CURRENT ELECTRICITY

The net electric charge flowing through any cross section of a conductor per unit time is
called electric current(I).
SI unit of current: ampere (A)
The current through a wire is 1 A, if one coulomb of charge flows through the wire in one
second.
1𝐶
1 A= 1 𝑠

Note:

• Electrons are negatively charged hence conventional direction of electric current is

taken in the direction opposite to the flow of electrons.
• Current in conductors flow from higher potential to lower potential.

• For steady flow of current, where q is charge flowing through the cross section of the
conductor in time t.
𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡
• If the charge flowing through the conductor is not steady, but varying with time, the
electric current at a given instant will be noted as instantaneous current, given as

∆𝑄
𝐼 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The device used to measure electric current is ammeter.

When a cell is connected across the ends of a conductor electric field is set up in the
conductor. This electric field exerts force on the free electrons. The free electrons then drift
towards the positive terminal of the cell. Thus constituting electric current in the conductor.
Current carriers in conductors:
1. In solids: free electrons.
2. In liquids: positive and negative ions.
3. In gases: free electrons and positive ions.
Electric current is a scalar quantity, although it has both magnitude as well as direction. This
is because to add electric current we use algebra and not vector addition.
Types of electric current:
1. Steady current: where there is no change in the
magnitude as well as direction of the current with
passage of time.
2. Varying current: whose magnitude varies with time.
3. Alternating current: whose magnitude varies
continuously and direction changes periodically.

In the figure, a is steady current,

B and c are forms of variable current.
And d is alternating current.

Conduction of current in metallic conductors:

Metals have large number of free electrons. In the absence of electric field these electrons
are directed randomly. Though the average speed of these electrons is very high at room
temperature, their velocities are distributed randomly in all directions. Which implies there is
no current in the conductor.
When a potential difference is applied across the conductor, an electric field in generated
through the conductor. This electric field exerts force on the electron and the electrons are
accelerated towards the positive potential.
As the free electrons move, they collide with positive ions and drop their speed. The average
time a free electron spends between two collisions is called relaxation time 𝜏.
Although the free electrons are continuously accelerated by the electric field, collisions
prevent their velocity to be large. The result is that, the electric field provides a small constant
velocity towards the positive terminal. This constant velocity is called drift velocity (𝜗𝑑 ).

Drift velocity (𝜗𝑑 ).

The average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted in a metallic conductor under
the influence of electric field is called drift velocity.

Relation between drift velocity and electric field:

Consider a metallic conductor connect to a battery.

Let l be the length of the conductor, V be the potential across the conductor, m be the mass of an
electron, e be the charge of an electron, drift velocity of free electrons be 𝜗𝑑 , and 𝜏 be the
relaxation time.
The magnitude of electric field is given by
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑙
Under the influence of electric field each free electron experiences a force given by

𝐹⃗ = −𝑒𝐸⃗⃗
Also

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

−𝑒𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

−𝑒𝐸⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑚
The drift velocity is given as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜗 𝑑 =𝑎
⃗𝜏
−𝑒𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜗 𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏 (1)

The negative sign shows drift velocity is indicated opposite to the electric field.

Relation between drift velocity and electric current:

Consider a portion of copper wire through which current I is flowing. This copper wire is under the
influence of electric field.

Let A be the area of cross section on the wire, n is electron density ( number of electrons per unit
volume), 𝜗𝑑 drift velocity of free electrons, e is the charge on each electron.
 In small time ∆𝑡, all electrons travel a distance of
∆𝑥 = 𝜗𝑑 ∆𝑡
Volume of the conductor = A∆𝑥

= A𝜗𝑑 ∆𝑡

Total number of free electrons in the conductor = n (volume)

= n(A𝜗𝑑 ∆𝑡)

Total charge flowing is ∆𝑄 = 𝑒(𝑛𝐴𝜗𝑑 ∆𝑡)

∆𝑄
𝐼=
∆𝑡
𝑒𝑛𝐴𝜗𝑑 ∆𝑡
𝐼=
∆𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝜗𝑑 (2)

Substituting vd in the above equation we have

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝐸𝐴𝜏
𝐼=
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴𝐸
𝐼= 𝜏
𝑚
Therefore current density can be written as
𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸
𝑗= 𝑚
𝜏 (3)

Ohm’s Law:

The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between
its two ends, provided the physical conditions of the conductor remains unchanged.

Imagine a conductor through which a current I, is flowing. Let V be the potential difference between
the ends of the conductor. Then ohm’s law states that

𝑉∝𝐼
OR

𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor.

The SI unit of resistance is ohm, and denoted as Ω.

The resistance R depends on the material, the dimension, and temperature of

the conductor.
where the constant of proportionality ρ depends on the material of the conductor but not on its
dimensions. ρ is called resistivity or specific resistance of conductor.

SI Unit of resistivity is Ω𝑚

Conductance:

It is the reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor. Its SI unit is ohm-1 or mho.

1
Conductance = 𝑅

Substituting the above equation for R, in ohm’s law equation

𝐼𝜌𝑙
𝑉= 𝐴
(4)

Current density (j)

Current per unit area (taken normal to the current), I/A, is called current density and is denoted by j.
𝐼
𝑗=𝐴 (5)

The SI units of the current density are A/m2 .

➢ It is a vector in the direction of motion of positive charge.

If E is the magnitude of uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l, then the potential
difference V across its ends, is given as
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 ∵𝐸= 𝑙

Substituting equations (4) and (5) in the above equation we have

𝐼𝜌𝑙
𝐸𝑙 =
𝐴
∴ 𝐸𝑙 = 𝜌𝑙𝑗
∴ 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑗
𝐸
∴𝑗=
𝜌
This equation gives the magnitude of the current density and electric field. In the vector form the
equation is given as

𝐸⃗⃗
𝑗⃗ =
𝜌

The current density is directed along 𝐸⃗⃗ .

The above equation can be written as

 𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸
where σ ≡1/ρ is called the conductivity.
𝑗
𝜎=
𝐸

From equation 3 we have

𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸
( 𝜏)
𝜎= 𝑚
𝐸
𝑛𝑒 2
𝜎= 𝜏
𝑚
From the above equation resistivity 𝜌 can be given as
1 𝑚
𝜌= = 2
𝜎 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
Mobility (𝝁)

The mobility 𝜇 is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.

SI unit for mobility: m2/Vs.

|𝑣𝑑 |
𝜇=
𝐸
𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑚
𝑒𝜏
𝜇=
𝑚

Cause of resistance:

Resistance of a conductor is due to the collision of free electrons with the positive ions or atoms of
the conductor while drifting in the direction opposite to applied electric field.

Limitation of Ohm’s law

• The conductors or devices which follow ohm’s law are called ohmic.
 Here the dashed line represents the linear ohm’s law.
The solid line is the voltage V verses current I for a good
conductor. This is due to increase in resistance of the
conductor caused by heating of the conductor by
passing current through it.

• The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V.

If I is the current for a certain V,
then reversing the direction of V
keeping its magnitude fixed, does
not produce a current of the same
magnitude as I in the opposite direction
This is a graph for semiconductors.

• The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same
current I. A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.

Resistivity of various materials:

The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors, and insulators depending on their
resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

Metals have low resistivity in the range of 10-8 𝛀𝒎 to 10-6 𝛀𝒎.

Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics have resistivities 1018 times than the metals or more.

In between the two are semiconductors.

Wire bound resistors and carbon resistors:

Wire bound resistors or standard resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, like, Manganin,
Constantan, Nichrome or similar ones. This is because their resistivities are high and they are
relatively insensitive to temperature, i.e., their resistance change, very little with change in
temperature. These resistances are in the range of a fraction of ohms to a few hundreds of ohms.

Carbon resistors: The resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon.

Carbon resistors are compact, less expensive and have high resistivity. Since they are small in size
their values are written using a colour code.

Temperature dependence of resistivity:

The resistivity of metallic conductor increases with temperature. This is because with the increase in
temperature collisions between free electrons and positive ions increases giving rise to increase in
the opposition to the flow of electrons.

Therefore, resistance will increase. The resistivity at some temperature T is given by

𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
Where 𝜌𝑇 is the resistivity of the conductor at temperature T.

𝑇0 is the reference temperature at which resistivity is 𝜌0 .

𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistance.

𝜌𝑇
= [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
𝜌0
𝜌𝑇
− 1 = 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
𝜌0
𝜌𝑇− 𝜌0
=𝛼
𝜌0 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
For metals and alloys 𝛼 is positive. For semiconductors and insulators, it is negative.

Similarly, resistance at a certain temperature can be written as

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
Unlike metals, the resistivities of semiconductors decrease with increasing temperatures.
Some materials like Nichrome (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium) exhibit a very weak
dependence of resistivity with temperature. Manganin and constantan have similar properties.

We know that,
1 𝑚
𝜌= = 2
𝜎 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
From the above equation let us understand the relation between 𝜌 and n.

In metals:

As we increase temperature, results in more frequent collisions. The average time of collisions τ,
thus decreases with temperature. In a metal, n is not dependent on temperature and thus the
decrease in the value of τ with rise in temperature causes ρ to increase.

For insulators and semiconductors n increases with temperature. This increase more than
compensates any decrease in τ. Hence 𝜌 decreases with increase in temperature.

Electrical Energy, power

When electric field is applied across a conductor, the free electrons move with a constant drift
velocity. The moving electrons collide with atoms and ions of conductor. Thus, KE gained by
electrons is shared with the atoms. The atoms vibrate more vigorously. i.e., the conductor is heated
up.

Expression for electrical energy ( heat produced) and power loss in the conductor:

Consider a resistor of resistance R, let V be the potential difference applied across the ends AB, and I
be the current through the resistor.

Let q be the charge flowing from A to B in time t seconds.

q = It ….1

work done to take the charge from A to B is given as

𝑊 =qV … from definition of V

Sub eq 1 in the above equation we have

W=VIt
Using ohm’s law, the above equation can be written as

W=(IR)It =I2Rt ……..2

Power is given as

P=W/t

Using equation 2 in the above equation we have

P=I2R ………a

P=VI ……….b

P=V2/R ……c

The equations a, b, and c are the 3 forms of electric power loss r the ohmic loss in a conductor of
resistance R carrying current I.

The SI unit of electric energy is joules.

The bigger unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kwh)

1kwh= 1000Js-1 x (60x60)s =3.6 x106J

SI unit of power is watt (W). bigger units are kW and MW.

Power loss in long distance transmission of electric power:

Consider a device to which electric power P is to be delivered via transmission cables. If V is the
voltage across the device and I is current through it, then

P=VI

The connecting wires from the power station to the device has a finite resistance Rc. The power
dissipated in the connecting wires, which is wasted is Pc.

Pc=I2Rc …….1

∵ 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃
𝐼 = 𝑉 …. 2

Substituting equation 1 in 2, we have

𝑃
Pc=(𝑉)2Rc

Thus, Pc α 1/V2

The power wasted in connecting wires is inversely proportional to V2.

Thus, to minimise power loss during transmission, the voltage at the power station is increased to
very high value, using step up transformer. And delivered to the electrical power substations in the
cities using thick connecting wires.

Using of such high voltage is not safe hence at the other end the voltage is converted back to
suitable voltage 240V, using step down transformer before supplied to individual users.
Series combination of resistors:

Rs = R1 + R2+ R3

Rs = nR, for n equal resistors connected in series.

Resistors are connected in series to increase the resistance of the circuit.

Parallel combination of resistors:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
For n equal resistors connected in parallel

Rp = R/n

Resistors are connected in parallels, to reduce effective resistance of the circuit, R p is less than the
smallest resistance in the combination.

Cells, emf, internal resistance:

Definition: emf of a source (𝜺)

It is the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes of a cell in an open circuit,
i.e. when no current is flowing through the cell.

Definition: Internal resistance of a cell (r)

It is the resistance of the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of ions through the cell.

It depends on the

1. Surface area of the two electrodes

2. Distance between the two electrodes
3. Nature, concentration and temperature of the electrolyte.

Terminal potential difference of a cell:

It is the potential difference between the two terminals of a cell in a closed circuit, when current
flows through the circuit.
Consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance r connected across the external resistance R. let the
potential difference between the resistance R be V. Therefore,

𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
Thus 𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝜀
𝐼=
(𝑅 + 𝑟)
Internal resistance r will be given as
𝜀
𝑟 = −𝑅
𝐼
Note: in practical calculations, internal resistance of cells in the circuit, may be neglected. When the
current I is such that 𝜀 >>Ir.

The internal resistance of dry cells, is much higher than the electrolytic cells.

• When R=0, maximum current will be drawn from the cell

Imax= 𝜀 /r

And the cell is said to be short circuited. This will damage the cell.

• 3 different cases
1. Emf of the cell > terminal potential difference, if current is drawn from the cell.
2. Emf of the cell = terminal potential difference, if cell is in open circuit
3. Emf of the cell < terminal potential difference, if the cell is charged by another source
• When charging a cell, the applied voltage is always greater than the emf of cell being
charged. Here V= 𝜀+Ir

Cells in series:

Expression for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance when cells are
connected in series:

Consider 2 cells in series, such that the negative terminal of the first cell is connected to the positive
terminal of the second cell. Let 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 be the emf of the two cells and r1, r2 be their internal
resistance respectively.

let VA, VB, and VC be the potential at points A, B and C

respectively.

Then

VAB= VB- VA = 𝜀1 -Ir1 (1)

VBC= VC- VB = 𝜀2 -Ir2 (2)

Combining 1 and 2

VAC= VAB + VBC =𝜀1 -Ir1 + 𝜀2 -Ir2

VAC = (𝜀1 + 𝜀2 ) − 𝐼(r1 + r2 )

Replace the combination by a single cell between A and C of emf 𝜀𝑒𝑞 and internal resistance req.

VAC = (𝜀𝑒𝑞 ) − 𝐼(req ) (3)

Thus

𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2

𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Note:

• If we connect negative of the first cell to negative of the second cell,

𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 , and 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

• For n number of cells connected in series, the equivalent emf of series combination of n cells
is just the sum of their individual emfs.
• For n number of cells connected in series, the equivalent internal resistance of series
combination of n cells is just the sum of their internal resistance.
• If

• If n identical cells each of emf 𝜀 and internal resistance r are connected in series, then the
equivalent emf of series combination = n 𝜀
And the equivalent internal resistance of the series combination = nr
𝑛𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟

Expression for equivalent emf and equivalent resistance when cells connected in parallel:

Consider a parallel combination of the cells. I 1 and I 2 are the currents leaving the positive electrodes
of the cells. At the point B1, I 1 and I 2 flow in whereas the current I flows out. Since as much charge
flows in as out, we have

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
Let V (B1) and V (B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2 respectively. Then, considering the first cell, the
potential difference across its terminals is V (B1) – V (B2).
Hence, we can write

V= V (B1) – V (B2) = 𝜀1 -I1 r1

Points B1 and B2 are connected exactly similarly to the second

cell. Hence considering the second cell, we also have

V= V (B1) – V (B2) = 𝜀2 -I2 r2

Combining the last three equations

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝜀1 − 𝑉 𝜀2 − 𝑉
𝐼= +
𝑟1 𝑟2

𝜀1 𝜀2 1 1
𝐼= ( + )−𝑉( + )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜀1 𝑟2 𝜀2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐼( )= ( + )( ) − 𝑉( + )( )
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜀1 𝑟2 + 𝜀2 𝑟1
𝐼( )= ( )−𝑉
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀1 𝑟2 + 𝜀2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉= ( )−𝐼( )
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
If we want to replace the combination by a single cell, between B1 and B2, of emf ε eq and internal
resistance r eq, we would have

V = ε eq – I r eq
Comparing the two equations we have
𝜀1 𝑟2 +𝜀2 𝑟1
ε eq=
𝑟1 + 𝑟2

𝑟1 𝑟2
req= ( )
𝑟1 +𝑟2

or
1 1 1
= +
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜀1 𝜀2
= +
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2

If the negative terminal of the second cell is connected to the positive terminal
of the first, the above equation will be
𝜀1 𝑟2 −𝜀2 𝑟1
ε eq=
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
 𝑟1 𝑟2
req= ( )
𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜀1 𝜀2
= −
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2

For n cells connected in parallel, the equivalent emf and equivalent internal
resistance is

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯..+
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀𝑛
= + + ⋯+
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛

Note:
1. If m identical cells are connected in parallel, emf of combination is equal
to that of a single cell
2. If m identical cells are connected in parallel, internal resistance of the
combination becomes 1/m th of the internal resistance of a single cell.
𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑟/𝑚
When the external resistance of the circuit is equal to total internal resistance
of the cells, the current in the circuit is maximum.

Kirchhoff’s Rules:
Given a circuit, we start by labelling currents in each resistor by a symbol, say I, and a directed arrow
to indicate that a current I flows along the resistor in the direction indicated (clockwise or anti
clockwise).

Kirchhoff’s rules are given as below

1. Junction rule:

At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the junction

2. Loop rule:

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the
loop is zero.

Example:
 using the junction rule we have
I3=I2+I1
Using the loop rule
For the loops ‘ahdcba’

–30I 1 – 41 I 3 + 45 = 0

and the loop ‘ahdefga’,

–30I 1 + 21 I 2 – 80 = 0.

Explanation and sign convention:

1. The potential difference across a resistor IR is considered negative if traversed in the

direction of the current. It is taken positive if traversed in the opposite direction.
2. The emf of a source is considered negative if the circuit is traversed from positive
terminal to negative terminal of the source. The emf is considered positive if the
circuit is traversed in the opposite direction.
Wheatstone Bridge
The bridge has four resistors R1 , R2 , R3 and R4 connected to form a quadrilateral ABCD. Across one
pair of diagonally opposite points (A and C in the figure) a source is connected. Between the other
two vertices, B and D, a galvanometer G (which is a device to detect currents) is connected.

Balancing condition of a Wheatstone’s bridge and determination of unknown resistance:

Let I be current supplied by the battery. I1 be current through

R1,
I2 be current through R2, I =I1+I2
Ig= current through the galvanometer.
The Wheatstone’s Bridge is said to be balanced when no
current flows through the galvanometer.
Let the resistors be such that Ig=0
Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ABGDA, we get
–I 1 R1 + 0 + I 2 R2 = 0 (1)

For the closed loop BGDCB

I 2 R4 + 0 – I 1 R3 = 0 (since Ig=0, I 3 = I 1 , I 4 = I 2) (2)

From the equation 1 we have

 𝐼1 𝑅2
=
𝐼2 𝑅1
From eq 2
𝐼1 𝑅4
=
𝐼2 𝑅3

𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
This equation is called the balanced condition for the galvanometer to give null deflection.
The balancing condition remains same if the position of cell and galvanometer is
interchanged.
Determination of an unknown resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge:

Suppose R4 is not known. Keeping known resistances R1 and R2 in the first and
second arm of the bridge, we go on varying R3 till the galvanometer shows a
null deflection. The bridge then is balanced. From the balanced condition, the
value of the unknown resistance R4 is given by,

𝑅2
𝑅4 = 𝑅3
𝑅1
Merits of Wheatstone’s Bridge Method:
1) The balancing condition do not involve current or voltage values. Hence
there is no need for any measuring instruments like ammeter or
voltmeter.
2) It deals with the ratio of resistances in the four arms. Hence internal
resistance of cell does not affect the determination of unknown
resistances.
𝑅1 𝑅3
3) By increasing the ratio 𝑜𝑟 the degree of accuracy in the
𝑅2 𝑅4
measurement is increased.
The practical device using this principle is called the Meter Bridge