Current, voltage and resistance.

Electricity Basics

When beginning to explore the world of electricity and electronics, it is vital to start by

understanding the basics of voltage, current, and resistance. These are the three basic building

blocks required to manipulate and utilize electricity. At first, these concepts can be difficult to

understand because we cannot "see" them. One cannot see with the naked eye the energy flowing

through a wire or the voltage of a battery sitting on a table. Even the lightning in the sky, while

visible, is not truly the energy exchange happening from the clouds to the earth, but a reaction in

the air to the energy passing through it. In order to detect this energy transfer, we must use

measurement tools such as multimeters, spectrum analyzers, and oscilloscopes to visualize what

is happening with the charge in a system. Fear not, however, this tutorial will give you the basic

understanding of voltage, current, and resistance and how the three relate to each other.

CURRENT

Current is the flow of electrical charge carriers like electrons. Current flows from negative to

positive points. The SI unit for measuring electric current is the ampere (A). One ampere of

current is defined as one coulomb of electrical charge moving past a unique point in a second.

There are two types of electric current, namely alternating and direct current. In alternating

current, the flow of current reverses its direction periodically. Alternating current in a circuit is

represented by the sine wave. Direct current, unlike alternating current, flows in the same

direction continuously. An example of direct current would be the current provided by a battery.

In order to calculate the current flow through a conductor, Ohm’s law is used. According to
Ohm’s law, the current through a conductor between two given points is also directly

proportional to the potential difference between the points. The constant used in the

proportionality is called resistance and the mathematical equation is I =V/R.

Electric current produces heating and magnetic effects. When current passes through a

conducstor, there is some heat generation due to ohmic loss in the conductor. This property is put

to use for creating light in incandescent light bulbs. The stronger the current, the higher would be

intensity of the magnetic field. Electric current is measured with the help of an ammeter.

We can think of the amount of water flowing through the hose from the tank as current. The

higher the pressure, the higher the flow, and vice-versa. With water, we would measure the

volume of the water flowing through the hose over a certain period of time. With electricity, we

measure the amount of charge flowing through the circuit over a period of time. Current is

measured in Amperes (usually just referred to as "Amps"). An ampere is defined as 6.241*10^18

electrons (1 Coulomb) per second passing through a point in a circuit. Amps are represented in

equations by the letter "I". Let's say now that we have two tanks, each with a hose coming from

the bottom. Each tank has the exact same amount of water, but the hose on one tank is narrower

than the hose on the other.

We measure the same amount of pressure at the end of either hose, but when the water

begins to flow, the flow rate of the water in the tank with the narrower hose will be less than

the flow rate of the water in the tank with the wider hose. In electrical terms, the current

through the narrower hose is less than the current through the wider hose. If we want the

flow to be the same through both hoses, we have to increase the amount of water (charge) in

the tank with the narrower hose.

This increases the pressure (voltage) at the end of the narrower hose, pushing more water

through the tank. This is analogous to an increase in voltage that causes an increase in current.

Now we're starting to see the relationship between voltage and current. But there is a third factor

to be considered here: the width of the hose. In this analogy, the width of the hose is the

resistance. This means we need to add another term to our model:

Water = Charge (measured in Coulombs)

Pressure = Voltage (measured in Volts)

Flow = Current (measured in Amperes, or "Amps" for short)

Hose Width = Resistance

VOLTAGE
We define voltage as the amount of potential energy between two points on a circuit. One point

has more charge than another. This difference in charge between the two points is called voltage.

It is measured in volts, which, technically, is the potential energy difference between two points

that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it (don't panic if

this makes no sense, all will be explained). The unit "volt" is named after the Italian physicist

Alessandro Volta who invented what is considered the first chemical battery. Voltage is

represented in equations and schematics by the letter "V". When describing voltage, current, and

resistance, a common analogy is a water tank. In this analogy, charge is represented by the water

amount, voltage is represented by the water pressure, and current is represented by the water

flow. So for this analogy, remember:

Water = Charge

Pressure = Voltage

Flow = Current

Consider a water tank at a certain height above the ground. At the bottom of this tank there is a

hose.
The pressure at the end of the hose can represent voltage. The water in the tank represents

charge. The more water in the tank, the higher the charge, the more pressure is measured at the

end of the hose. We can think of this tank as a battery, a place where we store a certain amount

of energy and then release it. If we drain our tank a certain amount, the pressure created at the

end of the hose goes down. We can think of this as decreasing voltage, like when a flashlight

gets dimmer as the batteries run down. There is also a decrease in the amount of water that will

flow through the hose.

Less pressure means less water is flowing, which brings us to current.

Resistance
Consider again our two water tanks, one with a narrow pipe and one with a wide pipe.

It stands to reason that we can't fit as much volume through a narrow pipe as a wider one at the

same pressure. This is resistance. The narrow pipe "resists" the flow of water through it even

though the water is at the same pressure as the tank with the wider pipe.
In electrical terms, this is represented by two circuits with equal voltages and different

resistances.

The circuit with the higher resistance will allow less charge to flow, meaning the circuit with

higher resistance has less current flowing through it. This brings us back to Georg Ohm. Ohm

defines the unit of resistance of "1 Ohm" as the resistance between two points in a conductor

where the application of 1 volt will push 1 ampere, or 6.241×10^18 electrons. This value is

usually represented in schematics with the greek letter "Ω", which is called omega, and

pronounced "ohm".

Ohm's Law
Combining the elements of voltage, current, and resistance, Ohm developed the formula:

V = I.R

Where

V = Voltage in volts

I = Current in amps

R = Resistance in ohms
This is called Ohm's law. Let's say, for example, that we have a circuit with the potential of 1

volt, a current of 1 amp, and resistance of 1 ohm. Using Ohm's Law we can say:

1V = 1A. 1

Let's say this represents our tank with a wide hose. The amount of water in the tank is defined as

1 volt and the "narrowness" (resistance to flow) of the hose is defined as 1 ohm. Using Ohms

Law, this gives us a flow (current) of 1 amp. Using this analogy, let's now look at the tank with

the narrow hose. Because the hose is narrower, its resistance to flow is higher. Let's define this

resistance as 2 ohms. The amount of water in the tank is the same as the other tank, so, using

Ohm's Law, our equation for the tank with the narrow hose is

1A = ?A . 2

But what is the current? Because the resistance is greater, and the voltage is the same, this gives

us a current value of 0.5 amps:

1A = 0.5A.2
So, the current is lower in the tank with higher resistance. Now we can see that if we know two

of the values for Ohm's law, we can solve for the third. Let's demonstrate this with an

experiment.

POWER SOURCE

Power Source means a device that utilizes alternating current (AC) to either power one or more

AC power outputs, or which converts alternate current (AC) or direct current (DC) input power

to one or more DC power outputs, for the purpose of powering a welding equipment product.

Two types of power supplies exist,

a) DC-DC

b) AC-DC.

The main purpose of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct

voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes

referred to as electric power converters.

A power supply takes the AC from the wall outlet, converts it to unregulated DC, and reduces

the voltage using an input power transformer, typically stepping it down to the voltage required

by the load. For safety reasons, the transformer also separates the output power supply from the

mains input

Direct current (DC) circuit analysis

Intoduction

 Around 95% of the electronic equipments are powered from low voltage DC supplies.

 The source will be either a battery or a power supply converting AC mains into one or
 more low voltage DC supplies.

 Electronic components require a DC supply that is well regulated, has low noise

characteristics and provides a fast response to load changes.

The AC voltage, typically 220 V RMS, is connected to a transformer, which steps that a voltage

down to the level for the desired dc output.

A diode reciter then provides a full-wave recited voltage, which is initially filtered by a basic

capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage.

A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that remains constant if input or

load changes.
Informal Analysis of DC Circuits

Objectives: We want to be able to

1. Identify various types of dependent source in a circuit diagram. To do so, we will need to

be able to identify these features of each dependent source:

o controlling voltage or current

o gain

o units of the gain

2. Write and solve the element equation corresponding to a particular dependent source.

3. Identify series and/or parallel elements in a circuit diagram.

4. label the element currents and voltages of an electric circuit so as to reduce the number of

unknowns

5. identify a dc circuit

6. analyze dc circuits effectively using the element equations and Kirchhoff's law equations

How can we tell that a circuit is a dc circuit?

o DC circuits consist of resistors, independent and dependent sources and open and

short circuits.

o The voltages of all independent voltage source are constant and the currents of all

independent current sources are constant.

o Consequently, all of the element voltages and currents in a dc circuit are constant.

In this circuit, three resistors receive the same amount of voltage (24 volts) from a single source.
Calculate the amount of current “drawn” by each resistor, as well as the amount of power
dissipated by each resistor:
What will happen to the brightness of the light bulb if the switch in this circuit is suddenly
closed?

Determine the amount of voltage impressed across each resistor in this circuit:

According to Ohm’s Law, how much current goes through each of the two resistors in this
circuit?
ss

Ideal Power Supply:

It provides a constant dc voltage despite changes to the input voltage or load conditions.

The zener diode can be used as a type of voltage regulator for providing stable reference

voltages.

As the input voltage varies (within limits), the zener diode maintains a nearly constant output

voltage across its terminals.

However, as VIN changes, IZ will change proportionally so that the limitations on the input

voltage variation are set by the minimum and maximum current values (IZK and IZM) with

which the zener can operate.

The control element is a pass transistor in series with the load between the input and output.

The output sample circuit senses a change in the output voltage. The error detector compares the sample

voltage with a reference voltage and causes the control element to compensate in order to maintain a

constant output voltage.

Simple series voltage regulator

Basic Linear Voltage Regulator:
The resistive voltage divider senses any change in the output voltage.
The op-amp circuit amplify the deference voltage (error voltage) between the reference and the sensed
values.
This amplified deference voltage is applied to the transistor Q1 to make the load voltage equals to the
reference.

Basic op-amp series regulator

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage

around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also

equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to

zero.

Kirchhoffs first law says that no charge can be accumulated at a junction which implies

conservation of charge

Kirchhoffs second law states that the energy liberated in the circuit comes from the battery

which implies the conservation of energy.

Electric fields and capacitance

Electric field can be considered as an electric property associated with each point in the space

where a charge is present in any form. An electric field is also described as the electric force per

unit charge.

The formula of electric field is given as;

E = F /Q

Where,

E is the electric field.

F is a force.

Q is the charge.

Electric fields are usually caused by varying magnetic fields or electric charges. Electric field

strength is measured in the SI unit volt per meter (V/m).

The direction of the field is taken as the direction of the force which is exerted on the positive

charge. The electric field is radially outwards from positive charge and radially in towards

negative point charge.

Capacitance

Capacitance, property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors, that is measured by the

amount of separated electric charge that can be stored on it.

A capacitor is an electrical component that draws energy from a battery and stores the energy.

Inside, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a non-conducting substance. When

activated, a capacitor quickly releases electricity in a tiny fraction of a second.

Capacitance, as we now know, is the ability to store energy in the form of an electric field.

Inductance, which is measured in henries and denoted by the letter L, is the ability to store

energy in the form of a magnetic field.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing

alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies
Capacitor comes in different shapes and their value is measured in farad (F). Capacitors are used

in both AC and DC systems

A capacitor consists of two are close but not touching. A capacitor has the ability to store electric

charge.

The quantity C is called the capacitance. Unit of capacitance: the farad (F):

1 F = 1 C/V.

Capacitors Parallel

Capacitors in parallel have the same voltage across each one. The equivalent capacitor is one that

stores the same charge when connected to the same battery:

C = C1+ c2+ c3

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series have the same charge. In this case, the equivalent capacitor has the same

charge across the total voltage drop. Note that the formula is for the inverse of the capacitance

and not the capacitance itself!

Magnetic circuits

Magnetic Circuit Definitions

Magnetomotive Force

–The “driving force” that causes a magnetic field

–Symbol, F

–Definition, F = NI

–Units, Ampere-turns, (A-t)

Magnetic Field Intensity

–mmf gradient, or mmf per unit length

–Symbol, H

–Definition, H = F/l = NI/l

–Units, (A-t/m)

Flux Density
–The concentration of the lines of force in a magnetic circuit

–Symbol, B

–Definition, B = Φ/A
–Units, (Wb/m2), or T (Tesla)

Reluctance
–The measure of “opposition” the magnetic circuit offers to the flux

–The analog of Resistance in an electrical circuit

–Symbol, R

–Definition, R = F/Φ

–Units, (A-t/Wb)

Permeability
–Relates flux density and field intensity

–Symbol, μ

–Definition, μ = B/H

–Units, (Wb/A-t-m)

Permeability of free space (air)

–Symbol, μ0

–μ0 = 4πx10-7 Wb/A-t-m

S

magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and

confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although
there may be air gaps or other materials in the path. Relation between magnetic field intensity H

B=μH= ( μr μ° ) μr
and magnetic field density B (measured in Tesla): Where is is the relative

permeability of the medium (unit-less), is μ° is the permeability of free space (4πx10-7H/m).

Relation between magnetic field intensity H and magnetic field density B (measured in Tesla):

B=μH= ( μr μ° ) H
Where is μr is the relative permeability of the medium (unit-less), is μ° is the permeability of

free space (4πx10-7H/m).

Current, voltage and resistance. Power sources. Electric power Joule’s Law series

and parallel circuits. Ohm and Kirchhoff’s Laws. Direct current (DC) circuits
analysis. Electric fields and capacitance. Magnetic circuits. Self-inductance.

Mutual inductance. Transient analysis of D.C. circuits with inductance (L),

resistance(R) capacitance(C) Alternating Voltage and current. Expression of

sinusoidal current and Voltage using vector and complex numbers. Impedance and

admittance. AC Electrical power generation basics; single phase generation

systems, three phase generation systems. Power in alternating current (A.C)

circuits. Analysis of three-phase A.C. circuits. Electrical measurement and

measuring instruments.