Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Algebra & Selection

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 1

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Algebra & Selection
UNIT-2 (Relation Algebra & Selection)
LECTURE NO: -12
RELATIONAL ALGEBRA is a widely used procedural query language. It collects instances of
relations as input and gives occurrences of relations as output. It uses various operations to
perform this action. SQL Relational algebra query operations are performed recursively on a
relation. The output of these operations is a new relation, which might be formed from one or
more input relations.

Basic SQL Relational Algebra Operations

Relational Algebra divided in various groups

Unary Relational Operations

SELECT (symbol: σ)

PROJECT (symbol: π)

RENAME (symbol: ρ)

Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory

UNION (υ)

INTERSECTION ( )

DIFFERENCE (-)

CARTESIAN PRODUCT ( x )

Binary Relational Operations

JOIN

DIVISION

1. Select Operation:

The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

It is denoted by sigma (σ).

Notation: σ p(r)

Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation

p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR and NOT.
These relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 2

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Algebra & Selection
For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000

Perryride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:

This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear in the result. Rest of
the attributes are eliminated from the table.

It is denoted by ∏.

Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

Curry North Rye

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Algebra & Selection
Input:

∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Input:

∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:

NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison

Curry Rye

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

2.Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson Education

(2008).

3. C.J. Date: Data Base Design, Addison Wesley

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 4

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints,
Divisions
UNIT-2 (Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints, Divisions)
LECTURE NO: -13
SET Operations in SQL
SQL supports few Set operations which can be performed on the table data. These are used to
get meaningful results from data stored in the table, under different special conditions.

Different types of SET operations, along with example:

1. UNION

2. UNION ALL

3. INTERSECT

4. MINUS

1. Union: - Union combines two different results obtained by a query into a single result in the
form of a table. However, the results should be similar if union is to be applied on them. Union
removes all duplicates, if any from the data and only displays distinct values.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 5

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints,
Divisions

2.Intersection

The intersection operator gives the common data values between the two data sets that are
intersected. The two data sets that are intersected should be similar for the intersection
operator to work. Intersection also removes all duplicates before displaying the result.

3.UNION ALL: -This operation is similar to Union. But it also shows the duplicate rows.

SELECT * FROM First UNION ALL SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like,

4. MINUS: -The Minus operation combines results of two SELECT statements and return only
those in the final result, which belongs to the first set of the result.

SELECT * FROM First MINUS SELECT * FROM Second;

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 6

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints,
Divisions

Rename Operation:

The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Student: -

Stud_Id Stud_Name

12 Shyam

11 Ram

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.

ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Division Operator (÷): Division operator A÷B can be applied if and only if:

Attributes of B is proper subset of Attributes of A.

The relation returned by division operator will have attributes = (All attributes of A – All
Attributes of B)

The relation returned by division operator will return those tuples from relation A which are
associated to every B’s tuple.

Consider the relation STUDENT_SPORTS and ALL_SPORTS

STUDENT_SPORTS

ROLL_NO SPORTS

1 Badminton

2 Cricket

2 Badminton

4 Badminton

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints,
Divisions
ALL_SPORTS

SPORTS

Badminton

Cricket

To apply division operator as

STUDENT_SPORTS÷ ALL_SPORTS

The operation is valid as attributes in ALL_SPORTS is a proper subset of attributes in

STUDENT_SPORTS.

The attributes in resulting relation will have attributes {ROLL_NO, SPORTS}-{SPORTS}=ROLL_NO

The tuples in resulting relation will have those ROLL_NO which are associated with all B’s tuple
{Badminton, Cricket}. ROLL_NO 1 and 4 are associated to Badminton only. ROLL_NO 2 is
associated to all tuples of B. So the resulting relation will be:

ROLL_NO

For example:- R1

Name Course

System Btech

Database Mtech

Database Btech

Algebra Btech

R2

Course

Btech

Btech

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 8

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set Operations, Renaming, and Joints,
Divisions
=

Name

database

Join: - Join in DBMS is a binary operation which allows you to combine join product and
selection in one single statement. The goal of creating a join condition is that it helps you to
combine the data from two or more DBMS tables. The tables in DBMS are associated using the
primary key and foreign keys.
Types of Join
• Inner Joins: Theta, Natural

• Outer Join: Left, Right, Full

1.Inner Join:-

INNER JOIN is used to return rows from both tables which satisfy the given condition. It is the
most widely used join operation and can be considered as a default join-type.
An Inner join or equijoin is a comparator-based join which uses equality comparisons in the join-
predicate. Inner Join further divided into two subtypes:
Theta join
Natural join
2.Outer Joins: -

Theta Join, Equijoin, and Natural Join are called inner joins. An inner join includes only those
tuples with matching attributes and the rest are discarded in the resulting relation.
Therefore, we need to use outer joins to include all the tuples from the participating relations in
the resulting relation. There are three kinds of outer joins.
1. left outer join
2. right outer join
3. full outer join.

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

2.Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson Education

(2008).

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 9

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Calculus, Expressive Power of
Algebra and Calculus.
UNIT-2 (Relation Calculus, Expressive Power of Algebra and Calculus)
LECTURE NO: -14
Relational Calculus

Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language, and instead of algebra, it uses

mathematical predicate calculus. The relational calculus is not the same as that of differential
and integral calculus in mathematics but takes its name from a branch of symbolic logic termed
as predicate calculus. Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language. In the non-
procedural query language, the user is concerned with the details of how to obtain the end
results.

The relational calculus tells what to do but never explains how to do.

Types of Relational calculus:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

The tuple relational calculus is specified to select the tuples in a relation. In TRC, filtering
variable uses the tuples of a relation.

The result of the relation can have one or more tuples.

Notation:

{T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)}

Where

T is the resulting tuples

P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

For example: -

{T.name | Author(T) AND T. article = 'database' }

OUTPUT: This query selects the tuples from the AUTHOR relation. It returns a tuple with 'name'
from Author who has written an article on 'database'.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 10

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Calculus, Expressive Power of
Algebra and Calculus.

2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

The second form of relation is known as Domain relational calculus. In domain relational
calculus, filtering variable uses the domain of attributes.

Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple calculus. It uses logical connectives
𝖠 (and), ∨ (or) and ┓ (not).

It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.

For example:

{< article, page, subject > | ∈ DBMS 𝖠 subject = 'database'}

Output: This query will yield the article, page, and subject from the relational DBMS, where the
subject is a database.

Difference between Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus:

S.NO Relational Algebra Relational Calculus

While Relational Calculus is

1. It is a Procedural language. Declarative language.

Relational Algebra means how to obtain the While Relational Calculus means
2. result. what result we have to obtain.

In Relational Algebra, The order is specified in While in Relational Calculus, The

3. which the operations have to be performed. order is not specified.

Relational Algebra is independent of the While Relation Calculus can be

4. domain. domain-dependent.

Relational Algebra is nearer to a programming While Relational Calculus is not

5. language. nearer to programming language.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 11

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Relation Calculus, Expressive Power of
Algebra and Calculus.
References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

2.Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson Education

(2008).

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 12

 Btech – Cse IV Sem SQL Queries Programming and Triggers

UNIT-2 (SQL Queries Programming and Triggers)

LECTURE NO: -15
SQL: - SQL is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data
in a relational database. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

Why to Learn SQL?

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and
SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.

Applications of SQL

As mentioned before, SQL is one of the most widely used query language over the databases.
I'm going to list few of them here:

 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.

 Allows users to describe the data.

 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.

 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.

 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.

A Brief History of SQL

 1970 − Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational databases. He
described a relational model for databases.

 1974 − Structured Query Language appeared.

 1978 − IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named System/R.

 1986 − IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and standardized by
ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which later came
to be known as Oracle.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 13

 Btech – Cse IV Sem SQL Queries Programming and Triggers
Union, and Intersection: -

Union

Union combines two different results obtained by a query into a single result in the form
of a table. However, the results should be similar if union is to be applied on them.
Union removes all duplicates, if any from the data and only displays distinct values.

Intersection

The intersection operator gives the common data values between the two data sets that are
intersected. The two data sets that are intersected should be similar for the intersection
operator to work. Intersection also removes all duplicates before displaying the result.

Triggers

Triggers are the SQL statements that are automatically executed when there is any change in
the database. The triggers are executed in response to certain events (INSERT, UPDATE or
DELETE) in a particular table. These triggers help in maintaining the integrity of the data by
changing the data of the database in a systematic fashion.

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem SQL Queries Programming and Triggers
Advantages of Triggers

 Triggers provide a way to check the integrity of the data. When there is a change in the
database the triggers can adjust the entire database.

 Triggers help in cheeking User Interface lightweight. Instead of putting the same function
call all over the application you can put a trigger and it will be executed.

Disadvantages of Triggers

 Triggers may be difficult to troubleshoot as they execute automatically in the database. If

there is some error then it is hard to find the logic of trigger because they are fired before
or after updates/inserts happen.

 The triggers may increase the overhead of the database as they are executed every time
any field is updated.

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

2.Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson Education

(2008).

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 15

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Nested Queries, Correlated Nested
Queries

UNIT-2 (Nested Queries, Correlated Nested Queries)

LECTURE NO: -16
Nested Query –

In Nested Query, Inner query runs first, and only once. Outer query is executed with result from
Inner query. Hence, Inner query is used in execution of Outer query. We will use STUDENT,
COURSE, STUDENT_COURSE tables for understanding nested queries.

STUDENT

S_ID S_NAME S_ADDRESS S_PHONE S_AGE

S1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

S2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18

S3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20

S4 SURESH DELHI 9156768971 18

COURSE

C_ID C_NAME

C1 DSA

C2 Programming

C3 DBMS

STUDENT_COURSE

S_ID C_ID

S1 C1

S1 C3

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem Nested Queries, Correlated Nested
Queries

S2 C1

S3 C2

S4 C2

S4 C3

There are mainly two types of nested queries:

Independent Nested Queries: In independent nested queries, query execution starts from
innermost query to outermost queries. The execution of inner query is independent of outer
query, but the result of inner query is used in execution of outer query. Various operators like
IN, NOT IN, ANY, ALL etc are used in writing independent nested queries.

Orders (OrderID, CustomerID, OrderDate);

Customers (CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Country);

Find details of customers who have ordered.

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE

CustomerID IN (SELECT CustomerID FROM Orders);

Correlated Query: -

In Correlated Query, Outer query executes first and for every Outer query row Inner query is
executed. Hence, Inner query uses values from Outer query.

Example –

Orders (OrderID, CustomerID, OrderDate);

Customers (CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Country);

Find details of customers who have ordered.

SELECT * FROM Customers where

EXISTS (SELECT CustomerID FROM Orders

WHERE Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID);

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 17

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Nested Queries, Correlated Nested
Queries

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

2.Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson Education

(2008).

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 18

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set-Comparison Operations and
Aggregate Operators

UNIT-2 (Set-Comparison Operations and Aggregate Operators)

LECTURE NO: -17
SQL supports few Set operations which can be performed on the table data. These are used to
get meaningful results from data stored in the table, under different special conditions.
In this tutorial, we will cover 4 different types of SET operations, along with example:

1. UNION

2. UNION ALL

3. INTERSECT

UNION Operation

UNION is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements. However, it will
eliminate duplicate rows from its result set. In case of union, number of columns and data type
must be same in both the tables, on which UNION operation is being applied.

Example of UNION

The First table The Second table

ID Name
ID Name

2 adam
1 abhi

3 Chester
2 adam

Union SQL query will be: -

SELECT * FROM First UNION SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 19

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set-Comparison Operations and
Aggregate Operators

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 Chester

2. UNION ALL

This operation is similar to Union. But it also shows the duplicate rows.

The First table The Second table

ID Name
ID Name

2 adam
1 abhi

3 Chester
2 adam

Union All query will be like

SELECT * FROM First UNION ALL SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

2 adam

3 Chester

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 20

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set-Comparison Operations and
Aggregate Operators

3. INTERSECT
Intersect operation is used to combine two SELECT statements, but it only retunes the records
which are common from both SELECT statements. In case of Intersect the number of columns
and data type must be same.

NOTE: MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator.

The First table The Second table

ID Name
ID Name

2 adam
1 abhi

3 Chester
2 adam

Intersect query will be:-

SELECT * FROM First INTERSECT SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like

ID NAME

2 adam

4. Minus
It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the rows
which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name FROM table1

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set-Comparison Operations and
Aggregate Operators

MINUS

SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example: Using the above First and Second table.

SELECT * FROM First

MINUS

SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

SQL Aggregate Functions

SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of a single
column of a table. It returns a single value.

It is also used to summarize the data.

1. COUNT FUNCTION

COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can work on both
numeric and non-numeric data types.

COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a specified table.
COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
PRODUCT_MAST Table: -

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 22

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Set-Comparison Operations and
Aggregate Operators

SELECT COUNT (*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output: - 05
2. SUM Function: - Suppose we want a report that gives total amount of payments made so far.
We can use the SQL SUM function which returns the sum of all the values in the specified
column. SUM works on numeric fields only. Null values are excluded from the result returned.
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output: - 245

3. AVG function: -SQL AVG function returns the average of the values in a specified column. Just
like the SUM function, it works only on numeric data types. AVG function returns the average of
all non-Null values.

SELECT AVG(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output: - 49.00
4. MAX Function: - Just as the name suggests, the MAX function is the opposite of the MIN
function. It returns the largest value from the specified table field. Let's assume we want to get
the year that the latest movie in our database was released. We can easily use the MAX
function to achieve that.

SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output: - 30
5. MIN Function: - The MIN function returns the smallest value in the specified table field. As an
example, let's suppose we want to know the year in which the oldest movie in our library was
released, we can use SQL's MIN function to get the desired information.
SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth.

3. C.J. Date: Data Base Design, Addison Wesley.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 23

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Null Values and Embedded & Dynamic
SQL
UNIT-2 (Null Values and Embedded & Dynamic SQL)
LECTURE NO: -18
In SQL there may be some records in a table that do not have values or data for every field. This
could be possible because at a time of data entry information is not available. So SQL supports
a special value known as NULL which is used to represent the values of attributes that may be
unknown or not apply to a tuple. SQL places a NULL value in the field in the absence of a user-
defined value.

For example, the Apartment_number attribute of an address applies only to address that are in
apartment buildings and not to other types of residences.

Importance of NULL value

 It is important to understand that a NULL value is different from a zero value.

 A NULL value is used to represent a missing value, but that it usually has one of three
different interpretations:

 The value unknown (value exists but is not known)

 Value not available (exists but is purposely withheld)

 Attribute not applicable (undefined for this tuple)

 It is often not possible to determine which of the meanings is intended. Hence, SQL
does not distinguish between the different meanings of NULL.

Where SQL is NULL

There is an example of student table:

SURNAME NAME MARKS

TYAGI SEEMA

SINGH RAMAN 5

SHARMA AMAR

JAISWAL VICKY 6

SELECT SURNAME, NAME, MARKS FROM STUDENTS

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 24

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Null Values and Embedded & Dynamic
SQL
WHERE MARKS IS NULL;

It will return the following records:

SURNAME NAME MARKS

SHARMA AMAR

TYAGI SEEMA

Where SQL is NOT NULL

How to select records with no null values (in marks column)? Let's see the query to get all the
records where marks is NOT NULL

SELECT SIR_NAME, FIRSTNAME, MARKS FROM STUDENTS

WHERE MARKS IS NOT NULL ;

SURNAME NAME MARKS

SINGH RAMAN 5

JAISWAL VICKY 6

Embedded SQL

Database languages are meant for dealing with databases. They are used only to query tables /
views, manipulate the data values using insert/update/ delete, or set of transactions can be
executed one after the other to modify set of tables/view. But all these transactions can be
performed by a good database developer or a SQL programmer who has good knowledge about
database as well as SQL.

But in real time, these developer or programmers will not be using the database. Actual use of
DB is for normal user for whom DB is a black box. In order to make easy for the normal user,
applications, UI or forms are created where user can enter his values or requirement. The
underlying application program will manipulate his request. Hence user need not have any
knowledge about the DB.

But how application communicates with DB? Applications are developed using some general-
purpose languages like C, C++, JAVA, etc. Similarly, DB languages like SQL, SQL servers etc are

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 Btech – Cse IV Sem Null Values and Embedded & Dynamic
SQL
meant for only DB activities. Hence both application language and DB language are completely
different from each other. But in order to make application programs to work, DB is
compulsory; and for any DB to be used by the user application/UI is a must. Hence both are
dependent on each other too. This gap between application programs and SQL is bridged by the
use of embedded SQL and dynamic SQLs.

These SQLs provide the utility to use SQLs inside the application language like C, C++, Java etc,
and make these applications to communicate with DB. Hence when user submits a request or
enters values in the form, he gets the result what he is requested.

Advantages of Embedded SQL

Some of the advantages of using SQL embedded in high-level languages are as follows:

 Helps to access databases from anywhere.

 Allows integrating authentication service for large scale applications.

 Provides extra security to database transactions.

 Avoids logical errors while performing transactions on our database.

 Makes it easy to integrate the frontend and the backend of our application.

What is Dynamic SQL?

Dynamic SQL is the process that we follow for programming SQL queries in such a way that the
queries are built dynamically with the application operations.

It helps us to manage big industrial applications and manage the transactions without any
added overhead.

With dynamic SQL we are free to create flexible SQL queries and the names of the variables or
any other parameters are passed when the application runs.

Dynamic SQL is a programming technique that enables you to build SQL statements
dynamically at runtime. You can create more general purpose, flexible applications by using
dynamic SQL because the full text of a SQL statement may be unknown at compilation.

differences between Static or Embedded and Dynamic or Interactive SQL

Static (Embedded) SQL Dynamic (Interactive) SQL

In Static SQL, how database will be accessed

is predetermined in the embedded SQL In Dynamic SQL, how database will be
statement. accessed is determined at run time.

It is swifter and more efficient. It is less swift and efficient.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 26

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Null Values and Embedded & Dynamic
SQL
SQL statements are compiled at compile
time. SQL statements are compiled at run time.

Parsing, Validation, Optimization and Parsing, Validation, Optimization and

Generation of application plan are done at Generation of application plan are done
compile time. at run time.

It is generally used for situations where data It is generally used for situations where
is distributed uniformly. data is distributed non uniformly.

EXECUTE IMMEDIATE, EXECUTE and PREPARE EXECUTE IMMEDIATE, EXECUTE and

statements are not used. PREPARE statements are used.

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 27

 Btech – Cse IV Sem ODBC & JDBC

UNIT-2 (ODBC & JDBC)

LECTURE NO: -19
Definition of JDBC

Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) is an application programming interface i.e. (API). JDBC was
released as a part of Java development Kit (JDK) 1.1. in the year 1996 by SUN Microsoft.

It is a standard interface between any Java application and different databases. The function of
JDBC is to help the Java-based application to access different types of databases. JDBC provide
methods to query database, and it can also be used to update the database. JDBC provide JDBC
drivers that converts the request from Java application on client side to the language that
database understands.

As JDBC is language and platform specific, Java application can use JDBC-to-ODBC bridge to
communicate with ODBC adaptable databases.

Definition of ODBC

ODBC is Open Database Connectivity. Like JDBC, ODBC is also an API that acts as an interface
between an application on the client side and the database on the server side. Microsoft
introduced ODBC in the year 1992.

ODBC helps an application to access the data from the database. An application written in any
language can use ODBC to access different types of databases and hence, it is said to be
language and platform independent. Like JDBC, ODBC also provides ODBC drivers that convert
the request of application written in any language into the language understandable by
databases.

differences between ODBC and JDBC

Sr. Key ODBC JDBC

No.

Stands For ODBC stands for Open Database JDBC Stands for Java database
Connectivity which literally means connectivity i.e only compatible with
1 that it is compatible with all types java language.
of languages such as C, C++, Java,
etc.

Introduction ODBC was introduced by Microsoft JDBC was introduced by SUN

2
prior to JDBC in 1992. Microsystems after ODBC in 1997.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 28

 Btech – Cse IV Sem ODBC & JDBC

Sr. Key ODBC JDBC

No.

Platform ODBC is platform dependent as we On the other hand, JDBC is platform-

3 dependency can use ODBC only for windows independent and can be used for any
platform. platform.

Type ODBC can be considered as a type On the other hand, JDBC is a purely
of procedural as most of these object-oriented type driver.
4 drivers are developed in a native
language like C and C++ which are
the procedural types of language.

Performance The performance of ODBC is faster On the other hand, performance of

as compared to JDBC as data JDBC is slower than native ODBC but
5 imports and exports are faster and its platform independence allowing
memory-intensive. to work with any operating system
(including Mac and Linux).

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth.

2. Fundamentals of Database Systems” by Elmsari, Navathe, 5th Edition, Pearson

Education 2008).

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 29

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Trigger and Active Databases

UNIT-2 (Trigger and Active Databases)

LECTURE NO: -20
What is a trigger?

Trigger is like a procedure that is automatically invoked by the DBMS in response to specified
changes to data base. Trigger is like a ‘Daemon that monitors a data base, and is executed
when the data base is modified in a way that matches the event specification. A data base that
has a set of associated triggers is called an active data base.

Syntax

create trigger Trigger_name

(before | after)

[insert | update | delete]

on [table_name]

[for each row]

[trigger_body]

Parts of a Trigger

Whenever a trigger is created, it contains the following three sequential parts:

Triggering Event or Statement: - The statements due to which a trigger occurs is called
triggering event or statement. Such statements can be DDL statements, DML statements or any
database operation, executing which gives rise to a trigger.

Trigger Restriction: - The condition or any limitation applied on the trigger is called trigger
restriction. Thus, if such a condition is TRUE then trigger occurs otherwise it does not occur.

Trigger Action: The body containing the executable statements that is to be executed when
trigger occurs that is with the execution of Triggering statement and upon evaluation of Trigger
restriction as True is called Trigger Action.

Types of Triggers

Depending upon, when a trigger is fired, it may be classified as :

1. Statement-level trigger
2. Row-level trigger
3. Before triggers
4. After triggers
5. Combination Trigger

1. Statement-level Trigger

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 30

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Trigger and Active Databases
A statement trigger is fired only for once for a DML statement irrespective of the number of
rows affected by the statement. For example, if you execute the following UPDATE command
STUDENTS table, statement trigger for UPDATE is executed only for once.

update students set bcode=’b3’

where bcode = ‘b2’;

However, statements triggers cannot be used to access the data that is being inserted, updated
or deleted. In other words, they do not have access to keywords NEW and OLD, which are used
to access data. Statement-level triggers are typically used to enforce rules that are not related
to data. For example, it is possible to implement a rule that says “nobody can modify BATCHES
table after 9 P.M”. Statement-level trigger is the default type of trigger.

2. Row-level Trigger

A row trigger is fired once for each row that is affected by DML command. For example, if an
UPDATE command updates 100 rows then row-level trigger is fired 100 times whereas a
statement-level trigger is fired only for once.

Row-level trigger are used to check for the validity of the data. They are typically used to
implement rules that cannot be implemented by integrity constraints. Row-level triggers are
implemented by using the option FOR EACH ROW in CREATE TRIGGER statement

3. Before Triggers

While defining a trigger, you can specify whether the trigger is to be fired before the command
(INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE) is executed or after the command is executed. Before triggers
are commonly used to check the validity of the data before the action is performed. For
instance, you can use before trigger to prevent deletion of row if deletion should not be
allowed in the given case.

4. AFTER Triggers

After triggers are fired after the triggering action is completed. For example, If after trigger is
associated with INSERT command then it is fired after the row is inserted into the table.

5. Combination Trigger: Combination trigger are combination of two trigger type, Before
Statement Trigger: Trigger fire only once for each statement before the triggering DML
statement.

Before Row Trigger: Trigger fire for each and every record before the triggering DML
statement.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 31

 Btech – Cse IV Sem Trigger and Active Databases
After Statement Trigger: Trigger fire only once for each statement after the triggering DML
statement executing. After Row Trigger: Trigger fire for each and every record after the
triggering DML statement executing.

Uses of Trigger

Triggers supplement the standard capabilities of your database to provide a highly customized
database management system. For example, you can use triggers to:

1. Automatically generate derived column values

2. Enforce referential integrity across nodes in a distributed database

3. Enforce complex business rules

4. Provide transparent event logging

5. Provide auditing

6. Maintain synchronous table replicates

7. Gather statistics on table access

References: -

1. Database System Concepts 6th Edition Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth.

Notes By: Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Department of CSE & AI Page 32