Infrared Physics and Technology 97 (2019) 456–466

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Infrared Physics & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/infrared

Regular article

Application of NDT thermographic imaging of aerospace structures T

a,⁎ a,b b b,c
Shakeb Deane , Nicolas P. Avdelidis , Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo , Hai Zhang ,
Hamed Yazdani Nezhada, Alex A. Williamsond, Tim Mackleya, Maxwell J. Davise,
Xavier Maldagueb, Antonios Tsourdosa
a
School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
b
Computer Vision and Systems Laboratory (CVSL), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Laval University, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada
c
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3G8, Canada
d
Mapair Thermography Ltd, Melbourn, South Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
e
Adhesion Associates Proprietary Limited, Queensland, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This work aims to address the effectiveness and challenges of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) inspection and
Active infrared thermography improve the detection of defects without causing damage to the material or operator. It focuses on two types of
Pulsed thermography NDT methods; pulsed thermography and vibrothermography. The paper also explores the possibility of per-
Vibrothermography forming automated aerial inspection using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) provided with a thermographic
UAV
imaging system. The concept of active thermography is discussed for inspecting aircraft CFRP panels along with
Composite
Kissing bond
the proposal for performing aerial inspection using the UAV for real time inspection. Static NDT results and the
further UAV research indicate that the UAV inspection approach could significantly reduce the inspection time,
cost, and workload, whilst potentially increasing the probability of detection.

1. Introduction of composites materials this demand is putting pressure on companies

to develop new inspection solutions [6]. In 1985, around 5 percent of
Active Infrared Thermography is an inspection technique that re- the A310-300 consisted of composite materials, 18 years later and more
quires an external source of energy in order to induce a temperature than half (53%) of the materials used to manufacture the A350XWB
difference between defective and non-defective areas of a specimen consists of composites [7]. Composites offer greater strength char-
under examination. This paper will focus on the optical and mechanical acteristics compared to the common structural metallic materials [8].
forms of excitation and the proposal of integrating these methods onto The materials of an aircraft structure have immense responsibilities,
an unmanned aerial vehicle. Optical excitation is where an optical de- there are required to resist many intense loads repeatedly and be free
vice such as a flash or a halogen lamp is used to emit energy. Whereas from damage, delamination, fatigue and corrosion after each cycle. It is
mechanical excitation will use a sonic or ultra-sonic transducer to excite estimated that there are more than 120,000 inspectors worldwide and
the specimen by means of mechanical oscillations [1]. the global NDT industry has an estimated turnover of 5.2 billion, it is an
To meet the demands of the global economy, companies must turn important and growing industry [9]. A cost-efficient NDT method, is
out the highest quality of products in an efficient manner with minimal needed to keep up with the manufacturing industry and ensure the
manpower and remain profitable [2]. Infrared Thermography (IRT) is safety of this complex material [10,5].
predominately being used to detect subsurface defects in a plethora of The idea of inspecting aircraft structures came from an ongoing
structural elements and mechanical systems that consist of a wide range project at Cranfield University in collaboration with Airbus, where a
of materials [3]. It is one of the newest non-destructive technologies commercially available UAV is performing a non-destructive inspection
and has proven to provide substantial improvements in performance as (i.e. dye penetrants testing). A liquid paint substance is added to a
well as good cost savings, allowing more frequent maintenance with metallic wing panel and a UAV equipped with a UV light inspected the
minimal manpower [4,5]. aircraft in a dark room, the primary objective is to execute the algo-
Since the successful release of the A380 and Boeing 787 Dreamliner, rithms in order to display, classify and log defects [11]. IRT is a fast-
commercial Aircraft manufacturing has seen a rapid increase in the use non-contact method and is well-suited for testing large areas of complex

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Deane).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2019.02.002
Received 25 December 2018; Received in revised form 5 February 2019; Accepted 6 February 2019
Available online 13 February 2019
1350-4495/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Deane, et al. Infrared Physics and Technology 97 (2019) 456–466

geometry [12]. Nevertheless, the traditional thermographic systems are

bulky and inconvenient for use on many applications. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop a more versatile thermographic system suitable to
work in combination with UAV technology [5].

1.1. Composites

IRT inspection is well-suited for the inspection of composite mate-

rials, which possess low reflectivity and high emissivity, meaning that
they absorb and re-emit energy very well. Once the energy is absorbed,
the material will retain the energy and release it much slower than
traditional metallic materials, such as aluminium, therefore using in-
frared NDT is very attractive for inspecting composite materials.
Composites have some limitations, perhaps the most noteworthy lim-
itation is the poor response to impact loading [13], which can be caused
easily by runway debris, a dropped tool or any other impact. It’s been Fig. 2. An example of a composite delamination, this is the consequence of
reported that 80% of in-service damages to composites is caused by misalignments in large aircraft structures [17,5].
impact strikes [14]. Composite materials respond differently than me-
tals in terms of impact loading and its ability to dissipate the incident impact damage (BVID), this is where the damage will still exist sub-
kinetic energy of the projectile [13]. For minor incident energies, me- surface and extend way beyond the impacted area. This can leave air-
tals absorb energy through elastic and plastic deformation, this will craft vulnerable by jeopardising the safety of the structure. The damage
usually result in permanent structural deformation however, metals can zone of a composite is of a more complex nature and can be very dif-
carry the load and it results in consequences that are less-significant ficult to characterise. The complexity of the problem multiplies due to
compared to composites. Plastic/Elastic deformation for a composite is the lack of impact damage testing techniques on a composite material
very limited as the resultant energy is frequently absorbed in creating [3]. This calls for an adequate way to search for defects within a
large areas of fracture, which will affect the performance of the material composite material [5].
due to the reduction in both strength and stiffness [15]. During com-
posite manufacturing, it is possible for the material to be damaged due 2. Experimental procedure I
to the complexity of the manufacturing process [16,5].
Fig. 1 shows the composition of a composite material. The figure 2.1. Pulsed thermography (PT)
demonstrates the material properties. Fig. 2 presents a delamination
within a composite, this is a consequence of misalignments in large Pulsed thermography (PT) is a popular and a popular NDT thermal
aircraft structures. imaging technique that does not require physical contact with the
specimen, it is used to evaluate the health of materials and components
1.2. Demand for NDT inspection on composites without interfering with the serviceability [3]. The specimen is subject
to pulsed-heating whilst being observed with a thermal camera. The
Due to the increased demand of CFRP, it has subsequently caused heat will conduct through the material, if there is any present defects
rapid large-scale manufacturing. For instance, Airbus estimates its either on the surface or sub-surface this will affect the heat diffusion
Carbon Fiber demand to soar to around 20,000 tons by the year 2020 resulting in the thermal camera being able to locate a discontinuity in
(see Fig. 3, right) [7,5]. radiation during the cooling phase [18].
The current manufacturing and machining process are novel com- PT can be affected by a range of properties, which need to be con-
pared to the manufacturing of traditional metallic structures, in addi- sidered during post-processing such as reflections from the environment,
tion, composites have different specific mechanical properties. emissivity variations, non-uniform heating and surface geometry varia-
Consequently, it’s proven difficult to control manufacturing defects, due tion [1]. To obtain the most accurate results, it is possible to limit some of
to the complexity of the manufacturing. Composites are layered pieces the before mentioned effects. For example, applying a washable paint to
of laminar with alternating orientation typically 45 or 90°. Composite the specimen will ultimately reduce environmental reflections and in-
impact damage can result in damage in many different forms such as crease the emissivity to almost 1 [1]. Note that the surface conditions can
matrix cracking, fibre/matric debonding, surface microbuckling, dela- affect the PT results due to emissivity variations, this is usually beyond
mination and fibre breakage [15]. Such impacts can cause barely visible the user’s control. For maximum effective results the excitation source
needs to be uniform within the inspection area.

2.2. PT data acquisition

The experiment and processing took place at the Laval University in

Quebec City, Canada. Data acquisition for PT is relatively straight for-
ward, in this case the CFRP (Carbon fibre reinforced polymer) specimen’s
surface is subject to surface pulse heating using two Balcar Xenon flash
lamps, which provide 6.400 J per flash with a pulse duration of 2 ms at
FWHM (full width half maximum). As time elapses heat will travel
through the specimen and will decrease uniformly if the specimen is
without a defect. On the contrary, subsurface defects, such as delamina-
tions, fibre breakage or any other composite flaws will ultimately affect
the uniform heat flow resulting in abnormal temperature patterns, this
thermal response is captured by an infrared camera and recorded for
Fig. 1. The composition of a composite material [8,5]. further analysis later. A synchronisation unit is necessary during this

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Fig. 3. The bar chart (left) shows the use of composites in Airbus aircraft since 1985. The line graph (right) represents the demand by tons from 2005 up to 2020
[7,5].

experiment in order to control the time between the initial thermal pulse manufactured via manual woven and the other two samples where
excitation and the recording. The acquired data is stored as a 3D matrix unidirectional. The composites consist of laying up pre-preg piles to
where t is the time and x and y are the spatial coordinates. form a laminate stack, the material is then autoclave processed at
There are two main types of thermography, active and passive as 180 °C and 7 bars for a few hours suitable for the thermoset resin cure,
depicted in Fig. 4. Passive thermography is an inspection without the this is according to the supplier’s specification (Hexcel). There were
use of an external excitation source, its commonly used for inspecting three specimens, one that was undamaged, and two that had been
materials that have a temperature naturally different than its sur- impacted with a force of 15 and 20 J of energy. The infrared camera
rounding [19]. Active thermography uses external heating dissipation used in this experiment was a FLIR Phoenix, with inSb sensor material,
to create thermal contrast, once excited the thermal waves propagate 3–5 mm, 640 × 512 pixels and allows data acquisition at 50 Hz [5].
through the heated specimen, and when they reach inhomogeneities These camera needs to be cooled to 77 K (i.e. −196.15 °C) during
caused by a medium with different thermal properties, the diffusivity testing. Cooled cameras work by collecting photons of infrared energy
coefficient changes. These inhomogeneities could be defects, such as that pass through the optic. The photons are converted into electrons
cracks, surface cracks, air/water/material inclusions, delamination’s that are stored in an integration capacitor. After a certain period (in-
and debonding damages. Mathematical processing techniques are the tegration time), the charge is read out to a digital count calibrated to
key to gather the necessary data from the raw thermogram and help temperature, assigned a colour or greyscale value and then presented as
visualise the damages within the material [19,5]. a viewable infrared image [20].
The surface of the specimens where positioned parallel to the
2.3. PT equipment camera lens as depicted in Fig. 4. The data was acquired for 40 s with a
1.5 ms integration time, that includes 10 frames before the flashes, plus
The CFRP specimens where manufactured and purposely damaged 1990 frames during cooling a total of 2000 frames where recorded. The
via impact, in the Cranfield composite centre. Sample A4 was software used to acquire the data was RDac from FLIR. For signal

Fig. 4. Images showing the PT testing equipment and the experimental set up [5].

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processing MATLAB and Ir_view from Visiooimage inc were employed. defects is usually assumed. Despite this, it is certain that generated heat
Two advanced processing techniques where used; PCT (principal depends on frequency and position of the excitation source [21]. Vi-
component thermography) and PPT (pulsed phase thermography) [5]. brothermography is becoming a popular technique to detect cracks in
metallic structures and several types of damages in composite mate-
3. Results & discussion I rials.
Sonic waves vibrate between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, which is audible for
3.1. Experiment humans. However, the range for ultrasonic waves, which is beyond
humans’ audible capabilities, is between 20 kHz and 1 MHz, although
The figures below (Figs. 5–11) are all the processed results. A re- the transducers that are usually used in VT inspections operate between
flection test means that the camera and the excitation source are on the 15 and 50 kHz. Mechanical elastic waves such as sonic and ultrasonic
same side (as seen in Fig. 4). Generally, reflection is more suited to require a medium to travel, and travel faster through solids and liquids
detect defects closer to heated surface. PPT (pulsed phase thermo- as opposed to air [1]. The VT approach consist of using a coupling
graphy) was one of the methods used, with the acquired temperature media such as a piece of moisten fabric, water-based gels or aluminium,
data it varies with time and is transferred to phase data, which varies
with frequency, the frequencies which show adequate data are below
each image in hertz. PCT (principal component thermography) was the
other, method used, the data is re-ordered by variance, this method
finds both time series and spatial patterns, most of the variability is
contained in the first component: EOF1 (empirical orthogonal func-
tion). Usually, EOF1 shows thermal variations related to surface
heating. Later EOFs are typically related to surface and subsurface da-
mage. Comparing both techniques, for this specific data set in Fig. 5 it
seems that the PCT technique displays the damage clearer [5].

3.2. Processed results

(See Figs. 5–11).

4. Experimental procedure II
Fig. 6. Sample A4 (15 J), Reflection rear face PPT and PCT. The rear surface
is cracked, this is interesting because this side is significantly more damaged than
4.1. Vibrothermography (VT)
the impacted side. This is a prime example of barely visible impact damage [5].

Vibrothermography (VT) in scientific literature is also referred to as;

ultrasonic infrared thermography, acoustic thermography, thermo-
sonics, sonic IR, elastic-wave-activated thermography, thermal vibra-
tion method or vibroIR [21]. VT is an alternative NDT method that uses
vibration and/or ultrasonic excitation to evaluate the structural health
of the specimen. There has been a significant increase of research into
this NDT method since the accessibility of more affordable thermal
sensors, however the available literature shows there is still an area for
improvement in the industrial use of this technique due to concerns
over the reproducibility and reliability of measurements [21]. The
mechanisms of vibration energy dissipation on damage are not widely
understood however they depend on the material parameters and defect
characteristics similarly to most NDT techniques [21]. More specifi-
cally, the exact amount of heat that is expected to dissipate on certain Fig. 7. Sample A4 (15 J). Transmission is where the one side of the composite is
excited, and the other side is observed by the camera and captures the data [5].

Fig. 5. Sample A4 (15 J woven), front face (impacted side), PPT and PCT.
The damage is barely visible in the original image of the composite (Far right Fig. 8. Sample 20 J Demo, Reflection front face, PPT. The damage is visible
image), the white marks are lettering from labelling the specimen. The 0.05 Hz on the front face, how, it’s clear that the damage is much worse subsurface and
PPT image, shows clear subsurface damage [5]. spreads further than the impacted area [5].

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Fig. 9. Sample 20 J Demo, Reflection rear face. PPT. The rear face has some substantial damage. The PPT locates the surrounding internal damage [5].

4.2. VT data acquisition

There are two main analogues that can be considered when gath-
ering data. The two techniques are lock-in and burst VT. Note the fre-
quency can be modulated in addition to the amplitude. When acquiring
data, the wobbulation procedure is often used, this procedure seeks to
cover a range of different frequencies in a single experiment, the pur-
pose is for the user to predict the right frequency for the specific ap-
plication as each application is different and requires tailored inspec-
tions [22]. The amount of damage detection is proportional to the
amount of excitation, too much power (higher frequency) will be costly
and will risk damage to the specimen. Therefore, using the minimum
amount of power required to acquire satisfactory results is becoming a
major interest for researchers [24].
The transducer is made of a stack of pie piezoelectric elements and
Fig. 10. Sample 20 J Demo, Reflection front face, Transmission. The test concentrated in a titanium horn that acts like a hammer [22]. The
has adequately located the internal damage [5]. specimen must be firmly restraint without damage, the immobilized
specimen seeks to avoid cantilever effects, clapping, and sliding of the
between the transducer and the specimen to improve contact [1]. On transducer [22]. For maximum performance the coupling of the ultra-
the contrary, there are currently ultrasonic non-contact inspection sound into the specimen needs to be improved, to do this the transducer
methods being investigated in many areas, this is more appealing due to horn should be pressed against the specimen. It is recommended to add
the reduced risk of damage. some sort of material between the transducer and the specimen to avoid
The traditional VT inspection works by placing a transducer in damage to the specimen, to improve contact and to eliminate any
contact with the specimen assisted by a coupling media as before possible misalignment [22]. In the event of bad coupling it can result in
mentioned (material, gel, etc.). The ultrasonic waves flow through the poor ultrasound transmission, the specimen will then be subject to
specimen and will travel without disruption through a homogenous unwanted heat at the injection point, which can ultimately affect the
material, however if there is an internal defect present this will disrupt inspection results. Crack detection is extremely sensitive to whether the
the usual flow of the waves producing a compilation of effects such as specimen is fixed or free, in Fig. 12 the results from the constrained
the waves being absorbed, scattered, and dispersed, this is present in specimen proved the most accurate [23].
the form of heat. An IR camera can observe the surface of the specimen The temperature of the cracks will usually increase slowly when the
because the heat that is generated will travel by conduction in all di- excitation is injected into the specimen, as a result the thermal waves
rections and a defect signature data can be captured. VT is ideal for travel by conduction to the surface, which can then be detected by the
detecting crack and delamination’s, the ultrasonic waves assist in dis- IR camera. VT is a fast inspection technique, slightly faster than PT,
covering both internal and surface defects [22]. within seconds the defect usually appears therefore the acquisition will

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Fig. 11. Sample No Name, Reflection front, back, transmission PCT. Undamaged composite sample, which was manufactured the exact same way as the 20 J
sample, the different NDT test prove that this sample is damage-free [5].

then end. The fast inspection is necessary because longer inspections surfaces are in intimate contact but with little bonding if any. Detection
will result in an excess of heat and increase the probability of the of kissing bonds defects is challenging for all NDT techniques given
specimen getting damaged. The experiment is controllable, this is be- that, unlike other type of defects such as delamination’s there is no
cause the heat is generated selectively at the location of defects, and if significant separation between adherent and/or adhesive surfaces.
certain parameters of excitation need changing, repeat experiments can These types of defects can considerably reduce the impact strength and
be made in quick success. the fatigue life of the material causing premature failure.
The three inspected specimens are all composite material with ar-
4.3. VT equipment tificial defects as shown in Fig. 14.

The data processing is usually easier to manage when using VT, this • Specimen N-D-F4P is composed of one layer of adhesive sand-
is since the source of the heat is the damage itself [23]. The IR camera wiched by two layers of adherent (carbon fiber) and contains no
used to capture the data, is the same as used in the PT experiment defect, it was purposely used for reference only.
explained in 2.1. The transducer used is a 20 kHz ultrasound generator • Specimen W-DA-F4 is similar to N-D-F4P but with a adhesive film
(BRANSON 2000), as seen in Fig. 13. release semi-circular (“thumb nail”) shape defect, simulating a kis-
The experiment will consist of inspecting three different specimens, sing bond defect.
to search for defects but more specifically concentrating on kissing • SpecimenW-DC-F2 is similar to W-DA-F4 but with an additional
bond defects. Kissing bonds can be defined as a kind of defect in which adhesive film on top of the one with the simulated defect.

Fig. 12. The mechanical wave can be more easily converted into heat when the specimen is entirely fixed [24].

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Fig. 13. Image displaying the VT testing equipment and the experimental set up.

5. Results & discussion II crack, which can be detected using the IR camera. Not only as this
technique discovered a clear kissing bond defect but the results also
5.1. Experiment show an apparently real delamination.

The transducer excited the specimen with a frequency of 20 kHz.

The mechanical wave propagates across the surface, if there is a defect 5.2. Processed results
on the surface of the object, this mechanical wave will cause friction.
The friction has caused heat to be generated around the location of the Sample W-DA-F4: Vibrothermography:
Results clearly show the thumb nail shape in all cases, specimens W-

Fig. 14. Artificial defects release film kissing bond [25].

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Fig. 15. Image showing the processed results from the vibrothermographic inspection on sample W-DA-F4.

Fig. 16. Image showing the processed results from the vibrothermographic inspection on sample W-DC-F2.

DC-F2 and W-DA-F4, from one side and the other (front and back), after Fig. 19 is an ultrasound testing inspection. The defects are suc-
processing by PPT and PCT. cessfully located and are more visible than the PT results in Fig. 18. The
Additionally, several indications of real defects seem to be observed. size of the defect can also be measured during processing, the defect
For instance, possible delamination’s were found and indicated with present has a radius of 5 mm. The vibrothermography results are pro-
1
red circles. (See Fig. 15). mising for the detection of kissing bond defects.
Sample W-DC-F2: Vibrothermography:
There was no kissing bond defect detected in specimen N-D-F4P (as 5.3. Proposed UAV
expected) however, delamination-like defects were identified. Further
testing using alternative NDT techniques or destructive testing could be Although a cooling camera was used in the beforementioned NDT
used in the future to validate the nature of these indications. (See tests, this type of camera will not be feasible for a UAV thermographic
Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). inspection. Cooling cameras usually require cryogenic cooling, which is
Sample N-D-F4P: Vibrothermography: an excess of weight. The equipment that will be used in future UAV
For instance, additional tests using long-pulse thermography in NDT testing is a DJI M210, which carries an RGB and thermal camera.
transmission mode could possibly detect such kind of defects. However, The weight of the UAV is approximately 3.84 kg with a maximum
this test would require access to both sides of the specimen, which is not payload of 2.3 kg with 2 batteries [26]. The thermal camera weighs
always possible in industry e.g. an aircraft wing panel after assembly. 0.27 kg and is 640 × 512 pixels, which is the exact same number of
Figs. 18 and 19 show some examples of previous IR NDT inspections pixels as the FLIR Phoenix IR camera that was used [26]. It has a 13 mm
of similar specimens [26]. Fig. 18 is a pulsed thermographic inspection; lens and is radiometric, therefore it uses a set of techniques to measure
the defects are located however they are not easily visible in this case. electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, this means that the
acquired data can be extensively analysed after the survey in order to
visualise and understand the data such as the temperature variations
1
For interpretation of color in Fig. 15, the reader is referred to the web [27,5].
version of this article. UAV dynamic inspection has the potential to provide a complete

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Fig. 17. Image showing the postprocessed results from the vibrothermographic inspection on sample N-D-F4P.

portrait of the aircraft structure much faster than static inspections. For images, which will reveal heat patterns and thermal anomalies [12].
a UAV inspection an external excitation source will be employed to Transient thermography with flash and step heating where the methods
excite the surface. When inspecting something of this significance, the used in this inspection. An inspection took place and gathered data on
best results need to be obtained. Therefore, finding the most suitable different distances between the camera and the samples (2, and 6 m).
excitation source is critical, vibrothermography may not be the most Along with the UAV equipped with the IR camera, there was a fixed IR
suitable due to the complexity of the setup. On the contrary, there are camera, therefore two sets of data could be acquired and compared. A
several alternative excitation sources more practical for UAV applica- thermally uniform area of a sample is delimited, and the IR cameras
tions. For instance, halogen lamps (heating the surface for longer), Heat captured the data [12,5].
Blankets or a Laser.
Along with the liquid penetrant NDT method as mentioned in the
introduction, a UAV thermographic inspection was tested for civil en- 5.4. Performing an NDT inspection
gineering applications (see Fig. 20B). The UAV is equipped with a FLIR
A320, this IR camera is connected to a computer via a cable, one is a The purpose of this paper is to present various results from active
power cable and the other provides real time radiometric thermal thermography on composite materials (locating different types of defects
within the materials), and integrate the proposed developed methodology

Fig. 18. Past pulsed thermographic inspection from similar specimens as used in the before mentioned VT inspection [25].

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Fig. 19. Past ultrasonic thermographic inspection from similar specimens as used in the before mentioned VT inspection [25].

into a UAV thermographic inspection system. The autonomous system is separate regions of interest, and separated images will be taken and then
to be tested in real life application on a full-size passenger aircraft wing stitched together as a mosaic image, this segregation will ensure the
before its assembly to the fuselage. In theory, it is the same method as the subject is excited uniformly. Once the data is acquired, it will then need to
beforementioned experiments, the only difference is the camera will be be processed to improve results, when post processing, many properties
moving. A UAV carrying an IR camera can provide much more mobility need to be considered [5];
and allow for inspections that would usually be difficult and time con-
suming when using the traditional inspection techniques. There are • Thermal Properties: conductivity, diffusivity, effusivity, specific
however, several challenges that need to be taken into consideration for heat.
using a UAV for NDT. The future plan is to inspect full size composite • Spectral Properties: emissivity, absorption, reflection, transmission.
aircraft and also composite panels straight from the manufacturing line, • Material’s properties-characteristics: density, porosity, thickness,
to verify their worthiness and quality assurance. There are some limita- geometry [19,5].
tions for this proposed idea. Due to the fact the inspection is inside it
could provide problems for the UAVs GPS system, which will result in an With these properties understood, data process can be performed,
unstable flight and affect the data as before-seen. There are a few ways to for instance; when a material presents voids or pores in its structure,
combat this issue, one of them is to set up a localisation scheme by dis- then its thermal conductivity and density decreases, its thermal diffu-
tributing some ultrasonic sensors around a specific geographic area, the sivity is altered and so the conduction of heat transfer within the ma-
UAV will communicate with these sensors to understand its location, terial is affected. For instance, materials with low-effusivity values will
which will ultimately result in stabilisation. Once the flight is ready – due present higher temperatures. With all this information taken into con-
to the size of aircraft parts, the subject will need to be segregated into sideration, a better damage assessment can be done [19,5].

Fig. 20. A: DJI M210 equipped with thermal camera [27]. Fig. 20 B: UAV equipped with thermal camera [12]. Fig. 20 C: Comparison of front face temperature
responses to flash heating in the case of a large uniform irradiation with a fixed camera and a stabilized camera with UAV at two distances (2 m and 6 m) [12,5].

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