
Another limitation of LCA technique s is the need for subjective judgement
especially in the evaluation and decision making process. It is vital to consider
all
of the specific study parameters and the uncertainties associated to ensure a
sound and viable decision -making process. This indicates that transparency and
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effective communicati on of results is essential. This justifies why many
scholars
have criticized the use of LCA studie s.
Crude oil is the main fossil fuel used around world contrib uting to around 33% of
the world consumption of energy according to Morales et al. (2015) . The world is
highly dependent on crude oil products for various uses such as energy
generation and transportation. This extraordinary reliance on oi l and its products
comprises major environmental issues, largely related to the emission of
greenhouse gases (GHG). Around 11 Gt CO 2 were emitted worldwide in 2010 as
of the International Agency report (IEA, 2014). In order to minimise these impacts,
LCA s tudies were used as a quantitative tool. The literature show a number of
LCA studies concerned with crude oil and its products such as (Keesom et al.,
2012;; Singh et al., 2010; Spatari et al., 2010; and Furuholt 1995) . These studies
take into account fuel production in addition to the final use of the crude oil
products and address different regions and countries. Studies include Rahman
et al. (2014) , UK (Borrion et al. 2012) , Spain (Bredeson et al. 2010) , Indonesia
(Restianti & Gheewala 2012) ,Greece (Nanaki & Koroneos 2012) , India (Garg et
al. 2013) and Brazil (Cavalett et al. 2013) .
There is a clear gap in LCA studies in developing world region s (Middle East and
North Africa and Libya in particular ). Despite the fact that the majority of oil
reserve s are based on this region, no LCA studies have been utilised in Libya to
investigate the environmental profil e of Libyan oil products. Therefore, the
author
has conducted his own study TO offer tangible recommendations. The LCA study
is original and novel in the context of the Libyan petroleum industry (See Chapter
8).
2.12.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Another environmental sustai nability approach widely used is the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA is one of the major tools used to assist
environmental analysis of a project of this nature (Cesari et al . 2017). It was
first
established f rom the National Environmental Policy Act 1970 (NEPA) in the USA.
This legislation has received high recognition in the US. The NEPA law has
spread to over 40 countries by 1990s (Robinson, 1992). Some countries have
established their own EIA requirements an d modifications which explains the
huge variations in the quality of EIA among countries. EIA is internationally
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recognised by various international protocols, conventions and agreements
Morgan (2012) such as:
• The Convention on Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment;
• The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance;
• The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision -
making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters;
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change;
• The United Nations Convent ion on the Law of the Sea;
• The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

The widespread use of EIA has been examined by Morgan, (2012: p. 6). Morgan,
(2012) conducted a detailed sea rch in Nov, 2011 on the ECOLEX database (an
environmental law information service jointly operated by UNEP, FAO and IUCN:
http://www.ecolex.org for legislation and treaties comprising text references to
‘environmental impact assessment’ and their interpretations in French and
Spanish ). Results show that 191 out of 193 member nations have national
legislation or a signed form of legal instrument that refers to EIA. EIA is a
‘planning
tool’ used to forecast and evaluate the impacts of a proposed project and its
alternatives.
Ortolano & Shepherd (1995) argues that EIA from a “technocratic paradigm”
perspective is a planning tool used for decision making. Projects are evaluated
based on criteria and objectives by engineers and planners who choose, or
design alternative projects and conduct studies (EIAs and cost benefit analysis)
to estimate and predict impacts. The results gained are used to choose one
project from the rest. EIA ensures environmental problems are considered and
eliminated.
There are various procedures that have emerged under the umbrella of EIA since
the 1970s. These include strategic environmental assessment (SEA), health
environmental assessment (HIA) and social environmental asse ssment (SEA).
Morgan (2012) argues that these forms result from the dissatisfaction of EIA
practice. For example, the SEA has gained major developments in the late 1980s
especially in USA. EIA was criticised with neglecting social impact and focusing
only on the ecological impacts (Taylor et al. 2004).
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Furthermore, the National Academy of Sciences (2011) adds that recently HIA
has emerged due to the lack of emphasis of EIA on community and individual
health. A linked methodology, sustainability asses sment (SA), has arisen which
focuses on sustainability criteria in the assessment of policies. Conversely,
sustainability ha s numerous definitions and meanings and therefore the process
of SA is viewed differently (Bond and Morrison -Saunders , 2011). SEA is valid on
the basis that it promotes sustainable outcomes which gain access to the
boundaries of SA (Sadler, 2011). Similar issues occur in the environmental
impact assessment, as a greater differentiation of EIA model into a named
mixture pr ovides terminological and conceptual complexity.
Morgan (2012: p. 9) reviews a set of a significant contributions of EIA stages
which are outlined below . Over the last two decades , there have been significant
contributions to the literature on each of the main steps in the classic EIA model:
• Screening: e.g. Enserink (2000), Wood and Becker (2005), Pinho et al.
(2010), Rajaram and Das (2011) and Weston (2011).
• Scoping: e.g. Mandelik (2005) and Snell and Cowell (2006).
• Impact prediction: there are many papers dealing with specific techniques,
across the various environmental sectors and different forms of human
activity, plus broader contributions, such as Duinker and Greig (2007) on
scenario approaches to prediction.
• Significance: from a conceptual standpoint: e.g. Lawrence (2007a, 2007b);
more technical approaches: e.g. Ijas et al. (2010), Cloquell -Ballester
(2007) and Mustow et al. (2005).
• Monitoring and other aspects of follow -up: e .g. Marshall et al. (2005),
Morrison -Saunders and Arts (2004).
EIA works as an impetus for administrative change. EIA i n some countries as
described by Ortolano & Shepherd (1995) has trans formed the public decision
making by engaging and informing the public, agencies and NGOs with the
impact of the intended projects. EIA o pens the projects to public scrutiny. In
the
past, EIA has led many NGOs and communities to sue government agencies to
provide full disclose of impacts in the US. Another benefit of EIA studies is the
administrative and managerial processes to companies. The EIA program
requires the environmental assessment related documents to be reviewed by
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government bodies (i.e. minist ry or environmental agency). The reviews lead to
management and administrative improvements as it spreads information about
proposed actions and their impacts.
2.13. Barriers and Success Factors
2.13.1. Implementation Barriers
Schneider, et al. (2011) assert that oil and gas companies play a significant role
in the world but their efforts towards sustainability require improvement. It was
highlighted by Salzmann et al (2005) that organisations fail to integrate
sustainability and environmental management practices into their policies for
many reasons including their lack of expertise and provision of required
resources. Hence, it is vital to discuss the implementation barriers that hinder
the
adoption of sustainability approaches within organisat ions.
There is very limited published research about sustainability practi ces in the
oil
and gas industry; however, many organisations have developed environmental
management systems based on international standards in an attempt to improve
their environmental performance. Such systems do not usually add efficiency to
the organisation as indicated by Melnyk et al (2003) , however. One of the key
barriers associated with poor implementation of sustainability and environmental
management practices is the lack of a strategic approach towards sustainability
at the organisation and corporate level (Lozano, 2013) . In other words,
organisations need to ensure that sustainability is embedded within the corporate
strategy of the organisation to ensure that it bring benefits at all levels.
Figge et al (2002) highlight that due to the lack of links between environmental
and social management and economic success, organisations f ail to achieve and
accomplish their long -term objectives and improve their performance. In other
words, organisations need to ensure that their economic, environmental and
social performance is linked together as these are strong contribut ors to
sustainability. Moreover, embedding sustainability w ithin the corporate strategy
will direct the management’s commitment towards adopting sustainability
practices and approaches. Hence, the key implementation barrier as discussed
is failing to integrate sustainability with the overall corporate strategy.
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Some schol ars believe that organisations fail to implement environmental and
sustainability practice due to the belief that such systems will incur huge costs
(Steger, 2000). It must be noted that additional costs will be witnessed in the
short
term f rom the process of developing such systems which require resources,
physical environmental changes, expertise, training and other technological
advancements that are required to capture the environmental impact of the
operations and activities of these organisati ons. It could also be assumed that
costs will arise from the development of internal and external strategies to deal
with any rising problems (Darnall and Edwards, 2006).
However, such investments will bring a lot of benefits to an organisation by
ensuring its resources ar e being utilised efficiently and will also improve its
growth
and development as well as its reputation among other organisations. Bromley
(2007) believe s that the absence of a regulatory framework which organise s and
regulates the process of developing sustainability and environmental
management systems in some sectors is why some organisations fail to integrate
and implement such systems . Issues include t he lack of available support,
guidance and monitoring from regulatory agencies. This could also be partly
responsible for the lack of implementation in developing countries such as Libya
where there are no regulatory agencies to monitor and issue improvement notices
to companies
Some scholars believe that failure s in the implementation of such systems could
be linked to the level of training, support and development that is provided to
employees and stakeholders (Sammalisto and Brorson, 2008; Babakri et al.,
2003 : Campos et al., 2014 ). Training and development is vital in organisations as
they enhance the skills and knowledge of the staff at all levels to ensure their
actions are in accordance with the procedures and rules. Lack of awareness
among st the public and companies in some countries has le d to poor or
ineffective im plementation of sustainability and environmental management
systems (Gadenne et al., 2009) . Some also argue that such low levels of
awareness will create resistance to change within organisations and these
organisations will find it difficult to impose changes that are long lasting
(Jones et
al., 2005). Finally, lack of rigid auditing and monitoring systems contribute
significantly to the poor implementation of sustainability and environmental
management systems (Chavan, 2005).
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Based on the a bove discussion, it can be concluded that several factors hinder
the adopting of sustainability and environmental management systems which can
be classified into the following categories:
• Lack of public awareness about the importance and value of sustainab le
development
• Lack of regulatory frameworks and regulatory agencies that monitor the
work of oil and gas companies
• Lack of the provision of required resources either physical or human
• Lack of direction in the corporate strategy of organisations in whic h
sustainability and environmental management are not embedded within
the corporate strategy
• Lack of the provision of training and development programmes to all
stakeholders
• Lack of commitment from the leadership and management
Such factors will surely influence the adoption and implementation of
sustainability and environmental management systems and will have significant
impact upon the effectiveness of such programmes. Thus, an integrated
approac h to sustainability management in the oil and gas indust ry in developing
countries is badly needed.
2.13.2. Success Factors
Several scholars have examined the factors that lead to the successful
implementation of management systems including, environmental and
sustainability management systems , and point out that one of the key factors is
organisational integration of business functions, objectives and long -term goals
within the overall corporate strategy. In other words, the scholars argue that
sustainability needs to be integrate d into managem ent control and strategy
(Johnson, 2007; Ahrens and Chapman, 2007; Whittinghton, 2007). They argue
that organisations need to involve all participants and stakeholders so that
everyone can become a champion for sustainability management and
sustainability reporting. This involves the need to have a systematic technical,
organisational, managerial and individual integration of all functions. This is
referred to by Brown and Duguid (1991) as ‘community of practice’ in which
common practices are shared by diff erent departments. Zutshi and Sohal (2004)
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assert that high levels of communication that is based on two -way channels in
which th e organisation communicates its messages and lessons to all
stakeholders is highly effective .
Daily and Huang (2001) point out that human resources management practices
may also contribute to the success of implementing environmental management
systems . They argue that top management support directly affects the success
of implementing such systems as they have the ability to cre ate a culture of
employee involvement and employee empowerment which will consequently
impact upon their practices and beh aviours towards the newly adopted system.
Jayashree et al (2015) argue s that top management support is vital as they will
be able to provide the required resources in terms of training and incentive
programs as well as reward systems which will reflect positively on the
implementation of environmental management systems . It was argued by Janson
and Gunderson (1994) cited in Daily and Huang (2001) that bureaucratic
structures of management that have rigid, top heavy structures find it more
difficult to implement changes tha n those companies that have lean
organisational structures. This commitment from top management plays a
significant role in the process of ensuring that such systems are implemented
successfully. It was indicated by Kitazawa and Sarkis (2000) that culture change
is vital to support the implementation of environmental management systems ,
which also n eeds strong direction and support from top management .
Figge et al (2002) has explored the importance of embedding sustainability with
the corporate strategy and highlighted that among the success factors that are
important , is the need to motivate employ ees, having strong information systems
as well as qualifications and goal orientation. In other words, organisations need
to have competent people in place to ensure that such systems are being
developed in accordance with the required standards.
Figge et al (2002) also indicate s that having the financial capabilities helps
organisations to successfully implement sustainability practices. Moreover,
Rebelo et al (2016) point out that human resources are vital to gain a sustained
success when implementing EM S. Therefore, it could be summarised that
embedding sustainability into the corporate strategy makes it more likely for
companies to adopt sustainability management systems. Top management
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commitment and availability of resources are also key success factors along with
the creation of culture within the organisation and employee empower ment and
motivation.
2.14. Chapter Summary
This chapter encompassed the definitions, histor y and explanation of the most
important part of this study (i.e. sustainability). Th e chapter also highlights
the
models which are being used while working on sustainability and the categories
in which the models are divided . Further, details are provided about efforts being
made by different countries to ensure sustainability in their region.
As highlighted above, the oil and gas industry is one of the today’s fundamental
contributors to growth and development as it provides essential raw materials
and en ergy for global development. The industry also invests in infrastructure,
social initiatives, technology and environmental preservation efforts as well as
mitigating adverse impacts of their operations.
Moreover, t he oil and gas industry has significant i mpacts upon the environment
which means that such companies need to be fully aware of the concept of
sustainability and how it can be incorporated within their strategies so that they
can create value for their shareholders and all relevant stakeholders.
Sustainability has become one of the pillars in which organisations shoul d
develop their strategies due to it s vital importance to human and environmental
aspects. It is shown that sustainability requires the integration of different
business functions to e nsure it provides the results and outcomes that are
desired.
Furthermore, this chapter discuss ed the broader concept of sustainability and th
e
different approaches that are used as well as discussing the challenges that face
organisations from adopting sustainability practices. The chapter provide s
clarity
to the barriers that face companies as well as the success factors which could
help organisations in adopting sustainability practices. It was found that
sustainability thinking needs to be embedded wi thin the organisation’s strategy
and that top management needs to show high levels of commitment towards
sustainability and its adaptation at all levels.
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Success requires the need to have a regulatory framework in which organisations
are provided with cle ar guidelines that enable them to reduce their environmental
impacts. There are several approaches and methodolog ies which can be used
by companies to enhance their sustainability such as the adhering to international
standards and the use of product and s ervice evalua tion tools such as EIA and
LCA. The following chapter presents an overview of the Libyan petroleum
industry along with discussi on of the sustainability challenges in the oil and
gas
sector.
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Chapter 3
Libya ’s Oil & Gas Industry
3.1. Introduction
his part of the literature review provides information about Libya in
general and the Libyan petroleum industry in particular. It will explore the
historic and current economic, political and environmental
characteristics within Libya in order to gain a be tter appreciation of the context
of
the study and build a basis to interpret the current sustainability picture of
Libya.
3.2. Libya
3.2.1 Location, Religion, Language and History
Libya is a developing Arab country located in North Africa (See Fig ure 3.1). It is
the fourth largest country in Africa with an area of around 1,775,500 square
kilometres (Shibani, 2012). It is surrounded in the north by the Mediterranean
Sea, Chad and Niger from the south, Egypt and Sudan from the East, Algeria and
Tunisia fr om the west. There are three major climate regions in Libya: Costal
Mediterranean climate; semi -desert region; and the Sahara region (General
Information Authority). According to Otman and Karlberg (2007) Libyan land is
mostly vacant, 94.7% is a desert, 3. 9% is agricultural and 0.29% is forests.
Libya
is a dry country, the rainfall at the coastal areas is between 100 to 350 mm, this
lessens as one moves south away from the sea. The rainiest areas are mainly at
the green mountain (Al Jabal Alakdar) areas whi ch average 600 mm (Otman and
Karberg , 200 7). Due to the colonization of the Italians and the Ottomans rule,
there have been no official records made of the Libyan populations. The first
census was in 1954, three years after the independence. That census gave a
Libyan population of 1,088,889. Libyan population nowadays is 6,244,174
according to CIA fact book (CIA 2014) .
 T
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Figure 3.1: Map of Libya (source: Infoplease 2000)

The dominant religion of the country is Islam representing 98% of the population.
The rest are mainly Christians formed by foreigners working in Libya mostly
African and European immigrant workers. Arabic is the official language of the
State. Historically, Libya has been coloni sed through history until it enjoyed
independence in 24th Dec, 1951. For the past thousands of year, the country
witnessed wave after wave of military invasion. According to Wright, (1981), the
Greeks had coloni sed Libyan eastern side in the 600 B.C . “Cyrene”, the city of
Shahat today. Followin g that period, four more important cities were also
established in the Libyan cost: Appolonia (Susah); Teuchira (Tukrah);
Eursperides or Berenice (Benghazi); and Barce (Almari) (Vandewalle 2012).
Later on, the Roma ns invaded Libya around 100 B.C . They stay ed there until the
Vandals beat them in the 5th century all over the whole of North Africa. The
Byzantines controlled Libya around 534 A.D. fo r about a century (Vandewalle
1998 ).
In the 7th century, Libya moved away from the European identity after it wa s
conquered by Arabs and Islamic empire in the 643 A.D. It established a new
culture along with the rest of North Africa (Otman and Karlberg 2007). Islamic
influence on Libya and the region was significant, it shaped the whole region. By
the 16th century, the northern coast of Africa had become alive with sailors and

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trade. It attracted the imperialistic designs of Christian Spain and the cr
usading
Ferdinand, the Catholic, took Tripoli in 1551 (Drysdale and Blake, 1985).
Subsequently, the Turks took the wh ole of Libya in the 1551, the whole of Libya
became a part of the Turkish Empire, also under the doctrine of Islam, up until
the invasion of the Ita lians led by Mussolini in 1911. Italy was in war
continuously
for a bout twenty years due to a tough Libyan resistance. Both suffered heavy
losses (Wright 1981). Italy coloni sed Libya for over thirty years until the World
War II.
By the commencement of the World War II, Libya was a battleground between
the Axis (Germany and Italy) and Allies. With the assistanc e and contribution of
Libyans under Sanussi leadership, the Axis were defeated at Al -Elamien battle
on the 23rd of October 1942 (Barker et al. 1996) . The Italians were thoroughly
conquered by the French and the British in late 1942. Britain controlled the
northern part of Libya and the east part (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica), while the
French controlled the southern part of Libya (Fezzan). The control of the British
and the French continued up to the declaration of Libyan independence by the
United Nations on the 24th of December 1951 (Shareia 2006). On that day, Libya
was acknowledged as an independent united kingdom, with a federal constitution
accor ding to the constitution promulgated in October 1951. Libya was a federal
monarchy governed by King Al -Sanussi and the country was established by the
three provinces of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan. In April 1963, the federal
government announced a new legislation that transformed Libya from a federal
into a unitary state.
In 1969, the monarchy was dethroned by a group of army officers led by Colonel
Gaddafi who planned for the 1st of September Revolution. The bloodless
revolution announced the Libyan Arab Republic. Gaddafi rule lasted for 42 years
until he was overthrown by the 17th February, 2011 uprising led by the National
Transitional Council (NTC). NTC declared Libya to be officially “liberated” in
October 2011 and promised to turn Libya into a p luralist, democratic state. The
power was handed to a newly elected parliament in August 2012 “General
National Congress”. In August 2012, the NTC handed over power to Libya's newly
elected parliament, the General National Congress. The General National
Congress of 200 members lasted for one year and seven months until it was
replaced with a new elected Council of Deputies based in T obruk.
80 | P a g e
Libya is supposedly governed by a parliament known as the Council of
Deputies elected in the June 2014 elections . However the parliament los t its
control of the country. There is an armed conflict and civil war between Islamist
supporters of the former General National Congress and their oppon ents led by
General Khalifa Haftar . In the current conflict, government services are
functional
to a very limited degree with no police influence.
3.2.2. The Economic Context
Libya was in an extreme poverty before the discovery of oil in 1959. Most of
Libyans earned a per capita income of lower than $50 per year. The main sector
was agriculture. An economic advisor to Libya in the 1956, Benjamin Higgins
stated that Libya is a p oor country, there is no sources of power and no mineral
resources. Agriculture expansion is harshly limited by climate condition. The
country also l acked skilled labour and native entrepreneurship (Higgins, 1959, p.
26).
The evident deficit in the Libyan economy is understood due to the fact Libya
witnessed many wars in the past including the Italian invasion and coloni sation.
Technical abilities, skills and education were neglected and the Libyans were
barred from the administration and duties which migh t enhance their abilities and
skills. The deficit economy was caused by the fact that Libya experienced so
many wars and colonial administrations. At that time, the Libyan economy was
mainly based on the agriculture and animal provision and other few indus tries.
The agriculture being the biggest was hindered by the scarcity of water supply,
lack of suitable land as most of the Libyan land is a desert.
In general, prior to oil discovery, Libya was classified as poor country with low
levels of domestic products and consumption counterbalanced by foreign aid
(Wright 1981). Libya relied on the foreign aid until the discovery of oil in the
1955
which have created astonishing changes to the country in all means of Libya.
Foreign aid stopped and was replaced by foreign oil companies mostly from the
West (Bait-Elmal et al., 1973). Libyan economy has grown significantly since the
discovery of oil. Table (3.1) shows the GDP by sector for the period 1970 -2008
according to Central Bank of Libya and African Statistical Yearbook, (2014) .
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Table 3.0-1: Libyan GDP by sector (in millions LYDs)

Sources: [(Central Bank of Libya, CBL, 2011 & African Statistical Yearbook, 2014)
Economic Sector 1980 1986 1991 1995 1999 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
2008
Agriculture & Fishing 183 320 678.2 947 1449.9 1348.8 13039.
3 1328.6 1447.5 1643.1 1905.3 2020.7
Petroleum & Gas11 6571 1784 3054 2468 3995.9 13164 20217.
9 29227.
4 43946 55649.
0 58963.
8 70691
Mining and Quarrying 48.8 49 72.5 148.6 223.3 364.0 1333 1328.6 1447.5
1643.1 1905.3 2020.7
Manufacturing 192.2 401.8 706 799.7 863.1 813.5 3865.5 3996.9 4324.2
4643.5 5218.9 5723.8
Electricity & Power 49.7 112 177 216.7 270.4 293.7 755.0 734.3 876.6 972.7
1019.1 1255.6
Construction 935.7 895 1319.5 483.9 803.6 1262.7 1787.0 2159.2 2683.5
3129.3 4198.4 5994.5
Trade, Restaurants &
Hotels 489.8 485.9 1041.5 1254 1693.3 2089.5 1875.9 2194.9 2657.5 2863.6
3396.3 3949.5
Transport/Communicati
on 356.1 395.5 812 892.6 1211.7 1429.2 1812.0 1944.0 2412.6 2724.2 3299.5
3884.2
Banking & Insurance 246.4 285.4 370.5 286.2 323.5 414.2 590.7 627.7 717.1
816.5 980.8 1081.3
Ownership of housing 210.4 252.4 315.3 391 452.7 515.0 1991.9 2448.7 3131.7
3606.9 4032.1 4746.6
General services 946.6 1521 1894.5 1853 2429.2 2859.5 3279.2 3658.6 4481.9
4935.1 6507.3 6670.7
Other services 47.4 75 172 307.7 358.6 427.5 217.6 226 241.4 279.2 321.4
363.7
Total GDP 10277 6577 10612.
5 10048.
7 14075.
2 24981.
2 50765.
0 49847.
9 68368.
2 82906.
2 91748.
2 108402.
3
Petroleum & Gas 63.9
% 27.1
% 28.8 % 24.6% 28.4 % 53 % 39.8 % 58.6 % 64.2 % 67.1 % 64.2 % 65.2 %
Other Sectors 36.1
% 72.9
% 71.2 % 75.4 % 71.6 % 47 % 60.1 % 41.3 % 35.7 % 32.8 % 35.7 % 34.7 %
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It is clear that Libya is financially sound especially with the discoveries of
more new
oil and gas reserves. The following section will provide detai led overview of the
Libyan petroleum sector.
3.3. Libyan Petroleum Industry
Petroleum products have been used for many years for lighting. Historically, it
was
not until 1859 that "Colonel" Edwin Drake constructed the first successful oil
well,
with the only drive of producing oil. The Drake Well was situated in the centre of
discreet farm country in north -western Pennsyl vania. Since then, the spark of
international search for an industrial use for petroleum started . The picture
(Figure
3.2) shows Drake well in the Tarr farm, oil Creek Valley. On the right, Phillips
well
produced around 4 thousand barrels per day and the Woodford well on the left 1500
barrels per day, 1862 ( Devold 2013) .
Libya has discovered and produced oil around one century after Drake wells in the
1950s. Libya petroleum industry is the main economic sector in Libya. It is run by
the state -owned National Oil Corporation (NOC). NOC was first established in the
1970, under Libyan law No: 24/1970 to take responsibility of the Libyan petroleum
sector (NOC, 2014). Libya post -1969 has seen considerable industrial and urban
development. The Libyan petroleum sector, run by the National Oil Corporations
(NOC), has created a substantial amount of this development.

Figure 3.2: Drake Well Museum Collection, Titusville, PA Source: ( Devold, 2013)

83 | P a g e
 Libya is an active member of the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries
(OPEC) since 1962, it holds Africa's largest proved crude oil reserves and fourth
largest natural gas, and a significant sup plier to the global supply of light,
sweet
crude oil (OPEC, 2015). Libya's petroleum production and exports have been
noticeably affected by civil war over the past few years. In Feb, 2011, Libya
witnessed unrest and revolution which lasted for 8 mo nths wh ich caused a near -
total disruption. The minimal production was fully consumed internally. Libyan
petroleum production has recovered in 2012, but it keep on lower levels prior to
the
revolution.
In the years 2013 and 2014, Libya witnessed major changes in its oil production,
dropping to its lowermost level since the revolution of 0.2 million barrels per day
(bbl/d) at the end of 2013. For almost a year, Libya's major eastern oil ports (Es
Sidra, Ras Lanuf, Zueitina, and Marsa Al -Hariga) were shut by the blo ckade led by
Ibrahim Jidran, a branch leader of the Petroleum Facilities Guard (PFG), which was
hired to protect the facilities. The exportation blockade stated in July 2013 and
finished after arrangements were made to revive the ports in April 2014 (Zueit ina
and Marsa al -Hariga) and June 2014 (Es Sidra and Ras Lanuf). In the western part
of Libya, production at the 340,000 -bbl/d El Sharara oil field and, to a smaller
degree, the 100,000 -bbl/d El Feel oil field has also been fr equently shut down
(EIA,
2014) .
Libyan economy is profoundly reliant on petroleum industry. According to the
International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2008), oil and natural gas accounted for
approximately 96% of total government revenue and 98% of export income in 2012.
Roughly 79% of Libya's e xport income originates from crude oil exports, which
brought in about 4 billion US dollars per month of net revenues in 2012 (IMF,
2008).
Libyan crude oil production is not stable due to the unrest taking place in Libya
and
the political conflicts. Howev er, during 2016, the Libyan National Army has taken
control of the oil crescent when they pushed out the militias that were controlling
the
oil ports and the production of oil started to improve but such improvements may
not continue as the country remains to be in a chaos.
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Figure 3.3: Libyan crude oil production, Jan 2000 – May 2012 (Source: EIA, 2013)

Figure 3.4: Libyan crude oil production, Jan 2010 – Sep 2013 (Source: EIA, 2013)
According to the Oil & Gas Journal (OGJ, 2014), Libya had proved crude oil
reserves of 48 billion barrels as of January 2014 —the largest in Africa, making
38%
for the continent's total, and the 9th largest quantity globally. In Libya, there
are six
large s edimentary basins —Sirte, Murzuk, Ghadames, Cyrenaica, Kufra, and the
offshore, which the National Oil Corporation believe has significant undiscovered
potential. Around 80% of Libya's reserves are situated in the Sirte basin, which
also
contributes for mos t of the country's crude output (Arab Oil & Gas Directory,
2013).
Libya mostly remains unexplored and due to the continuous civil unrest, it
disrupted
a large -scale exploration program.

85 | P a g e
Figure 3.5: World’s top 10 holders of proved crude oil reserve ( Source: EIA,
2013)
The NOC is the state owned administrator of the Libyan petroleum sector. It is
responsible for employing Exploration and Production Sharing Agreements (EPSA)
with international oil companies (IOCs), along with its own field development a nd
downstream activities. NOC subsidiaries include various medium and large national
and international companies. NOC carries out exploration and production
operations through its own affiliated companies. NOC also contributes with other
companies under se rvice contracts or any other kind of petroleum investment
agreements.
The sector includes the fully owned national Libyan companies, joint venture
companies, other international companies holding exploration and production
sharing agreements (EPSA) and educational and training institutions. Table ( 3.2)
illustrates the major institutions which comprise the Libyan petroleum sector.

86 | P a g e
Table 3.2. Libyan petroleum industry companies (Source: NOC, 2015)
NOC Fully Owned EPSA
▪ Sirte Oil Company
▪ Arabian Gulf Oil Company
(AGOCO)
▪ Ras Lanuf Oil and Gas Processing
Company
▪ Zawia Oil Refining Company
▪ Brega Petroleum Marketing
Company
▪ National Oil Wells Drilling
Company
▪ Jowfe Oil Technology Company
▪ National Oil Fields and
catering Company
▪ North Africa
Geophy sical Exploration
Company
▪ Taknia Libya Engineering
Company
▪ Petro Air Company ▪ Eni North Africa Company
▪ Amerada Hess Company
▪ India oil Company
▪ Total E&P Company
▪ Petro Canada Company
▪ Polish Oil & Gas Company
▪ OMV Company
▪ OXY Company
▪ BP Exploration Libya
Limited Company
▪ STATOIL Company
▪ Gazprom Company
▪ Repsol Murzuq Company
▪ Petrobras Company
▪ Chevron Libya LTD
Company
▪ Shell Company
▪ RWE Company
▪ Sonatrach Company
▪ Turkish Petroleum
Corporation
▪ Medco Energy Company
▪ Exxon Mobil Company Joint Ventures
▪ Zueitina Oil Company
▪ Mellita Oil & Gas Company
▪ WAHA Oil Company
▪ Mabruk Oil Operation Company
▪ Harouge Oil Operation Company
▪ Akakus Oil Operation Company
▪ Nafusah Oil Operation Company
Centers & Institutes
▪ Oil Clinic
▪ Petroleum Training and Qualifying Institute
▪ The Specific Training Center of Petroleum Industrial ( Zawia)
▪ Libyan Petroleum Institute

The largest NOC subsidiaries and crude oil producers are the Arabian Gulf Oil
Company (AGOCO) and Waha Oil Company (WOC). The production of AGOCO is
around 400,000 bbl/y before the Libyan petroleum crisis and civil war (EIA, 2014).
AGOCO produces oil from Messla, Nafoora and Sarir oil fields. Waha Oil Company
(WOC) was initiated in 1986 to replace Oasis Oil Company a joint venture company
with another three foreigner companies (Conoco, Marathon and Amerada Hess).
WOC claims the production of 350,000 bbl/d (EIA, 2014).
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Zueitina Oil Company (ZOC) and Sirte Oil Company are also two other large NOC
subsidiaries which function in five Intisar oil fields in the Si rte Basin. SOC
runs the
Raguba oil field and Attahadi and Assumud gas fields in addition to Marsa el -Brega
liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant. NOC runs a total of five oil refineries such as
Zawia and Ras Lanuf refineries, and also ammonia, urea, methanol, Ras Lanuf
petrochemical complex and the gas processing plants.
3.3.1 Joint Ventures in the Oil Industry
Joint venture is defined by Lee and Carter (2005, p. 173) as " an arrangement where
a firm is required to share equity and control of a venture with a partner from the
host country ". Joint ventures in the oil industry are always required in the
Libyan oil
sector. The NOC seeks to form joint ventures with foreign oil partners to operate
the
country's oilfields as well as to gain considerable knowledge, kn ow-how, and
technology. The joint venture agreements in Libya usually require the international
oil company to fund all exploration operations. However, the NOC has the right to
contribute to funding the development cost and bearing its share of the operat ing
cost, in proportion to its share of joint venture, in the case of discovery of
commercial
quantities. The international company will also be entitled to repayment of part of
the exploration cost (Townsend 2001) .
The NOC encourages foreign companies to invest in Libya via joint ventures. This
method can bring to the country the much -needed technology, knowledge, and
other advantages, which can help in modernizing the country's oil and gas
infrastructure. The essential condition for companies interested in forming a
joint
venture with the NOC is that the majority of the company's board of directors, as
well as its director, must be Libyan citizens (U. S. & Foreign Commercial Service
and U. S. Department of State, 2008). Certain joint venture agreements may be
termed `negotiated nationalization': the NOC became a 50% partner of the existing
concession and concluded joint venture agreements on new areas whereby it
shared both financial burdens and benefits eq ually. The NOC would participate in
the management via equal numbers of members on the management committee
(Townsend, 2001) .
There are several responsibilities under Libyan petroleum law for sharing the
benefits of doing business in the oil industry between the NO C and the foreign oil
88 | P a g e
companies. These responsibilities obligate mainly the international companies to
adhere to certain rules, such as to perform all petroleum operations in conformity
with the rules set out in Regulation No. 8 of the Libyan Petroleum Law regarding
safety measures and conservation of petroleum resources and in compliance with
sound and reasonable standards; to fulfill the requirements of Regulation No. 9,
dealing with the financial, administrative and technical control for th e
preservation
of oil wealth; to take all practical precautions in order to avoid danger to human
life,
property, natural resources, archaeological sites, beaches, religious or tourist
sites,
cemeteries, and public installations, as a result of petroleum o perations, and,
finally,
to ensure that the machinery, equipment, and materials used in petroleum
operations are in conformity with the safety and efficiency standards existing in
the
oil industry (Oleynik et al., 2005).
3.3.2. Exploration and Production Sharing Agreement (EPSA)
NOC uses international agreements with international foreign companies to invest
and explore crude oil in Libya. It is called the Exploration and Production Sharing
Agreements (EPSAs). EPSA is the first vital commitment in oil expl oration
contracts
which shares the management, financing of discovering oil. It is used by the NOC
to leave the exploration risks on the foreign partner (Townsend, 2001).
Licensing of oil and gas in Libya started from the 1959, followed by joint venture
agreements in the late 1960. NOC is the key body responsible for all EPSA
activities
and agreements based on a General Secretariat of General People’s Congress
legislation (decision No. 10, article 5 (1979) in regard to the re -structure of
the NOC
(Elgobbi, 2008) .
3.3.3. Natural Gas
Natural gas was first discovered at El -Atshan field in 1950s. the field is located
in
the south w est of Libya. According to CIA, (2013) Libya has significant natural
gas
reserves around 1.5 trill ion cubic feet which made it 22n d largest in the world.
It is
believed that Libya unproven natural gas could be as much as double the proven
reserves accordin g to Townsend, (2001) and Otman, (2005) . Some of the existing
natural gas fields located in Ghadames, Murz uq, and Cyrenaica include Defa -
Waha, Hatiba, Zelten, Sahl, and Attahadi. Table 3.3 indicates the production of gas
from the years 2004 and 2011.
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Table 3.3 Libya gas production rate 2004 and 2011 (Source: Libyan Central bank
Annual report, 2011).

Years Production rate ( 1 million cubic feet)

Daily Average Annual Average
2004 1.444 527.1
2005 2.097 765.4
2006 2.598 948.1
2007 2.807 1024.4
2008 2.932 1070.1
2009 2.837 1035.5
2010 2.956 1078.8
2011 2.025 738.9

The Libyan gas sector considerable development, due to the sanctions imposed in
Libya in 1992 by the United Nations, many Libyan oil and gas facilities has
development issues. Many operating facilities have been in operation for many
years and was not main tained nor upgraded. For example, the LPG plant which was
built by Esso has been operating for many years at half -capacity, due to
mechanical
complications.
After the lifting on the UN sanction in 2003, international oil companies were
invited
to moderniz e the sector and consequently, various foreign companies started
operating in Libya. According to the EIA, (2008) many companies won contracts
with NOC to upgrade oil and gas facilities including the Royal Dutch/ Shell, which
signed a contract with the NOC to upgrade liquefied petroleum gas export
facilities,
and build a new liquefied petroleum gas export facility. Similarly, Repsol has been
working on upgrading the country's liquefied petroleum gas export potential.
BP signed a partnership agreement with the NOC to invest at least US$ 900 million
in exploration in one deep -water offshore area in the Gulf of Sirte, and in two
onshore areas in Ghadames. BP will also develop the Libyan manpower and spend
about US$ 50 million on training and education project s during the exploration and
appraisal phase, which aims at upgrading the training process and utilizing
international expertise regarding data transfer technology in the fields of
exploration
90 | P a g e
and production in order to develop local individuals' expertise and skills in
these
fields (EIU, 2007).
3.3.4 Western Libya Gas Project (WLGP)
The Western Libya Gas Project (WLGP) is the first significant initiative of
integrating
upstream, downstream and exportation facilities to export Libyan natural gas to
Europe. It was established in 2004. Libya now exports compressed gas to Italy and
the br oader European market, in addition to supplying the domestic Libyan market
with gas for feedstock or power generation.
WLGP is the Mediterranean's most ambitious project , the country favoured gas
exports to Europe through a sub -sea pipeline. The NOC and i ts partner, Italy's
Eni
Gas, have been investing over US$ 6 billion in upgrading the Bahr Essalam field,
110 kilometres offshore from the capital (Tripoli) and the Wafa field, south -west
of
Tripoli (Beckman, 2005). The two fields, hold recoverable reserves of roughly
1,750
million boe, and will have a target production of about 240,000 boe/day, around 10
billion cubic metres/ year of natural gas, 8 billion of them reaching European
markets via the underwater Green stream gasoline, 520 kilometers long and li nking
Mellitah on the Libyan coast to Gela in Sicily, Italy (Annual Report of Eni, 2004).
Furthermore, 50: 50 joint venture between the NCO and the Enterprise Tunisienne
d'Activites Petrolieres "ETAP" (Tunisian State Oil Company) was set up. The main
activity of this venture is to link Mellitah in Libya to Gabes in Tunisia by a gas
pipeline
about 285 kilometres in length. The budget of this project was estimated at US$ 250
million (US$ 100 million for the procurement of pipeline; US$ 80 million for gas
turbines & compressors, and US$ 70 million for pipe construction). The UK's
Penspen International is responsible for project management, while the design and
engineering was carried out by France's Sofregaz).
3.4. Upstream and Downstream Petroleum Operations
The petroleum industry is a high capital (asset) int ensive industry. According to
Varma et al., (2008), from the exploration, production and engineering management
standpoint, the industry has numerous unique features that differentiate it from
other
industries ( Varma et al., 2008 ) such as: (1) suppliers: the quantity of suppliers
in
this industry is limited; (2) raw Material: in other industries, raw materi al
costs are
fairly stable however the prices of crude oil swings considerably; and (3) high
91 | P a g e
transport costs. The petroleum industry which comprises oil and gas industries in
divided into two major sectors: upstream and downstream (An et al. 2011) .
The upstream petroleum operations are associated with the explorations and
production of the hydrocarbons. Downstream petroleum operations include all the
refining and processing of crude oil and gas into various products and all the
activities which fol low the refining and processing activities such as the sales
and
delivery of petroleum products (Nooman and Curtis 2003; Bayagbon , 2011) . The
following sections will review the typical petroleum streams in details.
3.4.1. Upstream Petroleum Operations
The upstream petroleu m operations typically comprise the searching and
exploration of possible underground or underwater hydrocarbons and natural
gas reserves. It c onsists of the drilling of exploratory wells, and later on
drilling and
operational of the wells that recover and produce the crude oil and/or raw natural
gas to the surface. Upstream activities are concerned with early stages of oil
operations (explorati on and production) as shown in Figure 3 .6.

Figure 3.6. Petroleum upstream exploration and production activities

Exploration (Seismic Survey)
The exploration activities include mainly the seismic survey. Desk study and aerial
surveys are activities conducted before the seismic survey to initially identify
favorable geological conditions and hydrocarbons. Seismic survey involves the
search for hy drocarbon bearing rocks and water bodies in which geological maps
are reviewed to identify major sedimentary basins. Ikein (1990) states that
aerial

92 | P a g e
photographs are arranged to recognize promising earth establishment such as
vaults and anticlines which mainly indicates the existence of oil.

Figure 3.7 seismic survey (Source: Energy Tomorrow, 2015)

According to Nooman and Curtis (2003) there are numerous approaches used to
conduct seismic survey operations, some of the common approaches include:
I. The use of acoustic wastes at specific locations along a moderately straight
survey line which signified variations in the subsurface geological strata.
Sensors installed along the survey lines register the sensed changes.
II. The method of using short holes with small explosive charges installed in a
small diameter holes with depths of one to thirty meters.
Computer processing techniques are used t o deal with the data generated to map
the underlying strata, which are understood to determine the shape and size of the
geological structures, which are then used as feed data for taking engineering
decision for additional investigation.
The exploration activities are associated with various sustainability issues. Some
of
the general sustainability issues according to Ikein (1990) in Ghazi et al. (2011)
include the loss of biodiversity of the natural resources inherent in the area of
the
exploration activities, and therefore have an overwhelming impact on the eco
system. Major environmental pollution at this stage include: (1) explos ive waste;
(2)
non-biodegradable flammable waste; and (3) non -flammable waste.

93 | P a g e

Exploratory Drilling
The following activity is the exploratory drilling. The seismic survey informs the
exploration activity. This activity confirms the existence of hydrocarbons and
estimates the internal pressure of the reservoir. It is considered most expensive
part
of the exploration sequence. Drilling indicates the presence of minerals by
providing
samples of the soil which also help quantify the presence of hydrocarbons (Ghazi
et al. 2011) .
Drilling relies on the geographical formation of the area. In offshore, it t
ypically
requires drilling rig, drilling barge or drilling ship in the case of onshore to
provide all
requirements for drilling activities. Drilling mud is used to continuously
lubricate,
cool and flush out the rock cuttings from underground up to th e sur face. The
purpose of these activities is estimating the hydrocarbons reserves quantities.
Exploratory drilling is then followed with the appraisal drilling which assesses
the
economic feasibility of the reservoir. Darling, (2005) adds that major environm
ental
impacts are created at this phase mainly through wastes such as oil spills,
drilling
mud, cuttings, cement waste, chemical wastes, construction materials, and non -
burnable waste scrap metals.
Development and Production
The final stage of the upstr eam phase is development and production. This occurs
if feasible amount of hydrocarbon is confirmed in the prior stages and it includes
the
drilling of additional wells to optimize production and the construction of other
facilities to form the oil field. Bayagbon, (2011) argues that with all the
previous
environmental issues, emissions are continuously emitted in the atmosphere from
flaring, venting, and exhausts from engines and machines. It is clear that each
barrel
of oil is pumped along with several b arrels of environmental issues.
The development and production phase is concerned with the extraction of oil and
gas from the wells. It also includes the drilling of more wells to optimize
production
and the construction of production facilities which dea ls with production, storing
and
transport the produced fluids. The size and type of these facilities depend on many
factors such as the discovered reservoir type, size, location and the amount of
work
required for running and managing the wells and all ass ociated activities.
94 | P a g e
Furthermore, these activities require the establishment of employee’s
accommodation, communication equipment, waste treatment and disposal facility
and service and maintenance stations (Akeredolu & Sonibare 2004) . Common
environmental impacts at this phase include all impacts at the exploration,
drilling
stages and construction. In addition to large amount of emissions emitted to the
atmosphere mainly through gas flaring and the venting of gases and exhausts of
heavy -duty machines.
The NOC's main subsidiaries responsible of upstream operations (exploration and
production) are:
Arabian Gulf Oil Company (AGOCO): it is the largest oil producer, it is fully
owned NOC Company which was established earlier by the British Petrol eum
Company (BP). AGOCO deals with crude oil production from Sarir, Nafoora and
Messla oil fields. It produces around 430,000 b/d (Biltayi b. B 2006) . The
company runs two oil refineries and oil exporting port; Tobruk refinery, Sarir
refinery and Marsa El -Hariga exporting terminal (AGOCO 2014) .
Waha Oil Company (WOC): WOC is a joint venture shares company NOC
(59.16%), Conoco (16.33%), Marathon (16.33%), and Amerada Hess (8.16%). It
is the second largest oil producer and operates in 4 oil fields. WOC runs 800
productive oil well from a total of 1100 wells.
Zueitina Oil Company (ZOC) : it is also a fully NOC owned company
specialises in oil E&P operations . Zueitina Oil Company runs eleven joint venture
oil fields and other four EPSA oil fields. It produces around 62,000 b/d for the
period 2001 -2006 (NOC, 2015). It runs Zueitina exporting Terminal. The
company is handling up to 20% of the country's crude oil via Zueitina Terminal
(ZOC, 2015).
Harouge Oil Operations Company: it is formerly Veba oil operations. It was first
established by Exxon Mobil Oi l in agreement with t he German Company
Gelsenbrg AG which later was renamed to 'Veba Oil Libya' to share its
exploration and production rights and obligations. Veba is a joint venture with the
NOC (51%) and Veba Oil Libya (49%), to explore, develop and exploit eight
concession s in central Libya’s Sirte basin. Veba Oil Libya was retitled to 'Petro
-
Canada Oil Libya' and in 2008 to 'Harouge Oil Operations'.
95 | P a g e

Akakus Oil Operations Company: The Company was established by virtue of

an exploration and production sharing agreement betw een the National Oil
Corporation (65%) and the European companies union (Repsol, OMV, Total) with
a 35% stake. This consortium was approved by the General People's Committee
(Ministerial Cabinet) resolution No. 802 issued on 06 December 1994. The
Company a ctivities are limited to exploration and production of oil for the
benefit
of share holders. The crude oil pipeline project from El -Shararah field to the
storage tanks in Zawia on the coast was executed with a total length of 723 km
and a diameter of 30 inches (Akakus, 2009).
Mellitah Oil & Gas Company: this enterprise is made up of three partnerships;
NOC, Eni oi and Eni gas. The is based mainly on the western region of Libya
and responsible the West Libyan Gas Project (WLGP). It also the Mellitah
compl ex facility.
National Well Drilling Company (NWD): it is a fully owned NOC company
speci alises in well drilling onshore and offshore. It was established in 1987
(NWD, 2015).
Midstream petroleum operations
The midstream operations typically include the storing, transporting of oil and
natural gas, it comprises the transport (by pipeline , rail, oil tanker or
truck), storage
of crude or refined petroleum products (UNEP, 1997) . The midstream operations
are regularly taken to embrace some elements of the upstream and downstream
sectors. For instant, sometimes the midstream natural gas processing plants that
decontaminate the raw natural gas and eliminating and producing elemental
sulph ur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished end -products (Devold 2013) .
3.4.2. Downstream Petroleum Operations
Downstream petroleum operations involve all the activities carried out after the
production of crude oil and gas. It includes distillation and separation processes,
conversion and final pr oduct treatment, petrochemical plants, processing,
distribution, storage and retailing ( Ehinomen and Adeleke, 2012 ). The downstream
operations include crude oil r efineries, Natural gas processing complex,
petrochemical plants, storage stations and exporting terminals.
3.4.2.1. Petroleum Refineries
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The oil refineries have a total capacity of about 380,000 barrels per day. Two of
the
refineries are large, these are located at Ras Lanuf (in the Sirte Gulf), and Zawia
(45 kilometers west of Tripoli). The other three, which are relatively small
refinerie s,
are located at Sarir, Marsa El -Brega and Tobruk. Table 3.4 shows these refineries,
including their capacity, as well as their start -up date.

Table 3.4: Libyan petroleum refineries (Wallace and Wilkinson, 2004 : p. 135).
Refinery Capacity (barrels per
day) Starting up year
Ras Lanuf 220,000 1965
Azzawiya 120,000 1974
Tobruk 20,000 1986
Sarir 10,000 1965
Marsa El -Brega 10,000 1965
Total 380,000

It was highlighted by Gurney (1996) that the Libyan crude oil has different
properties
when compared with other crude oil. High wax content, light and easier to handle is
how Gurney (1996) described the Libyan crude oil. It is also very well convenient
for internal combustion engines as it has a low Sulphur content when compared with
other crude oils. It is also less polluting. For this reason, the Libyan crude oil
is
considered one of the best crude oils especially in Europe which is also very close
to the Libyan shores (OPEC, 1999). Since 1961, Libya has become one of the
leading exporters of oil in the world.
3.4.2.2. Petrochemical plant
According to Libyan Oil Almanac, (2010) Libyan downstream sector has around
eight petrochemical manufacturing facilities. The three main plants are:
✓ Ras Lanuf: his plant is the biggest petrochemical facility in Libya situated on
the Mediterranean Coast and run by the NOC. It was established in 1987.
✓ Brega: This plant is located at Marsa AL -Brega terminal. It was established in
the 1978.
✓ Abu Kammash: In addition to that, the downstream sector runs six major oil
terminals and storage facilities along the Mediterranean coast. Five in the east
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of Libya Marsa AL -Brega, Zueitina, Es Sidra, Ras Lanuf, Brega and Alzawyia in
the west.
Downstream petroleum operations and upstream activities are potentially
associated human health, safety, and sustainability risks. The key challenge for
the
NOC and the petroleum compa nies which operate in Libya is balancing these
concerns with their economic development goals. This is normally achieved by
establishment of a regulatory frame work which is made of legislation creating
obligations, rights and procedures (Otman 2005 ; Elgobbi 2008) . The following
section will explore the existing legislations related to petroleum industry.
3.5. Libyan Petroleum Laws
Libya has a petroleum Law (25/55) which was established in 1955. The law is
considered outdated and does not cover the new aspects and considerations of
sustainability practices and natural gas development (Petroluem Law, 1955) . The
new Libyan government and ministry of energy are considering to propose a new
law which aims to tackle the limitations of the exis ting petroleum law and
establish
united national law which covers all aspects of the hydrocarbons sector (EIA,
2014).
In respect to the protection of the environment, Libya has established a number of
legislations concerning the environment which is listed below:
3.5.1. The Environmental Law No. 7 of 1982
The legislative Act No. 7 in of the 1982 is concerned with the protection of the
environment. The act was established by the Libyan authorities. This legislation is
considered to be the first significant act concerning the environment stewardship.
It
offers a comprehensive environmental definitions and meanings. The legislation
consists of 11 Chapters split into 75 articles. The first chapter consists of
general
provisions. Chapter 2 deals with the protect ion of air. Chapter 3 focuses on the
protection of seas and marine. Chapter 4 is about the protection of water
resources.
Chapter 5 deals with food security and protection, chapter 6 deals general
environmental protection and social improvement. Chapter 7 focuses on the
protection of diseases. C hapter 8 is concerned with the protection of soil and
plants.
Protection of wildlife is specified in Chapter 9. Transitional provisions are
addressed
in Chapter 10, where chapter 11 deals with the offences and penalt ies.
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The legislation considers the protection of the environmental in all aspects, air,
water, soil and food. It urges all authorities to implement the legislation in all
sectors
and industries according to Article (6) of the act. Article (7) requires the
establishment of independent monitoring center to enforce regulatory compliance .
3.5.2. The Environmental Law No. 15 of 2003
The environmental law No. 15 of 2003 on the protection and improvement of the
environment is basically a renewing of the Environme ntal Act No. 7 in 1982. It is
considered the main environmental legislation in the country which is current. The
legislation is made of 12 Chapters split into 79 articles. The law is an expansion
of
the previous act with additional details on the protectio n of the biodiversity. In
addition, the act requires the authorities to propose plans for environment
protection; contamination control; collaboration with the International Authorities
on
contamination control; education in environment protection; control and protection
of water resources; issuance of licenses; recording of all chemicals that may cause
pollution; environmental disasters; preparation of necessary legislation for the
protection of the environment and research and inspection (article. 6). The Law
also
requires the establishment of the Environment police under article 9.
Article 9 provides for the establishment of the Environmental Police with the
competence to inspect on the environment. All factories , laboratories, etc. must
register amounts, potentials and components of air contaminants created by their
activities. It is forbidden to burn hazardous materials in populated zones
(Article 14).
Hazardous materials' transportation must be authoris ed accor ding to
specifications
in Article 15. Article 16 deals with the control of vehicles ' emission.
General People’s Committee have established a Decision No. 263 (1998) to
establish an environmental advisory and watch dog body called Environment
General Autho rity (EGA). EGA was established in 2000 under the General People's
Committee for Health and Environment (ESA 2011) . Conservation of biological
resources, sustainable development, environmental pollu tion and integrated
planning of the community are some of the responsibilities of the regulatory,
scientific and advisory body, EGA (ESA 2011) . In addition to the above
legislation,
Libya authorities have established a number of laws related to sustainability and
environmental protection which include:
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▪ Law on the Protection of Agricultural Lands (No. 33 of 1970).
▪ Labour Law (No. 58 of 1970).
▪ General Peoples Council Decision No. 8 of 1974 – Protection and Security
of Employees.
▪ Law on Industrial Security and Labour Safety (No. 93 of 1976).
▪ Decision no (81) for 1976: Model regulation to Regulate the Water and
Drainage Utility at the Municipalities (28 April 1976).
▪ Decision no (94) for 1976: Model Regulation Related to Public Cleanliness
(16 May 1976).
▪ Decision no (142) for 1976: Rules for Disposal of Waste Materials at the
Municipalities (19 May 1976).
▪ Decision No. 69 0f 1980: Creation of the Planning Authority for Water.
▪ Law on Water Use (Law No. 3 of 1982).
▪ Law No. 3 of 1425 (1995) Protection of Antiquities, Museums, Old Cities
and Historic Buildings.
▪ Law on Range and Forest Protection (No. 5 of 1982).
▪ General Peoples Council Decision No 790 of 1982 – Provisions of Water
Use, and No 791 – Definition of Water Zones.
▪ Law on Public Cleanliness (Law No. 13 of 1984).
▪ Law on Protecting Animals and Trees (No. 15 of 1989).
▪ General Peoples Council Decision No. 249 of 1989 – Creation of the PA for
Water.
▪ General People’s Committee Decision No. 2 63 (1998) – Establishing the
Environment General Authority.
▪ General People’s Committee Decision No. 101 (1999) – Nominating the
Secretary of the EGA People’s Committee.
▪ General People’s Committee instruction (22 January 2002) -
Implementation of Environmen tal Protection Principles.
▪ Law on Environmental Protection (Law No. 15 1371, 2003).
▪ Health Law No. 106 (1973) – Details aspects of environmental protection
including water pollution and sampling
3.6. Petroleum Sector Sustainability Issues and Challenges
It is clear that one of the most prominent issues facing the globe nowadays in the
sustainability challenges. The environmental risks and problems have been
extensively featured in the literature and media. The risks to the world require
urgent
actions, and Libya is not isolated from the rest of the world. This section aims
to
briefly introduce the key sustainability challenges facing Libya.
In Libya, it is apparent that the major sustainability issues are fundamentally
associated with the petroleum ind ustry, a contaminator by nature. Selim (2009 )
stated that in a legal context it is vital for the role of judiciary in the
enforcement of
the environmental legislation to be appreciated. Its key role has not perhaps yet
been fully understood from the point of v iew of long -term environmental
protection.
Despite the existence of comprehensive Environmental Laws with their own critics,
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Libyan petroleum sector yet suffers various infrastructure and sustainability
issues.
The issue is more of compliance to the laws.
Libya, as a developing country and petroleum sector in particular suffers mainly
from the lack of compliance of legislation and laws (Otman 2005 ; Irhoma et al.
2013) . In a review of the legislations, it is evident that Libya have current and
to
some extent comprehensive environmental legislation, however the compliance and
obedience of these articles is generally very limited and in some cases, there is
no
compliance at all. This issue is evident not in the petroleum sector, but rather in
other sectors. Mohamed et al. (2012) stated that, detailed consideration and
inspection are implemented on the aspects which have direct harm to human health
such as dangerous chemical substances, food hygiene, health and safety. These
aspects seems to gain sufficient attention, but on the other hand, air quality,
emissions, pollution s to soil and sea seems to gain less focus (Ali & Harvie 2013)
.
Irhoma et al. (2013) argues that the lack of focus towards these aspects of the
environment are due to various factors; mainly lack of awareness towards
environmental issues, lack of training and know -how on dealing with these issues.
Sustainability considerations are insufficiently incorporated in national
development
plans and policies, resulting in unsustainable use of natural resources for
development programs. A lthough Libya is endowed with unique and rich natural
resources, there is insufficient awareness, management, technology, and resources
of environmental sustainability in fuelling and sustaining economic growth and
human welfare (Tolba & Saab 2008; Irhoma et al, 2013). Selim (2004) also stated
that in future years Libya will face serious sustain ability challenges and the
most
significant challenges are those li nked with the petroleum sector include: gas
flaring;
marine and groundwater pollution ; and wastes. Chapter 4 of this thesis will
review
sustainability issues associated with petroleum industries and what measures have
been carried out in order to control it.
Sustainability reporting is one of the challenges petroleum corporations face.
Companies are a sked to manage, and report the key sustainability indicators for
each environmental issue. These indicators reflect significant economic,
environmental and social impacts, and would essentially impact the assessments
and decisions of stakeholders. There ar e different methods of reporting
101 | P a g e
sustainability indicators in the literature (Bell and Morse, 2008; Bossel, 1999;
Singh
et al., 2009) however this represents a major challenge especially for those
companies which lack the sustainability management infrastr ucture in their
business
management.
Another major sustainability challenge is the lack of good governance . There is a
significant relationship between national governments and petroleum companies in
which the y operate in. Many countries such as Libya, Nigeria and other Middle
Eastern countries relay almost comprehensively on the revenues from the
petroleum industry. According to Mehlum et al., (2006 ) and Humphreys et al.,
(2011) this has led to the formation of a system which relies on “rent -seeking”
and
“elite capture”, and ha s established a governing elite in control of the country
key
industries, thus powering deprived governance and lack of political motivation to
efficiently control the industry. This disturbs the compliance of legislations and
standards in various operatio ns of the sector due to impediment and manipulation
of the leadership by parties who are beneficiaries of the dysfunctional scheme
which
allows and encourages of corruption, weakening of regulatory and monitoring
bodies ( Amundsen, 2010 ).
In Libya, this issue is evident and one of the major corruption drivers which has
affected the whole industry sectors of the country and not only the petroleum
sector.
This is in herited from the previous Kaddafi regime, yet it is still followed
today.
Successive governments failed to curb this culture and elite control. Corrupted
governance also led to the inability of civil society the petroleum sector
leadership
from being held responsible for not developing frameworks to enhance sustainability
practices. It is important to declare that numerous efforts have been made by
various individuals and groups to improve the practices of sustainability and
corporate soc ial responsibility but they did not succeed due to other challenges
such
as inadequate funding, and lack of leadership commitments .
However, confusion is there regarding the attentions of the Libyan government and
the NOC. Although, there is a huge lack of research studies c oncerning the Libyan
petroleum industry in general and in particular sustainability related studies, it
has
been highlighted that the Libyan petroleum sectors suffers serious environmental
and safety issues in both the upstream and downstream operations. Despite the
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fact that there is a strict environmental legislation established, the compliance
with
these legislation s is minimal .
Arguably, many aspects of upstream and downstream environmental issues are
attributable more to issues of the production, processing and safe handling of
petroleum products ( Dare et al., 2009 ) and could be easily avoided or minimi sed
by
existing law enforcements. This could also sug gest that another sustainability
challenge for petroleum corporations is the lack of funding. In fact, this
challenge
affects all other business sustainability challenges. It creates poor enforcement
as
it can be attributed to low funding for the regulatory bodies by minimi sing the
resources required such financial incentives, sufficient number of qualified
employees and families and equipment’s. It could be argued that despite that fact
that Libyan petroleum sector is a wealthy sector, budgets co ncerning
sustainability
related aspects is very low and neglect able .
Increasing customer awareness about susta inability and green products is
increasingly contributing to the business improving their sustainability
performance
especially in the developed world. It could also be assumed that that the Libyan
consumer awareness of sustainability is very low as a result of the country’s
political
system and structures in the past which prevent the creation of free NGOs that can
report on rising issues in diffe rent sectors . Furthermore, due to the political
regime
in Libya, the country has a massive gap of civil society organisation s and NGOs
establishments. These are all factors contributing to the lack of petroleum
companies’ attention towards sustainability.
Advancement is technology is considered to be one of the key solutions in
minimising sustainability issues. Petroleum industry relies significantly in
technology
advancements and it seems that technology improvements generally focus on
reducing cost and i ncreasing operational efficiency. Recently, various petroleum
giants such as BP, ExxonMobile Shell initiated various programs to improve
environmental performance. Again, and not surprisingly, Libyan petroleum
companies do not have any technological advanc ement in their agenda to enhance
sustainability practice which makes technological advancements another challenge
for Libyan petroleum industry. It is argued that large petroleum corporations which
specialise in the petroleum operations for many years such as Shell, BP and
103 | P a g e
ExxonMobile have been largely critici sed of their sustainability practices and
their
stewardship towards the environment (Escobar and Vredenburg, 2011).
The argument here is that if the massive global petroleum giants such as BP, Shell
and ExxonMobile are widely criticis ed for their stewardship towards the
environment, this means it should not be surprising that Libyan national petroleum
companies who lack the infrastructure, technology, the know -how and the
experience compared to the big corporations do not have sustainability in their
agenda. Petroleum companies certainly have a lot to do in order to improve their
environmental sustainability practices. Attah (2010) argued that sustainable
growth
can only be attained through the integration of policies that connect the economy,
environment and the society.
Thus, it could be argued that there are various factors which affect any
organisation
in which it reacts to sustainability. These factors inclu de: political as pects in
which
the organisation operates ; the organisation culture; the management and
leadership
of the organisation; the technological infrastructure ; and the organisation's
financial
capabilities. It is no doubt that the political situat ion of the country has major
influence on the strategies of any particular organisation. For instance, petroleum
companies operate in the UK will have to obey the governing legislations of the UK
and align their business policies and strategies with the UK strategies.
In Libya, it seems that companies are also influenced by the political system in
Libya
as the ex -political system does not directly seem to enforce or encourage
petroleum
companies to minimise their environmental impact and enhance their sust ainability
practices. Furthermore, the business leadership and management is a significant
factor in which the business operate. If sustainability is integrated as a business
goal in the business strategy, tangible sustainability improvement will be gained .
Also business culture, employee awareness and technological and financial
resources are also major factors. These factors have not been studied in the Libyan
petroleum industry, and there is a clear gap.
3.7. Chapter Summary
This chapter provides information about Libya in general and the Libyan petroleum
industry in particular. It will explore the historic and current economic,
political and
environmental characteristics within Libya in order to gain a better appreciation
of
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the context of the stu dy and build a basis to interpret the current
sustainability
picture of Libya. The chapter was divided into two section, the first section
introduce d Libya as the operating environment where the petroleum industry plays
a significant role in the developmen t of Libya. The second section explore d the
Libyan petroleum sector and its upstream and downstream operations.
Libya is a rich country with various natural resources. It has many advantages
including its strategic location near European markets, availabi lity of high crude
oil
and gas reserves. This chapter provided an overview of Libya and the petroleum
industry. It gave a glance of the Libyan petroleum companies and its stakeholders
to provide the basis of the following chapter to investigate sustainabil ity issues
and
challenges and the measures to be taken in order to tackle these issues. The next
chapter presents the research methodology that was adopted for this thesis.
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Chapter 4
Research Methodology

4.1 Introduction
his chapter offers a detailed overview of the philosophical assumptions
made for this project and the research methodology followed to achieve
the research goals. It clarifies the suitability of the realism paradigm
employed in th e study.
The chapter starts with an overview of various philosophical assumptions and
follow s up with the research methodology selected for this project. It also
critically
evaluates the factors used in selecting the methodology and highlights the
relationship between the methodology and research goa ls. The discussion and
critical evaluation included in the chapter are to ensure a valid, suitable and
strong
research methodology is applied throughout the project. It will justify the use of
the
methods of this research and t he validity and reliability o f the interviews,
case
studies, EIA, LCA and the questionnaire are also addressed.
The whole research process is explained detailing the design, strategy and the
research methods backed with justification for the selection.
4.2 Sustainability Management as the Field of this Study
It is important to select the correct methodology when undertaking a research
project. It is vital to use a set of methods to ensure the research project
questions,
aims and objectives are attained, leading to valid and reliable conclusions (Yin,
1994). The knowledge gained has various types, descriptive or exploratory (Yin
1994). It is highlighted by Goodland (1995) that environmental sustainability
management is a fairly new concept in research in w hich this study is situated.
Fahy
and Rau (2013) indicate that methodological pluralism based on numerous
methodological and philosophical paradigms is used in sustainability management
research. Hence, it was noted that general strategies have progressed from social
and natural sciences that are used in the environmental management research. In
other words, quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are being used. T
106 | P a g e
Plenty of acknowledged research methods which can contribute to knowledge were
developed. Thus, it is important to understand the philosophies on which these
methodologies are based and founded upon. However, philosophical grounds
cannot be used alone to test the suitability and practicality of a certain research
design but aspects of a pplied research are important to select which method is
suitable for certain studies.
4.3 Research Paradigms and Theoretical Assumptions
A research paradigm as described by Bryman and Bell (2011) is what guides the
research design as well as the presentat ion of the study results. Bryman and Bell
(2011) pointed out that several paradigms have been developed in the social and
natural sciences. It is argued by Knight and Ruddock (2009) that environmental
sustainability management draws from both the social an d natural sciences.
Goodland, (1995) point s out that environmental sustainability can be considered as
a discipline which is based on natural sciences, thus positivism.
The definition of positivism as reported by Bryman and Bell (2011) is “a discipline
is
hinged on natural science, thus positivism. Positivism is defined as “an
epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the
natural
science to the study of social reality and beyond” (Bryman and Bell, 2011 p. 15).
Positivism fav ours all knowledge according to Knight and Turnbull (2008) as tied
to
observational forms of verification and methodologically founded on scientific
experiment. However, human element is associated with environmental
sustainability research as it incorpora tes both nature and humans.
Before looking where this research is situated within the research paradigms, it is
important to understand ontological and epistemological assumptions of this
research, and a comparison between positivism and interpretivism. R esearch
theory is influenced by the ontology and epistemology of the study. Ontology is the
nature of reality where epistemology is the relationship between the researcher and
the reality (Carson et al. 2001). Dainty (2008) point s out that objectivism and
constructivism are the extremes of ontological positions of research. Objectivism
research is about the independence of the social phenomena of the social actors
whereas constructivism is when the social phenomena is being investigated by
social actors (Br yman and Bell, 2011). This implies that a social phenomenon is in
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a constant state of revision. Hence, it is vital to understand the difference and
the
impact these paradigms have on the research process.
Epistemology is associated with the knowledge of a specific discipline.
Epistemology of research is also classified into positivism and interpretivism
similar
to the ontological paradigm. Fellows and Lui (2008) believe that researchers need
to base their research studies on a clear ontological and epistem ological stand so
that contribution to knowledge can be claimed. Positivism believes that there is a
single, objective and external reality to a research question regardless of the
opinion
of the research (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The positivists use a st ructured and
controlled approach in conducting research, in this context the researcher is
detached from the participants of the research. Positivists use quantitative
research
as a central method as they adhere to specifically structured research techniqu es
(Harwell, 2011).
Creswell, (1994) discusses two types of paradigms namely, quantitative and
qualitative. Another attitude distinguishes between two types of paradigms:
positivism and interpretivism (Collis and Hussy, 2003; Knight and Ruddock, 2009).
Others, (Burrell and Morgan, 1979) however, categorise four paradigms, namely:
radical humanist, radical, structuralis m, interpretive, and functionalist.
The major two paradigms are:
• The quantitative paradigm which also known as the positivist, traditiona l,
empiricist paradigm. The quantitative paradigm aims to develop
understandings that contribute to the theory and that allow one to better
predict, forecast, explain and comprehend some phenomenon.
• The qualitative paradigm which also known as the natural istic and the
constructivist. This paradigm relies on information gained from human
attitudes and opinions.
Though these differences are heuristic device s, rarely do actual studies
demonstrate all of the ideal characteristics of either paradigm (Creswell, 1994).
Therefore, Sustainability Management subject matter necessitates multi -
paradigm s. This is because Sustainability Management is not only limited to facts
(product and process technical issues and environmental indicators and impacts)
108 | P a g e
 but also compri ses the participants’ perceptions (i.e. management commitments,
organisational policy and culture).
In the context of this research study, the multi -paradigm utilisation is essential
due
to the fact that environmental sustainability management, (the fiel d of study) is
viewed as both a natural science (i.e. positivism and quantitative strategy) but
also
highly influenced by participants’ opinions, behaviours, management and attitudes
(social science). The contrasting epistemology to positivism is the Inter
pretivism.
Interpretivists believe that the reality is relative and multiple. In particular,
the human
action is what is being understood by this paradigm rather than the forces that
influence it. It uses qualitative methods such as interviews and observa tional
research to understand human activities. The following table presents the
differences between the two epistemological positions according to Easterby -Smith
et al. (2008).
Table 4 .1: Opposite suggestions of positivism and Interpretivism (Easterby -Smith
et
al. 2008)

Positivism Interpretivism
The observer Independent Is part of what is being observed
Interest of humans Should be relevant The main drivers of science
Explanations Need to show causality Intends to improve general
understanding of the situation
Research
progresses through Hypotheses and
deduction Colleting rich data from ideas
Concepts Need to be operational
so that they can be
measured Should include sta keholders
perspectives
Units of analysis Should be reduced to its
simplest terms May include the complexity of
‘whole’ situation
Generalisation
through Statistical probability Theoretical abstraction
Sampling requires Large numbers selected
randomly Small numbers of cases selected
for specific reasons

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The assumptions of quantitative and qualitative paradigms are founded on diverse
ontological and epistemological tactics. This argument has directed limited debate
toward the interaction of ontological (denoting to the metaphysical na ture of
being)
and epistemological (denoting to the theory of method or bases of knowledge)
concepts. Ontology refers to the conceptions of reality (Bryman and Bell, 2011).
Bryman and Bell (2011) divide ontology into two main streams:
• Objectivist Ontology : Realises social phenomena and their meanings as
standing independently from the researcher;
• Constructivist Ontology: Concludes that social phenomena are created
through social interaction and are in a constant state of revision.
There is another ontologi cal type which is the multiple realities which stands in
any
given situation (Creswell, 1994). The author proposes taking this multiple reality
stance as a suitable approach for encompassing the scope of Sustainability
Management. Subsequently , the ontolog ical issue is about what is real, the
quantitative scholars view reality as objective, which can be realised and measured
quantitatively and objectively by using one or more of the available method such
as,
questionnaire, interview s, or case studies. Hence , for s ustainability
management,
the participants’ rational ( i.e. participants’ opinions) produces issues that have
no
counterpart in natural science.
In this regard, reality is partially personal, subjective and numerous as viewed by
participants in stud y. For example, an essential issue concerning sustainability
management integration in the petroleum industry is about foreseeing human
behaviour and tactics to ecological value s which may be not exclusively clarified
scientifically. Epistemology denotes t o what should be viewed as satisfactory
knowledge (Knight and Ruddock, 2009). According to Knight and Ruddock (2009),
contemporary epistemology is divided into:
• Empiricism, where any belief can count as knowledge if, and only if, it is
grounded in sets of actual or possible experience.
• Rationalism, as opposite to empirical knowledge, often originates
subsequent to experience.
Sustainability management as the subject under study does not represent all of the
ideal characteristics of either paradigm (positi vist ‘quantitative’, and
interpretivist
110 | P a g e
‘qualitative’). This is due to the fact that Sustainability Management as a field
is
underpinned from ecological natural science and at the same time , is highly
influenced by social science. In other words, SM is not only limited to facts
(quantified environmental indicators and impacts, product and process technical
issues) but also comprises the participants’ perceptions (i.e. management
commitments, organisational policy and culture). Therefore it is deemed appropr
iate
to the author to take multiple reality stances as a suitable ontological approach
for
extending the scope of Sustainability Management. In regard to the epistemological
considerations, the author is independent from what is being studied, and he has t
o
be in control of bias, choosing samples, and be objective in evaluating a
situation.
It is important to note that the ontological and epistemological issues are not
limited
in the research approaches but also founded on the type of the method(s) to collect
the data. Philosophical assumptions also influence the methods selected. Recker
and Niehaves (2008), for example, claim that interview research method (semi -
structured) can be utilised in both positivism and interpretivism approaches. C ase
studies are claimed to have similar validity in both approaches.
Despite the fact that positivism and interpretivism are opposing sets of philosoph
ies
about the nature and understanding of knowledge, in both , epistemologies
interviews and case study methods coul d be used. This is due to the flexibility of
these methods. For example, from an interpretivist stand, in order to understand
the
complex nature of a topic, semi -structured interviews are used so that the social
context and natural settings are taken into consideration.
In contrast, positivism uses interviews to measure a participant’s perception about
pre-defined factors as well as exploring the association between paradigms (Recker
and Niehaves, 2008). The qualitative approach (Interpretivism) is also us ed when
conducting an exploratory approach (especially in the identification and
exploration
of human related issues such as employee perception, opinions, attitudes and
factors in the use of sustainability approaches in petroleum industry). For the
purpos e of this thesis, interpretivism will be used to guide this study.
Developing a conceptual sustainability management system for petroleum
companies to enhance the environmental sustainability performance is at the very
core of this research. In order to d evelop the system, a detailed understanding of
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the existing environmental sustainability related issues (management and
organisation culture) are investigated and understood. Furthermore, there is a need
to investigate and understand the management and emp loyee perception and
attitude s regarding sustainability in general and sustainability approaches in
particular. Thus, it is to “understand human behaviour”, qualitative research
approach (interpretivist) is deemed suitable for this kind of research.
On th e other hand, the development of the sustainability management system
require an understanding of all sustainability related issues, and a major part of
these issues is related to technical engineering, product and process problems
which need more of an empiricist technical procedure and tools to assess and
quantify the environmental problems. Furthermore, it is essential in developing the
SMS to use quantitative environmental tools to quantify and estimate the scale of
environmental issues from an engineer ing and technical stand. Thus, the major part
of this research is classified under the banner of positivism (quantitative
approach).
In addition, when investigating sustainability related issues from the human
perspective, it is necessary to measure the p articipant’s perceptions and
attitudes
using quantitative methods. As highlighted above and based on the aim and
objectives of this study, it could be assumed that this study is suitably situated
mostly within Interpretivism and certain aspects of the rese arch will be following
the
positivism approach. It is deemed an excellent practice to use a mix method
approach (quantitative and qualitative) to strengthen the research findings and
follow inductive approach.
4.4 Research Design
Choosing a robust and p recise research methodology is an important academic
practice when conducting a research project. The methodology is defined as “a way
of thinking about studying social reality” (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). In other
words,
the methodology is the means by which the research aim and objectives can be
successfully achieved and results authenticated (Fellow and Liu, 2008). The
research design is explained by Bryman and Bell, (2011, p. 718) as “ a framework
for collection and analysis of data ”. Mensah, (2013) stat es that the purpose of
designing the research is characterised into two categories:
❖ The research aim and objectives;
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❖ The type of contribution the research proposes to make to the body of
knowledge.
4.4.1 Methodological Approach
In order to accomplish the objectives, this section describes the research
methodology. Creswell, ( 1994) states that the research methodology is the whole
process of a study. Collis and Husey (2003 ) claim that the methodology governs
the
entire approach to research. The methodology covers the philosophical
assumptions and values that lead to the rationale of the study and criteria the
researcher relies on for analysing and interpreting data and findings. The research
methodology works as a control standard in determining the level of evidence and
data needed to create knowledge. Creswell, (1994) provides three methodological
approaches discussed below:
a) Deductive quantitative research approach. This relies on deductive
approach es of testing defined hypothesi ses in a cause and effect flow.
Normally, the deductive approach includes pre -defined selection of what data
to use. It relies on quantitative research methods.
b) Inductive qualitative research approach. This f ollows the inductive research
logic, from the g eneral to the specific and comprises qualitative analysis
which is tested inductively. Certain aspects are influenced by intuition. The
approach uses qualitative research methods (Love et al., 2002).
c) Triangulation, which is also called the mixed method a pproach. It is the
utilisation of the deductive research logic (quantitative methodology) to
support, authenticate and corroborate the inductive research logic
(qualitative methodology) and vice -versa (Mingers and Gill, 1997)
In the context of this resear ch project, the third research approach, the
triangulation,
is viewed as suitable. The research process begins purely from an inductive
qualitative research stand point t hen move s to a more quantitative inductive
approach. The study is categorised under bo th descriptive and explorative research
from the point of view of the kind of knowledge the research determines.
The study also uses quantitative methods for certain objectives. It comes under the
descriptive banner since it explains and addresses practic al industrial and
management problems related to petroleum sustainability practices (initially
started
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from theory and literature). Consequently, the study described the existing
problems
(reality).
The research is also explorative, from the logic that it largely explores existing
sustainability and environmental management practices and approaches to develop
an innovative and specific Sustainability Management System (SMS) for Libyan
petroleum companies. Hence, this study i nvolves “explorative research”.
4.5 Research Strategy
The research strategy is the broad general orientation considered in conducting
research (Robson, 2011). The strategy of the research usually indicates the
methodology and the mixture of techniques used to investigate a precise situation.
Research strategy is established based on the research philosophical assumptions
and paradigms accepted by the researcher and deemed suitable for knowledge
enquiry relevant to the research study. The strategy for data collection is
categorised i n two different classifications, namely: q ualitative and quantita
tive
approaches. The following T able 4.2 displays the differences between these
strategies.
Table 4.2: Difference betwee n quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative Qualitative
Numbers Words
Opinion of
researcher Opinion of participants
Researcher distant Researcher near
Theory testing Theory emergent
Static Process
Structured Unstructured
Generalisation Contextual
understanding
Hard, reliable data Rich, deep data
Macro Micro
Behaviour Meaning
Artificial settings Natural settings
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In its place, Hunter and Kelly (2008) offered a meaningful classification among
the
strategies and relevant methods as shown in figure 4.1.
The nature of this research recommends that the strategy to be implemented is the
triangulation, qualitative and quantitative strategies (mixed method approach) with
more dominance for the qualitative strategy, constructivist and post -positivist
approach es. Nevertheless, the quantitative strategy (positivist approach) is
applicable to certain sections of the study methodology to authenticate and confirm
results as deemed appropriate.
The study uses methodological triangulation as it also contains quantitat ive
research. The triangulation research is deemed appropriate due to the nature of the
research goals. The research begins with purely deductive qualitative approach.
The literature review Chapter identified a research gap. It then moved on to an
explorati ve field work in a form of a case study and semi -structured interviews.
These illustrate from the participants (Libyan petroleum sector employees) the real
problems in place. It fully relies on the deductive research logic because the
variables and issues identified are contextual, intangible and associated with the
participant’s attitude, awareness, opinion and the organisation management and
culture. After beginning as a deductive study , the scope of the research move s
Constructivis
Positivist
Detached
Action Research
Case -based
reasoning
Survey
Research

Lab experiment
Field experiment
Grounded Theory
Case studies

Interviews

Figure 4 .1: Research strategy (Hunter and Kelly, 2008 p. 87)

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towards an inductive quantitative ap proach to strengthen and verify the findings
of
the qualitative approach.
The triangulation approach (mixed method approach) has been widely
complimented by research methods scholars (Bryman and Bell, 2011; Denzin,
2012 ) as it allows researchers to tackle the research question from various
relevant
angles and having more than one investigative perspective. Many research studies
owe their validit y and existence to the methodological triangulation approach.
Triangulation is also well -regarded because it can offer the best of the both
worlds.
In-depth, natural and contextualised understandings of qualitative research linked
with more efficient, spec ific and persuasive power of quantitative research
(Teddlie
and Yu, 2007). Denzin, (1970) describes four types of triangulation;
• Methodological triangulation: this is the mixed method approach which
compromises the use of both qualitative data and quantit ative data.
• Triangulation of theories: using theories from one discipline to be applied to
describe phenomenon in another discipline.
• Data triangulation: this is concerned with collecting data from multiple
different sources in different times.
• Research er triangulation which is concerned with different investigators
researching the same phenomena separately and compar ing the findings.
In the context of this study, the research uses methodological triangulation. This
approach uses quantitative and quali tative approaches in the same study. Creswell,
(1994) argues that there are three models for joint triangulated designs which are:
• Two-phase design approach. The researcher conducts clearly separate
approaches in two distinct phases.
• Dominant -less domina nt design approach. The researcher conducts the
research using a single dominant paradigm with one minor component of the
research drawn from the paradigm.
• The mixed -methods design. This approach uses the highest mix of methods
among paradigms at various m ethodological steps of the design.
In this study, a multi paradigm is utilised with a mixed method of dominant and
less
dominant design approach (i.e. qualitative (dominant) and quantitative (less
dominant). Maxwell (1994 p 21) states that the main goal of qualitative research
is
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to address practical issues. It is beneficial in: (1) producing findings and
theories
which are experientially reliable and comprehensible; (2) providing in depth and
detailed findings and analysis by investigating attitudes, fee lings and behaviour,
therefore works well with complex data; and (3) appealing in collaborative research
with researchers or participants. Therefore, this research study, like numerous
other
exploration studies, is implemented dominantly using the qualitat ive strategy with
some use of quantitative strategy. Easterby -Smith et al., (2008) point out that
embracing a qualitative methodology is associated with applied research that aims
to investigate a precise problem which is the case of this study.
Qualitati ve research scholars have suggested numerous data collection strategies
to be utilised and classified on the type of analysis they imply. Farrell (2011),
Hancock et al, (2007) and Hunter and Kelly (2008) provide various qualitative data
collection approach es which include: (1) action research, (2) case studies, (3)
surveys, (4) discourse analysis, (5) experiments, (6) ethnography, (7) content
analysis, (8) grounded theory, and (9) narrative analysis. Yin (2009) categorises
them into: (a) experiment, (b) sur vey, (c) archival analysis (d) history and (f)
case
study. The qualitative methods are discussed further in the following sections.
Similarity, quantitative research strategies and methods according to Yin, (2009)
and Yoshikawa, et al,. (2008) include: (1) questionnaires, (2) interviews, (3)
observational research, (4) documentary research, (5 ）experiment ation . This
approach pursues the factors of social phenomena with little consideration of the
individual subjective state. Consequently, the positivist approach improves the
objective logical reasoning in examining the research problem . The q uantitative
strateg y used is further detailed in the following sections ( Collis and Hussey,
2003) .
4.5.1 Qualitative Strategy
The research ontological and epistemological assumptions were reviewed and it
was concluded that the main research approach for this study is the mixed method
approach (methodological triangulation) with higher dominance for the qualitative
interpretivist approach. Thus, this section discusses the considerations of
qualitativ e
strategy used for this study.
In simple terms, the central principle of this study is to investigate and explore
sustainability related issues, impacts and barriers in order to create a
sustainability
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system to solve the issues and enhance the sust ainab ility performance. This idea
has little support in the literature. For that, the research project adapts a two -
phase
design approach, beginning with the qualitative approach. Qualitative research is
defined as “ any type of research that produces findings n ot arrived at by
statistical
procedures or other means of quantification ” (Strauss and Corbin 1998 p. 10). The
qualitative research focuses on what “real life” is like as it concentrates on
naturally
happening, ordinary events in natural setting (Maxwell, 1994 p. 17). The
qualitative
methodology has its own merits and strengths and is not just an opposing method
to the quantitative strategy.
The key strength of the qualitative strategy is gained from its inductive reasoning
approach as it focuses on people or situation s. The qualitative inductive
approach
is investigative and explorative in nature concerning the attitudes and behaviours
of
the participants and the issues. This study is a perfect example, which focuses on
a specific problem within the petrol eum industry (i.e. environmental
sustainability
management). This viewpoint of this study is contrary to the traditional
methodologies regarding environmental sustainability management. The latter is
based on numerical and statistical procedures, maybe due to the assumption that
all environmental sustainability issues are the same and only quantifiable.
Research studies concern ing these environmental sustainability are mostly
quantitative, thus do not allow policy makers and man agers to understand their
social reality. Invention is the principal goal of qualitative research while
understanding can be described with the results of this type of research as
highlighted by Easterby -Smith et al (2008). Bryman and Bell, (2011) point out
that
being qualitative is what distinguishes explorative research. Hence, this is also
very
convenient for this study.
It is important to note that the focal point of this study is understanding the
natural
reality in the context of environmental sustain ability management. Thus, the
experiences and the viewpoint of participants (employees) are essential to the
understanding of the issue wholly. Maxwell (1994 pp. 17 -18) argues the key
objectives of the qualitative strategy is to understand the meaning and specific
context within which the participant act s and behav es. In addition, qualitative
research helps understands the process by which events and actions take place
and aids the develop ment of causal explanations. Quantitative scholars focus more
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the rel ationship between two variables or factors and to what extent each
variable
affects the other. On the other hand, qualitative scholars are more interested in
understanding how variable ‘A’ causes ‘B’ and how both variables are connected
(Maxwell, 1994 pp. 17-18)
It is claimed by Miles and Huberman (1994) that qualitative research has fullness
and holism with a good ability of exposing complexity which offers “thick
descriptions” that are put in a real context. This is very consistent with this
study in
which an integrated sustainability management system developed to reduce the
environmental impacts and encourage organisations to adopt sustai nability
practices in Libya, also affects the sustainability picture more globally. As a
result ,
qualitative research was deemed suitable for adoption and its implementation is
discuss ed below.
4.5.1.1 Implementing Qualitative Research
There are six key stages in conducting qualitative research as recommended by
Bryman and Bell (2011) (see F igure 4.2). These stages are also supported by
Strauss and Corbin (1998) and were referred to as a grounded theory. Grounded
theory is “ theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered and analysed
through the research process ” (Strauss and Corbin, 1998: p. 12).

(6) Writing up findings/ conclusions

(5). Conceptual and theoretical work
(4). Interpretation of Data
(3). Data collection
(2). Selecting relevant site(s) and subject
(1). General Research Question
(5b). Collection of further
(5a). Tighter specification of the
research question (s)
Figure 4 .2: Qualitative research implementation
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4.5.1.2 Limitations of Qualitative Research

There are numerous limitations of the qualitative strategy mainly put forward by
opposing positivists (quantitative researchers). A list of these criticisms are
provided
by Bryman and Bell, (2011) which include: (1) too subjective, (2) hard to
replicate,
(3) lack of transparency, (4) difficult to generalise findings. Easterby -Smith et
al.
(2008) provided an overview of the limitations that are associated with the
qualitative
researc h approach, as did (Strauss and Corbin 1990; Yin 2009; Night and Ruddock
2009; Bryman and Bell 2011; Farrell 2011; Easterby -Smith et al. 20 08). Strengths
and weaknesses of qualitative research are highlighted in Table 4 .3.

Table 4.3: Strengths and weaknesses of using qualitative research approach es

(Easterby -Smith et al. 2008)

Strengths Weaknesses
Good for process and meaning Time consumi ng
Good for theory generation and flexible Difficulties in analysis and
interpretation
Data collection less artificial Credibility issues with policy makers (based
on subjective opinion)
4.5.1.3 Evaluation of Qualitative Strategies
This section discusses the appropriateness of strategies for this research.
▪ Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a “ methodology that involves a systematic process of gathering
and analysing a finite set of data to develop a theory based upon the data ” (Hunt
er
and Kelly, 2008: p. 86). The term “grounded” is used to highlight that theory is
extracted from the data but not from assumption or preconceived ideas. Grounded
theory according to Hunter and Kelly, (2008) is an inductive research which is
unlike
ordin ary scientific research methods. Typical data collection methods of grounded
theory are interviews and literature. It is possible to conduct interviews and
carry
field research in case studies to create theory. This falls under the banner of
grounded theor y, nevertheless, there is a difference between the collation of data
and the analysis.
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In grounded theory, the data collation and analysis are conducted simultaneously.
Meaning that the analysis in carried out in conjunction with the collection which
make s the research very involved in research and lead to the results to be very
subjective and subject to bias. This is one of the main disadvantages of grounded
theory as identified by Dainty et al. (2000). Other drawbacks of grounded theory
include; high amo unt of data accompanied with extensive analytical process es and
a very complex procedure.
Creating theory is the key goal of grounded theory in regard s to the contribution
of
knowledge. In this study, even though the theory generation is required, the focal
point is to use the findings (theory) to develop the sustainability management
system. Thus, it is deemed unsuitable to implement grounded theory, ye t its data
analysis technique is viable for this study.
▪ Interview
Qualitative research interviews seek to describe both the factual information and
the meaning level (Kvale, 1996). It is very useful in gaining insight of the
interviewee’s experiences as i t allows in depth information surrounding a topic.
Yin
(2009) categorises interviews into in -depth interview, focused and structured.
This
categorisation is also consistent with Bryman and Bell, (2011) of unstructured,
semi -
structured and structured interv iews. However, Bryman and Bell, (2011) further
categories them into quantitative interviews (structured) and qualitative
interviews
(unstructured & semi -structured).
The unstructured qualitative interviews are very similar to a conversation. The
interview ee in this type of interview is given the chance to respond freely to a
single
general question where the interviewer could guide the interviewee to clarify
various
points along the conversation. It is argued that the interview is a guided
conversation
where the research tracks a line of queries (Yin, 2009). In a semi -structured
interview, there are specific areas of enquiry pre -defined by the interviewer
which is
also known as the interview guide. The advantage of the unstructured and semi -
structured interview is their flexibility but they have the limitation of failure
to
reproduce. Yin, (2009) states that in addition to the key purpose of the interview
which is generating information for the inquiry , the environment should be
friendly
and non -aggressive for the participant.
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For this study, the qualitative interview approach (unstructured and semi -
structured)
is believed suitable. This study sets out to critically investigate the industrial
sustainability related problem s which need ed detailed focused int erviews.
Qualitative interviews (semi -structured and unstructured) were deemed appropriate
as they strengthen the evidence and improve the reliability of the findings (Yin,
2009;
Bryman and Bell, 2011).
▪ Case Study
Another applicable qualitative method is the case study. Case study is defined as
“an empirical inquiry about a contemporary phenomenon (e.g., a “case”), set within
its real -world context especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not cle arly evident (Yin, 2009: p. 18). Cas e stud ies are not
completely
qualitative, but they have been widely utilised . Baxter and Jack (2008) argue
that
case studies are appropriate when addressing a descriptive question (i.e. what is
happening or what happened?). In addition , case stud ies are also favourable
approach es when the emphasis is on a phenomenon within its real world context.
Case study method s choose the collection of data in ordinary locations, compared
with relying on “derived” data (Bromley, 1986, p. 23).
It is highlighted that case study research is very appropriate for a project driven
industry which is made up of various sections, projects and organisations. The
petroleum industry in Libya is multi -phase involving a collection of upstream and
downstream operations and projects, case study research is therefore deemed very
appropriate. The case study research is extensively exploited in different
disciplines
including social science research so that social, organisat ional and individual
aspects of phenomena can be investigated (Robson, 2011).
4.5.2 Quantitative Strategy
This research study is predominantly classified under the qualitative strategy,
however as it follows the mixed method (approach triangulation), thi s section
introduces the quantitative strategy and its methods adopted for this study.
Quantitative positivist paradigm pursues the factors of social phenomena with
little
thought of the researcher ’s subjective state. Therefore, the positivist approach
improves objective logical reasons in exploring the research problem. The
quantitative approach could work as a mitigation measure to the limitations of the
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qualitative methodology utilised in this study. Collis and Hussey (2003) highlight
that
the positivis t approach is linked with four key kinds of research; Cross -
sectional
studies, experimental studies, longitudinal studies, and surveys. Creswell (1994)
state s that quantitative methods are of two kinds; experiments and surveys.
Surveys
using structured int erviews or questionnaires. These include cross -sectional and
longitudinal studies with the purpose of generalizing from a sample to a
population.
▪ Survey Research
A survey is a positivistic methodology whereby a sample of subjects is drawn from
a populati on and studied to make inference about the population (Hussey and
Hussy, 2006). The authors discuss two main types of surveys:
1) Descriptive surveys, this type of surveys is concentrating on recognising and
counting the occurrence of population, either at on e point or numerous times
for evaluation.
2) Analytical surveys, which aims to find out if there is any relationship among
dissimilar variables.
In the context of this study, survey research is a quantitativ e research method to
provide a basis of knowledge, generate d by data from the Libyan petroleum
industry
to allow the qualitative interviews to be conducted in more specific and tailored
procedure. The type used for this research is “analytical surveys” due to the fact
that it aims to assess the awareness o f sustainability management systems and
approaches, performance improvements towards sustainability and the
management and employee relationship and their practice s. Further detail s will be
provided in the survey results chapter.
The research study utilis es a mixed method approach (triangulation) as a research
design with higher dominance for the qualitative over the quantitative research
strategy. Selected research strategies following th e research design are shown in
Figure 4.3.

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Figure 4.3: the research design

4.6 Research Methods

Bryman and Bell, (2011) point out that research methods are techniques in which
specific tools are used to collect data. Among the tools which can be used include
literature documentary data, surveys, interviews and observations. The study
research questio ns play a significant role as deciding criteria of the research
instruments as argued by Strauss and Corbin, (1998) and further validated by Yin,
(2009).
It is common that explorative research similar to this wh ere research questions
address the “what” qu estion normally follows the qualitative approach (Neuman,
1994 and Robson, 2011). Yin, (2009) adds that if the “what” question is
explorative
research, any research strategy could be applied. Interviews are one of the most
common ly applied methods in the qualitative research (Patton, 2005). Proverbs and
Gameson (2008) argue that case studies are very pertinent to project driven
industry
(i.e. petroleum industry) and it is a favoured technique when “how” or “why”
Qualitative
Research
Quantitative
Research
Interviews
Case Studies
EIA

Literature review
(theory)
Analysis
Conclusion & recommendation
Constructing Sustainability Management System
Primary Research
Survey
LCA

Analysis &
Statistics
Secondary Research
Analysis

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questions are introduced (Yin, 2009). In the context of this research, this fits
well
with the research questions and objectives.
Nevertheless, the selection of the research methods is not necessarily controlled
by
the type of the research question , as methods have their own merits and
limitations.
Therefore, it is important to take into consideration the practical strengths and
weakness of the research methods in relation to the study e.g. time, resources,
funding and access to data (Farrell, 2011). The research methods used must be
sufficiently an d precisely utilised so that deficiencies are minimised and key
elements are not missed in the research investigation process.
4.6.1 Selection of Data Collection Methods
As stated above, the study aims to critically investigate existing sustainability
problems associated with Libyan petroleum operations to enhance the ir
sustainability practices and to develop and evaluate a sustainability management
system. To accomplish this, there is a need to collect data using numerous methods.
It is deemed appropr iate for this study to utilise the mixed method approach with
more dominance to the qualitative research strategy. Qualitative methods to be
used for this research are interviews (semi -structured and unstructured) and case
studies. Environmental Impact Ass essment (EIA) which is conducted in a case
study format , is assessed qualitatively and is also utilised in this research.
Quantitative data collection methods are also used mainly to collect the bulk of
the
data. In addition , another technical quantitative tool (Life Cycle Assessment) is
used
to strengthen the results of the research and it is believed this can be classified
under the banner of quantitative strategy. These methods are designed and used
to help achieve the research aims and objectives
▪ Interv iews
Interviews are generally classified as unstructured, semi -structured and
structured
(similar to the questionnaire) (Bryman and Bell, 2011). The most widely utilised
type
is the semi -structured interview. Semi -structured interview s are semi -
controlled by
the interviewer. In other words, the interviewer uses a pre -established interview
protocol to guide the direction of the interview course, yet the interviewee is
made
to feel comfortable to express in depth explanation of the topic under study which
in most cases might lead to new questions and further understandings. The
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interviewer’s opinion must be kept vague. Interviews allow in -depth understanding
of the topic which can be difficult to establish by other means such as
questionnaires. The following t able demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages
of interviews.
Table 4.4: Advantages and disadvantages of interviews (Robson, 2011; Recker,
2008 p. 109)
Advantages Limitations
Used for issues and thematic analysis Time consuming
Useful for small samples Training for interviewer (personal skills and
sensitivity ) is preferable
Allows subjects to speak for themselves Normally needs transcribing
Permits teasing out underlying issues Potential lack of precision
Allow collection o f rich and deep
knowledge Need for rigorous thematic analysis
Can serve as foundation for extending
the study, e.g. formally test the emergent
patterns and relationships Time, trust and confidentially

Semi -structured interviews are very popular and widely used by qualitative
researchers. This is due to their usefulness in gathering rich and in -depth data.
Yin,
(2009) argues that the interview method is used for methodologies such as action
research, eth nography and grounded theory. Mensah, (2013) states that interviews
are mostly used in case study research .
▪ Case Study
The consideration of using a case study as a research method stemmed from the
fact that case stud ies are excellent method s for researchers to study complex
phenomena within their contexts. It includes in -depth and detailed examination of
a
subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. Yin,
(2003)
argue s that it permits the researcher to investigat e individuals or companies,
simpl y
through complex interventions, relationships, communities, or programs. Yin,
(2009) states that the case study approach is appropriate when considering (a) the
focus of the study is to answer “how” and “why” questions; ( b) it is possible to
influence the actions of those included in the study; (c) there is a need to go
through
contextual situations since they are deemed relevant to the phenomenon under
study; or (d) the boundaries are not clear between the phenomenon and context.
Baxter and Jack, (2008) add that case study is very useful especially in the
situation
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where the understanding of the topic under study (case) is fully co nsidered
within
its natural occurring context.
There are various data collection methods for case stud ies which include according
to Yin, (2009: p. 102) interviews, archival records, physical artefacts, direct
observations, documentation and participant o bservation. The case study method
has various critics as they are time consuming due to the variety of data
collection
methods and methodologically weak. The wide range of data collection tools cause
it to be open to bias and make it hard to be representat ive. These critic isms
have
been acknowledged by Yin, (1994, 2014) who suggest s that in order to mitigate
these points , the research er needs to ensure the research is theoretically
grounded
and have mitigation measures in the research design.
The author v iews only three data collection methods for the case study as
appropriate for meeting the research objectives which are (1) documentation, (2)
interviews, and (direct observation). The remaining methods were viewed as
unsuitable as they are irrelevant to t his study. Archival records are concerned
with
data in the past, physical artefacts focus on the physical dimensions of the study
whilst participant observation is concerned with the participants behaviour, these
are all unrelated to the study.
A number of case studies in multiple petroleum companies are conducted . One of
the case studies was specifically designed as an environmental impact assessment
study to a specific project area.
▪ Environmental Impact Assessment Case study
One of the case studies utilised is an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA
has been briefly explained in the literature review chapters and it is one of the
environmental tools used to assess and quantify the environmental impacts and
issues in a specific project area. The author conduct ed an EIA which is explained
in the analysis chapters in more detail.
▪ Survey
Survey method s in normal circumstances follows a positivistic methodology. To
satisfy the positivists quantitative approach utilised for this study, a survey
tool is
selected. Collis and Hussey, (2003) state that there are two types of surveys; (1)
analytical surveys, which intends to define if there is an association
“relationship”
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among various variables, and (2) descriptive surveys, which focus on quantifying
and identification of the frequency of a precise population, either at one point or
numerous times for comparison. Based on this classification, this survey is
classified as “analytical”. The consideration of using analytical survey tool for
this
research is to collect the bulk of the data from the wider population (Libyan
petroleum sector) and to test general hypothesises generated from the interviews
and case studies findings such as level of awareness about sustainability and
environmental issues and the k ey current management problems. The survey aims
to examine the importance of linking the findings of the qualitative methods (i.e.
interviews and case studies) to the results of the questionnaire.
In line with the research aim and objectives and in partic ular the findings of the
interviews and case studies, the questionnaire is designed to test the findings
from
the interviews and case studies to a wider population. It is distributed for a
wider
population to see if the results confirm or/and contrast with the findings of the
interviews and case studies. The survey is selected for triangulation purposes
among the chosen paradigms to confirm the outcomes of the qualitative methods
and works as a mitigation measure for the bias associated with the qualitative
methods (interview and case studies) as advocated by Yin, (2014).
▪ Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
One of the tools for assessing quantitatively environmental sustainability impact
is
Life Cycle Assessment method (LCA). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a metho d
used to evaluate the potential impacts on the environment of a product, process, or
activity throughout its life cycle (Gillani et al, 2010). It uses numerical data
and
statistics in its quantification methodology. The procedure of LCA studies is
establi shed by ISO, (2006 .
LCA allows estimati on of the environmental impacts result ing from all life cycle
stages such as transportation, raw material extraction, processing and the end of
life disposal, etc.) . The evaluation of the impacts is carried out throughout all
stages
which enables a realistic comprehensive view of environmental aspects of a
“process” or “product” which enables efficient and well informed decisions and
product trade -offs.
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The results fro m LCA can be linked with the findings of the other methods which
will
help attain the research objectives and the establishment of the Sustainability
Management System.
There are set s of limitations for the LCA studies which mainly include (1) LCA
results
are only valid under the assumptions of the study and (2) LCA is associated with
considerable uncertainty. The uncertainty is caused by lack of accurate input data
and exact real inclusion of processes. However, in the context of this study, the
LCA
studi es conducted intend not to achieve high accuracy of results, but to establish
a
realistic understanding of the major environmental issues and their impacts.
Furthermore, gain ing a clear understanding of the processes which cause the
marginally higher impac ts to the environment. The author will take all means
possible to ensure LCA studies are as realistic and accurate, so that the
limitation
of uncertainty cannot jeopardise the results significantly. In other words, LCA is
normally used to aid decision mak ing when compar ing between two products or
processes in order to make more environmentally conscious decision s. In this
study,
this is irrelevant, as the aim of the LCA studies are only to provide guidance to
the
type and scale of impacts and their process es which will be used with the
findings
of the other methods in the study.
4.7 Research Process
The research strategies as well as the philosophical assumptions were discussed
and presented in the previous sections as well as the methods that are releva nt to
this study. This section is concerned with the research process followed in this
study. It demonstrates the relationship between the research objectives, questions
and methods. Broadly speaking, the research process encompasses the whole
research jou rney which includes the identifying, locating, assessing, analysing
and
then developing and communicating ideas. In other words, it is the logical
sequence
of actions and procedures that links empirical data to its initial research goals
and
eventually, t o the conclusion.
In this study, the research process is contained from the following interconnected
and intersecting stages. Most of these stages were conducted through four phase
fieldwork. These stages are:
▪ Stage 1. Literature Review
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▪ Stage 2. Intervi ews (36)
▪ Stage 3: Case Studies
▪ Stage 4: Survey (Randomly selected Western of Libya, 327 participants).
▪ Stage 5: LCA
▪ Stage 6: Development of Sustainability Management System (SMS)
▪ Stage 7: SMS evaluation and validation case study

Objective
1 Objective
2 Objective
3 Objective
4 Objective
5 Objective
6
Figure 4 .5: the research process adopted for this study
Figure 4.5 shows how the research process is conducted. The research objectives
are realised in multiple overlapping research stages. For instance, research
objective 1 is fully achieved by the literature review (stage 1). Objective 2 and 3
are
achieved in multipl e overlapping research stages (2, 3, 4 and 5). The overlap of
these research stages is to strengthen the findings and attain the objectives from
various dimensions using dissimilar methods. Objective 4 is achieved by the
literature review and explorative c ase studies (stage 3). Stage 6 responds to
objective 5 and similar ly stage 7 to objective 5. Likewise, Figure 4.6 shows the
alignment of the research questions with the objectives.

Stage 1
Stage 6
Stage 7
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 4 & 5

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Objective 2 Objective 3 Objective 4 Objective 5 Objective 6
RQ (1)
RQ (2)
RQ (3)

Figure 4 .6: Alignment of research questions with the research objectives

4.7.1 Fieldwork
Before explaining the research process stages, an overview of the fieldwork
conducted is needed . A four -phase fieldwork was planned to collect all primary
data
required for this research. Fieldworks were planned due to the essential need to
gain empirical data from its natural setting to gain better understanding of the
situation. In addition, the re search er could empirically observe current
practices.
The researcher first contacted his sponsor, the Libyan embassy in London , to issue
an official letter for him to the National Oil Corporation (NOC) in Libya. The NOC
is
the leading government body which runs the Libyan petroleum sector. (See
appendix 1 for embassy letter).
Four field trips were completed a s follows:
▪ Field Work 1 (July 2012)
The first field work was conducted in July 2012 and lasted for 6 weeks . The main
purpose of this trip was to confirm approval from the National Oil Corporation
(NOC)
to conduct this research project, including collecting data through interviews and
case studies and in addition , to visit o il fields and refineries. With the
support from
the Libyan embassy in London a nd the Libyan ministry of Higher education, an
approval was obtained . Furthermore, 12 unstructured and semi -structured
interviews were conducted during the first visit.
• Field Work 2 (Feb 2013)
The second Field work was conducted in Feb 2013. The aim of this field trip was to
conduct two case studies , one at a downstream petroleum company then a second
at an upstream petroleum company. The field work included empirical visits to
working sites, re finery and plants. Furthermore, 10 semi -structured interviews
were
carried out as part of this phase.

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▪ Field Work 3 (July 2014)
The third field work was conducted i n July 2014. It involved a further case study
at
another upstream petroleum company and i nterview s from a number of workers. At
this stage, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study was conducted in a
specific project area (upstream petroleum operations) and some data were
collection for the Life cycle assessment. 14 interviews were carr ied out at this
stage.
▪ Field Work 4 (September 2015)
This field work aimed to evaluate the developed sustainability management system
for validation purposes. The evaluation and validation case study (4) were
conducted in this fieldwork.
4.7.2 Stage One – Literature Review
A literature review is a collection of information and analysis of existing
research
which is pertinent to the research topic. It clarifies and justifies how the
investigation
may help answer some of the questions or gaps in this current research study. It
discusses published and unpublished information in a particular subject area (Hart,
1998). The literature review intends to critically evaluate the existing knowledge
from the literature and synthesise ideas. Bryman and Bell (201 1 p. 91) stress
that it
is a compulsory part of any research due to the need for evidence that the
research er is aware of all the relevant and related knowledge about the topic and
that he can appropriately critique it, leading to a strong research foundat ion,
identifying gaps and establishing its significance. Hart (1998) adds that the
literature
review’s purpose is to demonstrate the researchers’ analytical abilities and
evaluation skills on conducting library research, understanding of the subject
under
study and justifying the research topic. Thus, the author ensured that these are
fully
covered in the literature review chapters (1 to 4).
The research is conducted continuously throughout the whole research project
period. This is to ensure that publishe d and unpublished materials are up to date,
not overlooked and relevant to the topic under study. The research er has used
various sources including, books, e -books, published journal articles, government
websites, professional websites, and conference proc eedings. These sources were
targeted and searched using numerous access databases and tools such as Google
scholar, science direct database, Emerald, Scopus, and Nottingham Trent
University library catalogue. Sources were streamed and collected, and the
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unavailable sources were loaned through the library loan scheme. This has allowed
the researcher to collect much relevant and related literature which was used for
this project and is cited as relevant and listed in the reference section . Other
sources
which were reviewed but not used are also provided in the bibliography.
4.7.3 Stage Two – Interviews
Interviews are highly recommended when the researcher is concerned with in -depth
detailed findings for a study (Fellows and Lui, 2009). In this stage, the author
conduct ed 36 interviews. Stage 2 is initiated after stage 1. The interviews are
designed to respond to objective 2 and 3 which are (1) empirically investigate the
sustainability situation at the Libyan petroleum sector in order to identify and
assess
sustainability related issues and environmental risks and (2) Identify and
critically
analyse the barriers and success factors of implementing sustainability approaches
and environmental management systems in the Libyan oil industry.
Firstly, based on the literature, petroleum companies have different
sustainability
practices and the initial interviews aimed to investigate the current situation in
regard
to sustainability related practices. Also, the interviews are designed to address
the
management issues in dealing with sustainability. The research also aims to
develop a sustainability management system which addresses sustainability related
problems, thus investigating and understanding all relevant issues in depth was
essential. Furthermore, there are n umerous existing sustainability and
environmental management approaches which are implemented by companies in
the petroleum and other sectors. Therefore, there was a need to examine the
implementation of these approaches, and identify the barriers and succ ess factors
of implementing sustainability approaches in the Libyan petroleum sector.
Interviews protocol
This research used unstructured and semi -structured interviews. It comprising the
major topics raised from the research questions. The first set of guidance was for
interviewees working in the Libyan petroleum sector and the second for non -
business organisations (governmental agencies and NGOs). These proved to be
advanta geous in terms of maintaining the reliability of the research, by ensuring
that
the same questions (topic) were asked of all interviewees. Nonetheless, topics for
discussion were not exhaustive to allow i nterviewees to raise new information
that
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was benefi cial for the research and the auth or took advantage of using this
information in follow up interviews. Such f lexibility in the interview process
provided
much assistance in gathering the required information.
After gaining permission from the NOC, intervie wees were contacted by phone to
arrange appointment s, which proved very challenging as the research er had a
limited time to complete th e fieldwork . An official letter stating intent to
conduct the
research was also given to the participant organisations. T he most challenging
stage of this process was scheduling the interviews with the officers from the
Libyan
Environmental Agency. The task of interviewing the appropriate personnel took two
months to complete. Several integrated factors such as location, in terviews time
and the need to reschedul e some interviews all affected the amount of time spent.
In most cases, interviews were conducted in an average of 35 to 50 minutes. For
some of the man agers, the interview took 2 to 3 hours as they were very willing to
share their experiences and provided factory visits to allow observation s.
Whilst conducting the interviews, every effort was made to follow the interview
procedures and ethics, especially in building good relations with the informants,
gaining their tr ust and achieving a conducive interview situation. In this case,
several
suggestions by Mason (1996) and Taylor and Bogdan (1998) were followed such
as: make sense and be meaningful to the interviewee, be non-judgemental and
patient, relate to the intervie wee experiences, be sensitive, help the flow of the
interview and ensure that appropriate focus on issues and topics relevant to the
research questions are maintained .
Some of the interviews were recorded with the permission of the interview ees but
in cas es where they w ere reluctant to be recorded, interview notes were taken
instead. Before the interviews started, the author ask ed for interviewees consent
to
use any information given in the interviews for the study. They were also assured
that all informat ion was confidential and would be used solely for the research.
Surprisingly, none of the interviewees requested the transcription of their
interview ,
but a few companies and managers did.
The average length of the interviews was around 30 to 60 minutes as reported in
chapter six. An interview protocol was used (see appendices) to guide the
interviews
in which various stakeholders in the petroleum industry in Libya participated and
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reflected upon their views in relation to sustainability and environmental
management in this sector. Specific questions were asked about the barriers
petroleum companies face in implementing sustainability and environmental
management systems and what are the succ ess factors required to achieve that
from their prospective. The interviews were carried out at the convenience of the
research participants which was flexible in style to allow participants to express
their
opinions and experiences freely. The style that was adopted is unstructured and
semi -structured interviews to ensure that any emerging questions are asked during
the interviews.
Sampling
There are two main types of sampling techniques as advocated by Saunders et al.
(2009), namely: p robability and non -probability sampling. Probability sampling is
associated with the quantitative approach whereas non -probability sampling is
linked to the qualitative approach (Saunders et al. 2009).
Saunders et al. (2009) adds that there are five types of the non -probab ility
sampling
which are: (1) quota, (2) purposive, (3) snowball, (4) self -selection and (5)
convenience sampling. He explains that, quota sampling is used for structured
interviews (surveys) and it is claimed that “it is almost as good as a probability
sample” (Bryman and Bell, 2011: p. 190).
The purposive sampling which also named judgemental sampling, allows the
research er to freely select the cases which allow him/her to achieve his/her
research
objectives. This is commonly used for the case study appr oach. When researchers
find it hard to identify the targeted participants, snowball sampling can be used
as
it will help reach a larger sample through the first participant. Self -selection
sampling
is used when the participant volunteers to take part in th e research through
publicity.
The last type is convenience sampling, which focuses on the easiest cases to find ,
typically through random selection. Among all these, the researcher chose snowball
and purposive sampling for the interviews.
Three sampling g roups were identified which are : senior industrial practitioners,
policy makers from the Libyan petroleum sector and Environmentalists from the
Environment General Authority. The selected participants have first -hand
experience in the environmental and pe troleum sectors in Libya. These groups were
135 | P a g e
selected to avoid biased understanding from senior managers. Policy makers and
environmentalists were selected using the purposive sampling technique. Inclusion
criteria were used to select the policy makers and environmentalists and it was
decided the interviewee should:
• Be a policy maker who is employed or was employed as senior consultant in
the National Oil Corporation (for policy makers only).
• Have awareness of the current issues within the petroleum industry
especially regarding sustainability and environmental management.
• Have a least 15 years’ experience.
• An employee for the Libyan Environmental General Authority (EGA), the
environment watc hdog (for environmentalists only).
The minimum criteria for sampling the senior industrial practitioners include that
the
interviewee should:
• Be a senior manager at a Libyan petroleum company (NOC fully owned or
joint venture)
• Be involved to sustainabil ity, environmental management and Health and
safety
• Have at least 5 years’ experience in a senior position.
• Familiarity with the petroleum industry in Libya and in particular to the
environmental issues
Local contacts known to the researcher were used t o arrange and identify
prospective interviewees from the National Oil Corporation and Petroleum
companies. The sample size was not pre -arranged contrasting to quantitative
research. The interviews were conducted to get deeper understanding of the issues
associated with the petroleum sector until saturation was obtained. In other words,
when the researcher believed that no new information would be forthcoming from
the participants .
19 interviews were carried out in the early stage of the qualitative phases which
involved two policy makers from the NOC, three environmentalists from
Environment General Authority and fourteen senior industrial practitioners. Follow
up interviews were conducted with six of the senior industrial practitioners, in
which
data satur ation was realised. Figure 4.7 shows the interviewees representation.
136 | P a g e

Figure 4.7: Samples of interviews

Interview A nalysis
Data collected were qualitatively analysed. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) define
qualitative data analysis as 'working with data, organising it, breaking it into
manageable units, synthesising it, searching for patterns, discovering what is
important and what i s to be learned and deciding what you will tell others'. These
are not easy tasks as there were piles of interview transcriptions, interview
notes,
observation notes and relevant documents to be analysed.
A number of guidelines in analysing qualitative da ta are presented in various
qualitative research literature items, but none of these represents fixed
guidelines.
One of these is conceptualisation. Saunders et al. (2009) consider this type of
analysis is based on developing a conceptual framework and a g rounded approach.
A researcher can use any information in any way that they think is appropriate to
'unearth' the meaning and to answer the research questions, but the guidelines used
must have their own justification within the theoretical and methodolog ical
framework. Qualitative researchers tend to use inductive analysis of data, meaning
that the critical themes/ categories would emerge out of the data (Straus and
Corbin,
1990; Patton, 1990; Morse, el al., 2002). It also requires some creativity to plac
e the
raw data into logical, meaningful categories; to examine them in a holistic
fashion;
and to find ways to communicate this interpretation to others (Hoepfl, 1997).
Significant amount s of data for this research was from the interview process with
interviewees in industrial organisations and non -industrial organisations.
Interview
2314
0246810121416
Policy Makers (NOC) Environmentalists (EHA) Senior Industrial
Practitioners
137 | P a g e
guidance which contained the major topics to be asked provided a good foundation
in creating conducive interviews with the interviewees. Yet, the interview
guidelines
were flexible because the interviewing process often produced new ideas or major
issues which were beneficial to discuss with other interviewees. Data analysis from
interview methods comprised of various stages .
There are three main types of the qualitative analysis process as described by
Saunders et al (2009). The first type is the process of summarising of meanings,
followed by the categorisation of meaning and the final type is using narrative to
structure mea nings. In other words, the summarising process involves the need to
condense large amount of text into few words so that categories can be developed
by linking these words to become meaningful themes. Thus, the use of narrative to
structure data is about e nsuring that the data is grouped as per the social or
organisational context of the study.
The data analysis procedure utilised for the interviews are graphically represented
in Figure 5.8 as adopted from Kvale, (1996) and Aiyub, (2007). It started during
the
interview process itself. During this stage, a procedure, called “self -correction
interview” was adopted (see Kvale, 1996). This involved counter -questioning by the
researcher to the subject. Self -correction interviews require the researcher to
interp ret the meaning from the subjects' feedback and condense them and send
back the meaning to the subjects for clarification.
In this research, a bespoke grounded approach was adopted for this analysis. To
start the analysis, all of the interviews were trans cribed and manually analysed.
This
involved the process of coding the participants so that they are not identifiable.
For
example, codes IN1, IN2, IN3 were given to the transcripts. Each interviewee
represented different organisation as pointed out in the following chapter.
Anonymity was ensured at all times during the analysis and the reporting of the
qualitative results. Unfortunately, 70% of the interviews were done in Arabic so
there
were major issues with translation, but some interviews were done in E nglish . The
interview s in Arabic was transcribed first in Arabic and then translated into
English.
Transcribing was done word -by-word. The transcribing process also involved a
clarification process where non -essential material was eliminated. Transcribing
all
the interviews afforded the author a valuable opportunity to clearly understand the
issues of, getting 'inside' the interviewees experiences and do some early
138 | P a g e
interpretation which was noted down separately. This opportunity was also used to
make the in itial guide for choosing categories. This stage not only produced
interview texts but also developed initial interpretations and categories. The
texts
were read and re -read to pull out categories of importance to this research. The
interview guidance was u sed as a basi s for creating the categories.

139 | P a g e
Post analysis

Interviews –
Re-interview /verification process
Completed interview interpretation and analysis were given back
to the subjects for comments on the interviewer interpretation
Final Report
Final written analysis with
addition and/ or emission
Analysis Proper
Process involved:
1.Condensation
2.Categorisation
3.Narrative structuring
4.Ad-hoc methods
Interpretation and discovering meaning
After
Interviews
analysis
stage

Interviews –

Report of analysis
1.Subjects describe their
experiences
2.Subjects discover new meaning
3.Interviewer condenses and
interprets the meaning and sends
back the meaning to subject.
“Self -correction
interviews”
Transcribing interviews
Process involved:
1.Structuring – transcribing
2.Clarification – elimination of non -
essential material
ur During the
Interview
Figure 4 .8: Interviews data analysis process

140 | P a g e
The next stage involved interpretation and discovery of the meaning from the
richness of information gathered. This process was done in categories. In each
category, new sub -categories would emerge to aid better understanding and
explanation. The interpretations of the meanings w ere not done solely through
interview texts, but with the combination of field notes, initial interpretations
from the
process of transcribing, interview notes and analysis of documents. This practice
not only clarified each issue previously discussed and discovered real meaning, but
also represented triangulation efforts to confirm and validate the interview data.
Wherever possible, theoretical perspectives on the research field were brought
together to either confirm the findings or to criticise them or e ven advance the
theory
in practice .
Finally, this interpretation process would produce the expected research report.
Throughout the report, in order to support the findings and interpretations made,
selected quotations by interviewees were presented in the text. Straus and Corbin,
(1990) described it as the 'voice' that clarifies the issues being described. In
writing
the report, it is necessary to re -examine the categories to identify the linkages
between them which the author believes can foster understan ding of the whole
research issue. There is no doubt that some factors will influence the others and
their interrelations in a rather holistic manner. Straus and Corbin (1990) also
mentioned that the research report should be a rich, tightly woven account t hat
'closely approximates the reality it represents'.
All the interviewees were sent the draft report and asked to give comments on it in
terms of providing additional information or omitting any interpretation that did
not
represent their views. For this purpose, one week was given (due to limited time
in
the field trip) and if there were no responses from them within that timeframe, the
report was considered to be agreed by the interviewees. This process of data
clarification and validation is an importa nt aspect for qualitative research.
Finally,
the draft reports were rewritten, to include additional responses and information
and
omit any irrelevant information. Chapter six presents the detailed analysis of the
interviews in which themes are discussed.
4.7.4 Stage Three – Case studies
In order for this study to develop a sustainability management system (SMS), it was
important to carry out this stage of research . A case -study was adopted so that
raw
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results can be achieved. A case study is the study o f a situation, group,
organisation
or almost anything which, can be considered as the case including an innovation or
service (Robson, 2011). The case itself is defined as a specific, complex and
functioning thing subject to boundaries (Stake, 1995).
Case studies are unique in their ability to practise research of real people in
real
situations, (Cohen et al., 2000). It was highlighted by Fellows and Lui (2008)
that
having in -depth investigation of a particular problem within a particular field
can be
achieved through the adoption of case study design. Hence, the adoption of a
multiple -case study is more efficient than using a single case s so that more
depth
can be achieved. This was supported by Yin (2014) who state s that findings,
interpretation and conc lusions of the study can be further improved and enhanced
through the adoption of a multiple -case design.
Both downstream and upstream oil companies in Libya were selected as part of the
sampling process. Yin (2003) recommended the use of personal contact s to arrange
the sampling and access to research participants. This was the approach adopted
using local contacts to arrange the sampling process. As highlighted above,
different tools for data collection such as interviews, documentary analysis and
observ ation were used to collect data as part of the case -study design.
▪ Planning the Case Study
It is important to ensure that case studies are planned and structured to obtain
the
best results possible. Case studies are criticised for not following a logical
sequence
and therefore the research er has followed the case study process adapted from
Mensah, (2013: p. 131) (see F igure 4.9) to mitigate against potential pitfalls .

Figure 4 .9: Case -study planning

Share
Analyse
Data
Collection
Select cases
Data Protocol
Plan
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Case studies are carried out via three multiple fieldwork trips and planning the
time
was very important due to limited time available . Case studies were conducted
between February 2013 to October 2015.
▪ Selecting Cases
Purposive sampling was used in selecting the cases , which is common when a small
sample is needed. In other words, the purposive sampling aims to choose cases
that can help answer particular questions. A number of criteria were used to select
the case studies such as the type of oil companies to target (i.e. upstream or
downstream), company ownership (must be either fully owned by NOC, or joint
venture) and accessibility for the researcher within the time-scale and cost
constraints.
Stake (1994) point s out that in case study research , more focus should be given
to
the iss ue of case sampling. Stake asserted that balance and variety are vital in
order
that the findings to be strengthened. Sustainability management which is the core
of this research is predominantly carried out by upstream and downstream
petroleum companies. Libyan petroleum industry includes numerous petroleum
companies around the country which specialise in upstream operations (oil and gas
extraction and production) and downstream operations (transportation, refining and
sales). To ensure a balanced selectio n, the researcher chose three different
companies: two upstream companies; and one midstream c ompany as case
studies.

Figure 4 .10: Selected case -studies

The three case studies were restricted to the western region of Libya due to the
constraints of time and cost. The selected case studies are discussed below. 12
Company A, downstream
petroluem operations (refinery)Company B, upstream
petroluem operations (oil field)Cases
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 Case Study 1: CS -011
The CS -01 is a downstream petroleum company fully owned by the NOC. The
company ha s over 45 years’ experience in downstream oil and gas operations. It
specialises in refining crude oil products. It is the main supplier for oil
products
nationally. It refines around 120,000 barrel of oil a day. Table 4.5 shows the
refinery
products:
Table 4.5: Daily produced products in its cubic meter quantities M^3
Natural Gas gasoline Airplane
fuel Diesel Heavy fuel Asphalt
400 2500 2900 5500 4800 680

The company does not have an EMS in place, however, the company recently
established a new environmental protection department. The company’s senior
environmental manager expressed his strategic intentions for EMS implementation
in future. The company was very pleased to conduct this case study and associated
interviews and pilot work around the refinery processes. The researcher was able
to investigate most of the downstream activities including the refinery processes
and separation units. A good understanding of how the company deals with waste
was obtained .
Case Study 2: CS -02- Environmen tal Impact Assessment Study
The CS -02 project was conducted in the western Libyan desert in an oil field run
by
a joint venture upstream petroleum company. The main aim of this case is to
conduct an EIA study in the project area along with some interviews. The
production
stages of crude oil and natural gas were investigated by the researcher as part of
this case -study analysis. The researcher had the opportunity to observe how
operations are being managed on site.
Case study 3: CS -03
Case study 3 is also a n upstream petroleum company in the south west of Libya.
The firm specialises in upstream operations including the production of crude oil
and natural gas. The oil field has been i n operation since 1980. The daily
production
of this oil field is approximat ely 300,000 barrels per day.
Data Protocol and Collection

1 For the confidentiality of the case study, codes were used. For example CS -01
denotes case study one.
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A protocol for conducting the case studies was developed . Interview s
(unstructured
and semi -structured) were conducted in addition to observations and documentary
research. These were the main sources of information. Following very similar
ethical
procedure s of presenting consent forms and ensuring permissions are received
when and wherever applicable , led to a friendl y relationship with the cases and
the
people in the cases. This is also referred to as a soft protocol as suggested by
Mensah, (2013) as it enhances the case study procedure and increases the
cooperation of th e participants. In fact, the soft protocol worked very well, as
the
researcher was allowed to view various document and go around process plants to
visually observe the issues. Unfortunately, p hotographs were not allowed in the
project areas due to securit y concerns .
Interviews, documentary analysis and observations were the tools used as part of
the data collection process in this case -study as highlighted in Figure 4 .11.
Figure 4.11: Case Study data collection method
Documentary research offers an in-depth and detailed overview in the case study
procedure. Robson, (2011) states it has been overlooked by researchers and
Mensah, (2013) explains that it is due to the dominance of other methods such as
interviews and surveys. It is important to note tha t unsurprisingly, there were
not
many documents to review in relation to environment and sustainability. Lack of
documentation and recording is one of the major issues identified through these
case studies , yet few reports are found to have some relevance.
Observations were also conducted throughout the fieldwork trips and project sites.
Observation was essential to comprehend the usual conditions and complications.
Data
collection
Observations
Interviews
documents
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Therefore, observation was one of the best methods to attain this drive. “Real
world”
probl ems require empirical investigations and observation in the petroleum
industry.
Literature reviews and other conceptual methods are inadequate if solely used. The
observations were unstructured in the protocol, yet they focused on the
environmental sustain ability management in the companies and worksite as well as
any other problems related to sustainability such as health and safety, waste
management and management procedures. While observations were taking place,
notes and comments were recorded.
The doc ument research and the observations formed some questions for the
unstructured interviews in an attempt to seek clarifications and in -depth
understanding. Unstructured and semi -structured interviews were carried out to
ensure that participants are given th e opportunity to reflect upon their
experiences
and perceptions freely as detailed in chapter six. Despite being open, the time
frame
for the interview s was set at 60 minutes. The interviewees were mainly managers
ranging from top management, senior manage rs and team leaders. A total of 7
unstructured interviews were conducted throughout the case studies.

Figure 4 .12: Participants in the interviews (from case -studies)

The semi -structured interviews followed similar protocol to the interviews
conducted
stage 1 in terms of consent and procedure. It focused on the management side of
issues and the opinions of the interviewees in regard to these issues. Semi -
structured interviews were conducted with man agers, supervisors,
environmentalists, health and safety officers and production managers. Semi -34
2 23 3
00.511.522.533.544.5
Case Study 1 Case Study 1 Case Study 3
Structured Un-Structured
146 | P a g e
structured interviewees were planned not to last over 45 minutes. Overall, 10
structured interviews were conducted across all the case studies.
Data Analysis
In order for researchers to make sense of the data that was collected, data
analysis
is essential and integral element of all research studies. The study adopted
different
methods in which different analysis techniques were used. A qualitative analysis
approach is conducted to analyse and make sense of the case studies findings.
Interviews are coded based on the case study and the position he holds. List of
interviewee codes are shown in figure 5.1 (Chapter Five ). The analysis for
interviews follows the sam e procedure discussed in the stage 1. Findings of each
method is then cross analysed together. Thematic analysis and groups were used
as detailed in Chapter Five .
Case Study Limitations
This research study is based on the use of a case -study design which has many
advantages as listed above. However, some argue that case study method may
contain weaknesses in terms of its lack of rigour and an excess of bias. In other
words, it could be argued that using subjective judgements during the data
collection pro cess may influence the validity and reliability of the findings.
Thus,
such concerns are taken into account by the researcher and subjective judgments
are not made during the process of data collection. It is argued by some that
scientific generalisation c annot be made throughout the case study method as
pointed out by Yin (1994) and Remenvi et al (1998).
Conversely, it could be argued that the findings of this study provide a detailed
understanding of the patterns and linkages associated with sustainabili ty
practices
in the petroleum sector in one developing country in which some aspects can be
generalised as they are linked with the theoretical foundations of th e study. The
researcher utilises a validation process in this research to mitigate the limitati
ons of
the qualitative interviews and case studies , so that findings c an be validated
and
further generalised to the Libyan petroleum sector.
4.7.5 STAGE Four – SURVEY
In the quantitative stage, the researcher ha d two goals, first, to gather
information
about the level of awareness, attitudes and performance of sustainability of a
large
147 | P a g e
sample of the Libyan petroleum sector. Secondly, it aimed to test the key findings
from the interviews and case studies against a larger sample excluded from the
previousl y used participants. The research triangulated the data required through
the most popular research method (questionnaire survey). The questionnaire was
designed with two key themes in mind, first the sustainability awareness of the
petroleum sector and se cond, testing the findings from the interview to see if the
larger population agrees/contrast s with the findings of the qualitative tools.
The questionnaire was designed and tested before distribution. A questionnaire
survey is used for collecting the bul k of the data. The sample of questionnaire s
is
distributed to target 306 participants from the Libyan petroleum companies
operat ing in the western region of Libya. The reason for selecting the Western
region exclusively is due to the fact that the researc her was unable to conduct
interviews and case studies further afield due to constraints of time and cost.
According to the NOC, (2012) there are around 1500 employees at the petroleum
companies operat ing in the western region of Libya. Using the table for
determining
the sample size of a given population by Krejcie and Morgan, (1970) the minimum
sample should be 306 participants. It is important to note that the companies
selected for the stage 2 (interviews) and stage (3) case studies were excluded from
the survey questionnaire. This is because the purpose of the questionnaire is
partially to test the findings from stage 2 and 3 and it was deemed appropriate to
avoid these companies to gain a wider overview.
Due to the constraints of time and budget, the researcher was unable to target all
the Libyan petroleum companies, but a ll Libyan companies fully owned by the NOC
have exactly the same rigid management structure, business culture and working
procedures which allow the generalisation of findings of this study to the whole
of
Libyan petroleum sector. The questionnaire was distributed to participants using
various methods such as company websites and social media (Facebook). The
research er's personal network also helped distribute the questionnaire. A copy
of
the questionnaire is available in appendix 3.
4.7.6 S TAGE Five – Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
The researcher has utilised various methods to strengthen the findings of this
research project. Previous research methods focused on the human perspective
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and attitude towards sustainability. Stage 5 differ s as it focuses on the
products and
processes instead. LCA is a widely used quantitative tool to assess environmental
products and processes as discussed previously in the literature chapters. The
research er conducted LCA studies to assess and evaluate impacts associated with
crude oil production and processes which could help the research in developing the
sustainability management system. LCA follows the ISO framework and
methodology.
4.7.7 Stage Six – Development of Sustainability Management System
As detailed in chapter 2 in this thesis, the above stages have paved the way for
the
development of the SMS which is the integral aim of this research study. This stage
involved the alignment of the overall s tudy findings so that a model can be
developed. Hence, the findings of the LCA, EIA, Survey Study and the Qualitative
Interviews have fed the development process. The SMS was developed to:
✓ Provide an integrated approach to environmental sustainability mana gement
in the petroleum sector based on the limitations of the existing approaches.
✓ Minimise the environmental sustainability issues and impacts at the Libyan
petroleum sector.
✓ Overcomes the implementation barriers sustainability and management
approache s and systems.
✓ Enhance the environmental sustainability performance and practices in the
Libyan petroleum companies.
✓ Promote sustainability awareness and improve corporate social
responsibility.
✓ Create a foundation for other related functions and approa ches such as
quality management and Health and Safety
The development of the SMS relied on the understanding gained throughout the
research investigations explorations in stages 1 to 4. The researcher has analysed
the key industrial and management issues for the Libyan petroleum sector and has
evaluated and quantified the environmental impacts associated with petroleum
operations. In addition , an assess ment of the awareness, attitudes and
understandings of a mixed levels of employees and shareholders in th e sector
including policy makers, senior managers, engineers, environmentalists,
technicians and external environmental regulators has been made . Chapter 9 of
149 | P a g e
this thesis describes the process of sustainability management system development
along with the validation process.
4.7.8 Stage Seven – SMS evaluation and validation
To strengthen and validate the developed SMS, the SMS was presented to some
of the participants who showed interest in seeing the outcome of this research to
hear their opinions of th e system and provide an opportunity for further
improvement. A revised SMS model was then deve loped as presented in Chapter
9.
4.8 Research Reliability and Validity
Key critic isms of the qualitative research approach are a lack of reliability and
validity. Different to quantitative research, qualitative inquiry has a major task
in
demonstrating that the research, findings and interpretation can be reliable and
considered valid in social research. In meeting these criticisms, scholar s such as
Walker (1974), Salner (1989) and Patton (1990) claim that qualitative research
means that the viewpoints offered are judged by their relevance to, and use by,
those to whom they are presented. Their perspective and actions are linked to the
resea rcher's perspective and actions and to how real the situation is showed as
experienced by the subjects.
Patton (1990) and Hoepfl (1997) stat that qualitative research should be judged
differently from quantitative research. It is a reflection of subjectiv ity versus
objectivity in the nature of the research methodology. According to them,
qualitative
research should be judged through its credibility, transferability, dependability
and
confirmability.
Credibility relies on the richness of the data gathered a nd how the information is
studied by the researchers and the transferability of the research findings.
Thus, the
size of samples does not matter. Credibility of the research can be improved using
data triangulation (Patton, 1990 ). In this sense, theoretica l generalisation is
an
approach to qualitative research that is based on inductive strategies (Taylor and
Bogdan, 1998; Mason, 1996).
Another aspect of trustworthiness is dependability, which contrasts with the
reliability aspect in quantitative research. Reliability depends on measurement
characteristics: results will be similar if repeated over time. Dependability is
about
150 | P a g e
findings consistency as a result of the process and the product of the research.
It
was argued by Lincoln and Guba (1985) that 'since there can be no validity without
reliability, and thus no credibility without dependability, a demonstration of the
former is sufficient to establish the latter'.
In quantitative research, objectivity is important because the measures are value
free and t herefore objective. Qualitative research holds on to conformability
rather
than objectivity , because its research relies on interpretation and is admittedly
value -bound and considered subjective. For standard research, subjectivity leads
to results that ar e both unreliable and invalid. Patton (1990) stays out of the
debate
of subjectivity versus objectivity but strives for 'empathy neutrality’. Empathy is
a
stance towards the people one encounters, while neutrality is a stance towards the
findings. A resear cher who is neutral tries to be non -judgmental and strives to
report
what is found in a balanced way. According to Lincoln & Guba (1985), conformability
of the research refers to the degree to which the research can demonstrate the
neutrality of the resear ch interpretations.
Furthermore, validity contributes to the trustworthiness of the research and can be
achieved through continuously checking, investigating falsification procedures, as
well as questioning and theoretically interpreting the findings. In assuring the
truth,
Kvale (1989) discerned three criteria, which are: (1) correspondence - whether a
knowledge statement corresponds to the objective world, (2) coherence - refers to
unity, consistency and internal logic of a statement, and, (3) Pragmatism - relates
the truth of knowledge statement to its practical consequences.
In achieving validity for this research, the author followed those procedures
proposed by several researchers (e.g. Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Patton, 2005;
Hoepfl, 1997; Creswell and Miller, 2000) which included triangulation,
disconfirming
evidence, member checking and thick and rich description. Triangulation is a
validity
procedure where the researchers search for convergence among multiple and
different sources of information to fo rm themes or categories in a study (Denzin,
1970; Creswell, 1994; Stake, 1994; Miles and Huberman, 1994). The concept of
triangulation is based on the assumption that any bias inherent in a particular
data
sources and method would be neutralised when used in conjunction with other data
sources and methods.
151 | P a g e
The findings are also cross checked with a literature review by respondents and
readers to the report. A methodical report with sufficient detail about the
processes
of data collection and analysis to dem onstrate rigour and conveyed credibility
often
determines its validity (Patton, 2005; Miles and Huberman, 1994). It permits the
audience, at which the research is aimed, to judge the quality of the resulting
report.
Hence, the validation burden is shared w ith the readers of the report. In this
research, every effort was made to use this procedure. Cross checking and counter
checking procedures were applied between data, documents produced and
published by the government's agencies, NGOs and the informants o rganisations
themselves.
Another aspect in ensuring validity is the researcher's reflexivity. According to
Creswell and Miller (2000), every researcher has their own beliefs and assumptions
and even biases as early as the research starts. These can shape the way the
research is undertaken. In countering these biases, researchers are advised to
disclose them early on. In this research, Chapter's 2 and 3 have the details of the
author's early expectations, assumptions and beliefs regarding businesses'
motiva ting factors in implementing sound environmental management as one of
their business strategies. However, even though everyone has our own beliefs and
assumptions, these can be negated when sincerely and rigorously searching for the
truth based on the sett ing and the informants' experiences.
Member checking is another procedure used to achieve validity. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) describe it as the most crucial technique for establishing credibility. Some
says that this can be done through peer review but on the other hand, some
researchers refer to it as 'member' of the research; that is the
participants/informants
themselves . This study acts on Lincoln and Guba's (1985) suggestion of taking data
and the interpretations back to the informants so that they can confirm the
credibility
of the information given.
One last method of ensuring validity is through written interpretation and
description
about the way the report is established. Qualitative research is rich with 'inside'
information based on the experienc es of the informants or subjects. A qualitative
report is usually written in detail and is thick and rich with description compared
to
a quantitative report.
152 | P a g e
4.8.1 Reliability and Validity Implications
It is important that the research is utilised in a wa y that makes contribution to
the
overall academic and professional arena. Two basic groups were identified by Collis
and Hussey (2009) in regards to the contribution of the research which are: (1)
basic
(pure or fundamental) and (2) applied (practice). Spe cific problems are solved
through the use of applied research whereas the basic research aims to advance
basic knowledge by focusing on theories and critically examining how the world is
operating. Thus, the focus of basic research is generating more knowl edge whereas
the applied research focuses on solving problems and providing practicable
solutions by focusing less on theory but more on practicability. It was argued by
Neumann (1994) that empirical research should be designed in a manner that is
valid a nd reliable in terms of its implications.
The validity aspects of the research are associated with its integrity and the
uniqueness of the conclusions and their impact. This means that reliability is
associated with the consistency of presenting the resul ts of the research study
whereas trustworthiness is associated with validity. It was highlighted by Bryman
and Bell (2011) that both terms (reliability and validity) are important in
research that
is using quantitative methodologies. They also argue that p arallel terms are used
in
the qualitative methodologies. For example, they stated that credibility,
dependability, conformability and transferability are among the criteria that is
used
to evaluate the findings of qualitative research studies. Thus, a numb er of
actions
were taken as part of this study to enhance the quality of findings as reported in
Table 4 .6. These actions were taken throughout the research processes, data
collection and analysis.
Table 4 .6: Actions taken to enhance the quality of the fin dings
Qualitative
Assessments Description Researcher’s action
Credibility How believable
are the
findings? ▪ A validation process was adopted at the end
of this study to ensure that the developed
model is of use to the system users.
▪ Statistical tests were done to assess the
suitability of the survey tool.
▪ Detailed discussion on the research design
and process is presented in this chapter.
Transferability Do the findings
apply to other
context? ▪ Multiple case studies were conducted wi th
different companies (upstream and
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downstream petroleum operations) and within
different project settings.
▪ Participants are a diverse from employees,
policy makers, stakeholders and regulators of
the petroleum sector.
Dependability
(reliability for
quantitative
approach) Are the findings
likely to apply to
other times? ▪ Data collection procedures followed a well -
planned and established protocol. In particular
the interviews and case studies. The protocols
are detailed in the methodology chapter.
▪ Maint ained consistency throughout the
research process
▪ Data analysed critically after data collection
and storage.
▪ Sustainability management in the petroleum
industry is the main field of this study in which
the research design and process is based on
the ont ological and epistemological
assumptions.
▪ Triangulation approach, triangulation of
sources, triangulation of research approach
and mixed methods increases the reliability
and dependability of the research results and
findings.
Conformability Has the
researcher
allowed his
values to
intervene to a
high degree? ▪ The use of multiple case studies was
supported by methodological assumptions
and philosophies. Each case study was
analysed separately to minimise bias.
▪ A neutral position was taken by the resea rcher
in the overall process of this research
including the data collection and analysis.
Validity How true the
findings
represent the
phenomenon
under study? ▪ Participants sampling was made very diverse
and cover as many different companies as
possible .
▪ Data triangulation: mixed methods and
approaches were used to encounter the
limitations of each other.
▪ Validation process were conducted with
participants to give opinions about the initial
developed SMS.
▪ Careful design for the questionnaire with pilo t
testing of the results of interviews and case
studies.

154 | P a g e
Chapter 5
Interviews Results & Analysis

5.1 Introduction
he purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the qualitative findings that
are derived from the semi -structured and structured interviews that were carried
out
as part of this study. A total of 36 interviews were c onducted for the purpose of
this
PhD dissertation in order for the researcher to seek and investigate the challenges
that face petroleum companies in Libya. T he interviews were carried out with
various people working for the petroleum industry in Western Libya as well as
environmentalists and NGO’s activists and adhered to a pre -scheduled interview
protocol as shown in the appendices. The aim of this phase of the study is to gain
deeper understanding of the issues, barriers and challenges that face the Libyan
oil
industry from the perspectives of stakeholders who are fully f amiliar with the
Libyan
context.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of the interviews and
discuss
the results in conjunction with the findings of the literature review , as well as
to
analyse the perceptions of the stakeholders in Libya in regards to the challenges
and issues that are associated with sustainability management in the petroleum
sector in the country. This will provide the foundations for the development of the
Sustainability Management Systems for the petroleum sector .
5.2 Sample Profile
The sample that was included in this phase of the study involved 36 individuals as
shown in the graphs below. These participants were working as policy makers,
environmentalists, NGOs activists, and industrial professionals. The interviewe es
were mainly managers ranging from top management, senior managers and team
leaders. The interviews focused on the management perspective and the opinions
of the interviewees with regard s to key issues. Semi -structured interviews were
conducted with supe rvisors, environmentalists, health and safety officers and
production managers. Figures 5.1 and 5 .2 show the distribution of the
participants
in the interviews during the different stages of this PhD thesis. Some interviews T
155 | P a g e
were carried out during the fiel d visits in the different case -studies as
discussed in
the methodology chapter.

Figure 5 .1: Participants in the interviews during the case -studies

Figure 5 .2: Participants in the interviews in the early stages of the research
The participants’ roles and positions as well as their years of experience
provided a
valuable range of opinions which positively contributed to the discussions and
results presente d in this chapter. In other words, the variety in the sample
provided
solid findings in terms of the challenges and barriers that are associated with
sustainability adoption and implementation in the petroleum sector.

34
2 23 3
00.511.522.533.544.5
Case Study 1 Case Study 1 Case Study 3
Structured Un-Structured
2314
0246810121416
Policy Makers (NOC) Environmentalists (EHA) Senior Industrial Practitioners
156 | P a g e
Table 5 .1: Demographics of the participants in the interviews
Interviewee
Code Age Gender Organisation* Years of experience
IN1 37 M NOC 12
IN2 42 M NOC 20
IN3 41 M NOC 15
IN4 29 M PC 5
IN5 51 M PC 23
IN6 38 F NGO 13
IN7 37 F NGO 11
IN8 42 F NOC 15
IN9 44 M PC 20
IN10 45 M PC 23
IN11 28 M PC 3
IN12 55 M PC 25
IN13 39 M PC 14
IN14 47 M NOC 21
IN15 41 F PC 16
IN16 40 M PC 11
IN17 50 M NGO 23
IN18 33 M PC 7
IN19 37 M EA 11
IN20 31 M EA 6
IN21 29 F EA 5
IN22 41 M PC 9
IN23 41 M NGO 15
IN24 45 M PC 17
IN25 35 M PC 9
IN26 37 M NOC 11
IN27 32 F EA 7
IN28 29 F PC 6
IN29 42 M PC 18
IN30 41 F PC 15
IN31 39 M EA 11
IN32 38 M EA 9
IN33 48 M PC 23
IN34 51 M PC 25
IN35 47 M NOC 19
IN36 37 M PC 11
*NOC = National Oil Corporation, PC = Petroleum Company, EA = Environmental Agency,
NGO =
Non-Governmental Organisation
5.2.1 Instrument
An interview schedule and protocol were developed based on the findings of the
literature review. The interviews were based on the key themes that were found to
be critical in the development and implementation of environmental management
systems in organisations. The instrument was designed to ensure that participants
157 | P a g e
are given the opportunity to discuss additional issue s that are relevant to
interview
questions. This is to ensure flexibility as well as enhance the validity of the
findings.
Most of the questions were open -ended so that the participants are given the
opportunity and time to reflect upon their experiences ( see appendices for a copy
of the interview schedule and a transcript sample).
5.2.2 Procedures
As discussed in detail in th e methodology chapter (Chapter 4 ), consent from the
interviewees and all relevant approvals from their organisations were sought prior
to discussions . The interviews were carried out either face -to-face or using
online -
communications where accessibility was an issue. Each interviewee was given
enough time to answer question s and notes that were taken during the intervie ws
were shared with the interviewees at the end of each interview to ensure that their
answers reflect their experiences and perceptions accurately . It was also
important
to provide a final opportunity for the participants to share their insights or
views
about the overall study. The average duration of each interview was around 40
minutes. The participants had the opportunity to ask questions if they believe
further
clarification was required.
5.3 Data Analysis
Data collected were qualitatively analysed. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) defined
qualitative data analysis as 'working with data, organising it, breaking it into
manageable units, synthesising it , searching for patterns, discovering what is
important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you wi ll tell others' as
shown
in Figure 6.3. These ar e not easy tasks as there were piles of interview
transcriptions, interview notes, observation notes and relevant documents to be
analysed. A number of guidelines in analysing qualitative data are presented i n
various qualitative research literature items, but none of these represents fixed
guidelines. One of these is conceptualisation. Saunders et al. (2009) point out
that
conceptual framework development using such analysis can be considered as a
grounded an d inductive approach.
A researcher can use any information in any way that they think is appropriate to
'unearth' the meaning and to answer the research questions, but the guidelines used
must have their own justification within the theoretical and method ological
158 | P a g e
framework. Qualitative researchers tend to use inductive analysis of data, meaning
that the critical themes/ categories would emerge out of the data (Straus and
Corbin,
1990; Patton, 2005; Morse, el al., 2002). It also requires some creativity to place
the
raw data into logical, meaningful categories; to examine them in a holistic
fashion;
and to find ways to communicate this interpretation to others (Hoepfl, 1997).
Significant amount s of data for this research was from the interview process with
interviewees in industrial organisations and non -industrial organisations.
Interview
guidance which contained the major topics to be asked provided a good foundation
in creating conducive interviews with the interviewees. The interview guidance was
flexibl e because the process of interviews often generated new ideas or major
issues which were beneficial to discuss with other interviewees. Data analysis from
interview methods involves various stages and procedures. There are three main
types of the qualitati ve analysis process as described by Saunders et al (2009).
The first type is the process of summarising of meanings, followed by the
categorisation of meaning and the final type is using narrative to structure
meanings. In other words, the summarising pro cess involves the need to condense
large amount of text into few words so that categories can be developed by linking
these words to produce meaningful themes. Thus, the use of narrative to structure
data is about ensuring that the data is grouped as per t he social or
organisational
context of the study.
5.3.1 Thematic Analysis
In order for the research to come up with key themes as a result of these detailed
interviews with various stakeholders in the Libyan petroleum industry, it was
important to use the Thematic Analysis approach when analysing the data.
5.4. Results
A Thema tic analysis approach as discussed by Miles and Huberman (1994)
involves different steps; the first step is known as data reduction in which the
researcher must focus on reading and re -reading the text of the interviews so that
familiarity with the overall text and context can be achieved. This step also
helps in
searching for meanings and generating themes. Data display is the second step as
outlined by Miles and Huberman (1994) which is mainly associated with presenting
the results of the data reduction p hase. Conclusion drawing and verification is
the
159 | P a g e
last step that should be conducted as it focuses on developing initial conc
lusions
from the analysis and also presenting the key themes.
Following the analysis of the results of the interviews, several theme s have been
identified. These are based on the themes that were highlighted during the coding
process of the data using the interviewees ’ notes and transcripts. Table 5 .2,
shows
an example of the coding process that was used to highlight the key themes,
supported by quotations from the participants.

Table 5.2 : Example of coding process

Extracted Data from transcripts Line-by-line
coding Parent Code
IN8 “I think that are many issues that prevent oil
companies from using systems and international
standards that mainly money, physical
resources, technology as well as lack of
knowledge about the benefits of such systems”. money, physical
resources,
technology
lack of knowledge
about the benefits Technological
considerations
Training and
education
IN13 “In the same time, I believe that human
factors are important in reducing environmental
impact. Because changing in our managerial and
administrative systems is always difficult which
makes it problem to adopt new change” human factors
are important in
reducing
environmental
impact
changing in our
managerial and
administrative
systems is always
difficult Individual
factors
Organisational
considerations
Resistance to
change
IN28 “well, education is vital because it helps
clear our confusion about many issues but
because we don’t have strong training system in
place, we cannot use advanced technology and
new policies because we lack the skills and
know ledge” education is vital
we don’t have
strong training
system in place
cannot use
advanced
technology
lack the skills and
knowledge Training and
education
Technological
considerations
IN17 “I think lack of culture about change and
improvement is an issue in the oil sector in Libya,
we use tools from 40 years ago which make our
work even difficult” culture about
change and
improvement
we use tools from
40 years ago Culture change
Advan ced
technologies

Sketches were also used to develop diagrams using the line -by-line coding as well
as the Parent codes as shown in the above table. These diagrams were sketched
160 | P a g e
manually to ensure that most of the variables are categorised under each te am
correctly. Figure 5.4 and 5 .5, shows a diagram categoris ing the process of
environmental and technological considerations.

Figure 5.3 : Qualitative Analysis diagram 1

161 | P a g e

Figure 5. 4: Qualitative Analysis diagram 2

Hence, using the notes and transcripts from the interviews, it was found that
significant issues were raised which require urgent improvement in order for the
Libyan petroleum sector to minimise environmental impact. The following key
themes have been iden tified:
• Technological Considerations
One of the key themes raised by the participants in the interviews is the lack of
technological resources within petroleum companies. In other words, the
participants were concerned about the fact that petroleum companies in Libya rely
on old and traditional approaches to planning and management of their operations
which significantly impacts upon their performance when it comes to environmental
management. For example an interviewee said:
“I believe that oil comp anies in Libya need to develop new technologies which are
widely available, to improve the operational performance because lack of
technology impacts on our performance”.
Another interviewee stated:

162 | P a g e
“It is not just about good management and procedures, it is more about having
technology and technical parameters that can help in identifying the environmental
risks and also monitor our performance”.
Therefore, technological considerations in terms of resources such as equipment
and tools that are used for mea suring the environmental impact of the different
operations is one of the key issues to address in oil and gas companies. This is
because most of the participants believe that their environmental impacts are very
high when answering Question number 4 in th e interviews. One interviewee stated
that:
“I think due to our bad and old systems, our impacts are very high and these can
be reduced by investing in technology and innovation using our money”.

More importantly, it was noted that the participants believe their companies are
not
doing well in terms of investing in new technologies due to the lack of awareness
about implementing technological approaches within the organisations that operate
in the oil an industry. One of the interviewees who was a member of the
environmental agency in Libya stated that:
“I have attended courses in UK and Germany and I have learnt about how
environmental impacts can be minimised through technology, in Libya, oil
companies are not investing in these technologies”.
This again a ffirms that one of the key challenges that obstruct oil companies fro
m
adopting sustainability practices is the lack of technological resources which are
important for performance and quality improvement of supply chain operations.
• Environmental Considera tions
The second theme identified was associated with a lack of clear guidelines and
codes about environmental protection and management. In other words, the
participants believe that due to the absence of clear guidelines from the
authorities,
petroleum companies are not committed to enhancing their performance. For
example, an interviewee stated:
“In my view, we should not just blame petroleum companies for this poor
performance but also blame the authorities that monitor the oil and gas sector in
Libya” .
Another interviewee stated that:
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“It very important to have guidelines, rules and laws in place to ensure that oil
companies are improving t heir environmental performance”

This shows that all stakeholders need to be involved in the process of protecting
the
environment and not just the oil companies. However, petroleum companies should
ensure that they have systematic approaches in place to improve their
environmental impacts through the utilisation of technology and best practices
based on lessons from other sectors and from other countries.

One of the interviewees stated:

“Law is number one, and guidelines are number two, and then the blame is on us
if we don’t follow these laws and guidelines”.

This again points out that environmental protection and management in Libya
requires a systematic and integrated approach that encourages all stakeholders to
be involved in th e process. Without this, it could be argued that all efforts will
fail as
there n eeds to be consideration of technological and environmental considerations
that influence the adoption of such systems .

• Organisational Considerations
The i mportan ce of organisational con formance and management support was
highlighted a s very important to the adoption and implementation of sustainability
and environmental management systems in the petroleum sector in Libya. Issues
related to regulations and laws, management and leadership, human resources,
planning, inspection and evalua tion as well as the availability of financial
resources
were raised . For example, one interviewee when answering question five stated:
“Of course, the top management is the first and vital factors that influences on
the
practices of our organisation, becau se if the management is interested then all
resources and support will be provided”.
Another interviewee stated:
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“I think all management and administrative efforts cannot be implemented without
clear support and commitment forma all managers at all levels and especially from
the top management because they make the big decisions”.

This again shows that top management and leadership styles in the petroleum
industry and awareness about the benefits and value of sustainability is important
when it comes to de veloping and implementing sustainability management systems.
This was affirmed by almost most of the interviewees including managers
themselves. For example, one manager stated:
“Yes, I agree that top managements has a significant role to play in minimisin g
environmental impact. This starts by making the right decisions and also providing
the resources needed to reduce these impacts”.

More importantly, it was noted by the participants that management decisions

should not be focused on improving the financi al performance or production levels
but also on ensuring that all operations are being conducted in accordance with
national and international laws. One of the interviews form an NGO stated:
“For us, management is not only about making profits and producti on increases in
oil companies but also about ensuring that all of their work and operations are
environmentally -friendly”.
Another important element which was categorised under this theme is the
availability of human resource personnel who are competent an d qualified to
develop and implement sustainability management systems. For example, one of
the key issues that was raised by one of the interviewees is the lack of expertise
in
the field of sustainability management in Libya, the interviewee said:
“I thin k petroleum companies in Libya do not have the right skills or expertise to
develop sustainability management systems as we lack professionals in this field”.
Another interviewee stated;
“Petroleum companies should ensure that their human resources departm ents are
working to meet the needs of their employees in terms of skills enhancement and
development because we don’t have experts in the field of sustainability
management”.
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This also affirms that points that were discussed in the literature about traini ng
and
development which are considered as success factors to implementing
environmental management systems. Participants believe that their companies do
not have the right skills or knowledge to implement sustainability management
systems. Therefore, this could imply that petroleum companies need to have a
systematic and integrated approach to sustainability management by developing
the skills of their employees and also obtaining professional certifications and
accreditations from international organisati ons. Furthermore, planning was one of
the key themes that were also found to be very important as part of the
organisational factors and considerations. One of the interviewees said:
“I think our environmental impacts are high because of our poor planning, we don’t
use methodologies such as environmental impact assessment tin our planning
phases”.
Another interviewee stated:
“It is not all about training and education but more about having the right tools
for
making efficient and effective planning where al l risks are identified in the
early
stages so that control measures can be put in place to avoid such risks”.

These important points highlight the fact that methodological approaches such as
Environmental Impact Assessment and Life Cycle Assessment are badly needed in
the petroleum sector in Libya as companies carry out different operations that
cause
significant environmental impacts including land and air pollutions. Therefore,
organisational policies and arrangement should be developed by top management
to ensure all employees are familiar with the different stages and tools that are
used
as part of the decision -making process. In addition to planning, evaluation and
inspection were also noted amon gst the challenges and barriers that hinder
petroleum com panies from adopting sustainability practices. For example, one
interviewee stated:
“In my view the main issue about environmental management in Libya is lack of
inspection and monitoring from all stakeholders, we don’t have others monitor our
work which m eans we don’t feel that we can be held accountable”.
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Another interviewee stated:
“It is all about ensuring that plans and strategies are being implemented
effectively, how can we do that if we don’t have systems in place that monitor our
progress or check upon our performance”.
The issue of monitoring and evaluating performance is a core element of all
managements systems including those introduced by ISO and other leading
organisations. All organisations should ensure that their policies, practices and
programmes are evaluated to ensure that they are accomplishing the g oals that are
desired. In terms of environmental management, it was noted that all the
participants believe monitoring and evaluation of performance is significant as it
helps companies corre ct their actions and also develop new strategies and plans
that could help minimis e environmental impact. One of the interviewee said:
“I think the government should have a role in minimising the environmental impact
by establishing independent bodies that monitor the work of companies”.
This hi ghlights the lack of regulatory framework that organise and control the
work
of petroleum companies in Libya when it comes to sustainability and environmental
management. Regulations and policies at the national leve l were considered to be
among the key success factors that help petroleum companies minimise the
environmental impacts. One of the interviewees stated:
“There should be strict laws and regulations that all companies that operate in
Libya should adhere to, but laws alone are not enough without monitoring and
evaluation from independent agencies”.

It can be seen that some interviewees are concerned about the lack of a regulatory
framework which provides a legal basis for petroleum companies to adhere to in
order to improve their performance. It is clear that m ore work is need ed to
develop
regulations and laws. This can be facilitated by learning from other countries and
also appointing external consultants to help policy makers develop regulatory
system s. Financial resources were another key concern raised by participants as a
barrier to the adoption of sustainability management systems. One interviewee
stated:
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“Petroleum companies produce oil which is the main source of income to Libya but
we don’t have mon ey to invest in technology or develop management systems as
other foreign companies”.
Another interviewee stated:
“I think there is bad financial management practices which limit our capabilities
from learning or adopting new technologies”.

Availability o f financial resources is very important when it comes to

sustainability
and environmental management as it provides the tools that are needed to develop
such systems in terms of physical infrastructure and also enhancing human
competencies.
• Individual/Hum an Considerations
Individual and human considerations as a theme were based on the fact that most
of the participants in the interviews were concerned about the awareness and
competencies of staff as well as their motivation to accept change. One of the
interviewees stated:
“In my view not only the organisation is failing towards sustainability or
environmental management but also as employees, we don’t like to adopt new
rules as we are used to the old ones”.
Another interviewee said:
“I think human factor s should also be taken into account in terms of our ability
to
adapt to new changes in the organisations which prevents us from learning about
new technologies or tools”.
These factors are very important when it comes to developing sustainability
managemen t systems as the employees are the key members of the organisation
who should perform the tasks required and also ensure that resources are being
utilised efficiently. Resistance to chan ge was seen as one of the barriers that
migh t
hinder petroleum compani es fro m adopting new technologies. This is a serious
problem as these new systems will require organisations to make significant
amendments in the organisational structure as well as in the protocols, procedures
and rules that are being practiced within th e organisation. Human factors should
be
taken into account when developing environmental management systems and
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training as well as professional development should be offered to all employees to
ensure their skills are enhanced and they are capable of meet ing the challenges in
the workplace. Employee empowerment and employee participation are also crucial
when it comes to enhancing the environmental performance , as the top
management needs to listen to the concerns of their employees. One interviewee
stated that:
“I think in our organisation the issue of making decisions that impact long term
performance of the staff and the organisation as a whole should be given a
second thought”.
This was also affirmed by another participant who stated that:
“More teamwor k is needed and also employees should be involved in the
decision -making process as that will help them come up with new ideas about
their work”.

Thus, th e implication is that human factors are vital when it comes to developing
and implementing environmen tal management systems which should be noted by
policy makers.
5.5 Discussion
The findings of the qualitative phase in this study highlight that sustainability
management in Libya requires a systematic and a holistic approach that takes into
account several factors which have been categorised under technological,
organisational, hum an and environmental factors above. It was pointed out by the
research participants that sustainability management in the petroleum industry in
Libya is not well -practiced due to the lack of a strict regulatory system in place
as
well as lack of awareness about the benefits of such systems. More importantly, the
participants in the interviews were concerned about the level of support that is
given
to petroleum companies from all authorities in Libya and that the top management
and leadership should be more committed towards reducing the environmental
impact.
Furthermore, it was also seen that the interviewees believe that sustainability
management in Libya cannot be accomplished without shifting the focus of all policy
makers and stakeholders towards the va lue and importance of sustainability. A key
169 | P a g e
issue that was raised by the interviewees is the lack of clear laws and regulators
that put pressure on petroleum companies to improve their environmental
performance and reduce their negative environmental impac ts.
In terms of the use of methodological approaches, it was noted that none of the
well-known processes such as the EIA and LCA are used in the planning stage of
any operations or projects as highlighted by the participants. This shows that a
holistic ap proach that involves planning, implementation and control phases needs
to be considered when developing a sustainability management system for the
Libyan petroleum sector. Furthermore, among st the issues raised is the lack of
resources either human or phys ical that can help companies implement
sustainability systems , which is seen as vital.
In terms of the challenges that face the petroleum companies in Libya, it was found
that organisational factors such as the lack of resources, lack of training and
deve lopment, lack of education and support from top management and leadership
are among the key concerns . Moreover, lack of advanced technolog y expertise is
also noted along with the lack of financial resources , the latter being very
surprising
as the petroleu m industry in Libya is considered as the main source of revenue to
the country’s economy. This could suggest that poor resource utilisation exists or
staff are poorly informed about the availability of financial resources. The
findings
of the qualitative s tudy are in line with some of the factors that were identified
in the
literature review (chapter three) which are associated with the successful
implementation of EMS. Hence, these findings also support the aim of this study
and the problem statement which outlines that an integrated approach to
sustainability management in the Libyan petroleum sector is essential.
The rest of this dissertation will present the findings of other empirical work
that was
carried out as part of this PhD thesis to highlight th e challenges and issues
associated with the petroleum sector in Libya , so that a holistic approach can be
developed to minimise the environmental impact .
5.6 Chapter Summary
The aim of this chapter was to present the key findings of the qualitative phase .
A
total of 36 interviews were conducted with several stakeholders in the petroleum
sector in Libya. All interview data were analysed using a thematic content approach
170 | P a g e
and a number of themes have been identified. Based on the interviews, it was found
that an absence of a regulatory framework which is a principal role of the
government or state was seen as a major obstacle towards adopting sustainability
and environmental management systems.
It was highlighted by participants that further information and s upport is
required in
order for the petroleum companies to adopt sustainability indicators and that
stakeholders should be involved in the process of strategic planning to ensure any
obstacles are identified and managed. Among the themes is the need for ha ving
organisational, technological and governmental arrangements in place to ensure
that petroleum companies are meeting their environmental obligations.
Funding and resources are also among the factors that were seen to be of high
importance for companie s to develop environmental management systems. It was
noted that training and educational programmes and obtaining external expertise
and the use of advanced technologies as well as using methodological approaches
such as LCA and EIA could further assist i mprovement.
Interviewees believe that using international standards can help domestic
companies reduc e their environmental impacts. However, some of the barriers were
associated with the lack of support at the governmental and management levels .
Lack of e xpertise in the field as well as lack of awareness about the benefits of
sustainability and its impact on the organisational performance are also noted.
Hence, the findings indicate that petroleum companies in Libya struggle in terms of
adopting sustainabi lity practices. T here are very low levels of awareness about
the
value and benefits of sustainability.
The following chapter presents the findings of the quantitative study that was also
carried out in Libya .
171 | P a g e
Chapter 6
Survey Results & Analysis

6.1 Introduction
he purpose of this chapter is to submit the quantitative findings that were
established through analysis of a questionnaire survey. A general
discussion on the main themes and findings is also presented .
6.2 Reliability Analysis
It is important to check whether the questionnaire or the tool we are using for
research is reliable. Authors have different ideas about Reliability Analysis but
Helms et al (2006) suggest that reliability analysis measures the consistency of
the
instrument i.e. to what degree instrument provides the reliable score s at all
times.
The most widely used measure of reliability in social sciences is Cronbach α
(alpha)
that refers to the coeffi cient of internal consistency (Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach
α
measures the reliability using the following formula:
𝜶=𝑵
𝑵−𝟏(𝟏−∑=𝟏𝑵
𝒊𝝈𝒀𝒊𝟐
𝝈𝑿𝟐)
where N is the number of components (items or testlets),
is the variance of the
observed total test scores, and
is the variance of component i.
The c riteria of acceptability of Cronbach’s α is that if the value of α is above
0.9 , it
is considered excellent, 0.8 to 0.9 is considered great, 0.8 to 0.7 good , 0.7 to
0. 6
acceptable , value s below 0.6 questionable and 0.5 and below poor.
In this research, the questionnaire was distributed among 15 employees of the
same organisation in order to check the realibility of the questionnaire. The
Reliability analysis was conducted using Cronbach’s Alpha results tool in SPSS
software. Following is the Cronbach’s Alpha result of the entire part 2 of the
questionnaire: T
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Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
0.861 35
We can see from the above table that the value of Cronbach’s Alpha for the entire
questionnaire is 0.861, which falls under the 'great ' category. This means that
the
questionnaire is reliable enough to be used for this research.
It is not only the complete questionnaire that should be reliable but also the
reliability
of each variable in the research because if the items for each variable is
unreliable,
that variable might hamper the research as a whole. So in order to check the
variable reliability , the researcher s did a reliability check of each variable
one by
one.
6.2.1 Sustainability practices:
There were a total of 5 items of this variable in the questionnaire. The
researchers
completed the reliability analysis and the following result was found:
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
0.721 5

The Cronbach’s alpha is 0.721 which is in the range of 'good ', which means that
the
questions / items made for this variable is reliable enough to be used in this
research. Reliability of other variables is shown below.
6.2.2 Barriers to introducing sustainability:
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
0.822 8

6.2.3 Factor contributing to the success of Sustainability:

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
0.901 7

6.2.4 Motivations for implementing Sustainability Management Systems:

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Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
0.872 6

6.2.5 Solution for reducing negative environmental impact:

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
0.792 5

So all the variables and the items are deemed reliable enough to be used in the
research .
6.3 Demographic Analysis
The first part of the questionnaire used in the study is comprised of Demographic
information. Demographic analysis is a technique used to develop an understanding
of the age, sex and racial composition of a population and how it has changed over
time thro ugh the basic demographic processes of birth, death, and migration
(Maxwell et al., 1972).
In the current research, the respo ndents are asked different demographic questions
in order to record the participants’ age group, occupation, education level and
other
relevant information. According to Wunsch, (2012), in any kind of research which is
based on a survey analysis, the resear chers should keep in mind the importance of
the demographic data. If the demographic data is available, the researchers might,
for example , decide to exclude a certain age group from the analysis, to give a
more
tailored response (Yusuf et al., 2014).
The following section of this chapter encompass es the analysis of all of the
demographic data from the first part of the questionnaire. There were total of 6
questions in this part which were about a ge group, company details, industrial
experience, involvemen t in different kinds of petroleum operations , position in
the
company and how respondent's believe d their company is performing on
sustainability front.
The first question in the demographic part of the questionnaire is related to the
age
of participants .
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Figure 6.1: Age groups of respondents

It is apparent from the above graph that participants are mainly from three
age groups : 19% from 26 -30, 27% from 31 -40 and 28% from 41 -45. Thus , nearly
2/3rds of participants are between the age s of 26 to 45. This means that they
have
experience in industry or can be considered a mature workforce. It is said that
the
petroleum industry has the capacity to retain its workforce because it is a
sustainabl e industry with lucrative packages for its employees (Hosie et al.,
2013).
The current data highlights the literature findings . This is the time when
people are more worried about their career path and if they choose to stay with the
company , it shows that the industry is providing enough for them and their family
to
at least survive or even to thrive, or they believe that the company provides
positive
opportunities.
Company Type
The second item in the questionnaire is about the type of company the respondent
is working in. The rea son for this question is because it allows the researchers
to
differentiate between the responses of the employees from different industries.
0.05.010.015.020.025.030.0
18-25 26-30 31-40 41-45 46-50 50 or OverAge Group of Respondents
175 | P a g e

Figure 6 .2: Petroleum company type

Over half of the participants are working in Joint Ventures with NOC. 42% are
employees of fully owned companies, and only 2% are working for EPSA
companies. It is no surprise that the majority of participants are within the
Joint
Venture category , as ove r 70% of the Libyan petroleum sector is made up this way
(NOC, 2015).
It was obviously taken into consideration that there should be no bias in the data
collect ion and for that reason, the reseachers decided to collect data from as
many
different sources a s possible. As the above data shows, however, more than half
the data is collected from a single source i.e. Joint Ventures with the NOC, which
is
not ideal. The reason for this single source data is that more Petroleum companies
in Libya have decided to engage in Joint Venture s with the NOC, as this provides
many benefits.
Industrial Experience
One of the most important item s in the questionnaire is the in quiry about the
experience respondents had in the Petroleum industry . The reason for including
this
question is that it might help distinguish between employee responses at
different
seniority levels. According to Hong et al (2016), the more senior an employee is,
the more specific the response about the industry would be, because he / she would
have a broader perspective o f the industry. A junior employee’s response is also
very important because according to Presslee, et al. (2013), junior employee’s
thinking about their industry is the true reflection of how the industry would
appear
42%
56%2%Petroleum company type
State Owned (Owned by LIbya's NOC)
Joint Venture with NOC
Exploration and Production Sharing Agreement
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to all the stakeholders. We know that stakeholders are not necessarily directly
involved in the day to day operations of the industry, but the j unior employees
response typically reflect their views also.

Figure 6 .3: Industrial experience of participan ts

Figure 6.3 shows that nearly 2/3rd of participants have more than ten years '
experience and only 4% less than three years , so the vast majority are
knowledgeable enough to appreciate any problems and can form sound and rational
judgements about them.
The significant number of senior employees in the survey improves the likelihood of
finding ‘real’ problem s in the industry , but hearing the response s from the
junior and
mid-level employees is also helpful as it provides a different dimension.
Industries
evolve with the passage of time and employees evolve with them, but some are
more flexible than others in how they adapt to the change. It can be seen from the
above data that a large number of employees stay with in the industry for a
considerable time, wh ich implies most are able to adjust appropriately to modified
working practices .
Respondent’s Operational Department:
There are many different departments working in the petroleum industry including
production, maintenance, refining and administration . Some of these are core
departments like production, maintenance and refining and some are 'soft' such as
HR, administration and finance . 4%
23%
52%21%Industrial Experience of Participants
Less than 3 years
4 to 9 years
10 to 15 years
16 years or over
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Participants were asked about the type of departments they are working in to
give
context to the answer (see F igure 6.4). More than 50% of participants belong to
three core departments, Petroleum Production (25.7%), Maintenance (19.9%) and
Oil Refining (15.6%). This is advantageous to the study as it allows the
understanding of the issues from core petroleum departments. Furthermore, despite
the fact that health, safety and environment departments have the lowest number
of employees across the Libyan petroleum sector, the participants belong to these
departments represent around 12.5%. This is considered high compared with the
number of employees from other departments. This is deemed very beneficial with
respect to the objectives of the study.

Figure 6.2: Participants’ operational department

Employee’s Position:
To understand the organisational hierarchy of participants, they were asked about
their level within their companies. Figure ( 6.5) shows 52% of participants are
normal
employees which means they might be engage in manual labour and other working
categories, 30% are Middle Managers and the remaining 18% are senior managers.
It is clear that organisational hierarchy is therefore fairly distributed among
participants with respect to their positions.
Different employee positions give rise to different perception s about the
organisation or ind ustry, according to Shoss et al (2013). As employees go up in

178 | P a g e
the organisational hierarchy, their perception about the organisation drastically
changes and the things or issues which used to irritate them, no longer do. In
fact,
they often start to defend these issues. So, taking the responses from all the
levels
is important to have a 360 view .

Figure 6.3: Employee positiion

Participants' Perception of Their Companies' Environment Performance
The participants were asked about how environment -friendly they think their
company is and t heir responses are shown in Figure 6.6. Unsurprisingly, i t can
be
inferred from the graph that 68% of the participants think their company is highly
impacting the environment by emissions and wastes. Only 7% of participants
thought their company is green. So if the employees think their company is not
environment friendly, how will society judge them ? These are concerning number s
and are a real worry for environmental de cision makers.
Accord ing to Wayne et al (2013), many employees tend to speak positively about
their company no matter what you ask them about. Even when the employees were
asked about the negative impact of a petroleum company on the environment, 7%
thought that the company is completely green .

52%
30%
18%Employee position level at the company
Normal Employee
A Middle Manager
(Engineer/Teal
Leader/Supervisor)
A Senior Manager
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Figure 6.4: Partiicpants opinoion towards their company envrioemtal performamce

6.4 Descriptive Analysis a nd ANOVA
The second part of the questionnaire is items with a Likert Scale. There are two
ways to do an analysis of Likert Scale questions ; one method is descriptive and
the
other is ANOVA or regression analysis. This first part will be the descriptive
method,
in which the frequency of the responses will be taken into consideration and will
be
used to ana lyse the data and aid decisions.
Sustainability Practices followed by Libyan Petroleum Companies
In order to get a better understanding of the sustainability situation at the
Libyan
petroleum sector, all 327 participants were asked to rate their opinion on a five
-point
Likert scale regarding various sustainability practices. The participants’ opinions
are
displayed in Table 6.1 below.
Table 6 .1: Sustainability Practices
Sustainability
Practice Company
using
EMS or/
SMS Company
have
sustainability
policy Company has
designated
team/manager
for
environmental
issues Accredite
d to ISO
4001:
14001 Addressing
to ISO
4001:14001
Strongly
Disagree 35.5% 12.2% 26.9% 35.2% 16.2%
Disagree 25.7% 6.7% 29.7% 31.2% 30.9%
Neither Agree
nor Disagree 19.0% 9.5% 20.2% 10.7% 22.9%
Agree 17.1% 35.2% 17.7% 15.9% 20.2%
Strongly Agree 1.2% 32.1% 2.4% 1.2% 6.7%

A sustainability management system (SMS) is a technical means of

integrating environmental, social and economic concerns into organisational
management , so that it can become more effective in addressing its positive vision
6.7%24.8%68.5%
Green (Environmentally Friendly)Low Environment ImpactHigh Environmental Impact
(Emissions and Wastes)
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of a sustainable future. It is the starting point to moving towards
sustainability. It can
be inferred from Table 6.1 that more than 60% of participants disagree with the
statement that the “Company is using EMS or SMS” with only 18% agree ing. This
indicates that the majority of Libyan petroleum companies do not have any
sustainability approaches in place or they are not being communicated effectively.
The results from the interview s (stage 1) imply it is the former case, that
sustainability practices don't exist in the sector and t his is the major reason
for
environmental deterioration in the area / country , so creating an SMS can only
assist
sustainability development.
Sustainabil ity policy is a formal document that states the organisation’s
intentions regarding its overall sustainability performance (Bueren and De Jong,
2007). The sustainability policy is the basis upon which the sustainability
management system is to be built (Po jasek, 2008). It can be seen from Table 1 that
nearly 2/3rd of participants agree with the statement about the “company having a
sustainability policy”. This widely contrasts with the findings from the
interviews at
stage one of this research.
Interviews were conducted with 36 senior managers or consultants and most of
them clearly stated that a sustainability policy does not exist in the sector. It
is
possible, however that there is some misunderstanding of what constitutes a
company sustainability policy and the Libyan environmental law which is enforced
by the NOC. When asked , one manager stated there was a huge difference
between the two, s o arguably, organisations have failed to communicate this
effectively .
When the third statement in Table 6.1 was analysed regarding whether a
“Team/Manager was responsible for environ mental issues” , the results show ed that
only 1/5th of participants agreed this to be the case. Interviews findings showed
similar results, which i ndicates that companies are not takin g environmental
issues
seriously. In different countries of the world, where the petroleum and other
industries give greater importance to the sustainability issue, they have a
different
department for sustainability, with their own governance. The employe es of this
department are responsible for managing s ustainability, keeping an eye on changes
and new laws, training employe es about sustainability and taking actions to
implement the laws.
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ISO 4001 and its family of standards set out the criteria for a n environmental
management system. ISO4001 is a certification for evidenced EMS applied by the
company. It maps out a framework that an organisation can follow to set up an
effective environmental management system. Table 6.1 shows that more than 3/4 th
of participants disagree with the statement that the “company is accredited to
ISO4001:14004” and only 1/4 th of participants agree it. Thus, most companies do
not have a proper EMS in practice.
With the use of the quantitative analysis software SPSS, a mean analysis
was conducted. To give proper weight to the Likert scale, values were assigned to
each rating point. 1 – Strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 – neither agree nor
disagree,
4 – agree, and 5 – strongly disagree. Table 6.2 and F igure 6.5 shows the results.
Table 6 .2: Sustainability Practices Means Score
Sustainability Practices Mean S.D
Company using SMS/EMS 2.2 1.15
Company have sustainability policy 3.7 1.34
Company has designated
team/manager for environmental
issues 2.3 1.10
Accredited to ISO 4001: 14001 2.1 1.16
Addressing to ISO 4001: 14004 2.7 1.20

It can be inferred from Table 6.2 that the mean score for all the statement s
are below 3, except the “company having sustainability policy” (3.7). A mean
scores
of less than three indicates that the participants are disagreeing or are
neutral to the
statement. The standard deviation is almost uniform for all the statements and
hence we can conclude there is not much deviation in the responses among the
participants. Thus, the only positive sustainability practice followed by Libyan
petroleum c ompanies as per the survey is to have a sustainability policy. As
argued
earlier, this aspect contradicts the interview findings and it is deemed that
participants have confused the sustainability policy with the Libyan environmental
law enforced by the NO C. This understanding was gained after further
clarifications
followed re -communicating with some participants. Basically, a policy without any
management system or standard or team won’t be effective. Hence, a concerted
effort should be made to improve t he sustainability practices in Libyan the
petroleum
sector.
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Figure 6.5: Sustinaiblity practices mean score

With a view to ascertain the variance in the sustainability practices among
different
company types, an ANOVA test has been used. Scores of all the five statements
are added together to form the total sustainability score. The scores of each
company on their sustainability practices are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6 .3: Sustainability Practices Mean Score Vs. C ompany Type
Sustainability Practices Score Freq. Mean Std. Deviation
State Owned (Owned by Libya's NOC) 136 11.21 4.10
Joint Venture with NOC 183 13.78 4.02
Exploration and Production Sharing Agreement 8 11.00 0.00
Total 327 12.64 4.20

It can be seen from Table 6 .3 that the mean score of Joint Ventures with the
NOC are higher than that of State Owned petroleum companies and those operating
under exploration and production sharing agreement s. Both NOC and exploration
companies hav e low score s in su stainability practices when compared with JVs. To
ascertain the statistical significance of this, ANOVA is used and the results are
shown in Table 6 .4.
Table 6 .4: ANOVA Table
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant variance in the sustainability practice
scores among different company types.
0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.0
Company using
SMSCompany
having
Sustinable
PolicyTeam
responsible for
env. IssuesAccredited to
ISO
4001:14004Addressing to
ISO
4001.14004Mean ScoreSustainability Practices
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ANOVA
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 539.65 2.00 269.82 16.75 0.000
Within Groups 5219.49 324.00 16.11
Total 5759.14 326.00

It can be seen from the above ANOVA table, that there is significant variance in
the
sustainability practice scores among different company types. The F value is 16.75
(>1) and the Sig. value is 0.000 (<0.01), hence we can conclude with 99%
confidence that our prediction of JVs having higher sustainability pr actices is
statistically significant. This may be due to the fact that Join Ventures from
advanced
nations are following the sustainability practices of home countries. For instance,
Eni is a North African oil company having Joint Venture with Libya’s NOC. It is
involve d in various sustainability activities and operates an effective waste
management system a long with involve ment in various community development
programmes . It could be argued therefore that Libya’s NOC still d on’t follow ISO
14001 EMS and th at an effective EMS is not currently implemented in the Libya n
Oil Industry.
Barriers to Introducing Sustainability
Most people understand the importance of sustainability and the need to follow
environment management systems , but there are still many co mpanies that don't
follow sustainability practices. With the aim of understanding the main barriers
to
introducing sustainability, the participants are asked to rate their opinion on the
11
barrier highlighted in table 6.5 below.
Table 6 .5: Barriers to Int roducing Sustainability
Barriers to
Sustainability
Lack of Management
Commitment
Lack of Awareness
Organisational Culture
Lack of Implementation
framework
Insufficient Technology
Lack of Skilled Workers in
Sustainability
Lack of Financial Incentives
Corruption and Lack of
Transparency
Lack of Legislative
framework and policies
Insufficient Drivers for
Sustainability
Negative Attitude of
Employees
Strongly Disagree 10.4 12.2 22.6 16.2 23.9 22.6 16.2 23.9 4.0 22.6 16.2
Disagree 9.8 11.0 28.7 22.6 34.3 28.7 22.6 34.3 4.3 28.7 22.6
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Neither Agree nor
Disagree 5.7 7.3 10.1 11.9 17.1 10.1 11.9 17.1 3.7 10.1 11.9
Agree 35.2 33.6 24.5 36.4 18.7 24.5 36.4 18.7 55.7 24.5 36.4
Strongly Agree 38.8 35.8 12.5 11.3 1.8 12.5 11.3 1.8 32.4 12.5 11.3

It can be inferred from the table, that nearly 90% of the participants agree that
lack
of legislative framework and policies is the major barrier to introducing
sustainability.
Taylor (2007) says, voluntary approaches to environmental regulations are
ineffective and won’t work when the challenges outweigh the benefits. The study
concludes legislation is the most important factor for most businesses to implement
environmentally friendly practices as businesses will generally fulfil only the
minimum requirements. Bilta yib M. Biltayib (2006) point out that environmental
laws
are not influential in Libya. Hence Libyan environmental laws are to be reformed
and properly administered to make the companies adhere to a strict sustainability
management system and policy.
More than 80% of the participants agreed lack of management commitment is
another key barrier to introducing sustainability. Research shows a strong
relationship between management commitment and sustainability . Ikediashi et al.
(2013) says, “The senior managem ent personnel should be at the forefront to
implement sustainability.” The study found that the main barriers that were seen
to
prevent an organisation from effectively managing their sustainability
responsibilities were lack of time, knowledge and senior management commitment.
According to Elmualim et al. (2012), the key to successful implementation of the
sustainability agenda within organisations rests squarely in a positive perception
by
senior management that sustainability is an important issue to be addressed as a
mainstream objective within that organisation’s corporate plan. By implication, it
is
important to emphasise that the concept of sustainable practice can only make
appreciable impact among st the corporate world if sustainable principles are
fully
embedded in the strategic function of organisations. To improve sustainability
practices, management commitment should be increased to the maximum, as th is
is the key to effective implementation of any regulation .
More than 2/3rd of participants agr ee that lack of awareness about sustainability
practices and environmental laws is a major barrier . Tzschentke et al (2008)
agree,
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stating that limited awareness among the business owners of their environmental
footprint has been identified as a barrier to change.
To properly give weight to each rating, mean score analysis is used and presented
in table 6 .6.
Table 6 .6: Mean Score of Barriers to Sustainability
Barriers to Sustainability Mean S.D
Lack of Management Commitment 3.9 1.4
Lack of Awareness 3.7 1.3
Organisational Culture 2.7 1.3
Lack of Implementation Framework 3.0 1.3
Insufficient Technology 2.4 1.1
Lack of Skilled Workers 2.8 1.4
Lack of Financial Incentives 3.0 1.3
Corruption and Lack of Transparency 2.4 1.5
Lack of Legislative Framework 4.1 0.9
Insufficient Drivers 2.7 1.4
Negative Attitude 3.0 1.3

The score is given as 5 – strongly agree, 4 – agree, 3 – neither agree nor

disagree,
2 – disagree, 1 – strongly disagree. In mean score analysis, scores more than 3 are
considered as agreed by the participants and less than 3 are considered as
disagreed by the participants. It can be seen from table 6.6, that lack of
legislative
framework has a mean score of 4.1 and it has the l owest standard deviation 0.9,
it
is followed by lack of management commitment (3.9) and lack of awareness (3.7).
Only these three b arriers are having a score of more than 3. Hence , we can
conclude that participants believe these three as the strongest barriers for
sustainability. Appropriate action should be taken to remove or reduce these
barriers .
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Figure 6 .8: Barriers to sustainability
Factors Contributing to the Success of a Sustainability Management System
In the past decade, companies have increasingly realized that environmental
sustainability is critical to their long term profitability. As global population s
grow and
demand for oil increase s, companies are challenged to more efficiently use a
finite
base of natural resource. While some companies are successfully reducing their
environmental impact, many other s are still far behind . With the aim of
ascertaining
the fac tors contributing to the success of a sustainability management system, the
participants were asked to rate their opinion against 9 contributory influences
and
their responses are given in T able 6.7.
Table 6 .7: Factors Contributing to Success of Sustainability
Factors Contributing to
Success of Sustainability
Management
Commitment
Regulations and Policies
Effective Management
of Change
Raising Awareness of
Sustainability
Training Programme
Use of Technological
Advances
Effective Cultural
Management
External Consultancy
Strongly Disagree 12.2 16.5 35.5 11 35.5 12.2 26.9 16.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5Lack of Management CommitmentLack of AwarenessOrganisational
CultureLack of Implementation FrameworkInsufficient TechnologyLack of Skilled
WorkersLack of Financial IncentivesCorruption and Lack of transparencyLack of
Legislative FrameworkInsufficient DriversNegative Attitude
Mean Score
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Disagree 1 1.9 9.5 25.7 15 25.7 6.7 27.4 11.0
Neither Agree nor Disagree 7.0 4.9 19.0 7.5 19.0 9.5 12.2 6.1
Agree 32.7 41.6 17.1 32.4 17.1 35.2 17.7 29.4
Strongly Agree 36.1 32.5 1.2 35.0 1.2 32.1 10.0 37.0

It can be seen that nearly 3/4 th of participants agree that regulations and
policies
significantly contribut e to the success of a sustainability management system.
Similar view s are expressed by Herren et al ( 2010), “While some obstacle will be
difficult to overcome, effective sustainability management can be enforced by
Government regulations and Codes”. Thus a Sustainability Management System
must be made compulsory in Libya and proper codes and regulations s hould be
framed to incorporate effective sustainability and environmental friendly
practices.
More than 2/3 rd of the participants agree that use of technological advancement
will
a major factor contributing to the success of sustainability. Dedicated
sustainability
software can play a pivotal role in addressing the sustainability services of an
organisation. Bawa zir (2006) state s that sustainability development can be
achieved through adopti on of IT software and by using green technological
innovations. Organisations can accomplish their sustainability goal by acquiring
knowledge about the various technologies and components for creating
sustainability services.
Management commitment is the third key factor rated by the participants. Nearly
2/3rd of the participants agree to the statement “management commitment is the
key factor contributing to the success of a sustainability management system”. Jim
Fava (2014) says true commitment typically manifests itself in key ways. First,
sustainability is embedded in the company’s strategy rather than treated as an add
-
on item; second it is clearly tied to business value; it is part of the dialogue
within
the company in terms of agendas, performance reviews and KPIs and finally , is
reflected in personal commitments to sustainability by company leadership. Paul
Polman at Unilver is a good example of a CEO who has embedded sustainability
into his vision for the company, the organisation and management of expectations.
It is noted that 66% of the participants consider raising sustainability awareness
and
using external sustainability consultants will also play a key role for creating a
successful sustainability management system. In order to properly analyse which
factor got the hig hest rating, mean analysis is used. The responses are given
scores
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from 1 – 5, viz., 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither disagree nor
agree,
4 – agree and 5 – strongly agree. The mean value of each f actor is obtained and
presented in Table 6 .8.
Table 6 .8: Means Score of Success Factors
Success Factors Mean S.D
Management Commitment 3.6 1.4
Regulations and Policies 3.8 1.3
Effective Management of
Change 2.2 1.1
Raising Awareness 3.5 1.3
Training Programme 2.2 1.2
Use of Technological Advances 3.7 1.5
Effective Cultural Management 2.3 0.9
External Consultancy 3.5 1.6
Strict regulations and polices received the highest mean score (3.8), followed by
use of technological advances (3.7), management commitment (3.6) and fourth
place is shared by raising awareness (3.5) and external consultancy (3.5). However,
the deviation is l ower in raising awareness (1.3) when compared with external
consultancy (1.6). Hence raising awareness about sustainability is considered by
the participants as a more important factor than external consultancy.
Effective management of change (2.2), training programmes (2.2) and effective
cultural management (2.3) are considered less important factor s contributing to
the
success of a sustainability management syste m.

Figure 6 .9: Mean score of success factors

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It can be concluded from Figure 6 .9, that for a success ful sustainability
management
system, strict regulations and polic ies should be framed, companies should use
green technologies and management must be committed to improve sustainability .
Sustainability awareness among the companies, employees and public should be
increased and the service of external consultants providing sustainability
consultancy should be utilised .
Motivations for Implementing Susta inability
How effectively sustainability practices are implemented in an organisation depends
on the motivations or reasons for such implementation. Motivation is crucial for
decision s on how to operationalise corporate sustainability. In order to ascertai
n the
main motives / drivers for implementing sustainability, the participants were asked
to rate their opinion against 7 motivators an d their responses are given in Table
6 .9.
Table 6 .9 Motivations for Implementing Sustainability
Motivations for Implementing
Sustainability
Reducing Env. Impact
Increase Efficiency
Cost Savings
Reduction of Waste
Reduce the Energy
Consumption
Enhancing Corporate
Image
Increase Employee
Env. Awareness
Strongly Disagree 25.7 25.7 15.6 12.2 12.5 34.9 25.7
Disagree 29.1 28.1 21.7 11.0 7.3 24.5 30.9
Neither Agree nor Disagree 19.6 19.3 11.9 7.3 5.8 18.3 19.6
Agree 19.3 19.9 37.9 33.6 47.1 18.3 18.3
Strongly Agree 4.0 4.6 11.9 35.8 27.2 3.1 4.3

It can be inferred from the above table that nearly 3/4 th of the participants
believe
reduc ing energy consumption is the major motivation for implementing
sustainability. Nearly 70% of the participants believe reduction of waste is the
major
motivator and more than half agree that cost saving is key.
In order t o rank the motivators properly, scoring is given to responses from 1 – 5
viz., 1 - strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither agree nor disagree, 4 –
agree,
and 5 – strongly agree and mean value of the statements are obtained and
displayed in table 7.10. Mean value more than 3 means the statement is agreed by
most of the participants and mean value less than 3 means the statement is
disagreed by most of the participants.
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Table 6 .10: Mean Score of Motivations for Sustainability
Motivations for Sustainability Mean S.D
Reducing Env ironmental Impact 2.4 1.2
Cost Savings 3.2 1.3
Increase Efficiency 2.4 1.2
Reduction of Waste 3.6 1.4
Reduce the Energy Consumption 3.8 1.3
Increase Employee Awareness 2.4 1.1
Enhancing Corporate Image 2.2 1.1
It can be seen from the above table, that three motivators have mean value more
than 3, viz., reduce the energy consumption (3.8), reduce the waste (3.6) and cost
savings (3.2). When we look into these three motivators, they can be collectively
called 'internal improvements '. Hence the majority of the participants believe
that
internal improvements will be main motivator for sustainability practices to be
implemented.
Internal improvement refers to the optimization of process, reduction of waste and
increased cost savings. Miles and Covin (2000) point out that costs can be driven
down by sustainable process improvements, more complete utilization of inputs,
reduction in energy and water consumption and reductions in waste handling and
storage. There is strong support that being a good environmental steward helps
create a reputational advantage that lead to enhanced marketing and financial
performance as well .

Figure 6 .10: Mean score of Motivations for sustainability

If the Libyan government wants to motivate oil companies to adopt sustainability
practices, it should convince them that a sustainability management system can

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lead to internal improvement thereby the companies will gain marketing and
financial advantage.
Solution to Negative Environmental Impact
The o il industry can rightly be c onsidered a mixed blessing. On the one hand, oil
plays a vital role in our society but on the other, it holds a major risk of
creating a
hazard for the environment and all living beings on our planet. In order to address
the problem of the negative environmental impact created by oil industry, the
participants were asked to rate their opinion against 7 factors of relevance and
thei r
respons es are given in Table 6 .11.
Table 6 .11: Solution for Negative Environmental Impact
Solution for Negative
Environmental Impact
Continuous
Improvement Culture
Sustainability
System
Management
Commitment
Raising Awareness
Training
Establishing
Regulations an d
Policies
Government Support
Strongly Disagree 16.8 14.4 21.4 18.0 20.5 26.3 13.5
Disagree 11.6 13.5 30.6 19.9 36.7 23.5 34.6
Neither Agree nor Disagree 7.6 7.3 33.3 10.7 21.1 26.0 24.8
Agree 31.5 30.3 8.3 24.5 16.5 18.7 19.0
Strongly Agree 32.4 34.6 4.6 26.9 3.1 3.4 7.0

As can be seen from the above table, nearly 2/3 rd of participants feel that having
a
sustainability system is the potential solution to counteract negative
environmental
impact. Sustainable system s are a set of engineered and ecological processes that
can economically meet the needs of society while maintaining the integrity of
ecosystems in the long term. PNNL (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ) express
in its mission statement that we need sustainable systems to reduce ou r negative
environmental footprint.
63% of participants agree that a continuous improvement culture will be the optimal
solution against negative environmental impact. Continuous Improvement Culture
consist of incremental initiatives and innovations to ac hieve best results. Daily
and
Huang (2001) suggest that sustainability can be achieved by developing a
continuous improvement culture. According to the ir study, top management should
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support EMS by employee empowerment and by developing a culture of contin uous
improvement.
More than half of the participants consider raising awareness will also be a good
solution for negative environmental impact. To properly analyse the rating given to
each statement, scores has been assigned from 1 – 5 viz., 1 – strongly d isagree, 2
– disagree, 3 – neither disagree nor agree, 4 – agree, and 5 – strongly disagree.
The mean value for each statement is obtained and given in table 11.2. Statements
having mean score of more than 3 are considered to be agreed by the participants
and statements having mean score of less than 3 are considered to be disagreed
by the participants.
Table 6 .12: Mean Score of Solutions for Negative Environmental Impact
Solution for Negative Environmental Impact Mean S.D
Continuous Improvement Culture 3.3 1.4
Sustainability System 3.5 1.5
Management Commitment 2.4 1.1
Raising Awareness 3.2 1.5
Training 2.4 1.2
Establishing Regulations & Policies 2.5 1.3
Government Support 2.7 1.1

It can be inferred from Table 6 .12, that a sustainability system implementation

has
the highest mean score of 3.5, followed by continuous improvement culture (3.3)
and raising awareness (3.2). Hence the solution for negative environmental impact
is to have a sustainability system in an organisation and the organisation should
follow a culture of continuous improvement. Efforts should be taken to raise
awareness about sustainability practices.
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Figure 6 .11: Mean score for solutions for negative environmental impact
Employee Opinion Toward Systainability Practices
It is noted that implementation of any practices and polices depends on the
positive
attitude of the employees and only through their whole hearted support can
management attain the desired results. In order to find out the employee opinion
towards sustainabi lty practices, the participants were asked to rate their
opinion
about 16 statements concerning sustainability and thei r responses are given in
graph 6 .13.

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Figure 6 .13: Employee opioni ons towards sustainaiblity

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It can be seen that the employees believe that their companies hav e a low level
of
sustainability. More than 2/3 rd agree to the statements that their companies hav e
high negative environmental impact and the re is an urgent need for implementing a
sustainability system.
To properly analyse the rating given to each statement, scores has been assigned
from 1 – 5 viz., 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither disagree nor
agree,
4 – agree, and 5 – stron gly disagree. The mean value for each statement is
obtained
and given in table 6.12. Statements hav ing mean score s of more than 3 are
considered to be agreed by the participants and statements have mean score of
less than 3 are considered to be disagreed b y the participants.
Table 6 .12: Mean Score of Employee Opinion towards Sustainability

It can be inferred from the above table that the majority of the participants
disagree
with the statements concerning sustainability practices such as implementati on of
green technology ( mean score 2.1), offering sustainability training (2.21),
conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies (2.5), implementing
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) techniques (2.4), interest in improving sustainability
(2.36), performance measurement in terms of sustainability (2.6), encouragement
of employees to take initiati ves (2.7) and using external consultancy. On the
other
hand, the majority agree there is an urgent need for implementing sustainability
Employee Opinion Towards Sustainability Mean S.D
Employees are encouraged to take initiative 2.7 1.38
Aware of sustainability system 3.03 1.31
Managers are highly interest in improving sustainability 2.36 1.11
Company have high negative env ironmental impact 3.3 1.4
Performance measured in terms of sustainability 2.6 1.09
Company offers sustainability training 2.21 1.15
Urgent need for implementing sustainability 3.7 1.34
Top management shows interest in sustainability 2.4 1.14
Company implements green technology 2.1 1.12
Employees are aware of environmental i mpact and waste
management techniques 2.7 1.17
Company focuses on continuous improvement culture 2.3 1.11
Company conducts EIA studies 2.5 1.08
Company Implements LCA techniques 2.4 1.07
NOC and Oil ministry supports sustainability 2.5 1.3
Company uses external consultancy 2.7 1.13
Sustainability training programmes offered 2.22 1.17
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(3.7), the company is having high negative environmental impact (3.3) and
employees are aware of sustainability (3.03). This show th at sustainability
practices
are in their nascent stage s in Libyan petroleum industries. The m ajority of the
petroleum companies are not even accredited to the ISO 14004 environmental
management system and most of the environmental laws are not properly followed .
It is also noted that employees are well aware of the negative environmental
impact
of oil companies and are interested in follow ing a sustainability management
system.
In order to find out, if there is any significant difference among the employees
opinion towards sustainability practices and their relative position in their
organisation , an ANOVA test is used. The total score of all the 16 statement are
established and the ANOVA test applied between employee position and opinion s
towar ds sustainabil ity. The result is shown in Table 6 .13.1.
Table 6.13.1: Employee Position vs. Opinion towards Sustainability
Employee Position Frequency Mean
Normal Employee 170 41.3
A Middle Manager 97 42.2
A Senior Manager 60 36.1
Total 327 40.6

It can be seen that senior managers are displaying more negative opinion towards
sustainability practices compared to mid dle managers and normal employees. The
senior managers are in a strong p osition to have an accurate knowledge about the
company’s practices and policies and the ir negative opinion provides proof that
sustainability is very low in Libyan oil companies. The statistical significance of
this
finding is shows in table 6 .13.2.
Table 6 .13.2: ANOVA Table
Null Hypothesis: There is no signifi cant difference in the mean employee opinion
score among different levels of employees.
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1542.93 2 771.46 5.80 0.00
Within Groups 43040.33 324 132.84
Total 44583.26 326
As the F value is 5.8 (>1) and sig. is 0.003 (<0.01) we can say with 99% confidence
that there is significant variance in employee opinion towards sustainability and
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employee position. The senior managers hav e a low opinion of oil companies’
sustainability practices when compared to middle managers and normal employees.
6.5 Discussion
This stage of the study has highlighted significant findings which are in alignment
with the findings of the qualitative study. The quantitative stage involved the
distribution of a questionnaire survey to participants working in the petroleum
sector
in which 327 completed questionnaires that were fit for analysis were analysed. It
was indicated in the findings of the quantitative stage that emplo yees believe
their
companies have a low level of sustainability practices in which they affirmed that
their companies are in need of developing and implementing sustainability systems.
It was clearly highlighted by the participates that the level of the en vironmental
impact from their company's practices is significantly high which requires a
robust
system to be in place to ensure such impacts are minimised. More importantly, the
participants believe that the first step to minimis ing these impacts is by hav ing
a
sustainability system in place.
Furthermore, the participants raised several concerns about the factor s that
hinder
the successful implementation of sustainability systems. For example, the y believe
that there is a low level of commitment from the t op management and a lack of
culture of continuous improvement in the workplace. For this reason, 63% of the
participants state that continuous improvement culture is considered as one of the
optimal solutions to minimising negative environmental impact. Co ntinuous
improvement culture relies on having a system that supports the reporting of near
misses, accidents and improper practices so that investigations can be carried out
to identify the root causes that might hinder improvement.
As highlighted in the literature review, top management has a major role to play in
the process of developing and implementing environmental management systems
by empowering and involving employees at all levels as well as by encouraging a
culture of continuous learning and imp rovement.
The participants believe that without a strict regulatory framework, sustainability
adoption will be very difficult. This was highlighted by the survey findings as
‘strict
regulations and policies’ received the highest mean score a gainst other b arriers
in
ensur ing that all petroleum operations are being monitored. Management
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commitment was also seen as significant in ensuring that sustainability systems
are
implemented successfully and efficiently.
Furthermore, the need to increase awareness abo ut the importance of sustainability
among st the public as well as the petroleum companies was also seen as vital . It
was highlighted by the participants that raising awareness is more important than
acquiring external consultancy , which could imply that r aising awareness would be
a more sustainable option that will help shift the focus towards sustainability in
the
long-term whereas obtaining external consultancy might only help to develop
systems that might not achieve the long term goals of the organisat ion. Hence,
raising awareness about sustainability should be seen as a priority for policy
which
can be achieved through a series of programmes such as educational and training
initiatives, workshops, conferences and through in house -advertising and traini
ng.
The findings of the survey study indicate that both internal and external factors
play
a significant role in implementing sustainability systems in the petroleum sector
in
Libya. Among st the internal factors is the need to have a strong top managemen t
support and commitment towards sustainability as well as creating a culture of
continuous improvement. The study also found that having a strict regulatory
framework and raising awareness about sustainability are very important external
factors. There sh ould be a cultural shift towards the significance and value of
sustainability in the petroleum sector to help counteract the negative impact this
sector suffers from.
6.6 Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to present and discuss the results of the
quantitative stage in which a questionnaire survey was used to collect primary data
from participants associated with the petroleum sector in Libya. The chapter
started
by presenting some demographic details about the participants in the study follo
wed
by further statistical analysis. The results support the findings of the
qualitative study
which showed that sustainability is not a priority for the petroleum sector in
Libya ,
as the participants indicated their poor awareness about the benefits and h ow
sustainability c an be implemented within the sector. Managers and leaders who
participated in the quantitative survey presented poor awareness or interest about
sustainability as highlighted by the ANOVA results , which are very alarming as
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sustainabilit y requires a top -down approach in which strong management
commitment is critical to the success of any sustainability initiatives.
It was noted that employees are well aware of the negative environmental impact of
oil companies and are interested in following sustainability practices. This
suggests
that education is needed to raise the awareness of sustainability and all its
benefits
to stakeholders. The findings so far suggest that an integrated approach is needed.
To further understand the current statu s of environmental management within the
petroleum sector, the following chapter presents the findings of the Environmental
Impact Assessment that was carried in Libya as part of this PhD study .

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Chapter 7
Environmental Impact Assessment
Study (EIA)

his chapter is concerned with analysing the 3rd stage of this research (case
studies). Three case studies were conducted through pilot fieldwork tri ps
in Libyan petroleum sector. The case study has similar goals to the
interviews, but focuses on empirical investigations of the selected cases.
7.1 Environmental Impact Assessment
EIA is one of the major tools used to assist environmental analysis of a project of
this nature. It evaluates the degradation that human activities can cause to the
environment (Toro et al., 2013) and yields results that assist the decision making
process ( Wathern, 1994 ). Wood, (2003) and Toro et al., (2009) state that EIA is
the
technical k ey to incorporating environmental protection approaches and to avoiding
the loss of natural resources ( Wood, 2003 ). EIA is widely implemented by various
industri es around the world, but (Ali and Harvie, 2013) and Goodland, (2013) claim
that the Libyan petroleum sector lacks such studies.
In order to assess the environmental situation at the upstream phase, EIA was
conducted in the Libyan petroleum companies speci fic to the Murzuq basin project
area (Southwest region - El Feel Oil field) and in compliance with the requirements
of Libyan Law No 15 of 1371 (2003), NOC guidelines and best industry practice.
This study is very significant in terms of originality as it i s the first of its
kind
conducted in the sector in Libya. The EIA followed the UNEP methodology (Abaza,
et al., 2004) as well as taking account of the results of the fieldwork and reviews
of
unpublished reports from the upstream oil companies summarising t he physical,
biological, and socio -cultural/economic aspects of the oil field sites and
surroundings.
The assessment methodology as adopted from (Modak and Biswas, 1999; Eidinov,
2004; Green Oil and Akakus, 2008) is illustrated for quantifying the environ mental
impacts. The EIA assessment procedure uses the following formulas and
calculations to rate the environmental risk. The environmental risk is the T
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combination of the probability of a certain event occurring and the magnitude of
its
consequences (sever ity rate). For this procedure, the Rate of Environmental Risk
(RER) is calculated as follows:
RER = P x S (1)
Where P is the probability rate and S is the severity rate. Both P and S require
additional calcul ations to establish the environmental risk. The quantification of
the
Probability Rate ( P) is dependent on two factors, (1) the degree of control on the
aspect ( Co) and (2) the frequency of the impact or the aspect ( Fr), hence:
P = Co + Fr (2)
To determine the degree of control , consideration is given to the existence or
absence of: (a) written procedures and technical instructions; (b) contingency
plans
and training in case of contingency; (c) protection or physical barr iers; (d)
environmental objectives and targets related to the aspect; (e) competence
(personnel developing the activities); (f) monitoring; and (g) a maintenance
programme. Considering the above, the degree of control is scored according to the
table below :

Table 7 .1 Degree of control ( Co)

Degree of control Value
Not controlled aspect 5
Partially controlled aspect 3
Controlled aspect 1

Frequency values of an environme ntal impact are shown in Table 7 .2.

Table 7 .2 Frequency ( Fr) of Impact
Frequency Value
Very Frequent 4
Frequent 3
Not Frequent 2
Rare 1

The assessment of the Severity Rate (S) as shown in equation (1) requires the
analysis of three issues which are: (1) the environment where the impact is
affected
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(Environment, Env); (2) the nature of the substance and its hazards (Nature, Na);
and (3) th e magnitude of the impact (Magnitude, Ma).
S = Env + Na + Ma (3)
The Environment affected considers the sensitivity of the area impacted.
The following table shows the rating:
Table 7 .3: The Environment ( Env)
Environment affected Value
Ground water, ground or underground sweet water,
agricultural land and human settlements 10
Protected areas and cultural heritage 8
Land for livestock activities 7
air, flora and fauna in a direct way 6
Land with no agricultural or livestock use, saline water 3
Land used for installations 1

The nature and hazards of a certain pollutant ( Na) considers the physical and
chemical characteristics of the pollutant. The ratings are illustrated below.
Table 7.4 Nature ( Na) of the impact
Nature Value
Dangerous 5
Not very dangerous 3
Not dangerous / there is no pollutant 0
In order to establish the magnitude of the impact ( Ma), it is necessary to measure
the amount of resources consumed, the amount of wastes produced and the
amount and concentration of the pollutant:
Table 7 .5 Magnitude ( Ma) of the impact
Magnitude Value
Very High 10
High 7
Medium 5
Low 3
Negligible 1

Each impact is assessed using formulas (1), (2) and (3). The Rate of Environmental
Risk ( RES) calculated will show the amount of risk based on the evaluation of risk
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categories shown in Table 7 .6. The risk categories are colour coded and hatched.
This methodology was adopted from the general methodology of EIA and as used
in EIA studies (Kharaka and Otton, 2003; Eidinov, 2004)
Table 7 .6 Risk Categories
Risk Categories
Probability Rate (P) × Severity Rate
(S) RES Value Sign
Low risk <75
Minor risk 75 to 84
Moderate risk 85 to 99
High risk >100

The results of the EIA are shown in Table 7 .7. The table includes the activity,
the
aspect and the rate of the environmental impact calculated using the above
formulas. In addition, mitigation recommendations are given for each impact. The
RER results are colour code d hatched based on the risk categories in Table 7 .6.
Table 7.7 EIA results and recommendations Activity
Aspects
Impacts Probability
Rate (P)
P= Co+ Fr Severity Rate (S)
S= Env + Na + Ma
(RER) =
P × S Degree of
Control (Co)
Frequency (Fr)
P
Environment
(En)
Nature (Na)
Magnitude
(Ma)
S Operations Transportation
Soil Oil and chemical spillages
from vehicle accident or
during fuelling may impact
soils/water resources.
Minor risk of leaks and
small -scale spillages from
engines and during
refuelling.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) Spill Contingency Plan
should be prepared; (2)
clean up materials and
equipment to be available
on site; (3) on -going
environmental training to
all associated with the
project. 5 2 7 6 3 3 1
2 84
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Water Minor oil spillage and

leakage. Grease/oil may
accumulate in ground
water at low levels.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) Spill Contingency Plan
should be prepared; (2)
clean up materials and
equipment to be available
on site; (3) on -going
environmental training t o
all associated with the
project. 5 2 7 3 5 3 1
1
Air Atmospheric emissions
from diesel engines used
in transport. Emissions
mainly from diesel engine
exhausts and some dust.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) Short transient. 5 2 7 6 3 3 1
2 Solid Wastes Industrial inorganic
wastes, hazardous
materials will be
generated but in small
quantities.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) A detailed Waste
Management Plan (WMP)
must be implemented; (2)
the WMP will take into
account the existing
reduction processes for
treating or eliminating,
partly or fully, all waste
generated. 5 2 7 3 5 3 1
1 Spillages Oil spillages from accident
or during gas oil tank
refuelling may impact
soils/water resources.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) Spill Contingency Plan
should be prepared; (2)
clean up materials and
equipment to be available
on site. 5 2 7 3 5 3 1
1 77
84
77
77
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Production and processing of crude oil and facilities

Soil Oil and chemical spillages
from vehicle accident or
during fuelling may impact
soils/water resources.
Minor risk of leaks and
small -scale spillages from
engines and during
refuelling.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) Spill Contingency Plan;
(2) clean up materials/
equipment to be available
on site; (3) on -going
environmental training to
all associated with the
project. 5 2 7 6 3 4 1
2 Biological Resources Impact on terrestrial
habitat. Possible damage
to flora fauna and habitat.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) avoid destruction of
vegetation; (2) restrict
unnecessary vehicle
movement in any sensitive
vegetation areas; (3) each
site must be scouted from
an environmental
perspective; (4) avoid
locations with endangered
species and habitats; (5)
no intentional killing of
local fauna (birds,
mammals, reptiles, insects
and spiders) unless there
is threat to life; (6)
decommissioning concept
– all operations and
facilities are designed to
be easily dismantled.
Renovation of tracks on
completion; (7)
Contractors and personnel
used in the operation
should receive
environmental awareness
training; (8) on -going
environmental training to
all associated with the
project 5 4 9 3 3 3 9
Noise and light may cause
disturbance to life 5 4 9 5 2 3 1
0 84
90 81
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Air Atmospheric emissions
from power generation,
flaring, venting and diesel
engines used in transport.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) require comprehensive
monitoring programme;
(2) reduce SO 2, H2S and
other harmful emissions;
(3) increase energy
efficiency. 5 4 9 6 3 4 1
3 Solid Wastes Industrial inorganic and
organic wastes,
hazardous materials
generated in small
quantities from
maintenance, short term,
infrequent and transient in
nature.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) a detailed Waste
Management Plan (WMP)
must be implemented; (2)
the WMP will take into
account the existing
reduction processes for
treating or eliminating,
partly or fully, all waste
generated by the project. 5 4 9 3 5 3 1
1 Noise and light 1. High transient noise
and extraneous light
levels close to the process
plant could cause
disturbance to people
2. Site is close to
communities, little or no
wildlife
Mitigation/Controls
(1) use adequate noise
attenuation on engines
and plant;
(2) isolated location;
(3) implement noise
monitorin g programme. 5 4 9 6 0 3 9

Oil Spillages Large scale catastrophic

events may accumulate in
soils water.
Mitigation/Controls
(1) detailed study for the
site hydrology is
recommended. 5 1 6 3 5 1
0 1
8 99
81 117
108
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Chemical
Usage/Spillages
As with oil spillages, may
accumulate in ground
water
Mitigation/Controls
(1) chemical spill
contingency plan to be
implemented. 5 1 6 6 5 1
0 2
1 Emergency conditions
and fire
Air Minor H 2S leak,
Atmospheric emissions
from burning
hydrocarbons during fire.
Mitigation
(1) proper maintenance
programme, personnel
gas detector and escape
masks 5 1 6 1
0 5 3 1
8 Water Fire water escapes to
ground water with low
level of contamination 5 1 6 6 5 3 1
4

Table 7 .7 shows the calculations conducted for each impact using equations (1),
(2)
and (3). The table also offers concise mitigation recommendations for each impact.
These results reveal that water contamination with hydrocarbons is mainly due to
leaks at the field facilities. Thorough evaluation of the extent and source of the
pollution is recommended along with a review of the best technologies for soil and
water remediation. The air analysis results were gained from unpublished studies
at the company carried out to determine the extent of H 2S, VOC, SO 2, NO, NO 2, CO
and O 3 pollutants. It was noted that these results are based on instantaneous
measurements, which are not comparable with international standards. A
conclusion of the significance of these data can only be drawn following long term
continuous measurements (six months to a year).
This data is only indicative of the extent of the pollution; permanent monitoring
stations are recommended. The water and air samples results will be used as a
referenced for future monitoring. The EIA results show the level of risk of the
environmental impacts identified. The high risk impacts were mainly air emissions
(GHGs and hazardous H 2S) and oil spillages. The extreme amount of gases
exha usted from the heavy duty machinery and flaring were significant.
Comprehensive monitoring programs are essential as are reduction of SO 2 and H2S
emissions.
The use of standardised environmental protection procedures is necessary to
minimise spillages and the use of chemical spill contingency plans. Surprisingly,
126
108
84
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levels of noise and light were rated as a moderate risk along with industrial
inorganic
and organic wastes and hazardous materials. Although these represent small
quantities from maintenance depar tments, consideration is still important. The
remaining impacts were rated as minor risk and low risk.
7.4 Discussion
The results of the Environmental Impact Assessment above highlight that there is
an urgent need for a systematic and integrated approach to environmental
management in the petroleum sector in Libya. EIA can be used to evaluate the
negative impacts of upstream and downstream activities in the petroleum industry.
The petroleum industry has significant impact upon the environment which due to
the nature of its operations hence such operations may as well have negative
impacts on the resources downstream as well as on air quality.
As discussed in the literature review chapters , Environmental Impact Assessment
is one of the key methodologies and tools that is widely used in large scale
planning
applications as it helps policy makers to understand the impacts of major and minor
development proposal on the environment. Such a tool as indicated in the case -
studies showed that the Libyan petroleum se ctor poses significant environmental
impacts that include air emissions such as GHGs and Hazardous H 2S along with oil
spillages which affects the land use on the long -term. The EIA also showed that
heavy duty machinery exhausts extreme amounts of gases as well as flaring in
which gas pose significant environmental risk. In this regard, strict rules and
regulations are needed to be in place to ensure that reductions of SO 2 and H 2S
emissions are achieved. However, this requires a comprehensive monitoring
system in place where all stakeholders who are involved in the study are taking
corrective and preventive actions to minimise the environmental impact of such
operations.
EIA results show the high risk of environmental impacts are those related to air
emissio ns (combustion and flaring) and those that impact land and soil such as
spillages of chemical wastes. Other organic and inorganic waste was considered
moderate risk, with noise and other terrestrial impacts minor rise. Underground
water, noise and other So cio-economic and socio -cultural impacts were ranked as
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low, but not insignificant risk; studies should be conducted to evaluate reduction
options.
A major issue witnessed with all the upstream companies visited is the lack of
environmental reporting and d ata-storing. This is clearly expected in an
environment
where there are no government monitoring procedures to force the companies to
initiate environmental recording and reporting procedures. EIA recommends a spill
contingency plan to be established with clean up materials and equipment being
available on site along with on -going environmental training to all associated
with
the project. In addition, studies into soil remediation technologies along with the
use
of oil sludge disposal and recovery technolog ies for treatment purposes as advised
by Hu et al., (2013) should be adopted.
To minimise emissions, flaring gas recovery systems (GRS) are required at all field
flaring stations. Companies should invest in carbon storage technologies and
conduct a set o f energy saving feasibility studies. These studies will allow
simple
and effective energy savings throughout the processes. Industrial inorganic wastes
and hazardous mat erials were ranked as high risk; therefore a detailed waste
management plan (WMP) must be developed and implemented.
A comprehensive monitoring programme is recommended to improve air emissions
along with technologies to minimise SO 2, H2S, NOX. Further, increasing the energy
efficiency of diesel engines and heavy duty machines is essential, which could be
assisted by replacement of old machines with more advanced and environmental -
friendly options. Leaks, spillage and other wastes were ranked as a minor risk.
Thus, it could be assumed that stakeholder involvement is vital in ensuring a
succe ssful EIA process. Hence, greater attention should be given to stakeholder
involvement so that better environmental assessment results can be achieved
which will also lead to more sustainable projects that lead to financial benefits,
greater economic devel opment and also fewer environmental impacts. In this
regard, local community groups, suppliers, petroleum companies, regulators, non -
governmental organisations, multinational companies, employees and customers
all have a role to play in monitoring the envi ronmental assessment process. Their
involvement is also vital in the screening procedures as those stakeholders will
provide greater insight about the issues that face each of them in terms of
complying
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with the local and international standards as well as issues related to
infrastructure,
resources and continuous support from the top management.
Unfortunately, there is not much available data about the environmental impacts of
the petroleum operations in Libya due to the absence of regulations and laws th at
put pressure on companies to carry out such assessments and report upon their
activities. This is because of the fact that efficient and good environmental
assessment requires sufficient and good data that can help in understanding the
different variabl es that might influence the EIA process. Thus, for petroleum
companies in Libya, it could be argued that due to the absence and limited data
available, it is vital for these companies to put more emphasis on the monitoring
stage of the EIA to ensure that p ractices are adjusted based on the performance.
This will help in understanding the environmental impacts of all operations by
ensuring that performance and measurement indicators are used to assess the
environmental impact based on each project or operati on phase.
More importantly, in Libya EIA should be seen as a tool that helps petroleum
companies to achieve better standards of practices as it will lead to medium and
long-term benefits for sustainability in this sector. The case -studies that were
carri ed
out as part of this PhD show that more emphasis needs to be shifted towards such
methodologies to ensure better practices are adopted based on empirical evidence.
For Libyan petroleum companies, and in particular because of the limited capacity
and reso urces available to carry out EIA, it is important to identify ways of
reducing
eventual negative consequences when introducing a new activity as the impacts will
inevitably occur.
There are several mitigation measures that can be taken to minimise the imp acts
which could include changes to design or practices, changes to certain
management practices or measures as well as obtaining feedback from different
stakeholders through the involvement of these stakeholders. It can be concluded
that in the petroleum sector in Libya public participation in EIA is very limited
due to
the absence of regulatory frameworks that support such activities. Along with the
technical impacts that might incur as a result of the petroleum operations, there
are
others impacts that i mpact the wider public and community. For example, the
emissions will lead to significant negative impacts on the environment in
particular
to the air quality which will result in pollution that will affect the public. Not
just
211 | P a g e
external stakeholders are a ffected but also internal stakeholders including
employees at all levels.
There is a need to have a regulatory framework along with strong public
participation
and involvement of all stakeholders to ensure that EIA is carried out periodically
to
assess an y changes in the operations and also to evaluate the environmental
impact so that measures can be taken to reduce these impacts. This requires an
educational element which is also equally important as the regulatory element. This
is because of the fact tha t raising awareness about such negative practices will
help
increase the stakeholders’ knowledge about the consequences of such impacts on
the long -term.
7.5 Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to present the results of the Environmental Impac t
Assessment that was carried out in Libya in the southwest regio n. The results of
this EIA show that there is a high level of risk of the environmental impacts
caused
by the oil and gas companies’ operations. The high risk impacts were mainly air
emission s (GHGs and hazardous H 2S) and oil spillages. The extreme amount of
gases exhausted from the heavy duty machinery and flaring were significant.
Comprehensive monitoring programs are essential as are reduction of SO 2 and H 2S
emissions.
The use of standardised environmental protection procedures is necessary to
minimise spillages and the use of chemical spill contingency plans. It can also
show
that such tools provide an insightful evidence to help policy makers and
practitioners
in the f ield make informed decisions about the existing risks. Hence, the findings
of
the EIA are of high significance to the overall study as it affirms that the
current
practices are imposing high environmental impacts. The following chapter presents
the finding s of the Life Cycle Assessment study that was also carried out in
Libya.

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Chapter 8
Life Cycle Assessment Study
(LCA)

8.1. Introduction
he principle aim of this chapter is to deliver a transparent and reproducible
study of crude oil in Libya, compliant with the ISO 14040 and 14044 series.
The following aspects will be covered:
● Methodological issues that strongly affect the LCA results, such as the
definition of the functional unit, system boundaries, multi -functionality and
data quality require ments.
● Data collection , i.e. what kinds of data are necessary to the study and how
data was collected; what major issues were encountered in the data
collection procedures, etc.;
● Reporting of the results , i.e. types of results to be included in the LCA
interpretation phase to support the critical analysis and evaluation of
environmental impact.
All the suggestions made in this chapter aim to facilitate data collection and the
subsequent LCA study. Following a description of the methodological approach utili
sed,
the LCA study investigates and analyses the systems used.
8.1.1. Objectives
This LCA study has been designed in order to identify the best actions to undertake
in order to minimise the environmental footprint of the crude oil extraction
process.
The study acknowledges and builds upon the contributions of previous scientific and
field research. This LCA study is a small but important step for Libyan Oil
producers
in the global sustainability effort. The study is carried out according to the
following
international standards and guidelines:
● ISO 14040:2006 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment –
Principles and framework (ISO 2006a);
● ISO 14044:2006 Environmental management — Life cycle assessment —
Requirements and guidelines (ISO 2006b); T
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● ILCD, International Reference Life Cycle Data System, Handbook. General
guidance for life cycle assessment. Detailed Guidance (EC -JRC 2010).
The overall objectives of the LCA study are to benefit Libyan Oil producers in the
following ways:
● To support Libyan Oil Companies by providing them with relevant information
to help select the most effective and environmentally friendly crude oil
extraction technologies;
● To increase knowledge among public and private stakeholders about the
most important environmental issue s which result from the crude oil
extraction process;
● To enhance general know -how in the field of Crude Oil extraction and to
improve understanding of potential environmental impacts.
Many factors, particularly in the political and economic arenas, make it difficult
to
realize this LCA study in the Libyan Maghreb region today, specifically:
● Factors connected to geographic and cultural aspects and the scientific
situation in Mediterranean Sea region.
● Factors connected to the political stability of the area following many years
of conflict.
● Factors connected to the knowledge gap of the most important decision
makers and missing datasets.

8.1.2. Crude oil extraction plant and life cycle assessment

Crud e oil extraction plants (COEP) are complex systems from a technological and
environmental point of view. In fact, COEP are typically multi -output systems,
with
the subsoil also involved in the analysis during COEP installations. An LCA study
identifies all the components of the input s and output s of the product system
under
study, i.e. energy, materials and waste flows and their impact on the environment
from an holistic perspective, starting from the raw material extraction and
proceeding on to the end of life phase (disposal/recovery/recycling), in a so -
called
“cradle to grave” approach. However, this LCA study focuses only on well -to-
refinery gate (WTRG) analysis. This is due to the fact that after the refinery
processes are downstream activities which ar e influenced by the market rather
policy makers in the oil and gas sector. Another reason is the complexity of data
estimation at this stage.
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Recent research (EC -JRC, 2013) has described the combination of steps necessary
to turn a resource into a fuel an d subsequently bring that fuel to a vehicle as a
Well -
to-Tank pathway (WTT). For a COEP, this means taking into account all the input
and output flows attributable to:
● the extraction of the materials used in the plant
● the manufacturing of all components us ed in the product system under study
● the installation process of extraction machinery (including the digging
process)
● the refinery process of crude oil
● all transport processes to the end phase (to refinery plant gate)
Moreover, for every phase of the life cycle mentioned above, all transportation of
materials, components and waste should be included.
Because the technology is complex, detailed and robust information on how to
dismantle these systems and how to deal with waste and valuable materials (i.e.
through recycling) is not yet available, as only a few installations have reached
their
end of life stage. The end of life stages of the components of COEPs are beyond
the scope of this LCA study , as is the assessment of impact s generated by the
groundwater system and on the subsoil structure . Different tools, scientific
approaches and analyses would need to be used in order to achieve this significant
but separate goal.
8.2. Methodological Approach
8.2.1. Life Cycle Assessment (Type of Study)
ISO defines LCA, or life cycle assessment, as a scientifically standardised
methodology by which flows, such as energy and mass that are associated with a
specified service, manufacturing process, technology or product life cycle can be
systematically analysed (ISO, 200 6a). Essentially, the goal of this approach is to
comprehensively and holistically analyse the above elements, including
manufacturing and use as well as raw materials and EoL (end -of-life) management.
In accordance with the philosophy of the LCA approach, it is important to note
that
LCA results of the environmental impacts associated with each modelled system
are estimates of the potential impacts, rather than direct measurements of real
impacts.
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According to the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) 14040/44
standards, an LCA study must consist of four phases:
1. Goal and scope (framework and objective of the study);
2. Life cycle inventory (input/output analysis of mass and energy flows from
operations along the product's value chain) ;
3. Life cycle impact assessment (evaluation of environmental relevance, e.g.
global warming potential);
4. Interpretation (e.g. conclusions and recommendations) (ISO, 2006a; ISO,
2006b).
This LCA study was carried out for Libyan crude oil (well -to-refinery gat e). A
LCA
software -based tool (SimaPro PHD version) was used for the assessment. Figure
8.1 shows the Life Cycle Assessment framework and direct applications of LCA
results.

Figure 8.1: Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040:2006; modified)

Within the initial scope and goal stage are outlined the study's technical
specifications, including study rationale, anticipated applications of its results,
data
requirements, boundary conditions, assumptions to be made in order to analyse the
product s ystem being considered, and similar. The study aims primarily to answer
any questions the project stakeholders and target audience have specifically
raised,
while also considering other possible uses for the results of the study. The
boundary
of the system is defined by the study's scope, in terms of its temporal,
geographical

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and technological coverage, the product system's attributes and the study's level
of
complexity and detail.
The LCI or life cycle inventory phase analyses the energy and materials us ed, both
quantitatively and qualitatively, and also the by -products and products the system
generates, as well as any environmental emissions, particularly in terms of
emissions that are not retained , and any wastes (outputs) to be treated for the
system u nder investigation. Data from the LCI can be utilised in order to
understand
total wastes, resource us age and emissions that can be associated with the product
or material under investigation; to improve product performance or production , or
indeed to be i nterpreted and analysed further in order to offer greater insight
into
the system's potential impacts on the environment (LCIA, or life cycle impact
assessment and interpretation).
The following sections present the goal and scope of the conducted LCA, Li fe Cycle
Inventory analysis, Life Cycle Impact Assessment and the Interpretation phase.
8.3. Goal of the Study
Definition of the goal and scope is the first step in an LCA study. The purpose of
clearly defining the goals and the scope of the study is to en sure that the
analytical
aims, results and intended applications are optimally aligned and that a shared
vision is in place to guide the participants in the study (JRC, 2010).
The goal of this LCA study is:
● To analyse the potential environmental impact of a crude oil extraction plant
installed in Libya, so as to identify strengths and weaknesses of the system
from an environmental point of view. This means investigating the potential
environmental impact of crude oil production in Libya from well to refiner y
gate. Specifically, the well in question is from the El -Sharara Oil field,
pumping oil to the Azzawiya Oil refinery, where it is refined into multiple
products, including diesel fuel, with several different technologies.

8.3.1. Reasons for carrying out the study

Research studies can target improvement and optimisation possibilities more
effectively, since LCA provides a detailed breakdown of the main contributors
(materials, energy sources, phase of the life cycle, etc.) which are linked to key
217 | P a g e
environme ntal impacts. The resultant data can suggest which choice would lead to
better environmental performance of the studied system. Also, a LCA study could
increase knowledge among st public and private stakeholders as to the most
important environmental issues and impacts which can result from the crude oil
extraction process.
8.3.2. Intended Applications
LCA analyses of the COEP plant were precisely conducted and optimised with
respect to the intended applications, the most important of which was the
assessment of the environmental impacts of using crude oil for production of
several
products. LCA can contribute to lower overall environmental impacts through more
efficient use of resources or energy, or by identifying alternative processes that
support these possible actions.
This study is intended for researchers, policymakers and stakeholders in the Libyan
petroleum sector in order to assist in the establishment of new environmental
protection policies and to promote protection measures to reduce emis sions.
The results of this study could be used for several purposes:
● Inform Libyan Oil Producers involved in decision making processes about
potential environmental impacts;
● Identify optimisation and improvement areas for Crude Oil Extraction
technologies;
● Support the proposed step of replacing the old system with new COEP
technology.
8.4. Scope of the Study
8.4.1. Function and Functional Unit
LCA experts (e.g. Notarnicola, et al. 2015) described a functional unit as defining
a
product's performance characteristics, or identified function, through
quantification.
The functional unit primarily exists in order to offer a reference point to which t
he
outputs and inputs are all connected. LCA results require this reference in order
to
be comparable.
Considering the different outputs of the complex technical and technological
system,
the functional unit for this LCA study is 1 kg of produced crude oi l. This means
that
all impact generated during the life cycle of the COEP plant (80 years) should be
divided
218 | P a g e
by the quantity of mass of produced crude oil during the 80 years the system is
designed
to work for. The life span of the COEP system is based on assumption.
The supply chain of the petroleum sector in Libya is divided between upstream and
midstream parts in which the point of separation is the refinery. The exploration,
production and logistics management of crude oil from remotely located wells to
the
refinery is all part of the upstream supply chain. The trad itional industrial
supply
chain comprises of the retailing, distribution and the product use phase are
part of
the downstream part (Schwartz, 2000 cited in Schwartz, 2006).
In the context of a realised LCA study, the two major components mentioned above
have been described as follows:
Upstream processes: including the raw material extraction, the fuel production,
the process fluids production, the electricity production and the manufacturing of
all
the components needed in the system. In this subsection of the life cycle , the use
of secondary data referring to the quantity of the material and energy consumed
and the waste produced were obtained from other sources, e.g. primarily from the
Ecoinve nt database and scientific literature.
Core processes : including the digging and drilling operations (energy and fuel
consumption), the installation process of the whole COEP system and the use
phase (energy consumption), as well as the maintenance operati ons (such as the
substitution of the components, refilling of the operation fluids if needed). The
treatment of the waste produced during the digging or drilling operations, the
assembling operations and the maintenance operations are included in the analy sis.
In this subsection of the life cycle , the use of primary data referring to the
quantity
of the material and energy consumed and the waste produced were obtained.
Primary data have been collected from persons responsible for creating the main
technical documentation and supervision of onsite w ork in Azzawiya Oil Refinery
Company Ltd.

8.4.2 System Boundary

This LCA study follows a Well to Refinery (WTR) approach, assessing the potential
environmental impacts associated with the COEP system. Production and
maintenance of infrastructure and capit al goods have been excluded from the scope
of this study unless specifically noted.
219 | P a g e
The goal and scope of this study is to identify and estimate the critical
environmental
impacts at various stages of the Well to Refinery (WTR) cycle as shown
schematically in Fig ure 8 .2, namely:
1. Crude exploration and production at the oil well (A);
2. Crude transportation to the refinery (T1);
3. Crude conversion to petroleum products at the refinery (B);
4. Crude transportation within the refinery (T2).

Figure 8.2: Description of system boundary

Azzawya Oil Refinery located on the coastal side of western Libya receives crude
oil from the El-Sharara Oil Field in which multiple products are refined including
diesel fuel. For the purpose of this analysis, material uses, environmen tal
impacts,
emissions and energy consumption data that is generated in the life cycle are
presented in terms of the functional unit (1 kg of produced crude oil). The LCA
study
represents the situation in the 1990s, and assumes that the situation has not

220 | P a g e
changed much. This is due to the fact that the Azzawya Oil refinery was built in
the
1970s and the technology used is very outdated, therefore the situation of the
1990s
in SimaPro fits well and can be used to gain more accurate estimated data.

Figure 8.3: Network Diagram, (Source: Sima Pro) P: piece (Unit), tkm: ton-kilometre
.
Table 8.1 Oil refining technologies – Azzawiya (AORC, 2015)
Technology Process
FCC
Technology Deep Catalytic Cracking Technology(DCC)
A FCC Technology for Maximizing Iso-paraffin(MIP)
A FCC Technology for Producing Clean Gasoline and More Propylene(CGP)
Feed of Paraffinic Vacuum Residue FCC Technology(VRFCC)
Catalytic Cracking Technology for Maximum liquefied Gas and High -Octane
Gasoline(MGG ARGG)
Maximizing Iso-Olefins Catalytic Cracking Technology(MIO)
Maximizing Gas and Diesel FCC Technology(MGD)
Flexible Dual -riser Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process FDFCC -III
Hydrocracking
Technology High Pressure
Hydrocracking
Technology Single -Stage Hydrocracking Tech nology(SHC)

Single -Stage in Series Hydrocracking Technology(

FMD 1 )

Two-stage Hydrocracking Technology for maximum

production of middle distillates(FMD 2)

Single -Stage, Double -Catalysts Hydrocracking

technology for Producing More Middle Distillates
(FDC)

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Hydrocracking technology for Maximum Production

fo Catalytic Reforming Feed (FMN)

Single -stage in Series and Once -through

Hydrocracking Technology for Producing More
Chemical feeds (FMC 1)
 Two-stage Hydrocracking Technology for Producing
More Chemical feeds (FMC 2)

Hydrocracking Technology for Flexibly Producing

Middle -Distillates and Petrochemical Materials
(FHC)
Medium Pressure Hydrocracking Technology(RMC)
Hydro treating
Technology High space velocity reformer feed hydrofining technology
Selective Hydrodesulphurization of FCC Gasoline （RSDS -II，OCT —M）
Coker Naphtha Hydro treating technology
Mercaptans Removal Technology from Jet Fuel in Hydrogen Atmosphere
(RHSS)
Ultra Deep Hydrodesulphurization Technology for Diesel (UDS)
Technology for Maximally Improving FCC Diesel Cetane Number(RICH)
Inferior Diesel Hydro -Upgrading Technology
Diesel Hydroupgrading -Isodewaxing Technology
Medium -Pressure Hydro -Upgrading Technology (MHUG)
Full Range Coker Distillate Hydrotreating Technology
FCC Feed Pretreating Technology(RVHT)
Technology for Fix -bed Residue Hydrotreating(S -RHT)
Lube Medium Pressure Hydrotreating Technology

The LCA study is focused solely on the production phase of crude oil, from oil well
to the refinery gate (Figure 3 shows the network diagram of LCA study) . Therefore
the system boundaries are set to cover all activities within these boundaries. The
crude oil production and distillation is analysed to produce multiple products
including petro l, diesel, fuel oil, etc. The analysis considers 1 kg of crude oil
for the
upstream operations (exploration and production) from the ground, transported from
the Murzueq (Fig ure 8 .4) basin in the south of Libya to the Azzawiya Oil
refinery,
which is around 900 km. The analysis considers the distillation processes in the
refinery. The system boundary for the LCA study is very basic, clear and simple.
It
excludes tank to wheel analysis (TTW) and wheel to pump (WTP) analysis.
The reason for excluding these t wo stages is principally that all activities and
processes after the refinery gate are influenced by the markets, sales and other
indirect factors. In addition to that, this LCA study focuses solely on optimising
the
environmental sustainability performanc e for the petroleum operations, which fall
under the upstream production processes. Another reason for excluding the later
stages is the difficulty and complexity of obtaining relevant data after the
refinery
gate.
222 | P a g e

Figure 8.4: Route taken by oil between Oil field and Oil refinery (Google Maps,
201 7)
8.4.3. Cut -Off Criteria for Initial Inclusion of Inputs and Outputs
Recent research (Milankovic, 2014) shows that the following cut -off criteria
should be used to ensure that all relevant environmental impac ts were represented
in the study, according to:
● Mass – any flow that makes up less than 1% of the LCI model's total outputs
and inputs (dependent on flow type) can be excluded, providing that its
environmental impact is not a relevant concern.
● Energy – where a flow represents smaller than 1% of the LCI model's
cumulative output and input energy (dependent on flow type) then it too can
be excluded, again providing that its impact on the environment is not a
relevant concern.
● Environmental relevance – where a flow can be excluded under the above
criteria, except that it is thought to possibly have significant impact on the
environment, then it will be taken into account. Any emissions with an impact
on the environment greater than 1% of the total impact of a category being
considered must be included in the assessment.
● The total sum of all material flows neglected must not be greater than 5% of
the total energy, environmental relevance or mass.

223 | P a g e
8.5. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI Phase)
According to ISO 14044, the Life Cycle Inventory Analysis result is the “outcome
of
a life cycle inventory analysis that catalogues the flows crossing the system
boundary and provides the starting point for life cycle impact assessment” (ISO
14044, 2006). Because the total inventor y is made up of several hundred flows,
the
table below only displays a selection of flows based on their relevance to the
subsequent impact assessment in order to provide a transparent link between the
inventory and impact assessment results. The data qual ity refers to the
characteristics
of data that relate to their ability to satisfy stated requirements (ISO 14040,
2006).
In order to perform a robust and scientifically valid LCA study, the secondary data
used for the different processes in the study must come from the same LCI
database, so as to ensure that the same assumptions are adopted for modelling the
background system. The Ecoinvent database is used, due to its background
documentation and availability worldwide.
8.5.1. Data Collection Procedures
Primary data have been collected from Azzawiya company engineers as well as
from the project engineer and his associates responsible for technical
documentation. These primary data were collected via data lists and technical
drawings and from supplier declar ations. Instances where primary data have been
used in this study include:
● Energy consumption of the COEP system in the use phase;
● Drilling operations which include energy and fuel consumption needed for
the crude oil extraction process;
● Transport of the h eavy machinery needed for the whole operation;
● Transport of pipes and other infrastructure equipment needed for the other
life cycle phases.
Where primary data have not been readily available from the sources mentioned
above, secondary data have been used to fill these gaps. Secondary data have also
been used to account for background processes that are upstream and downstream
in the supply chain of COEP system.
Instances where secondary data have been used in this study include:
● Power grid mix information;
224 | P a g e
● Production of primary materials e.g. steel, aluminium and copper, plastic
granulates;
● Transport processes
● Material composition of smaller standard purchased items e.g. valves,
screws and bolts.
Most secondary datasets have bee n obtained from the Ecoinvent database. Other
sources of secondary datasets include scientific literature e.g. scientific
journals and
books, as well as industry associates. Secondary datasets have also been obtained
from product specification datasheets o r by contacting the manufacturer directly
via
telephone or the contact forms on their official websites.
The inventory data have been modified using SimaPro to incorporate changes to
the original data. These changes have been made to reflect as realistical ly as
possible the current situation of the Libyan crude oil industry and its production
stages and processes. One of the key changes i s the energy sources. In the
Ecoinvent database, a combination of energy sources including coal, diesel, solar,
wind and heavy oil are assigned in the input data; however, in Libya, the
production
and refinery processes are fuelled by heavy oil from crude oil. Other changes
include the exclusion of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar in the
energy sources, as the Libyan petroleum sector does not use any renewable energy
sources for its energy.
8.5.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Description of Unit Processes
This section details the data (inputs from nature, techno -sphere, generated wastes
and emissions) and assumptions used to conduct a life cycle inventory phase. In
the following tables, data collected for the crude oil extraction and production
system (COEP) life cycle are presented. The T able was adjusted by the
specifications and technical/ technological c haracteristics of the modelled
system.
Crude exploration and production at the oil well (A)
Nature Sub-compartment Amount Unit

Oil, crude in ground 1 kg

Gas, natural in ground 0.0013071 m3
Water, salt, sole in water 0.00035536 m3

Table 8.2 Know inputs from techno -sphere used in LCI mode lling (A)
Know inputs from techno -sphere (materials/fuels) Amount Unit
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Platform, crude oil, offshore 4.109E -11 piece
Chemicals organic, at plant 9.12E -07 kg
Ethylene glycol, at plant 0.0000176 kg
Methanol, at regional storage 2.81E -05 kg
Chemicals inorganic, at plant 1.60E -06 kg
Sweet gas, burned in gas turbine, production 0.005322 m3
Diesel, burned in diesel -electric generating set 0.0095153 MJ
Electricity, medium voltage, at grid 0.013876 kWh
Transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 6.99E -06 tkm
Well for exploration and production, offshore 8.33E -06 m
Table 8.3 Emissions to air (A)
Emissions to air Amount Unit
Methane, fossil 0.00022624 Kg
Carbon dioxide, fossil 0.0021142 Kg
Carbon monoxide, fossil 3.81E -05 Kg
Nitrogen oxides 6.85E -07 Kg
Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, alkanes 5.33E -05 Kg
Hydrocarbons, aromatic 2.78E -05 kg
Sulphur dioxide 1.30E -06 kg
Mercury 1.78E -10 kg
Radon -222 6.23E -05 kBq
Methane, chlorodifluoro -, HCFC -22 9.51E -08 kg
Methane, dichlorodifluoro -, CFC -12 9.51E -10 kg
Heat, waste 8.90E -02 MJ

Table 8.4 Emissions to water (A)

Emissions to water Amount Unit
Oils, unspe cified 5.96E -06 Kg
Lead 2.47E -07 Kg
Cadmium, ion 3.66E -09 Kg
Nitrogen 4.60E -09 Kg
Nickel, ion 2.75E -08 Kg
Zinc, ion 8.39E -07 Kg
BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand 8.73E -04 Kg
COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand 7.98E -04 Kg
DOC, Dissolved Organic Carbon 2.48E -04 Kg
TOC, Total Organic Carbon 2.49E -04 Kg
AOX, Adsorbable Organic Halogen as Cl 6.11E -11 Kg
Sulphur 1.59E -08 Kg
226 | P a g e

Table 8.5 Wastes and emissions (A)

Waste and emissions to treatment Amount Unit
Low active radioactive waste 2.0E-7 kg
Disposal, used mineral oil, 10% water 3.72E -5 kg
Disposal, municipal waste, 30 % water 3.31E -5 kg
Disposal, hazardous waste, 0 % water 4.48E -5 kg
Disposal, antifreeze liquid, 52 % water 1.01E -7 kg
Disposal, emulsion paint remains 4.47E -7 kg

Crude transportation to the refinery (T1)

Table 8.6 Known inputs from techno -sphere used in second phase (T1)
Known inputs from techno -sphere (materials/fuels) Amount Unit
Diesel, burned in diesel -electric generating set 0.45 MJ
Pipeline, crude oil, offshore 9E-9 km

Table 8.7 Emissions to water (T1)

Emissions to water Amount Unit
Oils, unspe cified 1.07E -05 kg
Nitrogen 8.24E -09 kg
BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand 3.36E -05 kg
COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand 3.2E-04 kg
DOC, Dissolved Organic Carbon 9.23E -06 kg
TOC, Total Organic Carbon 9.23E -06 kg
AOX, Adsorbable Organic Halogen as Cl 1.1E-10 kg
Sulphur 2.86E -08 kg

Crude conversion to petroleum products at the refinery (B)

Table 8.8 Known inputs from nature used in LCI mode lling (B)
Nature Sub-compartment Amount Unit
Rhenium, in crude oil in ground 3.15E -9 kg
Water in water 0.00066809 m3
Water, cooling, unspecified in water 0.00038177 m3
Table 8.9 Known inputs from techno -sphere used in LCI model ling (B)
Known inputs from techno -sphere (materials/fuels) Amount Unit
Methyl tert -butyl ether, at plant 0.02493 kg
Tap water 0.014507 Kg
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, at plant 1.54E -5 Kg
Hydrochloric acid, 30 % in H 2O, at plant 8.494E -5 Kg
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Iron sulphate 4.77E -5 Kg
Lubricating oil, at plant 2.36E -5 Kg
Nitrogen, liquid, at plant 0.00078644 kg
Soap, at plant 2.55E -5 kg
Sodium hypochlorite, 15 % in H20 4.77E -5 kg
Heavy fuel oil, burned in refinery furnace 1.218 MJ
Refinery gas, burned in flare 0.14962 MJ
Refinery 5E-11 piece
Ammonia, liquid, at regional storage 1.918E -6 kg
Naphtha, at regional storage 0.038171 kg
Chlorine, liquid 0.00013059 kg
Chemicals organic 0.00018223 kg
Propylene glycol, liquid 1.9716E -5 kg
Molybdenum, at regional storage 7.87E -8 kg
Nickel 1.22E -8 kg
Palladium, at regional storage 7.95E -8 kg
Platinum, at regional storage 2.52E -9 kg
Zeolite, powder, at plant 1.79E -5 kg
Zinc, primary 1.89E -7 kg
Transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 6.99E -06 tkm
Table 8.10 Emissions to air (B)
Emissions to air Amount Unit
Ammonia 7.01E -8 kg
Dinitrogen monoxide 1.68E -6 kg
Nitrogen oxides 3.95E -5 kg
Benzene 5.14E -6 kg
Benzene, ethyl - 1.28E -6 kg
Butane 1.28E -6 kg
Butene 2.57E -6 kg
Ethane 1.28E -6 kg
Ethene 2.57E -6 kg
Heptane 1.27E -5 kg
Hexane 2.56E -5 kg
Hydrocarbons, aliphatic alkanes, unspecified 4.29E -11 kg
Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, unsaturated 2.35E -12 kg
Hydrocarbons, aromatic 6.44E -13 kg
Methane, fossil 3.83E -5 kg
Particulates, > 10 µm 9.59E -6 kg
Pentane 6.42E -5 kg
Propane 5.14E -6 kg
Propene 2.57E -6 kg
Toluene 7.71E -6 kg
Xylene 5.14E -6 kg
Heat, waste 0.092 MJ
Sulphur dioxide 0.0003001 kg
228 | P a g e
Table 8.11 Emissions to water (B)
Emissions to water Amount Unit
t-Butyl methyl ether 3.76E -7 kg
TOC, Total Organic Carbon 5.16E -5 kg
Alumin ium 1.26E -8 kg
Barium 2.44E -8 kg
Boron 9.73E -8 kg
Chloride 1.93E -5 kg
Cyanide 4.22E -8 kg
Fluoride 1.08E -6 kg
Hydrocarbons, aromatic 1.75E -7 kg
Iron, ion 1.20E -7 kg
Magnesium 6.08E -6 kg
Manganese 4.87E -8 kg
Mercury 2.44E -11 kg
Molybdenum 2.43E -9 kg
Nitrate 2.01E -6 kg
Phosphorus 9.44E -8 kg
Potassium, ion 2.44E -6 kg
Selenium 3.65E -9 kg
Silver, ion 1.22E -8 kg
Sodium, ion 7.35E -5 kg
Sulfide 2.44E -8 kg
Suspended solids, unspecified 2.33E -6 kg
Toluene 2.43E -7 kg
Xylene 2.36E -8 kg
Alumin ium 2.11E -8 kg
Barium 4.23E -8 kg
Boron 1.69E -7 kg
Calcium, ion 2.11E -5 kg
BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand 2.98E -6 kg
COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand 3.06E -5 kg
Crude transportation within the refinery (T2)
Table 8.12 Known inputs from techno -sphere used in second phase (T2)
Known inputs from techno -sphere (materials/fuels) Amount Unit
Diesel, burned in diesel -electric generating set 0.23 MJ
Pipeline 2.3E-18 km

Table 8.13 Emissions to water (T2)

Emissions to water Amount Unit
Oils, unspecified 1.07E -8 kg
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Nitrogen 4.12E -10 kg
BOD5, Biological Oxygen Demand 1.36E -10 kg
COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand 1.2E-10 kg
DOC, Dissolved Organic Carbon 4.23E -10 kg
TOC, Total Organic Carbon 4.11E -10 kg
AOX, Adsorbable Organic Halogen as Cl 0.1E-10 kg
Sulphur 1..46E -08 kg
8.6. Life Cycle Impact Assessment Analysis
The purpose of the LCIA (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) section of the LCA study
is to estimate possible impacts on the environment and human health of the
releases and environmental resources that have been identified throughout the life
cycle inventory se ction. Impact assessment must address both human health and
ecological effects; it must also address depletion of resources. An LCIA seeks to
establish connections between processes or products and any possible impacts
upon the environment.
8.6.1. The LCI A Procedures and Factors
In accordance with the ILCD guidelines, all the recommended impact categories
shall be taken into account in the LCIA phase (ILCD, 2010). This LCA study
utilised
the Impact 2002+, damage oriented method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment. This
methodology was first devised in Switzerland at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology Lausanne (EPFL). Now, it is further developed and maintained by the
IMPACT Model ling Team. IMPACT 2002+ is a combination of IMPACT 2002
(Pennington e t al. 2005), Eco -indicator 99 (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2000), CML
(Guinée et al. 2002) and IPCC. The life cycle impact assessment methodology
IMPACT 2002+ proposes a feasible implementation of a combined
midpoint/damage approach, linking all types of life cycle inventory results
(elementary flows and other interventions) via several midpoint categories (Quantis
User Guide, 2015).
230 | P a g e

Figure 8.5 Scheme connecting LCI results to damage categories via midpoint
categories, according to the
IMPACT 2002+ framework, based upon Jolliet et al. (2003a).
Figure 8.5 shows how the IMPACT 2002+ vQ2.2 framework functions, connecting
the results of the LCI through a number of midpoint categories. These include
human toxicity effects, both carcinogenic and non -carcinogenic, g rouped
sometimes into a single category; ionising radiation, respiratory effects,
depletion of
the ozone layer, photochemical oxidation, terrestrial ecotoxicity, aquatic
ecotoxicity,
aquatic eutrophication, aquatic acidification, terrestrial nutrification/
acidification,
water turbines, land occupation, non -renewable energy consumption, global
warming, mineral extraction, water consumption and water withdrawal. These are
connected to four categories of damage: ecosystem quality, resources, climate
change and human health (Quantis, 2015).
8.6.2. Reference for All Characterisation Models, Characterisation Factors,
Reference Substances, and Damage Units Used In IMPACT 2002+
This section provides a reference for all characterisation and normalisation
factors
of the LCIA methods applied in the LCA study. Table 8.14 provides the
environmental impact categories, indicators and characterisation models of the
IMPACT 2002+ impact as sessment method. Further details on the characterisation

231 | P a g e
factors to be implemented for each elementary flow are available at
http://www.quantis -intl.com .
Table 8.14 Main sources for characterisation factors, r eference substances, and
damage units
[source] Midpoint
category Midpoint
reference
substance Damage
category Dam
age
unit Normalized
damage
unit
[a] Human toxicity
(carcinogens +
non-
carcinogens) kg Chloroethylene
into air -eq Human health DAL
Y
point
[b] Respiratory
(inorganics) kg PM2.5 into air -
eq Human health

[b] Ionizing
radiations Bq Carbon -14 into
air-eq Human health

[USEPA
and b] Ozone layer
depletion kg CFC -11 into
air- eq Human health

[b] Photochemical
oxidation kg Ethylene into
air- eq Human health

Ecosystem
quality n/a n/a
[a] Aquatic
ecotoxicity kg Triethylene
glycol into water -eq Ecosystem
quality PDF·
m2·y point
[a] Terrestrial
ecotoxicity kg Triethylene
glycol into soil -eq Ecosystem
quality

[b] Terrestrial
acidification/nutr
ification kg SO 2 into air -eq Ecosystem
quality

[c] Aquatic
acidification kg SO 2 into air -eq Ecosystem
quality

[c] Aquatic
eutrophication kg PO 43-into water
- eq Ecosystem
quality

[b] Land occupation m2 Organic arable

land -eq · y Ecosystem
quality

Water turbines inventory in m3 Ecosystem

quality

[IPCC] Global warming kg CO 2 into air -eq Climate change

(life support
system) kg
CO 2
into
air-eq point
[d] Non-renewable
energy MJ or kg Crude
oileq (860 kg/m3 ) Resources MJ point
[b] Mineral
extraction MJ or kg Iron -eq
(in ore) Resources

Sources: [a] IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005, 2006), [b] Ecoindicator 99
(Goedkoop and Spriensma
2000), [c] CML 2002 (Guinée et al. 2002), [d] ecoinvent (Frischknecht et al. 2003),
[IPCC] (IPCC 2001), and
[USEPA] (EPA). DALY= Disability -Adjusted Life Years; PDF= Potentially Disappeared
Fraction of species; -eq=
equivalents; y= year.
232 | P a g e
8.6.3. Limitations and the Relationship of the LCIA Results Relative to the
Defined Goal and Scope of the LCA
Global Warming measures an increase in such emissions as methane and carbon
dioxide, the so -called greenhouse gases. Due to this increase, gases in the
atmosphere are absorbing more of the radiation the earth emits, intensifying the
greenhouse effe ct. Global Warming Potential is relevant both to energy efficiency
and climate change. Both these things are of high institutional and public
interest,
are interlinked, and are a significant and pressing current issue. Characterisation
factors can be expre ssed as kg CO 2 into air -eq.
 Aquatic Eutrophication: this is the result of bodies of water being
overloaded with such nutrients as phosphorus and nitrogen. Eutrophication in
freshwater is precipitated mostly by phosphorus, and in saltwater, mostly by nitra
te.
Substances that can potentially cause nitrification can be aggregated through the
use of nitrification potentials, which measure the ability of something to form
biomass as compared to phosphate (PO 4). Characterisation factors can be
expressed as kg PO 43- into water – eq.
Acidification is the production of acid substances deposits because of air
pollution comprising mainly nitrogen oxides, ammonia and sulphur dioxide. "Acid
rain" causes damage to lakes and forests. Acidification can also affect coastal
and
freshwater ecosystems, historical monuments and soils. These acids facilitate the
release of heavy metals into groundwater. Gases that contribute to the
acidification
of air can be aggregated by potential for acidification. These potentials are
develo ped based on the number of hydrogen ions every substance can produce per
mole, where SO 2 is the reference substance. Characterisation factors can be
expressed as kg SO 2 into air -eq.
Human toxicity : chemical compounds can be released anthropogenically
into the environment, which is a huge environmental concern because of the
potential harm this could cause to the natural environment and to humans. As such,
scientists have developed methods for estimating the potential harm to the
environment that could resu lt from the emissions of certain chemical compounds.
The method of impact assessment used for this is based upon human toxicity
potentials that have been pre -calculated, rather than being related to the actual
impact. The Human Toxicity Potentials, or HTPs , represent an index of calculated
233 | P a g e
potentials showing the harm one unit of a chemical could cause to the environment.
Characterisation factors for each substance, detailing the potential effects of the
toxic substances across an infinite time, can be expre ssed as kg Chloroethylene
into air -eq emissions.
Eco-toxicity is the potential for toxic effects to be exerted on natural
organisms by substances released due to human activities. Characterisation factors
are expressed as Triethylene glycol equivalents/ kg emission.
Eutrophication, Acidification, Photochemical oxidation, Ozone layer
depletion and other impact categories were chosen because they are closely
connected to air, soil, and water quality and capture the environmental burden of
regulated emissi ons such as NO x, SO 2, VOC, and others commonly associated with
life cycle phases of crude oil extraction plants (COEP). Ozone depletion potential
was chosen because of its high political relevance, which eventually led to the
worldwide ban of ozone -depleti ng substances.
Therefore, the characterisation factors were used within this study to identify
key contributors within COEP which influence that system's toxicity potential. The
results would indicate which of the analysed phases shows up as the ‘phase of high
concern’. When using this methodology, indicators are placed into four principal
damage categories: damage to resources, damage to ecosystems, damage to
human health and climate change. These categories are balanced against a
number of factors: numbe r of years of human lives lost or damaged (health of
humans), number of animal species depleted in a certain place over a certain period
(ecosystem) and amount of energy necessary for extraction of fossil and mineral
fuels in the future (resources).
Impact categories have been selected to capture a complete picture of the
environmental effects of the life cycle of the Crude Oil Extraction Plant.
8.7. Life Cycle Interpretation
This section will discuss the outcomes of the impact assessment. The interpret
ation
phase involves studying the results of the goal and scope, inventory analysis and
impact assessment, in order to draw conclusions and make recommendations as to
the final phase of conducted research. The baseline characterisation results
without
unce rtainty ranges are presented in this chapter. Normalisation results will not
be
234 | P a g e
further discussed as they do not provide new insights compared to the insights
based on the characterisation results. Interpretation must be conducted to ensure
that the result s are consistent with the defined goal and scope of the study.
In this LCA study, the life cycle stages included are crude oil extraction,
production,
transportation, processing and distillation which are considered from well to
refinery
gate. GTW and WTP phases are excluded. The exclusion is due to the fact that
impacts generated outside the refinery are out of the policy makers’ control and,
therefore, study of these elements cannot assist in environmental impact
minimisation specifically targeted for aiding the policy makers. Study of these
elements would not contribute towards the objectives of this research. The LCA
results are obtained using characterisation, normalisation and single score
features
of SimaPro and IMPACT 2002+ method.
8.7.1. The results
Based on the IMPACT 2002+ conducted damage oriented midpoint/endpoint LCIA
method, figure 8.6 shows the characterisation of the impacts. The graph shows the
crude oil production (red colour), petrol refinery technologies processes (green
colour), t ransportation within the refinery (yellow colour) and crude oil
transportation
to the refinery (blue colour).
Table 8.15 Characterisation results for analysed COEP system with distribution
system included. Results are specified per functional unit of 1 kg.
Impact
category Unit Total Crude Oil
Production Petrol at
the refinery Transporta
tion within
refinery Transport,
crude oil
pipeline
Carcinogens kg
C2H3Cl
eq 0.009305 0.000126 0.008603 0.000575 2.13E -07
Non-
carcinogens kg
C2H3Cl
eq 0.00813 0.000115 0.007509 0.000506 1.87E -07
Respiratory
inorganics kg PM2.5
eq 0.001131 6.24E -05 0.000887 0.000181 6.7E-08
Ionizing
radiation Bq C -14
eq 8.352368 0.103563 8.007121 0.241594 8.94E -05
Ozone layer
depletion kg CFC -
11 eq 4.82E -07 5.91E -09 4.71E -07 6.03E -09 2.23E -12
Respiratory
organics kg C2H4
eq 0.001715 0.0008 0.000875 4E-05 1.48E -08
Aquatic
ecotoxicity kg TEG
water 147.0259 0.617969 143.7754 2.631556 0.000974
Terrestrial
ecotoxicity kg TEG
soil 31.8706 0.157219 31.0974 0.615752 0.000228
235 | P a g e
Terrestrial
acid/nutri kg SO 2 eq 0.022016 0.001746 0.016374 0.003894 1.44E -06
Land
occupation m2org.ara
ble 0.003597 5.27E -05 0.003404 0.00014 5.19E -08
Aquatic
acidification kg SO 2 eq 0.007827 0.000257 0.006984 0.000586 2.17E -07
Aquatic
eutrophicatio
n kg PO 4 P-
lim 0.00036 8.15E -06 0.000347 5.09E -06 1.88E -09
Global
warming kg CO 2 eq 0.752688 0.060767 0.642469 0.049433 1.83E -05
Non-
renewable
energy MJ
primary 104.406 46.77902 56.8504 0.77625 0.000287
Mineral
extraction MJ
surplus 0.004236 0.000196 0.003042 0.000999 3.7E-07
Sources: Ecoinvent database and SimaPro 7 exported files . MJ surplus energy per
year per captia’.
m2org.arable m2 equivalent organic arable Land. TEG triethylene glycol. P -lim in
P -limited water

Figure 8.6: Characterisation results for analysed COEP system with distribution
system included. Results are
specified per functional unit of 1 kg of produced crude oil

Table 8 .16 Normalisation results for analysed COEP system with distribution
system included. Results are specified per functional unit of 1 kg produced crude
oil
Impact category Crude Oil
Production Petrol at the
refinery (Refinery
processes) Transportation of
crude oil within
refinery Transport, crude
oil pipeline,
offshore
Carcinogens 4.98E -08 3.4E-06 2.27E -07 8.41E -11
Non-
carcinogens 4.53E -08 2.96E -06 2E-07 7.4E-11
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Crude Oil Production
Petrol at the refinery (Refinery processes)
Transportation of crude oil within refinery
Transport, crude oil pipeline, offshore/OCE SProcesses
Percentage
236 | P a g e
Respiratory
inorganics 6.16E -06 8.76E -05 1.79E -05 6.61E -09
Ionizing
radiation 3.07E -09 2.37E -07 7.15E -09 2.65E -12
Ozone layer
depletion 8.76E -10 6.97E -08 8.93E -10 3.3E-13
Respiratory
organics 2.4E-07 2.63E -07 1.2E-08 4.45E -12
Aquatic
ecotoxicity 2.26E -09 5.27E -07 9.64E -09 3.57E -12
Terrestrial
ecotoxicity 9.08E -08 1.8E-05 3.56E -07 1.32E -10
Terrestrial
acid/nutri 1.33E -07 1.24E -06 2.96E -07 1.09E -10
Land occupation 4.19E -09 2.71E -07 1.12E -08 4.13E -12
Global warming 6.14E -06 6.49E -05 4.99E -06 1.85E -09
Non-renewable
energy 0.000308 0.000374 5.11E -06 1.89E -09
Mineral
extraction 1.29E -09 2E-08 6.57E -09 2.43E -12
Sources: Ecoinvent database and SimaPro 7 exported files

Figure 8.7: Normalisation results for analysed COEP system with distribution system
included. Results are
specified per functional unit of 1 kg produced crude oil

Table 8.17 Normalisation results for analysed COEP system with distribution
system included – endpoint level
Damage
category Crude Oil
Production Petrol at the
refinery
(Refinery
processes) Transportation of
crude oil within
refine `ry Transport, crude
oil pipeline,
offshore
Human health 6.5E-06 9.45E -05 1.83E -05 6.78E -09
Ecosystem
quality 2.3E-07 2E-05 6.72E -07 2.49E -10
Climate change 6.14E -06 6.49E -05 4.99E -06 1.85E -09
Resources 0.000308 0.000374 5.11E -06 1.89E -09
Sources: Ecoinvent database and SimaPro 7 exported files 0.00E+001.00E-042.00E-
043.00E-044.00E-045.00E-046.00E-047.00E-048.00E-04Crude Oil Process Petrol at the
refinery (Refinery processes)
Transportation of crude oil within refinery Transport, crude oil pipeline, offshore
237 | P a g e

Figure 8.8: Normalisation results for analy sed COEP system with distribution
system included – endpoint
level

Table 8.18 Single score results - midpoint level

Impact
category Total Crude Oil
Production Petrol at the
refinery
(Refinery
processes) Transportation
of crude oil
within refinery Transport,
crude oil
pipeline,
offshore
Total 0.000903 0.000321 0.000554 2.91E -05 1.08E -08
Carcinogens 3.67E -06 4.98E -08 3.4E-06 2.27E -07 8.41E -11
Non-
carcinogens 3.21E -06 4.53E -08 2.96E -06 2E-07 7.4E-11
Respiratory
inorganics 0.000112 6.16E -06 8.76E -05 1.79E -05 6.61E -09
Ionizing
radiation 2.47E -07 3.07E -09 2.37E -07 7.15E -09 2.65E -12
Ozone layer
depletion 7.14E -08 8.76E -10 6.97E -08 8.93E -10 3.3E-13
Respiratory
organics 5.15E -07 2.4E-07 2.63E -07 1.2E-08 4.45E -12
Aquatic
ecotoxicity 5.39E -07 2.26E -09 5.27E -07 9.64E -09 3.57E -12
Terrestrial
ecotoxicity 1.84E -05 9.08E -08 1.8E-05 3.56E -07 1.32E -10
Terrestrial
acid/nutri 1.67E -06 1.33E -07 1.24E -06 2.96E -07 1.09E -10
Land
occupation 2.86E -07 4.19E -09 2.71E -07 1.12E -08 4.13E -12
Global
warming 7.6E-05 6.14E -06 6.49E -05 4.99E -06 1.85E -09
Non-
renewable
energy 0.000687 0.000308 0.000374 5.11E -06 1.89E -09
Mineral
extraction 2.79E -08 1.29E -09 2E-08 6.57E -09 2.43E -12 0.00E+001.00E-042.00E-
043.00E-044.00E-045.00E-046.00E-047.00E-048.00E-04
Human health Ecosystem quality Climate change ResourcesCrude Oil Production
Petrol at the refinery (Refinery processes)
Transportation of crude oil within refinery
238 | P a g e
Sources: Ecoinvent database and SimaPro 7 exported files

Figure 8.9: Single score results - midpoint level

Table 8.19 Single score results - end point level

Damage
category Unit Total Crude
Oil
Producti
on Petrol at
the refinery
(Refinery
processes) Transportati
on of crude
oil within
refinery Transport,
crude oil
pipeline,
offshore
Total Pt 0.000903 0.00032
1 0.000554 2.91E -05 1.08E -08
Human health Pt 0.000119 6.5E-06 9.45E -05 1.83E -05 6.78E -09
Ecosystem
quality Pt 2.09E -05 2.3E-07 2E-05 6.72E -07 2.49E -10
Climate
change Pt 7.6E-05 6.14E -
06 6.49E -05 4.99E -06 1.85E -09
Resources Pt 0.000687 0.00030
8 0.000374 5.11E -06 1.89E -09
Sources: Ecoinvent database and SimaPro 7 exported files 0.00E+001.00E-042.00E-
043.00E-044.00E-045.00E-046.00E-04
Crude Oil Production Petrol at the refinery
(Refinery processes)Transportation of crude
oil within refineryTransport, crude oil
pipeline, offshoreCarcinogens Non-carcinogens Respiratory inorganics
Ionizing radiation Ozone layer depletion Respiratory organics
Aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Terrestrial acid/nutri
Land occupation Global warming Non-renewable energy
Mineral extraction
239 | P a g e

Figure 8.10: Single score results - end point level

8.7.2 Better Understanding of Impact Assessment Units
Humbert, et al., (2012) explains different types of units which are used in IMPACT
2002+:
At the midpoint level: (“kg equivalent of a reference substance s”) “kg substance
s-eq” is an expression showing how much of reference substance s is equivalent to
the impact of a selected pollutant within studies in the midpoint category. For
example, on a 100 -y scale, the Global Warming Potential of fossil -based methane
is higher than that of C O2 by 27.75 times, therefore its CF = 27.75 kg CO 2-eq.
At the damage lev el:
● “Disability -Adjusted Life Years” or DALY is a characterisation of the severity
of diseases, taking into account both morbidity (amount of life spent with poor
quality because of illness) and mortality (years of life lost to early death).
Most non -carci nogenic and carcinogenic effects adopt default values of 1.3
and 13 (years/incidence) on the DALY scale (Keller, 2005). These values
replace the earlier calculations of Crettaz et al (2002) which were used in
earlier versions of IMpact 2002+ (v1.0, v1.1 an d v2.0). If a product has a
human health score of 3 on the DALY scale, this suggests that three years'
life would be lost across the total population. 0.00E+001.00E-042.00E-043.00E-
044.00E-045.00E-046.00E-047.00E-048.00E-04
Pt Pt Pt Pt
Human health Ecosystem quality Climate change Resources
Crude Oil Production Petrol at the refinery (Refinery processes)
Transportation of crude oil within refinery Transport, crude oil pipeline, offshore
240 | P a g e
● “PDF·m2·y” (“Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species over a certain
amount of m2 during a certain a mount of year”) is a unit of measurement for
impact upon ecosystems. The unit to “measure” the impacts on ecosystems.
PDF·m2·y is a representation of how much of a species, as a fraction, has
vanished across 1 m2 of earth surface in one year. If a product has an
ecosystem quality scoring of 0.2 PDF·m2·y, 20% of species on 1 m2 of earth
surface would be lost over the course of a year.
● MJ (“Mega Joules”) is a measurement either of the amount of energy needed
to extract a resource, or the amount of energy that is extracted.
At normalised damage level:
● “points” are equal to “pers.y”. The average impact in a specific category
caused by a p erson during one year in Europe is represented by a “point”. It
also represents the average impact on a person during one year for human
health, in a first approximation (i.e., an impact of 3 points in the ecosystem
quality represents the average annual im pact of 3 Europeans. This could also
be applicable to interpreting climate change and resources data). The
calculations are based on the total year damage score as a result of
emissions and extractions in Europe then divided by the total population of
Euro pe.

Figure 8.11 shows the cause -effect chain (also referred to as the environmental
mechanism) for an emission category. At the top are emissions, sometimes referred
to as stressors, so called because they are triggers for potential impacts (the
'causes' in the cause -effect chain).

Figure 8.11: General cause -effect chain for environmental impacts (adopted version
from Finnveden 1992)

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8.8. Discussion
After the completion of the LCIA step, the results have been obtained to describe
potential environmental impacts of the Crude Oil Extraction Plant (COEP) system.
These results provide insight in quantitative expression of generated environmental
impacts t hroughout the considered life cycle phases of the system in scope.
After applying the IMPACT 2002+ methodology, it can be observed that the largest
environmental impact of the COEP system is within the non-renewable energy
impact category and is followed by Respiratory Inorganics, Global Warming and
Terrestrial ecotoxicity. These impacts represent the characterisation results
(Table
16). Also, it can be observed that impact on the Non -renewable impact category
significantly dominates other impact categori es, which show almost negligible
impact by comparison (Figure 8.6).
Normalisation and single score calculation steps follow the same pattern (as with
characterisation step) when considering the environmental impact among impact
categories and the situatio n is not changed (Table 17, Table 19). When observing
the scenario of the COEP system divided among st each phase of the life cycle, it
can be concluded that the largest impact is associated with the petrol at the
refinery
(Refinery processes) and all other phases have almost negligible impact when
compared to this.
More in -depth analysis of the main contributing impact categories reveals the main
processes responsible for generating these impacts. The main contributing unit
processes within the Non -renewab le energy impact category are: crude oil, in
ground; natural gas, in ground; uranium, in ground; coal, hard, in ground (figure
8.11). These unit processes are in the background of the system boundaries.
242 | P a g e

Figure 8.12: In depth analysis - characterisation results (main unit processes)

More in -depth analysis of the main contributing substances in impact categories

reveals the main substances responsible for generating these impacts. The main
contributing substances within the Non -renewable energy impact category are:
Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxides; Particulates < 2 .5µm, Hydrocarbons aromatic,
Beryllium and others (Figure 8.12).

243 | P a g e

Figure 8.13: The most contributing substances to the Non -renewable impact category
It is evident from the LCA results that the most significant impacts are caused by
fossil fuels across all the stages of crude oil production in Libya , which is no
surprise .
These impacts are mainly d ue to the continuous flaring and venting of gases and
the operation of various heavy duty machines, turbines, engines and pumps which
produce, transport and ge nerate energy for production facilities, oil field and
the
refinery. The amount of emissions from these processes is significant and almost
equal in terms of upstream and midstream stages.
8.8.1. Assumptions and Limitations Associated With the Interpretati on of
Results, Both Methodology and Data Related
This LCA reports using a Well to Refinery (WTR) approach, assessing the potential
environmental impacts associated with the COEP system. It is not suitable for
comparative assertions, defined as an environme ntal claim regarding the
superiority
or equivalence of one product or system versus a competing system that performs
the same function. In order to assess the consequential impacts of the installed
COEP system, additional analysis is required. 35%
26%27%3%3%1%1%1%
Sulfur dioxide Particulates, <2.5 um
Nitrogen oxides Hydrocarbons, aromatic
Alumium Cesium-137,Benzo(a)pyrene
Arsenic, Pentane Chromium, Dioxin
Arsenic, ion NMVOC, non methane, Antimony
Barium Radan-222
244 | P a g e
The LCA resu lts presented here are limited to the objectives, goal and scope
defined beforehand. This study is based on available primary data combined with
generic data from preliminary literature research and existing commercial
databases. There are some limitations to the outcomes of this study. Overall, the
quality of the information is sufficient to meet the goals of the study and the
consistency of collecting data among the system studied is good.
8.8.2. Full Transparency In Terms Of Value -Choices and Rationales
This study was performed in accordance with the ISO 14040 and 14044
requirements. This report was compiled and revised in accordance with the ISO
14044 Compliance Checklist. It is important to state that LCIA results are relative
expressions only and do n ot predict actual impacts, the exceeding of thresholds,
safety margins or risks.
8.9 Conclusion
This chapter concludes the main findings based on the case study and data
collection conducted in a Well to Refinery (WTR) analysis of a Crude Oil Extraction
Plant. Additional work has been done to ensure the completeness of the study, to
analyse the sensitivity of key aspects and to check that the consistency in data
and
results is in line with the defined Goal and Scope of the study. Hence, it could be
argued t hat the results of the LCA study provides an insight about the current
practices in the petroleum sector in Libya and these results can further provide
evidence for the need to have an integrated system to manage and minimise
environmental impacts.
As ind icated in chapter four, Libya’s wealth and main revenues are highly
dependent on the petroleum sector. Despite this fact, no previous investigations of
the environmental impacts have been carried out. This study provides a well to
refinery gate LCA analysi s. Based on the environmental impacts of the considered
phases of the life cycle, crude oil refinery processes dominate the whole of the
life
cycle's impacts, which can be attributed to the activities associated with this
process
that include the preparati on, production, transportation, processing and handling
of
the crude oil. Based on case studies, it can be concluded that the use of energy
and
fossil fuels dominates emissions and environmental impacts over the life cycle of
the COEP system. The results o f the assessme nt show (T able 8.16 and 8.17)
245 | P a g e
significant impacts are caused by the crude oil production and distillation.
Therefore,
the following conclusions have been reached based on the analysis of the crude oil
life cycle and its transportation.
It is evident from the analysis that the level of environmental impact at the
refinery
stage is marginally higher than the impact at the oil field, whereas transportation
impacts are the lowest and are almost negligible. The most significant impact is
fossil fu els at both stages and the second major set of impacts are the
respiratory
inorganic impacts. Despite the limitation of a lack of sufficient actual industrial
data,
the results of this LCA demonstrate that this analysis could help recommend
measures which need to be taken to reduce environmental impacts and the use of
fossil fuels. A set of recommendations are provided for the Libyan petroleum
companies to consider minimising fossil fuel consumption. LCA results show that
there is a high environmental impac t caused by the Libyan petroleum industry,
which requires the implementation of a Sustainability Management System to
minimise these impacts. Furthermore, future discussions must be undertaken
concerning: the sensitivity analysis of change in the total lif e span of the COEP
system, optimum parameters with the Libyan conditions and underground impacts.
Energy optimisation for the COEP technologies in the petrol at the refinery
(Refinery
processes) phase is advisable. Further research and development should be
undertaken in the field of systematic controlled energy reduction and power demand
for crude oil extraction technologies.
The central role of energy use underlines the need for continuous efforts to
further
improve energy efficiency in the use phase of the life cycle of the COEP system in
order to decrease its environmental impact. Thus, it could be argued that the
following recommendations can improve performance in the oil industry in Libya:
➢ Introduction of Life Cycle Thinking concept and Life Cycle A ssessment
as a management/engineering tool for environmental assessment in
the Libyan Crude Oil industry
Conducting an LCA for a private company means compiling all inputs and outputs
into a transparent inventory which considers all relevant environmental concerns.
LCA and LCIA results may seem detailed and to some extent they are, but they fail
to represent additional detail that exists within the models – i.e., the specific
246 | P a g e
processes and sectors at the various tiers that lead to these emissions. Because
of
that, it is very important to include all phases of the considered product system.
In process -based results , such as the SimaPro computing algorithm, multiple
processes may contribute to the CO 2 emissions from coal -fired electricity or
diesel
fuel, but the aggregated totals provided do not show which of these underlying
processes cause most damage. It may be important to know whether most of the
emissions are from final production or from a speci fic upstream product or
process.
Full life cycle assessment provides the company with an excellent overview of areas
where improvement s can be made both economic and environment. Integratin g
LCA and LCC research in future Crude Oil Industry projects is an interesting idea
for finding sustainable solutions. Including the life cycle perspective of all
processes
makes it possible to get an overview of whether inputs could be substituted by less
polluting technologies, production processes or alternative materi als.
Calculating the LCI results and understanding impact scores will determine how the
pollution affects humans and the environment and provides a comparable impact
value that may be used in the R&D and Marketing company sectors. Some globally
recognised organisations (e.g. UNEP, EPA, IUCN and WNO) are putting pressure
on Crude Oil producers to demand cleaner production and to invest in scientific
projects involving renewable energy sources and technologies. Generally,
integrated environmental improvement s often prove to lessen expenses in the long
term and thus provide direct/indirect economic incentives on top of the competitive
advantages.
The LCA study conducted is small but an important step for the Libyan Crude Oil
industry. Implementation of the Li fe Cycle thinking concept, Life Cycle
Engineering
procedures, Life Cycle Assessment methodology, Life Cycle Cost analysis and eco -
design strategies in the decision -making process, ensures that a company can
continuously develop in the direction of sustaina ble development. All these
concepts, tools and strategies are necessary in the competitive business world. It
is
hard to achieve a balance between an oil c ompany’s economic and environmental
objectives without an integrated environmental management system. Putting eco -
design strategies into practice is a very important step for future generations. It
is
necessary to consider manufacturing decisions from an environmental point of view
and to find solutions for the following issues:
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- optimisation of crude oil production techniques (alternative production, fewer
production steps, lower/cleaner energy consumption)
- optimization of the distribution system (energy efficient transport mode,
cleaner/reusable packaging of final products, energy -efficient logistics)
- reduction of impact during the use phase of final products (less energy
consumption, cleaner energy sources, cleaner consumables)
- optimisation of the Crude Oil Production Plant's initial lifetime (easier
maintenance and repair)
- optimization of an end-of-life system (find the best solution for EOL
scenarios)
➢ Libyan government incentives for implementation of cleaner
technology in the Oil industry
Incentives should be available to encourage companies that operate in this industry
to adopt cleaner t echnologies and invest in such technological changes. These
incentives should be collaborated and facilitated by the Libyan government as well
as industry representatives.
How dependent is our society on oil products? This complex issue needs to be
invest igated from a number of angles (individual, social, scientific,
philosophical and
political). Science and industry together need to find new ways to transform
environmental knowledge into business practice. The scientific community must
work towards soluti ons for all industries that are indirectly and directly
dependent
on crude oil. The Crude Oil supply chain is enormously complex. Changes in the
supply chain have significant consequences in modern society. Knowledge, political
power, global economy, stand ard of living and development are all interconnected
with Oil products. The price of Crude Oil represents more than economic
information. Every aspect of our life is in some way connected with Crude Oil
(food,
clothes, medicines, energy, transport, etc.). If we can find an environmentally
friendly solution in the Crude Oil sector, then we can change the world in a
sustainable way. Raising awareness among the public through campaigns is vital
so that their knowledge about international standards and indictor s used in
monitoring environmental performance is enhanced which will further trigger them
putting more pressure on companies to adopt cleaner technologies to reduce the
248 | P a g e
environmental impacts of their operations. The energy required to refine crude
oils
depends on the crude oil properties and the refining intensity.
➢ Crude Oil Production GHG Emissions —Significant Uncertainty
There is considerable vari ation in the carbon intensities of crude oil typically
refined
in North Africa. GHG emissions from producin g the Study crude oil refined in Libya
are based on modelling —not field checked. Energy consumption and GHG
emissions was estimated through the use of engineering models from the study
crude oils that were refined in North Africa but the results were not p ossible to
verify
with the field data.
➢ Future research - collection of Libyan LCI datasets, LCA standards and
preparation of characterization and normalization factors
In order to be able to carry out precise LCAs in Libya in the future , it is
important to
collect, develop and improve the availability of life cycle related input -output
data.
The above matters should be addressed by a panel of local experts with the aim of
preparing Libyan normalisation and weighting standards. In order to create Libyan
normalisation standards, a large scale inventory must be created for Libya,
including
industries, households , transportation and public / governmental / commercial
institutions , to map out the full environmental impact of the country. It is also
important th at government put pressure on industries to record and make available
their input -output inventories.
Decisions based on Well -to-gate LCA analysis of Crude Oil Production Plants must
use more detailed and relevant information from the production field. Be tter
information should be made available so that in countries that do not measure the
greenhouse gas emissions associated with production of crude oil (such as Libya ),
better definitions of crude production energy can be made. More importantly, it is
vital that data is measured and collec ted from sites rather than using country -
wide
estimates that are based on the collection of data through satellites. It is also
important that carbon losses from soil and land reclamation are d etermined in the
process of crude oil production. All of these efforts will minimise the level of
uncertainty in data. In future environmental assessment, it is necessary to include
all phases of the Crude Oil life cycle.
249 | P a g e
Hence, following these findings al ong with the findings presented in the previous
chapters, the following chapter presents the proposed Sustainability Management
System for the Libyan petroleum sector.

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Chapter 9
Sustainability Management System

9.1 Introduction
his chapter presents the Sustainability Management System that was
developed as part of this research. The chapter presents and discusses in
detail the process that was adopted to develop the proposed system and
also elaborat es on the different system components. Sust ainability management in
the oil and gas industry requires a systematic approach that aims to integrate
policy -
making, technology, organisational and individual factors. This chapter further
provides a detailed explanation of the benefits of the developed system and its
application in the Libyan context taking into considerat ion the barriers and
challenges presented above. Therefore, the sub-objectives of this chapter are:
• To present the proposed Sustainability Management System as per the
findings from the previous chapters
• To present the different components of the proposed SMS and discuss their
applicability
• To discuss the limitations associated with using the developed SMS in
practice by oil and gas companies
9.2 Brief Restatement of the Research Prob lem
In the recent years, there has been accumulating pressure from different
international organisations including the United Nations on petroleum companies to
improve and enhance their operational environmental performance as well as their
sustainable dev elopment strategies as a result of the increasing concerns
regarding
the climate change and the impact of the greenhouse gas emissions. Many
countries have developed national strategies that aim to enhance their
environmental performance and sustainability performance.
However, developing countries and countries in transition are not yet doing enough
to meet these increasing pressures. Libya is one of the countries that is facing
great
challenges when it comes to managing key environmental sustainability i ssues.
Thus, this research study aimed to investigat e these issues so that a
sustainability T
251 | P a g e
management system for the Libyan petroleum sector can be developed taking into
account the lessons learnt from developed nations and based on secondary and
primary data from different sources. A Sustainability Management System that is
Libyan oriented requires an extensive examination and collection of data from
multiple sources. That is why this study adopted a triangulation approach to
enhance its validity and appl icability to the Libya’s petroleum sector.
The proposed system requires a deep understanding of the current issues in
relation to sustainability management in the oil and gas sector which was achieved
through a comprehensive literature review that looked at the challenges and
barriers
that hinder oil companies’ efforts to integrate sustainability management into
their
operational policies. This was vital to ensure existing literature is embedded
within
the developed system along with the primary data that was collected through the
triangulation approach.
Field visits, semi -structured interviews, survey questionnaires, life cycle
assessment and environmental impact assessment were all carried out. T he overall
aim and outcomes of this study can be expressed in a research question: how can
petroleum companies in Libya improve their sustainability management practices in
order for them to provide high quality services at an acceptable level and meet the
expectations of their stakeholders nationally and internat ionally?
9.3 SMS Development Stages
As outlined in the methodology chapter, framework and system development
requires the collection of different types of data using both a qualitative and
quantitative methods. Hence, this developed system was based on t he use of semi -
structured interviews, questionnaire survey, direct observation, documentation and
technical procedures including EIA and LCA. More importantly, it was realised that
developing a system is a process in which the researcher theorises and
systematises on data that is generated from existing resources and different
literature foundations and enhanced by the collection of relevant empirical data .
In
other words, it could be argued that data that is gathered from different sources
of
evidence give s the researcher the ability to build a robust qualitative and
quantitative understandings of the various issues, problems and success factors in
relation to sustainability management. The researcher also believes that developing
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a system that is well -articulated and supported by multiple sources of evidence
enable s all stakeholders in the petroleum sector to better identify, understand,
integrate, assess, implement and monitor the vital issues associated with
environmental and sustainability management.
The researcher believes that any developed system must be based on the
awareness, understanding, identification and assessment of sustainability factors,
barriers and success factor as well as understanding the role of different
stakeholders’ involvement an d the adoption of technology and technical
assessment methodologies to ensure that a comprehensive system results. A
systematic approach was used that followed a well -defined and integrated plan to
develop the sustainability management system through a rev iew of the relevant
literature on the subject matter and identifying the drivers / factors / issues /
barriers
and challenges associated with sustainability management.
As shown in Figure 9 .1, the process to develop the integrated sustainability
managemen t system emerged by carrying out a comprehensive literature review
followed by the collection and analysis of empirical data.
The stages in which the SMS was developed are summarised here .
➢ Comprehensive literature review
Developing a sustainability management system for petroleum companies requires
the understanding of the current theoretical context. This was one of the core and
vital aspects that contributed to the development of the management system as a
detailed under standing of the existing environmental sustainability issues was
carried out along with examining the current organisational structure of petroleum
companies in Libya. The literature review involved detailed examination of the
published peer -reviewed work that was obtained from multiple sources.
➢ Semi Structured Interviews
Understanding the current environmental management and sustainability issues in
Libya requires direct communication with policy makers and stakeholders in the
Libyan petroleum sector. As explained by Kvale (1996), qualitative research
interviews aim to describe both factual information and the meaning level.
Moreover, the key strength of the qualitative strategy is gained from its inductive
reasoning approach as it focuses on people or si tuation s. The qualitative
inductive
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approach is investigative and explorative in nature concerning the attitudes and
behaviours of the participants and the issues. This study focuses on a specific
problem within the oil industry (i.e. environmental sustai nability management).
➢ Semi -structured Questionnaire
As part of the triangulation approach, understanding the current environmental
concerns and issues in the Libyan petroleum sector requires the collection of
primary data. A survey strategy was adopted as part of this study to collect
primary
data from petroleum companies that operate in Libya. The consideration of using
an analytical survey tool for this research is to collect the bulk of the data from
the
wider population (Libyan petroleum sector) and to test general hypothes es
generated from the interviews and case studies findings such as level of awareness
about sustainability and environmental issues and the key current management
problems. The survey aims to examine the importance of linking the findi ngs of the
qualitative methods (i.e. interviews and case studies) to the results of the
questionnaire.
➢ Fieldwork visits
The fieldwork trips included the collection of data through distributing
questionnaires,
conducting interviews, observations and visits to the sites, petroleum refineries
and
plants. The 3rd field work included an Environmental Impact Assessment study.
Furthermore, throughout the field work, the author collected other company reports
and unpublished documents.
➢ Environmental Impact assessm ent (EIA)
EIA can be described as a procedure that aims to examine , analyse and inform all
possible effects which any new project, process or development has on the
environment. To further explore the issues associated with environmental
management and su stainability in Libya, EIA was carried out to assess various
impacts in Libya so that sources of these impacts can be identified and mitigation
measures are proposed.
➢ Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
The research er conducted LCA studies to assess and evaluate impacts associated
with crude oil production and processes which could help develop the sustainability
management system. LCA follows the ISO framework and methodology. The study
acknowledges and builds upon the contributions of previous scientific resear ch and
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field research in the area of crude oil extraction. LCA can help petroleum
companies
make improvements such as in the treatment and disposal of oily sludge and other
waste generated from different operations.

Figure 9 .1: SMS development process

9.4 Aim of the SMS
The aim of the developed SMS is to provide a systematic, well -evidenced
methodology which can be adopted by petroleum companies, policy makers and
governmental organisations in Libya to improve the ir sustainability management
practice s and environmental performance. In other words, the SMS can be used as
a tool to help policy makers make informed decisions in relation to improving
environmental management in Libya and in developing countries.
The SMS also provides a systematic process that can be followed by policy makers
in order for them to propose standards, laws or guidelines. The researcher believe
s

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that this system promotes an effective and efficient process in enhancing
environmental management and sustainability performance as it integrates different
variables and elements that are interrelated. Adopting sustainability thinking in
the
petroleum sector in Libya is a priority which can be achieved through the
implementation of this SMS.
9.5 Sustainability Management System (SMS)
Figure 9 .2 shows the design of the proposed SMS as per the findings of the
empirica l studies that were carried out. The researcher believes that this SMS
provides a dynamic process that diagnoses, identifies, explains and gives a
comprehensive view of sust ainability management in the petroleum sectors as the
SMS incorporates the main components, activities, consequences, barriers,
success factors and outcomes along with the different power structure s and taking
account of internal and external factors.
The SMS will help petroleum companies to be responsive to the needs of regulatory
bodies at national and international level. This system contains some of the
components that are available in the existing frameworks but builds upon the
findings of this study and provides an overall conceptual system which reflects,
illustrates and interprets the current situation in the petroleum sector in Libya.
It
could be argued that this system could be widely utilised in other Arab countries
and
in developing countries in general as it provides an integrated approach to
sustainability management. Before discussing the benefits and limitations of this
SMS, the following section explains the different components and how they work.
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Figure 9 .2: Proposed Sustainability Management System for Libyan Petroleum Sector

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9.6 The Components of the SMS
The diagram above (Figure 9 .2) presented the integrated SMS that is proposed by
the petroleum sector in Libya. The proposed SMS consists of interrelated elements
that will be explained below. The integrated SMS provides a systematic approach
to managing environmental issues and enhancing sustainability performance in
Libya. Before explaining each componen t, the following table (Table 9 .1) provides
descriptions of the terms used in this system.
Table 9 .1: Descriptions of the terms used in the SMS
• State power: the government should be the central force that takes on the
primary
responsibility of protecting the environment. The state’s role should be about
providing the relevant legislations, resources, policy development, monitoring,
evaluation as well as assurances.
• Stakehol der power : these are all stakeholders involved in the petroleum
industry
in Libya including the government, people, companies, communities, non -
governmental organisations, media and all others. Their role is to put pressure on
petroleum companies to implem ent sustainability practices and provide services
that
environmentally -friendly. They also have a role in monitoring and providing
feedback
to relevant authorities.
• Planning : this is an integral element of all environmental management systems as
it involv es the process of establishing the organisation’s environmental policy
which
is the foundation of any management system. It also involves the process of
identifying the environmental aspects of the different operations such as hazardous
waste etc.., which might have negative impact on the environment or people. It also
involves ensuring that the required resources are available to implement
environmental management systems.
• Development and Implementation: at this stage, the organisation develops action
plans and strategies to reduce the environmental impact of its operations. At this
stage, the necessary resources either human or financial should be allocated.
Documentation is part of the implementation stage as well as setting up
communication processes wi th different stakeholders
• Control and Review: organisations should monitor their operations, programmes
and strategies to ensure that targets are being met. If these targets are not met,
then
corrective actions should be taken. This feeds back to the impl antation and
planning
phase.

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9.6.1 Planning Phase
The core component of the proposed SMS is the Planning Phase. Based on the
proposed system, the planning stage should be the starting point for any
organisation that operates in the petroleum sector in Libya . It identifies the
organisation’s sustainability interests, responsibilities and also defines the
goals
and objectives of the sustainability strategy , so that a positive view of the
future is
projected. Organisations must be aware that there is no qu ick fix to becoming
sustainable or socially responsible. In other words, the planning phase should
define the sustainability footprint of an organisation and the objectives to be
achieved. The organisation should also identify the legal requirements associ ated
with its sustainability programme.
• Policies & Statements
As required by existing ISO and other environmental management systems,
organisations should develop a policy for sustainability management. This policy
should reflect th e nature and value of the organisation and its commitment to
sustainability. In other words, the policy should be aligned with the
organisation’s
values, mission statement and vision. The sustainability policy should be
considered
as a formal document that requires approval from the organisation’s top
management and should be devised in collaboration with all stakeholders in the
organisation. It should be considered as a formal document that describes the
organisation’s commitment towards sustainability. Thi s policy should also be
regularly revised and reviewed to be meaningful to all internal and external
stakeholders.
• Financing & Physical Resources
The organisation should ensure that its vision towards sustainability requires
financial commitment from the organisation. The financial and physical resources
are vital to the successful implementation of sustainability management systems.
For the provision of awareness programs that involve training, the organisation
needs to allocate budgets and equipment. Sp ending on sustainability should be
perceived by the organisation as a core success factor in which the top
management and regulatory agencies should ensure that such budgets are
allocated. For Libya, the country and the petroleum industry in particular is a
well -
resourced and has high income. The petroleum sector should utilise its revenues in
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a way that encourages the adoption of sustainability practices. This cannot be
achieved without the presence of relevant regulations and standards.
• Human Resources
Along with the financial and physical resources, organisations need to ensure that
they have enough human resources capable of developing and implementing
sustainability management systems. The availability of human and physical
resources are very important as they directly influence the SMS’s components and
outcomes. Therefore, organisations need competent staff who are capable of
implementing sustainability management systems. This also relates to the point
about the financial element , as organisations nee d to allocate financial
resources
for the education and training of its human capital as well as appointing external
consultants to provide training. A culture of continuous learning should be
encouraged within organisations for knowledge to be transferred among employees
at all levels.
• Objectives
As part of the planning phase, the organisation should ensure that clear objectives
are set with specified targets. These objectives should be SMART (specific,
measurable, achievable, realistic and timely). The objectives should describe the
organisation’s mission statement towards sustainability and should be assigned
with clear deadlines so that the organisation can evaluate its progress against
these
objectives.
• Regulations, Standards and Guidelines
As highl ighted in the SMS diagram above, in order for organisations to be
successful
in implementing sustainability systems , there should be regulations, standards and
guidelines available to them so that they can follow and implement such systems.
The regulatory element of any management system is vital as highlighted in the
literature review along with the findings of the empirical study. The regulations,
standards and guidelines are external to the organisation which means that the
state power as well as interna tional organisations should ensure that such
regulation, laws and rules that monitor the petroleum operations in developing
countries are available to encourage petroleum companies implement sustainability
systems. There are current international standards which organisations are
encouraged to adopt which will help improve performance.
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• Organisational Culture
For any management intervention to be successful it is vital to be supported by
all
of the stakeholders in the organisation. As a part of the planning stage and among
st
the success factor s, organisational culture should be considered as a vital
element
as it shapes the beliefs, attitudes and values of the members of the organisation.
In
other words, the organisational structure, policies and procedures should reflect
the
organisation’s commitment towards adopting sustainability as a management
concept. The top management should steer the organisational culture of the
company towards sustainability management by the provision of education and
training pro grams to raise their awareness about the need to improve the
environmental performance at all levels. Organisational culture is seen as one of
the barriers when it comes to proposing new interventions. Therefore, it was
important to include this element as part of the success factors that will help in
carrying out efficient planning.
• Education & Training
Organisations must ensure that training and education programs are provided to
their staff. It was noted in the literature that raising awareness about su
stainability
and environmental management is vital for the successful implementation of EMS
and other organisational interventions. Furthermore, based on the findings of
empirical studies, education and training were deemed very critical to the success
of any SMS as it help s the organisation improve the knowledge and skills of its
members who will be responsible for the delivery and implementation of such
systems. More importantly, organisations should provide training to employees who
need to deal with ad vanced technologies as part of their operations. The lack of
training and education opportunities can also be considered as a barrier to the
successful implementation of EMS.
• External Consultancy
As per the findings of the literature review and the empirical studies, getting
external
help and support should be seen as an encouraging factor for companies to be
successful in implementing EMS. In other words, as part of the planning process,
the organ isation should specify its needs in terms of expertise, technology and
physical resources as that will help the organisation improve its operational
effectiveness. Furthermore, external consultancy will simplify the process of
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developing and implementing m anagement systems as the organisation will benefit
from the existing expertise and knowledge that was applied in other organisations.
Hence, external consultancy is seen as one of the success factors that contribute
positively to the successful implementat ion of sustainability management systems.
• Resources
The organisation must clearly identify its needs in terms of resources i.e. human,
physical, financial or technological. The availability of resources was highlighted
as
important from the findings of th e empirical studies. Organisations will not be
able
to improve their performance without the provision of the required resources by the
top management. Thus, this shows that identifying the resources in the planning
stage is vital.
9.6.2 Development and I mplementation Phase
This phase involves the actual execution of the plans and programmes . As part of
this phase, there are a number of actions that organisations should take when
include the use of technical tools such as the LCA and EIA along with obtain ing
certifications from regulatory agencies.
• Environmental Impact Assessment
Among the most important and integral elements of the SMS is the application of
EIA which is a procedure that aims to assess, analyse and inform all the negative
impacts that are associated with a new development, process or project. EIA was
introduced by the US National Environmental Protection Act in 1969 and is
currently
being adopted by many organisations worldwide as a tool to help them mitigate
environmental harm. As part of the EIA, organisations should ensure that all
stakeholders are involved in the process including local authorities, communities
and regulatory agencies , since this helps the organisation to assess the
environmental impact of different products and project s. One of the advantages of
using the EIA is the fact that it is site -specific. There should be a legal
requirement
imposed on petroleum companies to carry out the EIA and communicate the
outcomes of their assessment.
• Life Cycle Assessment
The usefulness and benefits of LCA has been identified by the ISO and UNEP in
many publications and is supported by evidence from the literature as highlighted
in chapter three. LCA has been widely used in many industrial applications for
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different purposes such as product development and performance improvement,
environmental management and planning as well as cleaner technology
development. LCA should be considered as an integral element of petroleum
companies’ sustainability framework. This is because LCA can help organisations
determine the most significant environmental impacts and identify new sustainable
options. It will help petroleum companies and policy makers to make informed
decisions which will lead to more sustainable development.
• Programmes Implementation
This element of the SMS describes the organisation’s ability to execute its
programs
such as waste ma nagement as per the requirements of the regulations, standards
and guidelines. As part of development and implementation phase, programmes
should be developed that are site -specific and should be documented to prove the
organisation is committed towards im proving its environmental performance. The
documentation process is an integral part of the programmes implementation stage.
• Certifications (e.g. ISO 14001)
Following the planning stage, the organisation should have identified its needs
and
objectives , and also developed plans and strategies that can help the company
achieve its objectives and targets. Existing EMS systems such as ISO 14001 can
help achieve this . Organisations should ensure that the required resources are
available to help them accomplish and achieve certifications. These certifications
should be based on identified objectives from the planning phase.
• Leadership & Management Commitment
Leadership and management commitment has been proven to be one of the internal
elements in the successfu l implementation of environmental management systems
and sustainability interventions. This was supported by the findings of the
empirical
studies that were carried out in Libya. For this purpose, th ese elements plays a
vital
role in the implementation of the proposed SMS and commitment should start from
the top including the regulatory agencies, policy makers, senior managers and down
to the shop floor staff. It is necessary and expedient for the implementation of
all the
processes, activities and elements of the SMS. In other words, without the
commitment of the top management , it would be very difficult for the organisation
to
implement the SMS. The findings of the literature also suggested that clear lack of
leadership commitment leads to failures in the implementation of management and
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organisational systems. This factor plays a significant role in terms of policy,
structure, regulation, monitoring and supervision.
• Managing Change
Organisation s need to have the required strategies and plans in place to manage
change. As highlighted, organisational culture and structure are vital when it
comes
to proposing new interventions and programmes. Therefore, change could have
significant negative outcomes if the organisation does not have the right policies
and procedures in place to manage the consequences of the change proposed.
Introducing sustainability to organisations requires a number of changes at the
organisational and individual level which should be identified and managed to avoid
any negative conseque nces that will lead to losses in the human or physical
capital
of the organisation.
• Resources
This element is also vital in the development and implementation stage and is seen
as one of the success factors. All types of resources should be present and a
vailable
to the organisation to ensure that the SMS is successfully implemented.
• Organisational Culture
As stated, m anaging change and organisational culture is key, which should be
taken into consideration when developing and implementing environmental
management and sustainability programmes. Such programmes need to be
implemented over a long period of time which means that continuous support,
commitment and communication between all the relevant parties and stakeholders
is a must. Therefore, the organi sation should ensure that all stakeholders are
motivated and support ive of the process of developing and implementing
sustainability programmes.
9.6.3 Control and Review Stage
The third phase of the proposed SMS is the control and review stage in which
organisations need to reflect upon their performance by carrying out evaluations
and assessments. This can be done by different ways as explained below.
• Internal & External Audit s
Internal and external audits are integral in the successful implementation of
sustainability management programmes as th ey provide the opportunity for
companies to monitor their performance against the targets set in the planning
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stage. External audits are also vital as they provide independent assessment of
the
organisation’s performance , which will also be helpful for organ isations that aim
to
obtain external accreditation. Internal and external audits are significant
elements
of the proposed SMS as they help the organisation take corrective actions if the
objectives and goals are not met.
• Performance Indicators
As highlig hted in the literature review, performance indicators that are
associated
with sustainability and environmental management should be adopted by
organisations . These indicators will help focus on weaknesses and also improve an
organisation’s strengths. For Libyan petroleum companies, there is a need for
organisations to ensure that performance indicators that are associated with
sustainability as proposed by many international organisations are used in the
control and review stage.
• Efficiency & Effectivenes s
There is a clear difference between effectiveness and efficiency and these are
vital
for the petroleum sector in Libya. Thus, companies need to ensure that they utilise
their resources efficiently. This should be based on the clear measures.
• Outcomes
Another important element proposed is the need for petroleum companies to
perform outcomes that can be measured. Comparison of past to current
performance is necessary if new interventions are to have a positive impact on
overall performance. The overall aim of the proposed SMS is to improve the
environmental performance of petroleum companies as a result of the increasing
concerns about waste and pollution generated from petroleum operations.
• Stakeholder Involvement
Organisations should also consider t he need for stakeholder involvement in the
process of control and review , as that will help the organisation identify any
lapses
or weaknesses in their programmes. The organisation may want to consult with its
employees, suppliers and agents to ensure that its current programs are providing
significant improvements. This element is also vital as it can be considered as one
of the external validation tools which can be used by the organisation to assess
its
performance.
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• Regulations
As indicated in the above phases, regulations and laws need imposing to monitor
and report organisation’s performance to regulatory agencies so that they can be
seen to comply with the legal requirements. Therefore, petroleum companies should
ensure that their review process is ba sed on the requirements of the law and that
any conditions set by the law such as reducing levels of greenhouse gas emissions .
• External Inspection
Among the vital success factors which are important when it comes to the review of
the management systems i s having independent external inspection from local or
international agencies. This would help o rganisations identify any lapses or
weaknesses which can be acted upon as part of the PDCA cycle.
• Leadership & Management Commitment
For every aspect of this proposed SMS, leadership and management commitment
is critical in the provision of resources and support to the different system
elements
and hence to the management system implementation as a whole.
• Technology
Technology should be considered by petroleum companies when it comes to
sustainability management and improving performance. It was reflected in the
literature review and in the empirical studies that companies need to use advanced
technologies in the proc ess of monitoring their environmental impacts. Therefore,
as part of the control and review stage, organisation should rely on technology in
the process of monitoring their performance against the set targets and objectives.
• State Power
As outlined in ta ble 9 .1, state power reflects the need for a strong governance
and
a regulatory framework that is imposed on petroleum companies that operate in
Libya. Without strict regulation and law, petroleum companies will not be committed
towards adopting sustainabi lity practices. As it can be seen in the SMS diagram ,
state power imposes regulations in the planning stage, provides resources and
support to companies in the implementation and development phase and also
monitors and assesses petroleum companies in the c ontrol and review phase.
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• Stakeholder Power
All stakeholders have a role to play in the process of integrating sustainability
practices within the petroleum sector. This role varies from one phase to another
as
highlighted in the SMS diagram. For example stakeholder power plays an important
role in putting pressure on petroleum companies and regulatory agencies to adopt
sustainability in the planning phase. In the development and implementation phase,
the stakeholders should support petroleum companies in their efforts to
implementing sustainability interventions. In the control and review stage, the
stakeholders should assess and monitor the work of these companies to help them
improve their performance .
• Community Participation
Community participation h as also been integrated within the proposed SMS as
communities are part of the external stakeholders. The level of involvement with
each stage of the different phases has been highlighted by “high” and “low”. This
means that the community has a role to pla y in the monitoring and evaluation of
the
practices of these companies and should help regulatory agencies to monitor these
companies. In other words, community participation will play a vital role in
improving
the performance of organisations , as they act as external monitor s.
• Regulation and Governance
As explained above, for sustainability to be adopted by Libyan petroleum
companies, there is a need for a strong and strict governance and regulatory system
which should regulator the work of petroleum companies. Regulation and
governance elements are the starting point for the sustainability journey . It was
noted in the literature that without a strict regulatory framework, companies will
not
be encouraged to embrace sustainability. The same points were raised in the
empirical studies which suggest that fo r Libyan oil companies, governance and
regulations (which are the role of the state power) are essential for the
integration
of sustainability practices.
• Success Factors
This element of the proposed SMS describes the elements that are necessary for
the s uccessful implementation of the sustainability interventions, programs and
plans. Each success factor has been described and has been linked with each
phase. The absence of these factors means that failures or delays can be expected
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in terms of the success ful implementation of the SMS. These success factors are
based on the findings of the literature review and from the empirical studies .
• PDCA Cycle
The PDCA cycle is integrated in the proposed SMS. It shows that the SMS’ different
activities should be c arried out in a repetitive manner to bring about continual
improvement. Following the identification of the key sustainability interests and
goals in the planning stage , comes the “doing” stage in which the organisation
translates its written goals into ac tual programm es. The checking stages involve
that collection of information about the actions and programmes so that reviewing
can determine whether the goals were achieved or not. If the goals are not
achieved,
further adjustments are needed as shown in t he proposed SMS. All other elements
should be considered when the cycle begins again.
9.7 Framework Validation Process
A significant and important element of this study was the validation process of the
developed SMS model. It was highlighted by Rykiel (1 996) that validation is
important in affirming that any proposed guideline or framework is good enough for
the its proposed use. In other words, validation helps in further understanding the
practicability of the proposed framework. It was also pointed out by Rykiel (1996)
that validation is not a required action of every framework development nor it is a
method for testing a precise premise. The proposed SMS mode that is presented
above was based on a triangulation methodology that involved the collection of data
through different sources.
For the purposes of validation of the proposed SMS model, it was decided that semi
-
structured interviews be carried out with policy makers in the oil and gas sector
in
Libya. Guest et al (2006) and Yin (1994) indicated t hat when a point of saturation
is
reached , interviews should be stopped. Thus, and based on the lessons learnt from
the qualitative stage in this study, nine interviews were carried out with
stakeholders
that were involved in the early stages of this resea rch to examine the ir
suitability
and usefulness as well as the practicality of the proposed SMS model.
To ensure a consistent approach is used in the validation process, the same set of
questions were put to the interviewees to explore their perceptions a nd views
about
the proposed SMS and its content. This in cluded the process of presenting the
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developed SMS along with the different elements as well as using a list of
questions.
The interviews were carried out through online -communication channels and phone
calls and t he process involved asking the participants to answer a set of
questions
using a Likert Scale along with giving them the opportunity to provide comments for
improvement to the proposed model. As argued by many scholars such as Balci
and Sarge nt (1982); Rykiel (1996); Law and Kelton (1991) , operational framework
validation aims to ensure that the proposed framework is fit for purpose from the
perspective of the users. In other words, the proposed SMS model of this study aims
to improve the sustainability practices in the oil and gas industry in Libya in
which
all stakeholders in this sector need to be heard. This affirms that the validation
of
the proposed SMS should only be done in the context of the research frame and
purpose to ensure its validity and reliability (Rao et al., 1998).
It was highlighted by Shannon (1975) that no framework based on one-to-one
communication will be correct and that theories and findings in the context of the
study should be used to enhance the practicability of the propos al. Thus as argued
by Schlesinger et al (1979) , validation aims to ensure that any framework or model
provides a reasonable range of reliab ility and precision . The developed model was
based on the theoretical underpinnings in the field as well as on the empirical
findings of different studies that were carried as part of this research which
involved
quantitative and qualitative approaches, alo ng with LCA and EIA assessments. The
overall purpose of the validation process is to evaluate the acceptability and
soundness of the proposed SMS in conjunction with the perceptions of the system
users in Libya who are the experts of the current situation and can influence the
design of the proposed SMS model.
Hence, a questionnaire survey instrument was used in the semi -structured
interviews with the validation process participants. It was decided that a
qualitative
approach using a pre -designed survey in strument is the most suitable and
convenient tool to validate the framework due to the issue of acceptability and
limited resources to carry out in -depth application of the model. Moreover, the
development of the SMS model was also based on substantial hum an intrusion as
rich and valuable data was gathered through interviews and surveys in different
stages of this study. The validation process involved nine participants from the
petroleum sector in Libya. Each interviewee was given the opportunity to answer
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the survey instrument and also comment upon the overall model. The selected
participants were chosen based on the fact that they have participated in previous
stages. The following table presents the sample profile in the validation phase of
this study:
Table 9 .2: Sample profile in the validation process
Interview
ee Code Job Title Years of
Experience Time and
Location Duration of
Interview
X01 Line Manager 23 1 July 2016
Skype 52 minutes
X02 Supervisor 20 13 July 2016
Skype 45 minutes
X03 Senior Engineer 16 23 July 2016
Viber 47 minutes
X04 Supervisor 15 2 August 2016
Skype 50 minutes
X05 Head Manager 10 10th August
2011
Phone Call 58 minutes
X06 Middle Manager 16 17 August
2016 1 hour
X07 Safety Manager 24 21 August
2016 45 minutes
X08 Environmentalist 22 27 August
2016 1 hour
X09 Senior Engineer 24 30 August
2016 51 minutes

The participants were selected based on their rich experience in the fi eld as well
as
showing their interest in the early stages of the study for further involvement in
the
research process. They also had a wide experience of working in the petroleum
sector in Libya which makes them very unique in understanding the context of the
study. Furthermore, the participants were very interested in providing their
feedback
and insights about the developed SMS , as they believe that such an important area
of research requires support from all stakeholders and their participation is the
le ast
they could do to improve the overall situation in Libya . The questions which were
used in the survey instrument that was shared with the participants in the
interviews
is based on a five point Likert Scale as shown in the following table 9 .3. Six
theme s
were used in the survey instrument that were adopted from Kwasnicki (1999) which
were:
• Contents
306 | P a g e
• Context
• Completeness
• Clarity
• Usefulness
• Universality/Applicability
Table 9 .3: Validation Survey Tool

Theme/item Strongly
Agree (5)
Agree
(4) Not
Sure (3) Disagre e
(2) Strongly
Disagree(1)
To what extent do you
agree with the contents
of the SMS model
To what extent do you
agree the SMS model fits
within the Libyan context
To what extent do you
agree with the
completeness of the
SMS
To what extent to do you
agree that the SMS
model is clear
To what extent to do you
agree that the SMS is
useful
To what extent do you
agree with the
Applicability and
Universality of the SMS
Please comment on
possible improvements
of the proposed SMS
9.7.1 Validation Findings
Following the interviews, the findings of the validation process were analysed. It
could be argued that the validation process indicated that the developed SMS model
is fit and reliable within the study context and that possible positive outcomes
can
be achieved as a result of adopting the SMS model. As highlighted in the following
findings , most of the participants in the validation process were very supportive
and
in agreement that the proposed SMS model is of high usefulness. None of the
participants indicated their disagreement with any aspects of the overall model ,
but
their useful comments were taken into consideration . The following table present s
the results for each theme following the validation process:
307 | P a g e

Theme/item Strongly
Agree (5)
Agree
(4) Not
Sure
(3) Disagree
(2) Strongly
Disagree(1)
To what extent do you
agree with the contents of
the SMS model 7 2 0 0 0
To what extent do you
agree the SMS model fits
within the Libyan context 8 1 0 0 0
To what extent do you
agree with the
completeness of the SMS 6 1 1 1 0
To what extent to do you
agree that the SMS model
is clear 7 1 1 0 0
To what extent to do you
agree that the SMS is
useful 8 1 0 0 0
To what extent do you
agree with the Applicability
and Universality of the SMS 7 2 0 0 0

As noted, most of the participants in the validation process are in agreement that
the developed SMS model is of high importance and fit within the Libyan context
which is the overall purpose of this proposed SMS model. Moreover, it was noted
that all of the participants agreed that the developed model is clear in terms of
its
contents and approach. Thus, this could suggest that the developed model is simple
and easy to use by the stakeholders in Libya . The participants were in full
agreement on most of the themes as presented in table 9 .3 which indicates that
such a model provides a systematic and integrated approach to sustainability
management in the Libyan petroleum industry. In other words, it could be argued
that the developed SMS model is compatible with the Libyan context and offers a
practical approach to sustainability management because of its clarity and
universality which was proven in the validation process.
The research participants were also as ked as part of the validation process to
comment and make suggestions for improvements of the developed model. Their
notes were analysed following the interviews and they were mainly concerned with
the issue of ensur ing that a regulatory framework is established that is solid and
transparent. Moreover, the participants raised the importance of sustainability
reporting by companies through annual reports and sustainability indicators which
will encourage companies to p ublish their annual performance reports so that
308 | P a g e
stakeholders can be fully aware of the different activities and actions taken by
the
companies .
Furthermore, it was highlighted by the participants that professional training and
certifications are vital in ensuring that competent personnel are employed by oil
and
gas companies in Libya to monitor and implement international standards and
approved codes as well as carry out technical investigations. It was also indicated
by the participants that methodologica l approaches such as Life Cycle Assessment
and Environmental Impact Assessment should be embedded in the strategic
management approaches within oil and gas companies. In particular, the
participants were concerned about the technical skills required which enable
companies to carry out their own investigations without the need of employing and
recruiting external consultants and companies to carry out these investigations.
Participants raised concern s about the international role in monitoring the
environme ntal impact of companies. They believe that multinational companies
should work in collaboration with domestic companies and local non -governmental
organisations to raise awareness about sustainability and environmental
management. Thus, it was important t hat such considerations are taken into
account in the proposed model so that a more comprehensive approach is
achieved.
More importantly, it was highlighted by the research participants that further
support
and rewards from the policy makers and regulator y agencies are introduced to
encourage individual companies to improve their environmental monitoring and
performance as that will add more value to the company and improves its public
image. This is a vital issue that was raised by the participants . Rewar d systems
at
the national level should be introduced by regulatory agencies or by the National
Oil
Corporation in Libya to ensure that companies are committed towards improving
the performance.
To sum up, the validation process proved that the developed S MS mode l for the
petroleum industry of Libya is of high value and importance as it provides a
systematic and integrated approach to sustainability management in this vital
sector. Comments and suggestions for improvement were made by the research
participa nts wh ich were mainly associated with professional certifications,
training
309 | P a g e
and rewards systems , as well as the role of multinational companies in raising
awareness about sustainability at the domestic level , working with national and
local
NGOs to improve performance. The following section provides an amended version
of the developed SMS model based on the outcomes of the validation study.
310 |

Figure 9 .3: Revised Sustainability Management System for Libyan Petroleum Sector

311 |
9.8 Benefits of the Developed SMS
The researcher believes that for petroleum companies in Libya to successful ly
implement sustainable business practic es, a holistic principle of sustainability
needs
to be understood and integrated into the strategic planning of the organisation.
Sustainability needs to be seen as an important element in strategic planning to
improve and enhance the operational performan ce and should not be viewed as
add-ons. Taking this in mind, the proposed Sustainability Management System
(SMS) for the Libyan petroleum sector emphasises the concept of strategic
sustainability in which many different stakeholders need to show commitment
towards adopting sustainability.
The proposed system encourages companies to move beyond meeting compliance
requirements to a more sustainable future that will benefit the system as a whole.
Petroleum companies need to develop a more long -term focus on t he value of
sustainability by examining the threats and opportunities as well as strengthening
their relationships with the external environment. This will help companies to
perceive sustainability as an organisation -wide goal which incorporates each and
every aspect of the business as well as its relationships with the external
environment. For this purpose, the proposed SMS model encourages companies in
Libya’s oil sector to adopt a system thinking approach in which they need to value
the role that each s takeholder plays towards adopting sustainability. The proposed
SMS calls for a top -down and a bottom -up approach to implement sustainability
practices in the oil sector. The expected benefits from adopting the proposed SMS
can be described as the following :
• Cost Reduction : petroleum companies which intend to adopt the proposed
system will have to undertake several changes as part of the planning
process. In other words, sustainability focuses on the economic, social and
environmental aspects in which all o rganisations must develop new systems
to reduce their negative impacts. For example, companies will have to take
some operational measures such as adopting recycling systems, using low
energy light bulbs, using recycling materials or using solar -powered wa ter
heating systems. These initiatives will have to be considered as part of the
company’s transformation system towards sustainability as these initiatives
312 |
focus on th e environmental dimension of sustainability . The economic
dimension of sustainability w ill also be positively influenced as part of these
initiatives. Thus, the proposed SMS leads to cost reductions and encourage s
companies to further improve their sustainability practices.
• Public Image and Relations : the proposed SMS model will help petrol eum
companies achieve positive public relations and an improved business image
with all stakeholders. The proposed SMS emphasises the role of community
participation and stakeholders’ power in supporting, monitoring and
reviewing the sustainability perform ance of petroleum organisations. Hence,
it could be argued that SMS model can be considered as a source of
competitive advantage to these companies.
• Employee Satisfaction: there is a great emphasis on the role of the human
capital in achieving sustainabil ity in the petroleum sector. Thus, through the
proposed SMS mode, organisations need to invest more in their human
capital and provide the required training, education and continuous
development opportunities. This will have a positive influence upon the
employee’s satisfaction which will consequently lead to positive
organisations performance.
• Regulatory Compliance: the proposed SMS model encourages companies
to develop systems that are in line with the regulatory and law requirements.
This will ensure that all petroleum companies operate under the rule of law
and will improve their business image at local and interna tional levels. This
could also open the door for investment opportunities with local and
international investors.
• Improved Operational Performance: the proposed SMS models makes it
explicitly clear that petroleum companies need to adopt technical tools an d
advanced technologies as well as implementing environmental management
systems as that will demonstrate best practice. Petroleum companies will
have to disclose their data on environment, governance, social issues and
energy consumption as part of their sustainability practices. Achieving
certifications and accreditations from recognised international bodies such
as the ISO or BSI will demonstrate that these companies are committed to
continual improvement.
313 |
• Holistic Approach to Sustainability: the propos ed SMS model provides a
holistic approach to sustainability management for the petroleum sector in
Libya. It emphasises the role of state power in issuing relevant regulations,
laws and standards that are needed to establish efficient sustainability
manage ment systems. It also focuses on the role of education and training
as well as monitoring and evaluation which are very critical to the success of
any new management interventions. Thus, the proposed model provides a
collective approach to sustainability m anagement that is oriented to the
Libyan oil sector as per the findings of the empirical studies.
9.9 Applying the SMS
This proposed SMS model has been developed to meet the needs of the petroleum
sector in Libya. The development stages of the model invol ved the collection of
multiple types of data from different sources to ensure that it meets the local and
international requirements. Furthermor e, this proposed model can be applied at
regional level especially in countries that share the same cultural str ucture with
Libya. In order for this proposed SMS to be applied in the Libyan context, the
following points should be taken into consideration to ensure that the SMS is
generating positive benefits to Libyan petroleum companies:
• The petroleum sector in Li bya requires a robust regulatory and governance
framework that should be proposed by the state power as indicated in the
developed SMS. Petroleum companies should be forced by law to establish
and implement sustainability practices as part of their strateg ic planning. The
regulatory and governance framework also require s petroleum companies to
adopt EIA and LCA as part of their strategic planning and management.
Hence, the initial and most important step that should be taken when
adopting this proposed SMS is the provision of a regulatory framework that
will encourage and force petroleum companies to adopt sustainability. The
regulatory framework will also require companies to report their operational
performance using certain indicators.
• Petroleum companies will need to carry out extensive examination and
assessment of their current performance issues on the social, economic and
environmental dimensions of sustainability. This will be part of the Planning
phase as proposed in the SMS model in which petroleum companies will
314 |
have to specif y their sustainability issues, goals and objectives. For this to
be implemented, the leadership and management of petroleum companies
need to show high levels of commitment towards upgrading the
organisational structure and in tegrating sustainability as part of the strategic
planning process. This means that all s takeholders need to be involved. This
was taken into consideration when developing the SMS.
• The provision of physical and human resources is vital to the successful
adoption and application of this proposed SMS model. Sustainability requires
organisations to carry out some important changes in the organisational
structure, operations and also in terms of measuring performance.
Furthermore, there are certain tools, techniques and technologies that need
to be adopted so that organisations can capture the full benefits of
sustainability. Hence, it was clearly highlighted in the proposed SMS that
resources are vital in achieving sustainability. This includes the provision of
training and education opportunities, provision of technology and finances as
well as seeking external support. Such elements should be specified as part
of the planning phase.
• A key and integral element that should be taken into account by the top
management and leadership of petroleum organisations is that sustainability
is all about stakeholders’ involvement. These companies operate in different
locations in Libya in which they need to establish relationships that are based
on mutual trust and respect. The social dimension of sustainability requires
organisations to provide social good to local communities. Hence, community
participation was important when developing this propose d model. All
stakeholders including the regulatory agencies, media, customers, suppliers
and local communities should be involved as part of the strategic planning
process.
9.10 Limitations of the SMS
With regards to the limitations associated with the ap plication of the proposed
SMS
model, there are some aspects which can be considered as limitations of the overall
usefulness and appropriateness:
315 |
1. Developing a holistic approach to sustainability management may not be
feasible as the field of sustainabilit y management is still emerging especially
in developing countries. Hence, the applicability of the proposed SMS can
only rely on the existing literature and available data.
2. The proposed SMS model was developed for petroleum companies that
operate in Libya without specifying whether these companies are Libyan or
foreign companies that operate in the country. Hence, some might argue that
there is already some application of sustainability practices by foreign
companies that operate in the country which might influence the
generali sability of the proposed model.
3. The proposed SMS’s applicability can also be influenced by the
implementation barriers and challenges that are discussed in the literature
review. Such barriers include lack of commitment, organisation al culture, lack
of required infrastructure, lack of required resources and poor accountability
system. Hence, such factors may have a direct impact upon the applicability
of the proposed SMS.
4. Timeliness in relation to the validity of the proposed SMS; th ere are no
conceptual frameworks that existed before this research study bega n which
was very challenging to the researcher to develop a country -oriented model
based on empirical data. This leads to questions in relation to the time factor
in terms of the applicability of the model. In other words, the SMS elements
may require alteration if state power issue s relevant legislations to adopt
sustainability or embedding EIA and LCA as part of the strategic planning of
petroleum companies.
5. Generalisa tion of th e proposed SMS has not been tested and further
research is needed to validate the use of the proposed SMS and its
applicability within different national contexts.
6. Cost-effectiveness in relation to the adoption of the proposed SMS is not
assessed fully which might raise questions about the SMS’s ability to improve
financial performance.
9.11 Discussion
The proposed Sustainability Management System for the Libyan petroleum sector
aims to provide a holistic and systematic way for the petroleum companies i n Libya
316 |
to review and improve their operations , so that better performance at the
environmental, social and economic levels can be achieved. The proposed SMS
will help the organisations meet their compliance requirements and also ensure that
sustainability becomes part of the organisational culture and an integral element
of
the strategic planning process. Specifically, the proposed SMS model aims to
enhance the environmental performance of petroleum companies as there are
increasing concerns about the envi ronmental impacts of the operations involved in
the oil and gas industry. Consid ering these increasing concerns, it can be
concluded
that a systematic approach to sustainability management is urgently needed in the
Libyan sector.
Currently, the Libyan pet roleum sector operates within a weak regulatory
framework . For th is reason, the proposed SMS model emphas es the governance
and regulation aspect as part of the process. While this is the case in developing
countries such as Libya, many developed countries have passed laws and
regulations that organise and monitor the work of the petroleum sector to reduce
the environmental impact. Another essential point that was highlighted in the
proposed SMS model is the need to have formal monitoring and evaluation pro cess
as per the requirements of the law.
Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of having a systematic
approac h to environmental management which contribute to the development of
many environmental management systems that are currently being ad opted by
companies in different sectors. However, an integrated approach to sustainability
enables organisations to improve their overall performance at all levels and thus,
the proposed SMS model emphasise s the need to involve stakeholders at all levels.
Commonly, organisations operate in social context which requires them to comply
with norms and beliefs that exist in the society.
Additionally, organisations need to ensure that they have access to resources in
order for them to adopt sustainability pract ices. Hence, in the proposed model, it
was clearly stated that organisations need to identify and manage the relevant
stakeholders as they have a role to play in transforming the overall culture
towards
sustainability management. Furthermore, it was pointe d out in the proposed model
that organisations should continuously monitor their performance using the PDCA
cycle to ensure they comply with the compliance requirements and also meet the
317 |
expectations of their stakeholders at all levels. On the other hand, due to the
poor
regulatory framework that exists in Libya, adopting the proposed SMS model may
prove to be difficult in the short term without a clear and solid commitment from
policy makers at the state level.
Essential to this is the need to have solid management commitment to ensure that
sustainability practices are incorporated within the organisation’s strategic
management and planning process. Without the commitment , leadership and
support from the top management, sustainability efforts will not be s uccessful as
they are the only ones who can establish, encourage and promote sustainability
practices as well as provide the required resources.
It can also be assumed that the lack of awareness and understanding of
sustainability in Libya may lead to dif ferent interpretations which might also
influence the motivations behind implementing sustainability systems. This could
means that some might consider it as a risk or a burden on the organisation while
others may perceive it as a vital element in achievin g goals. For this reason, the
proposed model focuses more on the need for the provision of training and
education especially at the planning phase in which the sustainability issues and
goals need to be identified. Otherwise, there will arise difficulties among the
organisation in terms of prioritising the initiatives, plans or strategies which
could
lead to negative impacts on the overall performance.
Adopting sustainability practices requires organisations to ensure that resources
are
available and alloc ated to long -term objectives to ensure sustained and
continuous
progress. The researcher believes that apprehensions may be created as a result
of the poor understanding of the benefits and requirements to adopt sustainability.
For this reason, effective c hange management strategies and plans need to be put
in place to ensure that any interventions take place with the minimum resistance
from the stakeholders involved. Changing routines and practices may not be totally
accepted by all parties involved, thus, clear change management policy should be
in place as part of the implementation process. It could be argued that if there is
no
firm and robust plans in place that take into consideration all the external
factors
such as the availability of resources and financial capabilities, any improvement
efforts will be exposed to failures as the level of engagement and commitment from
all parties will drop. Another essential point that was highlighted in the proposed
318 |
model is the role of the community and external p arties in monitoring the
progress
of sustainability management systems within the petroleum sector.
Based on the findings of the literature review, it was observed that implementing
environmental management systems requires a financial commitment to cover all
the costs associated with provision of training, technology, equipment, storage
costs, documentation and auditing services. Therefore, for the proposed SMS to be
successful and beneficial, it was pointed out that resources are considered as
success fa ctors in all the phases of the developed model. The lack of supporting
technology as identified by the empirical studies conducted in Libya could be seen
as a barrier that might hinder the adopting of the proposed SMS. Therefore,
financial
resources that a re needed to provide the required technology, expertise and also
training is vital . Petroleum companies need to invest in recycling systems,
monitor
sensors and power saving fittings as well as monitoring devices to track and
measure environmental impacts caused by the different operations.
Commonly, the implementation of sustainability systems is time -consuming as
highlighted in the literature chapters. This goes back to the need to focus on the
PDCA cycle as a core concept of implementing the proposed SM S model as the
process of implementation should be seen as an ongoing process which requires
continual management support for it to be efficient.
It could be argued that the proposed SMS model offers companies th e opportunity
to discuss and assess sustain ability performance alongside other business metrics
which will raise their profile and credibility among all stakeholders. Thus, the
researcher believes that the proposed SMS model can help organisations move
down the path to sustainability with minimum c hallenges as it focuses on the need
to integrate different functions and build strong relationships with all
stakeholders.
Equally important is the need to ensure that continuous management support and
commitment is present throughout the whole journey as that will influence the
perception of other stakeholders towards sustainability. Organisations can adopt
environmental standards to drive alignment and consistency among the business
functions as well as creating a culture of continuous learning and improv ement.
A central theme of the proposed model is need to have a robust monitoring and
evaluation system in place that aims to help the organisation learn from its lapses
319 |
and weaknesses. Likewise, organisational culture has been described as one of the
barriers that might hinder the implementation which suggests that a culture towards
sustainability needs to be created at the institutional level for it to be accepted
by
other stakeholders. The state should play a more powerful role when it comes to
the manag ement of oil companies' environmental performance. In other words,
there should be a robust legal framework in which petroleum companies are
required to implement, monitor and report their sustainability practices. For this
reason, the proposed SMS model w as based on the provision of a regulatory
framework that is compliant with the international agreements and regulations to
support and empower as well as enforce companies to integrate sustainability
thinking.
To sum up, it could be assumed that the propo sed SMS model provides the
opportunity for Libyan petroleum companies to improve their environmental social
and economic performance by following a holistic and systematic approach. This is
because the proposed model emphasises the need to involve all the stakeholders
to ensure that each member’s goals are aligned with those of the organisation. Each
organisation will have the ability to identify the barriers and challenges that
face
them at each stage following a rigoro us assessment of their performance us ing
different tools as outlined in the proposed SMS model.
9.12 Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to present and discuss the proposed Sustainability
Management System (SMS) that was developed for the Libyan petroleum sector.
The chapter presented the proposed model following a brief discussion on the
development process that was undertaken to come up with the model. The SMS
model’s elements have been identified and described along with the benefits and
limitations of the developed SMS model. A discussion on how the model can be
applied has also been including along with a general discussion on the
applicability
and usefulness of the proposed model and its relevance to the published literature.
The proposed SMS model is the first of its kind that provides a holistic approach
to
sustainability management for the petroleum s ector in Libya and provides an
insightful tool for policy makers in the country to identify the value of
sustainability .
It also guides them towards adopting a systematic approach to implementing
320 |
sustainability practices in the petroleum sector. The develo ped SMS model is
going
to provide a number of benefits such as improving the organisational performance
at the operational and financial level, improving public relations and image as
well
as enhancing employees’ satisfaction and commitment.
321 |
Chapter 10
Conclusions & Recommendations

10.1 Introduction
he above chapters have detailed the research design, findings and analysis
of the results along with presenting and validating the sustainability
management system for the Libyan petroleum sector. The aim of this
chapter is to briefly present and discuss the key conclusions, contribution to
knowledge and the implications of the study. The chapter also presents a list of
recommendations and discusses the study limitations and providing some ideas for
future research.
10.2 Restatement of Research Objectives
The aim of this research was to develop a sustainability management system (SMS)
for petroleum companies through critical investigations of sustainability related
impacts, issues and the identificati on of barriers to the existing sustainability
approaches in order to enhance sustainability performance, minimise environmental
impacts and overcome implementation barriers. The objectives of this research
study were as following:
• To critically review the literature on the concept of sustainability,
environmental sustainability and environmental management systems as it
applies to the petroleum industry.
• To empirically investigate the sustainability situation at the Libyan petroleum
sector in order to iden tify and assess sustainability related issues and
environmental risks.
• To identify and critically analyse the barriers and success factors of
implementing sustainability approaches and environmental management
systems in the Libyan petroleum industry.
• To explore the extent to which sustainability is being practiced in the oil and
gas industry in Libya through quantitative and qualitative approaches and
using case -studies. T
322 |
• To develop a Sustainability Management System (SMS) for petroleum
companies opera ting in the oil and gas industry in Libya.
• To evaluate and validate the developed SMS and create guidance to support
its implementation in the Libyan petroleum industry .
This study has adopted a triangulation research methodology in order to achieve
the above aim and objectives. The study adopted qualitative and quantitative tools
along with technical methodological approaches through the use of case -studies in
Libya. Semi -structured interviews, questionnaire survey, LCA and EIA were all used
in order to develop an integrated sustainability management system for the
petroleum sector in Libya. Following the development of the system, there was a
need to validate the system through the systems users in which the results were
very support ive of the developed SMS model.
10.3 Conclusions
With reference to the overall aim and objectives of this study, significant
findings
were accomplished. Firstly, the Libyan petroleum industry w as explored in great
detail as highlighted in Chapter four in which it was found the significant impacts
are
caused along with a lack of a systematic approach to environmental management
and sustainability in the sector. The current environmental impact of t he sector
was
assessed and the stakeholders, policy makers and employee perspectives on the
issues, challenges and barriers that face the petroleum sector in Libya from
adopting sustainability practices were investigated through the use of multiple
methods . Thus, based on the findings and analysis of the data that was generated
in this study, the overall conclusion is that the modern approaches and advances in
environmental and sustainability management worldwide and in particular to the use
of technical me thodologies such as LCA and EIA have not penetrated the Libyan
petroleum sector.
It was also concluded that current managerial processes and practices in oil and
gas companies in Libya follow a paternalistic and bureaucratic organisational
structure which influence s the adoption of advanced technologies and technical
methodologies. It could also be concluded that due to the absence of flexible
organisational structures and the absence of a rigid regulatory framework in the
country, the oil industry’s envir onmental impact was very excessive.
323 |
The findings of the different study phases indicated that environmental management
and sustainability are not at the top of the agenda of policy makers in the country
due to the lack of awareness, lack of resources, abs ence of competent personnel
and lack of advanced technologies. More importantly, the lack of a regulatory
framework that organise s, monitors and support s domestic companies to enhance
their environmental performance. The study findings also reported that s everal and
multiple complex factors have contributed to the weaknesses in environmental
management in the Libyan petroleum sector . Hence, th e researcher has developed
an integrated and systematic approach to sustainability management in Libya based
on the findings of the empirical studies.
It is argued that the current approaches adopted by oil and gas companies are not
matched with the developments in the sustainability field in other developed
countries nor do they f it with the managerial or governance processes. LCA results
show that there is a high environmental impact caused by the Libyan petroleum
industry, which requires the implementation of a Sustainability Management System
to minimise these impacts. Furthermore, the EIA results show the level of risk of
the
environmental impacts is high. The high risk impacts were mainly air emissions
(GHGs and hazardous H 2S) and oil spillages. The extreme amount of gases
exhausted from the heavy duty machinery and flaring were significant. Therefore,
the study p roposed a dynamic model that offers an integrated approach to
sustainability management in Libya.
The proposed Sustainability Management System (SMS) gives a comprehensive
approach to sustainability management in Libya in which it incorporates several
main components, activities and outcomes. It also takes into account the internal
and external factors which increases the scope of government and stakeholders’
participation in the process of sustainability management in the oil and gas sector
in Libya. The proposed SMS model can also be widely utilised in other developing
countries that witness environmental impacts as a result of the oil and gas
industry.
Specifically, the proposed SMS model aims to enhance the environmental
performance of petroleum compani es as there are increasing concerns about the
environmental impacts of the operations involved in the oil and gas industry.
324 |
10.4 Contribution to Knowledge
This research is i n line with the definitions of originality that were introduced
by Hart
(1998) which include; not been done; new in style, character, substance or form;
without copy or imitation; authentic, the result of thought and produced using
researcher’ own faculties. Moreover, Nottingham Trent University (NTU) (2012)
outlined that a PhD degree sh ould be awarded to researchers who have proven to
carry out an independent research project using appropriate research methods in
which new knowledge is created in the chosen field.
It was highlighted by Phillips and Pugh (1994) that originality is not on ly
restricted
to rocket science but to the researcher’s ability in understanding and
investigating
a subject area in a specific field of study to generate new ideas and knowledge.
Hence, this study’s main contribution arises from the absence of validated
knowledge about sustainability in the petroleum sector in Libya. Following the
comprehensive literature review, there was a clear gap in the literature about
sustainability in the petroleum sector in Libya which this study has explored.
There
was also lack of sustainability related research studies in Libya in general and
the
oil and gas sector in particular . There was also an absence of an integrated and
systematic approach to sustainability management in the petroleum industry in
developing countries and t hat existing EMS systems do not provide a holistic
approach to sustainability planning, implementation and control.
The main contribution of this thesis can be summarised in the following statement:
• This research study contributes to knowledge by providi ng a clear
understanding of the problems and challenges of sustainability management
in petroleum companies in Libya with experts in the field as well as examining
the success factors that could improve the extent to which sustainability is
being practiced in the petroleum sector in Libya. Original new understanding
of undiscovered key sustainability related issues in the Libyan oil and gas
sector were gained through a first time used empirical investigations (i.e.
primary data sources - interviews, survey questionnaire and case studies).
• The development of a conceptual Sustainability Management System for the
Libyan Petroleum industry based on the empirical studies is an original
325 |
contribution to knowledge. The developed system was based on empirical
investigations in which data from multiple sources was used to develop it.
• The validation of the operational SMS model through users is a significant
contribution to knowledge. The developed system will minimise the
environmental impact of the petroleum operations and activities in Libya and
could be also used in other developing countries.
• The critical synthesis of the published knowledge about sustainability and its
significance in the oil and gas sector is a vital contribution to knowledge.
• No previous published studies have been carried out in Libyan petroleum
fields using LCA and EIA . The study affirmed and emphasised the value of
LCA and EIA in the planning and control stages of different petroleum
operations.
• The study contributes to the academic and theoretical field through the
publicat ion of two peer -reviewed journal articles, five conference papers and
two poster presentations, in addition to a book chapter.
The critical analysis of the current thinking on sustainability management in the
oil
and gas industry has enabled the researche r to develop an operational SMS model
for the petroleum sector in Libya so that the environmental impact of the
operations
associated with this industry are reduced to minimum levels as per the
international
standards and agreements. The developed model hi ghlights the importance of
integrating different regulatory and policy functions with organisational and
individual factors. It also emphasises the importance of raising public awareness
about the issue through stakeholders’ involvement at all levels. More importantly,
the developed model emphasised the need to enhance the technical and
technological skills of current managerial processes within oil and gas companies
and that sustainability should be embedded within the corporate policy and also at
the nati onal agenda of governments.
In particular, the main contributions of this study can be summarised below as:
• The research study is the first study that developed a Sustainability
Management System for the Libyan petroleum sector which can aid the
industry to minimise its environmental impact and also can help policy
makers to understand the significance and value of sustainability. The
326 |
 proposed SMS model can also be used by other researchers as a point of
reference to evaluate and improve sustainability pra ctices in other sectors.
• The study had also reviewed the relevant frameworks and models that are
used in sustainability management and identified their weaknesses and
success factors.
• This study is the first that focuses on the issue of sustainability in the
petroleum sector in Libya, and thus, could provide a theoretical contribution
to the body of literature regarding sustainability in developing countries and
in particular to the oil and gas sector.
• The study has identified and grouped many different factors that could hinder
the implementation of sustainability systems within the oil and gas sector
using multiple sources of evidence such as the need for regulations,
technology and culture change. It was found in the literature that several
factors hin der the adoption of environmental management systems but most
of these studies and findings are based on studies that were carried out in
Western and developed nations. Hence, the findings of this study provide
some specific factors that are relevant to th e Libyan context.
• It is anticipated that the findings of this study can be of interest to academic
and professional communities as well as it will add value to the practice and
theory and in particular to Libyan policy -making. In other words, the study
contribute s to the need to develop professional and policy guidance for
sustainability in the petroleum sector where employees should be
encouraged to share their concerns about the environmental impact of their
organisation’s policies and practices and raise the attention of the
management and leadership to sustainability management in the oil sector.
• Finally, the study aimed at adding to the body of knowledge of Life Cycle
Assessment and Environmental Impact Assessment and their applications in
developing countries such as Libya.

10.4.1 Theoretical Implications

This study adds to the theoretical deb ate on sustainability management in the oil
and gas industry by providing empirical data on one of the developing countries
that
is rich in oil and gas. Hence, the theoretical contribution of this study is of
high
327 |
significance as a number of manuscripts an d conference papers were published as
a result. This generates more knowledge about this field and helps researchers and
practitioners to understand the current status of research on sustainability in
developing countries. It also adds to the theoretical s cene a validated system
that
could further be tested and analysed through different case studies in the future
in
Libya or elsewhere.
10.4.2 Practical Implications
The practical implications of this study are importan t as the scope of the study
was
very practical and associated with several case -studies. In other words, the
study’s
developed system will play a significant role in improving the organisational
performance and in particular the environmental management practices in oil and
gas companies. The use and application of LCA and EIA highlighted that oil and
gas companies should be encouraged and advised to adopt such methodologies to
examine their environmental performance. More importantly, the study provides a
validated, integrated and systematic approach to sustainability management that
will further improve performance at oil companies.
10.4.3 Policy Implications
This study has significant policy implication s as it highlighted the value and
importance of having an integrated approach to sustai nability management. Several
policy makers were interviewed as part of this study who contributed significantly
to
the findings and development of the SMS. Thus, the study will lead to policy
changes in the process of environmental and sustainability manag ement in the oil
and gas industry. In particular, the policy implications could be attributed to the
develop ment of new guidance and codes of practices in relation to the use of LCA
and EIA in the upstream and downstream operations.
In summary, this study has provided an insight about the importance of managing
sustainability in the oil and gas sector from the perspective of a developing
country
such as Libya. It could also be concluded that this study provided a validated SMS
model which can be used as a point of reference.
10.5 Recommendations
As suggested by Bryman (2008), investigation findings and research studies should
propose recommendations that lead to improvement based on the study findings.
328 |
Hence, this thesis presents the following recommendations that are aimed to
improve the sustainability management in oil and ga s companies:
• The state has a significant role to play in promoting sustainability practices
and increasing public awareness about the issue of the environmental
impacts of oil and gas companies in the short and long -term. Thus, the
National Oil Corporation of Libya should ensure that a regulatory framework
is developed by the legislative authorities in the country which puts strict
rules and pressure on oil and gas companies to comply with certain laws
and rules.
• All relevant stakeholders including supplie rs, customers, public, non -
governmental organisations, oil and gas companies, multinational
companies and regulatory agencies should be involved in the process of
raising awareness and monitoring performance of oil and gas companies.
• In order for the effi cient implementation and adopting of the developed SMS
model, significant investments are needed at the organisational and
individual levels. In other words, staff capacity development and training
programmes are essential to enhance the skills and knowled ge of all those
involved in the process of developing and monitoring management systems.
The authorities are also encouraged to ensure that needed resources are
available (mainly financial resources).
• There should be a strict penalty system in place so tha t oil and gas
companies continuously monitor and evaluate their environmental impacts.
The proposed SMS encourages companies to adopt the PDCA cycle to
ensure that their practices achiev e the intended outcomes.
• Accountability, governance and transparency are very important values that
need to be embedded within the organisational cultures of such
organisations to ensure they can be held accountable for wrongdoings.
• There is a need for multinational companies that operate in Libya to
collaborate with domes tic companies, NGOs and with the NOC to help in
the process of knowledge and expertise transfer. Such collaboration
requires huge investments in infrastructure and communication systems to
ensure that strong relationships are built between key stakeholders .
329 |
10.6 Research Limitations
It must be acknowledged that no study is perfect or free of flaws. However,
researchers continuously aim to reduce the external factors that might influence
the
study design and subsequently the quality of study findings. Such research studies
involve significant hardships and difficulties especially for first time -
researchers who
might not have the right skills and capabilities to carry out in -depth studies.
Resources could also pose significant limitation to the study along w ith funding
issues. This study was carried out by a single researcher supported by supervisors
and it encountered significant difficulties such as funding, access and also
personal
medical issues to the researcher and his family . Therefore, it is important that
such
limitations are presented:
• Qualitative Interviews
Several interviews were carried out with different participants , but not all
interviews
were recorded which might limit the researcher’s capability of analysing the
qualitative data. Furthermore , interviews were carried out at different locations
and
through different channels which might influence the quality of the collected and
analysed notes. This study was an exploratory type in which interviews contributed
significantly to the findings.
• Generalisa bility
It could also be argued that the generalisa bility of the findings might be limited
as
the study was only carried out in the Western part of Libya due to access and
security issues in the East. However, the NOC is responsible for all the oil and
gas
companies that operate in Libya and most of the employees have received the same
standards of training in the country’s national petroleum institutes that train
technicians to work in the oil and gas sector. Generalisability to other developing
countries may be limited due to cultural differences especially in countries in
Central
or Western Africa and Latin America. Thus, the generalisability of the findings of
this
study may be limited only to countries that share the same strengths and
weaknesses , cultural aspects and managerial systems as Libya .
• Time
This study was done in four years of registration during which the researcher
encountered several problems that led to exten sions . However, the researcher
330 |
worked hard to ensure that field -visits were carried out to further support the
findings
and understand the overall context of the study.
• Access
The researcher intend ed to carry out further methodological examinations and LCI
data collection using LCA and EIA in other parts of the country , but due to
rising
security problems , this was not feasible. This limited the scope of the LCA
investigations.
10.7 Future Research Ideas
Due to the limited published literature on sustainability and environmental
management in Libya and in the oil and gas se ctor specifically , the following
could
be explored further by future research:
• To examine the extent to which sustainability practices are being adopted in
foreign companies that operate in developing countries
• To examine the relationship between leadersh ip and management styles on
the adoption of sustainability and environmental management systems
• To explore the barriers that might hinder companies in developing countries
from adopting EMS and adopt international standards
• To investigate the extent to wh ich employees and stakeholders are involved
in the process of strategic planning and decision making in oil and gas
companies
• To explore the extent to which LCA and EIA are being implemented in other
sectors rather than just the oil and gas sector in Liby a
• Investigation of greenhouse gas emissions and in particular CO 2 emissions
from the oil and gas industry in Libya.
• Comparison of sustainability practices in developing and developed
countries.
331 |
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Appendix 1 – Interview Schedule & Sample Transcript

Interview Schedule
Verbal consent
I am doing a PhD at Nottingham Trent University . The PhD topic is about the
developing a sustainability management system for the Libyan petroleum sector.
You have been selected as a key informant to this project because of your valuable
experience and knowledge with the Libyan petroleum sector. Your views and
opinions are very i mportant to me. I would like to assure you that the information
gathered will be handled confidentially and for the purpose of this research only.
Participation is volun tary and participants’ identities will remain anonymous.
Thank you in advance for your co-operation.

Interviewee Information:
Code Name Position Organisation Gender Age

Interview Information
Time Date Location Duration Remarks

No Q & A
1 Can you please tell a little bit about your – major features,
responsibilities etc.?
2 To what extent do you think that petroleum companies in Libya are
meeting the international standards in regards to reducing gas
emissions? Why such companies are failing in meeting international
standards?

3 Based in your experience, do you believe that petroleum companies

in Libya are environmentally -friendly? Why or why not?

4 In your view, what are the actual reasons behind the environmental
impacts of oil companies in Libya? Do you think these impacts are
significant?

361 |

5 Do you believe that a better training for senior managers would help
in minimising the environmental impacts of petroleum companies? Is
top management commitment important in reducing environmental
impacts?

6 In your view, what are the main challenges that face petroleum
companies in Libya from implementing sustainability management
systems and standards? How can they overcome such challenges?

7 Do you think that stakeholders’ involvement including the public,

non-governmental organisations, environmental agencies and
companies is important in achieving better environmental
performance? How can they be involved?

8 In regards to the government role, do you believe that the

government has a role to play in helping companies adopt
environmental management systems? Can give me examples?

9 Is the current technology sufficient to safeguard and protect the

environment from petroleum activities and operations? Why or why
not?

10 Are you familiar with methodologies such as Environmental Impact

Assessment and Life Cycle Assessment? Can you tell me if they are
useful for Libyan companies?

11 The final question is open -ended. It asks for any comments or

suggestions that the interviewees might wish to express, which were
not addressed in the earlier questions. In addition, it gives the
interviewees the opportunity to expand on any of their previous
responses, adding points as they deem necessary.
362 |

Sample Transcript

By Ammar Irhoma

Interviewee Information:
Code Name Position Organisation Gender
IN3 Anonymous Manager NOC M
Interview Information
Time Date Location Duration
10:00 AM 03/01/2014 Tripoli 38 minutes

No Q & A
1 Can you please tell a little bit about your – major features,
responsibilities etc.?
I work as a line man ager within the NOC operations department. I am
responsible for managing 25 employees who are located in different regions. I
am also responsible for coordinating with our companies in terms of staffing,
production and maintenance works.
2 To what extent do you think that petroleum companies in Libya are
meeting the international standards in regards to reducing gas
emissions? Why such companies are failing in meeting international
standards?
Well, I believe that petroleum companies in Libya do not fully follow the
international standards in particular to gas emissions and honestly we don’t
have indicators which we can measure. I think this is because of lack of
regulations and monitoring from certain agencies and bodies. The problem is
very serious and we should have laws in place to meet these standards with
climate change now increasing.
3 Based in your experience, do you believe that petroleum companies
in Libya are environmentally -friendly? Why or why not?
I have been in the industry for over 20 years now and I have worked in many
parts of Libya. I think we still have a lot of work to do in order to reduce the
environmental impact. We lack technology and training as well as lack of
regulations. The company are not environmentally friendly because we don’t
have a system at the NOC in which can put pressure on companies to be
environmentally friendly.
363 |
4 In your view, what are the actual reasons behind the environmental
impacts of oil companies in Libya? Do you think these impacts are
significant?
I believe that because we explore and produce oil as well as gas, so our
impacts are high, we think that because most of our operations are in the desert
that tig ht not affect the environment but I think this is wrong. Our impacts can
be significant to the air quality, to the land and to the sea as well as to our
people who work in these fields. Many reasons include poor technology and
old systems of work. We just care about pumping oil form the ground.
5 Do you believe that a better training for senior managers would help
in minimising the environmental impacts of petroleum companies? Is
top management commitment important in reducing environmental
impacts?
Absolutely, without the support from the senior managers and policy makers
there will be no improvements. The employees cannot change anything as they
need policies in place as well as tools and resources. The top management
commitment I believe plays sign ificant role in minimising the environmental
impact, something that we lack in Libya at the moment.
6 In your view, what are the main challenges that face petroleum
companies in Libya from implementing sustainability management
systems and standards? How can they overcome such challenges?
Well, in my view the most important thing is having strict laws and regulations
from the government. Secondly, financial resources, and also training.
Currently we don’t have the technologies that can help us improve ou r work
and also support our production performance.
7 Do you think that stakeholders’ involvement including the public, non -
governmental organisations, environmental agencies and companies
is important in achieving better environmental performance? How can
they be involved?
Surely, all people should be concerned about the environment. If the public
awareness increases then they will put more pressure on us to improve our
services and operations. Therefore, all stakeholders including ourselves, the
gove rnment, the public and of course the NOGs who can put indirect pressure
on the government to monitor our work.

8 In regards to the government role, do you believe that the government

has a role to play in helping companies adopt environmental
management systems? Can give me examples?
364 |
I think I answered this question above. Because of the importance of the
regulations and laws, the government should ensure that laws that aim to
protect the environment are in place which will encourage companies to take
practical steps to avoid wrongdoings at all times. The government should also
monitor and give rewards to companies to encourage others. For example, if a
company is fully complied with the law, it should receive reward which will
improve its image and repu tation.
9 Is the current technology sufficient to safeguard and protect the
environment from petroleum activities and operations? Why or why
not?
Well, as NOC, we should honestly ensure that our operations and planning is
based on the use of up -to-date technology but I think current practices are
based on old routines and procedures which means that we lack technological
advancements. I think a new strategy should be put in place to consider new
technologies and learn for other companies in other countries such as UK.
10 Are you familiar with methodologies such as Environmental Impact
Assessment and Life Cycle Assessment? Can you tell me if they are
useful for Libyan companies?
Yes, I am familiar with these concepts as I studied them in the University but
honestly, we don’t practice them. Of course they are useful, they will help us in
minimising the environmental risks but unfortunately, I think most companies
do apply such approaches. It is our fault too.
11 The final question is open -ended. It asks for any comments or
suggestions that the interviewees might wish to express, which were
not addressed in the earlier questions. In addition, it gives the
interviewees the opportunity to expand on any of their previous
responses, adding points as they deem necessary.
Well, I want to thank for choosing this interesting subject and also very happy
that want to listen to our views in this subject. I think education and awareness
are important to increase our focus and the focus of our workers on
sustainability.

365 |
Appendix 2 - Copy of the Survey Questionnaire

Part 1.
Q1. What is your Age Group?:
• 18 – 25  • 26 – 30 
• 31 – 40  • 41 – 45 
• 46 – 50  • 50+ 

Q2. Is your company?

State Owned (Owned by Libya's NOC)
 Joint Venture with NOC

Exploration and Production Sharing
Agreement company (EPSA)  A Foreign Company Operating in
Libya

Q3. How many years of industrial experience do you have?
• Less than three years  • 4 to 9 years 
• 10 to 15 years  • 16 years or over 

Q4. Which of the following petroleum operations are you involved in ?

• Petroleum Exploration  • Drilling

• Petroleum Production
 • Oil Refining

• Maintenance
 • Natural Gas Processing

• Administration and Management
 • Environment, Health and Safety

• Marketing and Distribution
 • Petrochemical & Chemical
Manufacturing 

Q5. What is your employment position at your company?

• An employee (technical etc.) 
• A Middle Manager (Engineer/Team Leaders/
Supervisor) 
• A Senior Manager 

Q6. In your opinion, how do you classify your company in regards to the environment
?
• Green (Environmentally friendly) 
• Low Environmental Impact 
• High environmental impact (emissions and
wastes 
Q7. Does your company operate using a Sustainability system or an Environmental
Management System?
366 |
• Yes ( If so, please provide us with more details )
 • No


Q8. Does your company have a Sustainability Policy ?

• Yes ( If so, please provide us with more details )
 • No


Q9. Does your company have a manager or team responsible for environmental
issues?
• Yes ( If so, please provide us with more details )
 • No

Q10. Is your company accredited or addressing any of the following management
frameworks related environment and sustainability?

Accredited: ISO14001 -14004 EMAS BS None Others:

……………………..
Addressing: ISO14001 -14004 EMAS BS None Others:
………………………

Q11. What do you consider to be the main barriers to the introduction of

environmentally friendly practices, environmental systems and sustainability
approaches implementation in your company? (Please mark as applicable)
Leadership and management issues (l ack of management commitment) 
Lack of awareness to Sustainability issues 
Organisation culture 
Lack of implementation framework for sustainability systems 
Insufficient technology 
Lack of skilled human resources and experienced workers in
sustainability 
Lack of financial incentives 

367 |
Lack of legislative framework and strict sustainability policies 
Insufficient drivers and motivations for Sustainability practices 
Negative attitudes of employees 
Corruption and lack of transparency 
Other (Please specify) 

Q12. Which of the following factors do you believe would contribute to the success
of
Sustainability management systems' implementation at your company? (Please mark
as applicable)
• Management commitment 
• Establishment of strict regulations and policies 
Effective cultural management 
• Raising awareness of sustainability 
• Effective management of change 
• Use of technological advancement ( i.e., green technologies and
approaches) 
• External consultancy 
• Training programs 
• Other (Please specify) 

Q13. What are the motivations for implementing Sustainability management systems
in the Libyan petroleum companies? (Please mark as applicable)
• Reducing resources 
• Cost savings 
• Increased efficiency 
• Reduction of waste 
• Reduce the energy consumption 
• Enhancing the corporate image and reputation 
• Saving our globe (global warming; climate change issues etc.) 
• Others, please specify: 

368 |
Q14. In your opinion, what do you consider to be the best solution to minimise the
negative environmental impact of your company and enhance sustainability practices?
(Please mark as applicable)
• Continuous improvement culture 
• Sustainability framework 
• Management commitment 
• Raising awareness 
• Training 
• Establishing regulations and policies 
• Government support 
• Others, please specify 

Part 2.
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements. The
following
statements describe some aspects of Sustainability and EMS practices in the
petroleum
industry. For each of the following statement, please indicate the extent to which
you
agree/disagree with these statements in your company by choosing the right scale
from
(Strongly agree ) to (strongly disagree)
Particulars Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neither
disagrees
nor agree Agree Strongly
Agree
My company has
Sustainability /
Environmental Management
System
My Company has
sustainability policy
My Company is having a
separate team/manager
responsible for environmental
issues.
My company is accredited to
ISO 4001:14004 standard
My Company is addressing
ISO 4001:14004 standard
Barriers to Introducing Sustainability
State the extent you agree or disagree with the following statements.
Particulars Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neither
disagrees
nor agree Agree Strongly
Agree
369 |
The main barrier to
introducing sustainability is:
Lack of management
commitment
Lack of awareness
Organisational culture
Lack of implementation
framework for sustainability
Insufficient technology
Lack of skilled workers in
sustainability
Lack of financial incentives
Corruption and lack of
transparency

Factors Contributing to the Success of Sustainability Management System (SMS)

Particulars Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neither
disagrees
nor agree Agree Strongly
Agree
Major factor
contributing to the
success of Sustainability
Management System
(SMS) is:
Management
commitment
Establishment of strict
regulation and policies
Effective cultural
management
Raising awareness of
sustainability
Effective management
of change
Use of technological
advances (i.e., green)
Training programmes

Motivations for Implementing Sustainability Management System

370 |
Particulars Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neither
disagrees
nor agree Agree Strongly
Agree
The main motivation for
implementing SMS is:
Reducing
environmental impact
Cost savings
Increase efficiency
Reduction of waste
Reduce the energy
consumption
Enhancing the corporate
image and reputation

Solution for Reducing Negative Environmental Impact and Enhancing Sustainability

Particulars Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neither
disagrees
nor agree Agree Strongly
Agree
The major solution to reducing
negative environmental
impact and enhancing
sustainability is:
Continuous improvement
culture
Sustainability system
Management commitment
Raising awareness
Establishing regulations and
policies

Many thanks for answering this questionnaire

371 |
Appendix 3 – Participant Information Sheet & Cover Letter

372 |

373 |