Unit-2 4th Sem CS TOC

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UNIT-2 (TOC)

LECTURE NO:1

Context-Free Grammar

Definition − A context-free grammar (CFG) consisting of a finite set of

grammar rules is a quadruple (N, T, P, S) where,

 N is a set of non-terminal symbols.

 T is a set of terminals where N ∩ T = NULL.

 P is a set of rules, P: N → (N ∪ T)*, i.e., the left-hand side of the

production rule P does have any right context or left context.

 S is the start symbol.

Example

 The grammar ({A}, {a, b, c}, P, A), P : A → aA, A → abc.

 The grammar ({S, a, b}, {a, b}, P, S), P: S → aSa, S → bSb, S → ε

 The grammar ({S, F}, {0, 1}, P, S), P: S → 00S | 11F, F → 00F | ε

Generation of Derivation Tree

A derivation tree or parse tree is an ordered rooted tree that

graphically represents the semantic information a string derived from a

context-free grammar.

Representation Technique

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 Root vertex − Must be labeled by the start symbol.

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 Vertex − Labeled by a non-terminal symbol.

 Leaves − Labeled by a terminal symbol or ε.

If S → x1x2 …… xn is a production rule in a CFG, then the parse tree /

derivation tree will be as follows −

Derivation Tree

There are two different approaches to draw a derivation tree −

1. Top-down Approach −

 Starts with the starting symbol S

 Goes down to tree leaves using productions

2. Bottom-up Approach −

 Starts from tree leaves

 Proceeds upward to the root which is the starting symbol S

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Derivation or Yield of a Tree

The derivation or the yield of a parse tree is the final string obtained by

concatenating the labels of the leaves of the tree from left to right,

ignoring the Nulls. However, if all the leaves are Null, derivation is

Null.

Example

Let a CFG {N,T,P,S} be

N = {S}, T = {a, b}, Starting symbol = S, P = S → SS | aSb | ε

One derivation from the above CFG is “abaabb”

S → SS → aSbS → abS → abaSb → abaaSbb → abaabb

Yield of a Tree

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Sentential Form and Partial Derivation Tree

A partial derivation tree is a sub-tree of a derivation tree/parse tree such

that either all of its children are in the sub-tree or none of them are in

the sub-tree.

Example

If in any CFG the productions are − S

→ AB, A → aaA | ε, B → Bb| ε

the partial derivation tree can be the following −

Sentential Form and Partial Derivation Tree

If a partial derivation tree contains the root S, it is called a sentential

form. The above sub-tree is also in sentential form.

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Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation of a
String

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 Leftmost derivation − A leftmost derivation is obtained by

applying production to the leftmost variable in each step.

 Rightmost derivation − A rightmost derivation is obtained by

applying production to the rightmost variable in each step.

Example

Let any set of production rules in a CFG be

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

over an alphabet {a}.

The leftmost derivation for the string "a+a*a" may be − X

→ X+X → a+X → a + X*X → a+a*X → a+a*a

The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below −

- Shash Kant(Asst. Pro CSE Department)

Unit-2 4th Sem CS TOC
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The rightmost derivation for the above string "a+a*a" may be

X → X*X → X*a → X+X*a → X+a*a → a+a*a

The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below −

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Left and Right Recursive Grammars

In a context-free grammar G, if there is a production in the form X → Xa

where X is a non-terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is called

a left recursive production. The grammar having a left

recursive production is called a left recursive grammar.

And if in a context-free grammar G, if there is a production is in the

form X → aX where X is a non-terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is

called a right recursive production. The grammar having a right recursive

production is called a right recursive grammar.

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LECTURE NO:-2

Ambiguity in Context-Free Grammars

If a context free grammar G has more than one derivation tree for

some string w ∈ L(G), it is called an ambiguous grammar. There

exist multiple right-most or left-most derivations for some string

generated from that grammar.

Problem

Check whether the grammar G with production rules − X

→ X+X | X*X |X| a

is ambiguous or not.

Solution

Let’s find out the derivation tree for the string "a+a*a". It has
two leftmost derivations.

Derivation 1 − X → X+X → a +X → a+ X*X → a+a*X → a+a*a

Parse tree 1 −

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Derivation 2 − X → X*X → X+X*X → a+ X*X → a+a*X → a+a*a
Parse tree 2 −

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Since there are two parse trees for a single string "a+a*a", the
grammar G is ambiguous.

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LECTURE NO:-3

CFL Closure Property

Context-free languages are closed under −

• Union

• Concatenation

• Kleene Star operation

Union

Let L1 and L2 be two context free languages. Then L1 ∪ L2 is also

context free.

Example

Let L1 = { anbn , n > 0}. Corresponding grammar G1 will have

P: S1 → aAb|ab
Let L2 = { cmdm , m ≥ 0}. Corresponding grammar G2 will have
P: S2 → cBb| ε
Union of L1 and L2, L = L1 ∪ L2 = { anbn } ∪ { cmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional

production S → S1 | S2

Concatenation

If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then L1L2 is also

context free.
Example

Union of the languages L1 and L2, L = L1L2 = { anbncmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional

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production S → S1 S2

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Kleene Star
If L is a context free language, then L* is also context free.

Example

Let L = { anbn , n ≥ 0}. Corresponding grammar G will have P: S →

aAb| ε
Kleene Star L1 = { anbn }*

The corresponding grammar G1 will have additional productions

S1 → SS1 | ε
Context-free languages are not closed under −

• Intersection − If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then

L1 ∩ L2 is not necessarily context free.
• Intersection with Regular Language − If L1 is a regular
language and L2 is a context free language, then L1 ∩ L2 is a
context free language.
• Complement − If L1 is a context free language, then L1’ may
not be context free.

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LECTURE NO:-4

CFG Simplification

In a CFG, it may happen that all the production rules and

symbols are not needed for the derivation of strings. Besides,
there may be some null productions and unit productions.
Elimination of these productions and symbols is called
simplification of CFGs. Simplification essentially comprises of
the following steps −

Reduction of CFG
Removal of Unit Productions
Removal of Null Productions

Reduction of CFG

CFGs are reduced in two phases −

Phase 1 − Derivation of an equivalent grammar, G’, from the

CFG, G, such that each variable derives some terminal string.
Derivation Procedure −

Step 1 − Include all symbols, W1, that derive some terminal and
initialize i=1.
Step 2 − Include all symbols, Wi+1, that derive Wi.

Step 3 − Increment i and repeat Step 2, until Wi+1 = Wi.

Step 4 − Include all production rules that have Wi in it.

Phase 2 − Derivation of an equivalent grammar, G”, from the

CFG, G’, such that each symbol appears in a sentential form.
Derivation Procedure −

Step 1 − Include the start symbol in Y1 and initialize i = 1.

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Step 2 − Include all symbols, Yi+1, that can be derived from Yi
and include all production rules that have been applied.
Step 3 − Increment i and repeat Step 2, until Yi+1 = Yi.

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Problem

Find a reduced grammar equivalent to the grammar G, having

production rules, P: S → AC | B, A → a, C → c | BC, E → aA | e
Solution

Phase 1 −

T = { a, c, e }

W1 = { A, C, E } from rules A → a, C → c and E → aA W2

= { A, C, E } U { S } from rule S → AC

W3 = { A, C, E, S } U ∅
Since W2 = W3, we can derive G’ as − G’ =

{ { A, C, E, S }, { a, c, e }, P, {S}} where P: S →

AC, A → a, C → c , E → aA | e Phase 2 −

Y1 = { S }

Y2 = { S, A, C } from rule S → AC

Y3 = { S, A, C, a, c } from rules A → a and C → c

Y4 = { S, A, C, a, c }

Since Y3 = Y4, we can derive G” as − G”

= { { A, C, S }, { a, c }, P, {S}} where P: S

→ AC, A → a, C → c

Removal of Unit Productions

Any production rule in the form A → B where A, B ∈ Non-

terminal is called unit production..

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Removal Procedure −

Step 1 − To remove A → B, add production A → x to the

grammar rule whenever B → x occurs in the grammar. [x ∈
Terminal, x can be Null]

Step 2 − Delete A → B from the grammar.

Step 3 − Repeat from step 1 until all unit productions are

removed.
Problem

Remove unit production from the following − S

→ XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → M, M → N, N → a

Solution −

There are 3 unit productions in the grammar − Y

→ Z, Z → M, and M → N

At first, we will remove M → N.

As N → a, we add M → a, and M → N is removed.

The production set becomes

S → XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → M, M → a, N → a

Now we will remove Z → M.

As M → a, we add Z→ a, and Z → M is removed.

The production set becomes

S → XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → a, M → a, N → a

Now we will remove Y → Z.

As Z → a, we add Y→ a, and Y → Z is removed.

The production set becomes

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S → XY, X → a, Y → a | b, Z → a, M → a, N → a

Now Z, M, and N are unreachable, hence we can remove those.

The final CFG is unit production free −

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S → XY, X → a, Y → a | b

Removal of Null Productions

In a CFG, a non-terminal symbol ‘A’ is a nullable variable if there is a

production A → ε or there is a derivation that starts at A and finally
ends up with

ε: A → .......… → ε

Removal Procedure

Step 1 − Find out nullable non-terminal variables which derive ε.

Step 2 − For each production A → a, construct all productions A
→ x where x is obtained from ‘a’ by removing one or multiple
non-terminals from Step 1.
Step 3 − Combine the original productions with the result of
step 2 and remove ε - productions.
Problem

Remove null production from the following − S

→ ASA | aB | b, A → B, B → b | ∈

Solution
−

There are two nullable variables − A and B

At first, we will remove B → ε.

After removing B → ε, the production set becomes −

S→ASA | aB | b | a, A ε B| b | &epsilon, B → b

Now we will remove A → ε.

After removing A → ε, the production set becomes −

S→ASA | aB | b | a | SA | AS | S, A → B| b, B → b
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This is the final production set without null transition.

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LECTURE NO:-5

Chomsky Normal Form

A CFG is in Chomsky Normal Form if the Productions are in the
following forms −
•A→a
• A → BC
•S →ε
where A, B, and C are non-terminals and a is terminal.

Algorithm to Convert into Chomsky Normal Form −

Step 1 − If the start symbol S occurs on some right side, create a

new start symbol S’ and a new production S’→ S.
Step 2 − Remove Null productions. (Using the Null production
removal algorithm discussed earlier)
Step 3 − Remove unit productions. (Using the Unit production
removal algorithm discussed earlier)
Step 4 − Replace each production A → B1…Bn where n > 2
with A → B1C where C → B2 …Bn. Repeat this step for all
productions having two or more symbols in the right side.

Step 5 − If the right side of any production is in the form A →

aB where a is a terminal and A, B are non-terminal, then the
production is replaced by A → XB and X → a. Repeat this step for
every production which is in the form A → aB.
Problem

Convert the following CFG into CNF S

→ ASA | aB, A → B | S, B → b | ε

Solution

(1) Since S appears in R.H.S, we add a new state S0 and S0→S

is added to the production set and it becomes −
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S0→S, S→ ASA | aB, A → B | S, B → b | ∈

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(2) Now we will remove the null productions −

B → ∈ and A → ∈

After removing B → ε, the production set becomes −

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a, A → B | S | ∈, B → b

After removing A → ∈, the production set becomes −

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA | S, A → B | S, B → b (3)

Now we will remove the unit productions.

After removing S → S, the production set becomes −

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, A → B | S, B → b After

removing S0→ S, the production set becomes − S0→

ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA

A → B | S, B → b

After removing A→ B, the production set becomes − S0

→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA A → S | b

B→b

After removing A→ S, the production set becomes − S0

→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA A → b

|ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, B → b

(4) Now we will find out more than two variables in the R.H.S Here,

S0→ ASA, S → ASA, A→ ASA violates two Non-terminals in

R.H.S.
Hence we will apply step 4 and step 5 to get the following final
production set which is in CNF −
S0→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA

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S→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA

A → b |AX | aB | a | AS | SA

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B→b
X → SA

(5) We have to change the productions S0→ aB, S→ aB, A→ aB

And the final production set becomes −

S0→ AX | YB | a | AS | SA S→

AX | YB | a | AS | SA

A → b A → b |AX | YB | a | AS | SA B →

X → SA

Y→a

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LECTURE -6
Chomsky Classification of Grammars

According to Noam Chomosky, there are four types of grammars −

Type 0, Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. The following table shows how they
differ from each other −

Grammar Grammar
Language Accepted Automaton
Type Accepted

Unrestricted Recursively
Type 0 Turing Machine
grammar enumerable language

Context-sensitive Context-sensitive Linear-bounded

Type 1
grammar language automaton

Context-free Pushdown
Type 2 Context-free language
grammar automaton

Finite state
Type 3 Regular grammar Regular language
automaton

Take a look at the following illustration. It shows the scope of each

type of grammar −

Containment of Type3, Type2,

Type1, Type0

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Type - 3 Grammar
Type-3 grammars generate regular languages. Type-3 grammars must have

a single non-terminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side

consisting of a single terminal or single terminal followed by a single

non-terminal.

The productions must be in the form X → a or X → aY

where X, Y ∈ N (Non terminal)

and a ∈ T (Terminal)

The rule S → ε is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of any

rule.

Example

X→ε

X → a | aY

Y→b

Type - 2 Grammar

Type-2 grammars generate context-free languages. The

productions must be in the form A → γ

where A ∈ N (Non terminal)

and γ ∈ (T ∪ N)* (String of terminals and non-terminals).

These languages generated by these grammars are be recognized by a

non-deterministic pushdown automaton.

Example

S →Xa

X→a
X → aX X
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→ abc X

→ε

Type - 1 Grammar

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Type-1 grammars generate context-sensitive languages. The

productions must be in the form

α A β→α γ β

where A ∈ N (Non-terminal)
and α, β, γ ∈ (T ∪ N)* (Strings of terminals and non-terminals)

The strings α and β may be empty, but γ must be non-empty.The rule S

→ ε is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of any rule. The

languages generated by these grammars are recognized by a linear

bounded automaton.

Example

AB → AbBc

A → bcA

B→b

Type - 0 Grammar

Type-0 grammars generate recursively enumerable languages. The

productions have no restrictions. They are any phase structure

grammar including all formal grammars.

They generate the languages that are recognized by a Turing

machine.

The productions can be in the form of α → β where α is a string of

terminals and nonterminals with at least one non-terminal and α

cannot be null. β is a string of terminals and non-terminals.

Example

S → ACaB

Bc → acB
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CB → DB

aD → Db

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LECTURE-7
Greibach Normal Form

A CFG is in Greibach Normal Form if the Productions are in the

following forms −
A→b
A → bD1…Dn

S →ε

where A, D1,....,Dn are non-terminals and b is a terminal.

Algorithm to Convert a CFG into Greibach Normal Form

Step 1 − If the start symbol S occurs on some right side, create a

new start symbol S’ and a new production S’ → S.
Step 2 − Remove Null productions. (Using the Null production
removal algorithm discussed earlier)
Step 3 − Remove unit productions. (Using the Unit production
removal algorithm discussed earlier)
Step 4 − Remove all direct and indirect left-recursion.

Step 5 − Do proper substitutions of productions to convert it

into the proper form of GNF.
Problem

Convert the following CFG into CNF S

→ XY | Xn | p

X → mX | m

Y → Xn | o

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Solution

Here, S does not appear on the right side of any production and
there are no unit or null productions in the production rule set.
So, we can skip Step 1 to Step 3.
Step 4

Now after replacing

X in S → XY | Xo | p

with

mX | m

we obtain

S → mXY | mY | mXo | mo | p.

And after replacing

X in Y → Xn | o

with the right side of

X → mX | m

we obtain

Y → mXn | mn | o.

Two new productions O → o and P → p are added to the

production set and then we came to the final GNF as the
following −
S → mXY | mY | mXC | mC | p

X → mX | m

Y → mXD | mD | o

O →o

P→p

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LECTURE-8
Pumping Lemma for CFG
Lemma

If L is a context-free language, there is a pumping length p such

that any string w ∈ L of length ≥ p can be written as w = uvxyz,
where vy ≠ ε, |vxy| ≤ pvxy|vxy| ≤ p ≤ p, and for all i ≥ 0, uvixyiz ∈ L.

Applications of Pumping Lemma

Pumping lemma is used to check whether a grammar is context

free or not. Let us take an example and show how it is checked.
Problem

Find out whether the language L = {xnynzn |vxy| ≤ p n ≥ 1} is context

free or not.
Solution

Let L is context free. Then, L must satisfy pumping lemma.

At first, choose a number n of the pumping lemma. Then, take z as

0n1n2n.
Break z into uvwxy, where

|vxy| ≤ pvwx|vxy| ≤ p ≤ n and vx ≠ ε.

Hence vwx cannot involve both 0s and 2s, since the last 0 and
the first 2 are at least (n+1) positions apart. There are two cases
−
Case 1 − vwx has no 2s. Then vx has only 0s and 1s. Then uwy,
which would have to be in L, has n 2s, but fewer than n 0s or 1s.
Case 2 − vwx has no 0s.

Here contradiction occurs.

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Hence, L is not a context-free language.

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